{"version": "1.0.0", "data": [{"sentence": "The front office is the part of a company that comes in contact with clients, such as the marketing, sales, and service departments.  The term has more specific meaning in different industries.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A frontier market is a term for a type of developing country's market economy which is more developed than a  least developed country's, but too small, risky, or illiquid to be generally classified as an emerging market economy. The term is an economic term which was coined by International Finance Corporation\u2019s Farida Khambata in 1992. The term is commonly used to describe the equity markets of the smaller and less accessible, but still \"investable\" countries of the developing world. The frontier, or pre-emerging equity markets are typically pursued by investors seeking high, long-run return potential as well as low correlations with other markets. Some frontier market countries were emerging markets in the past, but have regressed to frontier status.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Full-time equivalent (FTE), or whole time equivalent (WTE), is a unit that indicates the workload of an employed person (or student) in a way that makes workloads or class loads comparable across various contexts. FTE is often used to measure a worker's or student's involvement in a project, or to track cost reductions in an organization. An FTE of 1.0 is equivalent to a full-time worker or student, while an FTE of 0.5 signals half of a full work or school load.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Funding is the act of providing resources to finance a need, program, or project. While this is usually in the form of money, it can also take the form of effort or time from an organization or company. Generally, this word is used when a firm uses its internal reserves to satisfy its necessity for cash, while the term financing is used when the firm acquires capital from external sources.Sources of funding include credit, venture capital, donations, grants, savings, subsidies, and taxes. Fundings such as donations, subsidies, and grants that have no direct requirement for return of investment are described as \"soft funding\" or \"crowdfunding\". Funding that facilitates the exchange of equity ownership in a company for capital investment via an online funding portal per the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act (alternately, the \"JOBS Act of 2012\") (U.S.) is known as equity crowdfunding.\nFunds can be allocated for either short-term or long-term purposes.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Global sourcing is the practice of sourcing from the global market for goods and services across geopolitical boundaries. Global sourcing often aims to exploit global efficiencies in the delivery of a product or service. These efficiencies include low cost skilled labor, low cost raw material and other economic factors like tax breaks and low trade tariffs. A large number of Information Technology projects and Services, including IS Applications and mobile phone apps and database services are outsourced globally to countries like India and Pakistan for more economical pricing.\nCommon examples of globally sourced products or services include labor-intensive manufactured products produced using low-cost Chinese labor, call centers staffed with low-cost English speaking workers in the Philippines, India and Pakistan, and IT work performed by low-cost programmers in India and Pakistan and Eastern Europe. While these are examples of Low-cost country sourcing, global sourcing is not limited to low-cost countries.\nGlobal sourcing initiatives and programs form an integral part of the strategic sourcing plans and procurement strategies of many multinational companies. Global sourcing is often associated with a centralized procurement strategy for a multinational, wherein a central buying organization seeks economies of scale through corporate-wide standardization and benchmarking. A definition focused on this aspect of global sourcing is: \"proactively integrating and coordinating common items and materials, processes, designs, technologies, and suppliers across worldwide purchasing, engineering, and operating locations (p. 304)\".The global sourcing of goods and services has advantages and disadvantages that can go beyond low cost. Some advantages of global sourcing, beyond low cost, include: learning how to do business in a potential market, tapping into skills or resources unavailable domestically, developing alternate supplier/vendor sources to stimulate competition, and increasing total supply capacity. Some key disadvantages of global sourcing can include: hidden costs associated with different cultures and time zones, exposure to financial and political risks in countries with (often) emerging economies, increased risk of the loss of intellectual property, and increased monitoring costs relative to domestic supply. For manufactured goods, some key disadvantages include long lead times, the risk of port shutdowns interrupting supply, and the difficulty of monitoring product quality. (With regard to quality in the food industry, see Roth et al. (2008).).\nInternational procurement organizations (or IPOs) may be an element of the global sourcing strategy for a firm. These procurement organizations take primary responsibility for identifying and developing key suppliers across sourcing categories and help satisfy periodic sourcing requirements of the parent organization. Such setups help provide focus in country-based sourcing efforts. Particularly in the case of large and complex countries, such as China, where a range of sub-markets exist and suppliers span the entire value chain of a product/commodity, such IPOs provide essential on-the-ground information.\nOver time, these IPOs may grow up to be complete procurement organizations in their own right, with fully engaged category experts and quality assurance teams. It is therefore important for firms to clearly define an integration and scale-up plan for the IPO.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Golden boot compensation, also known as the Golden Boot, is an inducement, using maximum incentives and financial benefits, for an older worker to take \"voluntary\" early retirement.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Golden handcuffs, a phrase first recorded in 1976, refers to financial allurements and benefits that have the objective to encourage highly compensated employees to remain within a company or organization instead of moving from company to company (or organization to organization) (opposite of a golden parachute). Golden handcuffs come in different forms, such as employee stock options or restricted stock, which endow only when the employee has been with the company or organization for a certain number of years, and contractual agreements, consisting of bonuses or other forms of benefits which must be repaid to the company if the employee leaves before the date agreed on. Golden handcuffs are frequently used for jobs that require rare and specialised skills or in a \"tight labor market\", where jobs are more common than workers. In any case, although they are very expensive, they are usually less expensive than the cost to replace a particular employee. Golden handcuffs often receive scrutiny from shareholders and directors.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A golden handshake is a clause in an executive employment contract that provides the executive with a significant severance package in the case that the executive loses their job through firing, restructuring, or even scheduled retirement. This can be in the form of cash, equity, and other benefits, and is often accompanied by an accelerated vesting of stock options. According to Investopedia, a golden handshake is similar to, but more generous than a golden parachute because it not only provides monetary compensation and/or stock options at the termination of employment, but also includes the same severance packages executives would get at retirement.The term originated in Britain in the mid-1960s.  It was coined by the city editor of the Daily Express, Frederick Ellis. It later gained currency in New Zealand in the late 1990s over the controversial departures of various state sector executives.\"Golden handshakes\" are typically offered only to high-ranking executives by major corporations and may entail a value measured in millions of dollars.  Golden handshakes are given to offset the risk inherent in taking the new job, since high-ranking executives have a high likelihood of being fired and since a company requiring an outsider to come in at such a high level may be in a precarious financial position.  Their use has caused some investors concern since they do not specify that the executive has to perform well.  In some high-profile instances, executives cashed in their stock options, while under their stewardship their companies lost millions of dollars and thousands of workers were laid off.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In accounting and contractual law, \"golden hello\" is a term used for several different arrangements:\n\nA payment made to induce an employee to take up employment from a specific employer in form of a welcome package or a payment from a rival employer to entice the employee to leave the other company.\nA payment from a government to employer (private company) during an economic recession who takes on new staff, usually superfluously, when job openings in general are scarce.\nIn the United Kingdom, a financial incentive for graduates in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) who are pursuing a career in teaching.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A golden parachute is an agreement between a company and an employee (usually an upper executive) specifying that the employee will receive certain significant benefits if employment is terminated. These may include severance pay, cash bonuses, stock options, or other benefits. Most definitions specify the employment termination is as a result of a merger or takeover, also known as \"change-in-control benefits\", but more recently the term has been used to describe perceived excessive CEO (and other executive) severance packages unrelated to change in ownership (also known as a golden handshake).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A golden umbrella is a clause in an entrepreneur's contract with their company, typically the CEO or COO, that guarantees a certain payout for the risk they bear in starting the company.The down-side of a golden umbrella is that angel investors typically do not know the terms of a golden umbrella, thus a CEO may start a company, grow the company, seek first-round and second-round venture capital, and then exit the company with a large pay-out just before the company's market growth takes a downturn due to poor business planning. Hence cheating out on the investors or sponsors", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A person or organization in good standing is regarded as having complied with all their explicit obligations, while not being subject to any form of sanction, suspension or disciplinary censure. A business entity that is in good standing has unabated powers to conduct its activities, which can include business endeavors. Similarly, a person who is in good standing within an organization or educational institution may take advantage of the benefits of membership or enrollment.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Granularity (also called graininess), the condition of existing in granules or grains, refers to the extent to which a material or system is composed of distinguishable pieces. It can either refer to the extent to which a larger entity is subdivided, or the extent to which groups of smaller indistinguishable entities have joined together to become larger distinguishable entities.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Greed and fear refer to two opposing emotional states theorized as factors causing the unpredictability and volatility of the stock market, and irrational market behavior inconsistent with the efficient-market hypothesis.  Greed and fear relate to an old Wall Street saying: \u201cfinancial markets are driven by two powerful emotions \u2013 greed and fear.\u201d\nGreed and fear are among the animal spirits that Keynes identified as profoundly affecting economies and markets. Warren Buffett found an investing rule in acting contrary to such prevailing moods, advising that the timing of buying or selling stocks should be \"fearful when others are greedy and greedy only when others are fearful.\"  He uses the overall Market capitalization-to-GDP ratio to indicate relative value of the stock market in general, hence this ratio has become known as the \"Buffett indicator\".", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Green Monday is an online retail industry term similar to Cyber Monday. The term was coined by eBay in 2007 to describe the best sales day in December, usually the second Monday of December. After doing some internal research, they realized that the second Monday in December was the last day that shoppers were able to place an online order that would arrive in time for the holidays. Green Monday is defined more specifically by business research organization comScore as the last Monday with at least 10 days prior to Christmas.\nIn 2009, $854 million was spent online in the US on Green Monday, with sales in 2011 reaching $1.133 billion. In 2012, Green Monday topped out at $1.27 billion, up 13% from 2011 and the third heaviest online sales day for the season behind Cyber Monday and Dec. 4, 2012 (which had no marketing tie-in), according to comScore.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A gross-up clause is a provision in a contract which provides that all payments must be made in the full amount, free of any deductions without exercising any right of set-off. The provision will usually indicate that if there is a mandatory withholding or deduction by operation of law (usually with respect to tax), then the paying party shall \"gross up\" the payment so that the receiving party receives the same net amount.\nA gross-up clause is also used when a payment that is made will be subject to taxes and the payer makes an additional payment to indemnify the recipient against the taxes \u2013 that payment will also be subject to tax. The sequence of additional payment, tax calculation, additional payment continues until the recipient receives the same amount, net of all the taxes, as would have been received had there been no taxes. \nThe formula for calculating the total amount of a grossed-up payment is (the amount of the payment) divided by (1 minus the tax rate). Thus, a $10,000 payment to a recipient who has a 35% tax rate would be ($10,000) / (1\u201335%) = (10,000/.65) = $15,384.62.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Growth capital (also called expansion capital and growth equity) is a type of private equity investment, usually a minority investment, in relatively mature companies that are looking for capital to expand or restructure operations, enter new markets or finance a significant acquisition without a change of control of the business.Companies that seek growth capital will often do so to finance a transformational event in their lifecycle.  These companies are likely to be more mature than venture capital funded companies, able to generate revenue and profit but unable to generate sufficient cash to fund major expansions, acquisitions or other investments.  Because of this lack of scale, these companies generally can find few alternative conduits to secure capital for growth, so access to growth equity can be critical to pursue necessary facility expansion, sales and marketing initiatives, equipment purchases, and new product development.\nGrowth capital can also be used to effect a restructuring of a company's balance sheet, particularly to reduce the amount of leverage (or debt) the company has on its balance sheet.\nGrowth capital is often structured as preferred equity, although certain investors will use various hybrid securities that include a contractual return (i.e., interest payments) in addition to an ownership interest in the company. Often, companies that seek growth capital investments are not good candidates to borrow additional debt, either because of the stability of the company's earnings or because of its existing debt levels.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A guaranteed investment contract (GIC) is a contract that guarantees repayment of principal and a fixed or floating interest rate for a predetermined period of time. Guaranteed investment contracts are typically issued by life insurance companies qualified for favorable tax status under the Internal Revenue Code (for example, 401(k) plans).  A GIC is used primarily as a vehicle that yields a higher return than a savings account or United States Treasury securities and GICs are often used as investments for stable value funds. GICs are sometimes referred to as funding agreements, although this term is often reserved for contracts sold to non-qualified institutions.Example:  Funds obtained through a municipal bond issuance will generally take time to be drawn down.  Depositing the bond proceeds in a GIC gives the bond issuer the liquidity of having the funds available while earning a higher rate of return than it would earn in a money market account. GICs are considered safe vehicles since most insurance companies offering them are rated in the AA to AAA range.The term \"GIC\" is sometimes used in the context of \"Guaranteed Investment Agreements\" (GIAs).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Harvey balls are round ideograms used for visual communication of qualitative information. They are commonly used in comparison tables to indicate the degree to which a particular item meets a particular criterion.\n\nFor example, in a comparison of products, information such as price or weight can be conveyed numerically, and binary information such as the existence or lack of a feature can be conveyed with a check mark; however, information such as \"quality\" or \"safety\" or \"taste\" is often difficult to summarize in a manner allowing easy comparison \u2013 thus, Harvey balls are used.\nIn addition to their use in qualitative comparison, Harvey balls are also commonly used in project management for project tracking; in lean manufacturing for value-stream mapping and continuous improvement tracking; and in business process modeling software for visualisation.Harvey L. Poppel is generally credited with inventing Harvey balls in the 1970s while working at Booz Allen Hamilton as head of their worldwide IT consulting practice.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Henry Hub is a distribution hub on the natural gas pipeline system in Erath, Louisiana, owned by Sabine Pipe Line LLC, a subsidiary of EnLink Midstream Partners LP who purchased the asset from Chevron Corporation in 2014. Due to its importance, it lends its name to the pricing point for natural gas futures contracts traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) and the OTC swaps traded on Intercontinental Exchange (ICE).\nIt interconnects with nine interstate and four intrastate pipelines: Acadian, Columbia Gulf Transmission, Gulf South Pipeline, Bridgeline, NGPL, Sea Robin, Southern Natural Pipeline, Texas Gas Transmission, Transcontinental Pipeline, Trunkline Pipeline, Jefferson Island, and Sabine.  The two compressor stations can compress 520,000 decatherm/d (6.3 GW).  The transportation capacity is 1.8 billion ft\u00b3/d (bcf) (590 m\u00b3/s) (20.4 GW).Spot and future natural gas prices set at Henry Hub are denominated in US$ per millions of British thermal units and are generally seen to be the primary price set for the North American natural gas market.  North American unregulated wellhead prices are closely correlated to those set at Henry Hub.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "High-touch refers to the involvement of personal attention and service. In business, the term often refers to situations where trust between the customer and employed individual(s) is necessary. High-touch areas include: medicine, wealth management, real estate, and legal. Stock trading done by humans, as opposed to automated trading or using online brokers, is also referred to as high-touch.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In economics, the hold-up problem (or commitment problem) is central to the theory of incomplete contracts, and shows the difficulty in writing complete contracts. A hold-up problem arises when two factors are present:\n\nParties to a future transaction must make noncontractible relationship-specific investments before the transaction takes place.\nThe specific form of the optimal transaction (such as quality-level specifications, time of delivery, what quantity of units) cannot be determined with certainty beforehand.The hold-up problem is a situation where two parties may be able to work most efficiently by cooperating but refrain from doing so because of concerns that they may give the other party increased bargaining power and thus reduce their own profits. When party A has made a prior commitment to a relationship with party B, the latter can 'hold up' the former for the value of that commitment. The hold-up problem leads to severe economic cost and might also lead to underinvestment.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An honorarium is an ex gratia payment, i.e., a payment made, without the giver recognizing themselves as having any liability or legal obligation, to a person for his or her services in a volunteer capacity or for services for which fees are not traditionally required. It is a common remuneration practice in schools or sports clubs, for teachers and coaches. Another example includes the payment to guest speakers at a conference meeting to cover their travel, accommodation, or preparation time. Services for Christian Church funerals and/or memorial services are often paid by honorarium, as the minister, musicians, organist, soloist and others, out of care, do not have a set fee for services to grieving families. Likewise, wedding officiants are sometimes paid through honorarium. When required, honorariums may be termed altarages, although an altarage may be paid to a church or parish rather than a person.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Horizontal integration is the process of a company increasing production of goods or services at the same part of the supply chain. A company may do this via internal expansion, acquisition or merger.The process can lead to monopoly if a company captures the vast majority of the market for that product or service.Horizontal integration contrasts with vertical integration, where companies integrate multiple stages of production of a small number of production units.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A human resources management system (HRMS) or Human Resources Information System (HRIS) or Human Capital Management (HCM) is a form of Human Resources (HR) software that combines a number of systems and processes to ensure the easy management of human resources, business processes and data. Human resources software is used by businesses to combine a number of necessary HR functions, such as storing employee data, managing payroll, recruitment, benefits administration (total rewards), time and attendance, employee performance management, and tracking competency and training records.\nA human resources management system ensures everyday human resources processes are manageable and easy to access. The field merges human resources as a discipline and, in particular, its basic HR activities and processes with the information technology field. This software category is analogous to how data processing systems evolved into the standardized routines and packages of enterprise resource planning (ERP) software. On the whole, these ERP systems have their origin from software that integrates information from different applications into one universal database. The linkage of financial and human resource modules through one database creates the distinction that separates an HRMS, HRIS, or HCM system from a generic ERP solution.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The implementation maturity model (IMM) is an instrument to help an organization in assessing and determining the degree of maturity of its implementation processes.\nThis model consists of two important components, namely the:\n\nfive maturity levels, adopted from capability maturity model (CMM) of the Software Engineering Institute (SEI). By assessing the maturity of different aspects of implementation processes, it becomes clear what their strengths and weaknesses are, and also where improvements are needed.\nImplementation maturity matrix, which is an adjusted version of the test maturity matrix found in the test process improvement (TPI) model developed by Sogeti. The IMM matrix allows an organization to gain insight into the current situation of its implementation processes, and how it should pursue the desirable situation (i.e. a higher maturity level).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The term incentive system refers to a variety of fields, including biology, education, and philosophy.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In Statistics, Economics and Finance, an index is a statistical measure of change in a representative group of individual data points. These data may be derived from any number of sources, including company performance, prices, productivity, and employment. Economic indices track economic health from different perspectives. \nInfluential global financial indices such as the Global Dow, and the NASDAQ Composite track the performance of selected large and powerful companies in order to evaluate and predict economic trends. \nThe Dow Jones Industrial Average and the S&P 500 primarily track U.S. markets, though some legacy international companies are included. The consumer price index tracks the variation in prices for different consumer goods and services over time in a constant geographical location and is integral to calculations used to adjust salaries, bond interest rates, and tax thresholds for inflation. \nThe GDP Deflator Index, or real GDP, measures the level of prices of all-new, domestically produced, final goods and services in an economy. Market performance indices include the labour market index/job index and proprietary stock market index investment instruments offered by brokerage houses.\nSome indices display market variations. For example, the Economist provides a Big Mac Index that expresses the adjusted cost of a globally ubiquitous Big Mac as a percentage over or under the cost of a Big Mac in the U.S. in USD (estimated: $3.57). The least relatively expensive Big Mac price occurs in Hong Kong, at a 52% reduction from U.S. prices, or $1.71 U.S. Such indices can be used to help forecast currency values.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Indirect procurement is the sourcing of goods and services not related to manufacturing for a business to enable it to maintain and develop its operations. The goods and services classified under the umbrella of indirect procurement are commonly bought for consumption by internal stakeholders (business units or functions) rather than the external customer or client. \nIndirect procurement categories include, but are not limited to:\n\nMarketing-related services (media buying, agencies)\nProfessional Services (consultants, advisers)\nTravel Management services (Travel desk office)\nIT related services (hardware, software)\nHR related services (recruitment agencies, training)\nFacilities Management and office services (Telecoms, furniture, cleaning, catering, printers)\nUtilities (gas, electricity, water)\nConsumables (Grease, Oil etc.)\nMRO (Maintenance repair and operations)\nCapital Goods (Plant and machinery)\nFleet ManagementThe overarching classification of \u2018Indirect\u2019 can vary from business to business. Increasingly, the distinction between a \u2018direct\u2019 cost and an \u2018indirect\u2019 cost can become blurred (as classic debate of what is Capex and Opex) when looking at such expenditure items, for e.g. Fleet and Transportation. Companies' senior executives are often responsible for agreeing and defining this classification for simplifying their own financial, accounting and reporting structures.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An induction programme is the process used within many businesses to welcome new employees to the company and prepare them for their new role. It helps in the integration of employees into the organization.Induction training should, according to TPI-theory, include development of theoretical and practical skills, but also meet interaction needs that exist among the new employees.An Induction Programme can also include the safety training delivered to contractors before they are permitted to enter a site or begin their work. It is usually focused on the particular safety issues of an organisation but will often include much of the general company information delivered to employees.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Industrial market segmentation is a scheme for categorizing industrial and business customers to guide strategic and tactical decision-making. Government agencies and industry associations use standardized segmentation schemes for statistical surveys. Most businesses create their own segmentation scheme to meet their particular needs.  Industrial market segmentation is important in sales and marketing.\nWebster describes segmentation variables as \u201ccustomer characteristics that relate to some important difference in customer response to marketing effort\u201d. (Webster, 2003) He recommends the following three criteria:\n\nMeasurability, \u201cotherwise the scheme will not be operational\u201d according to Webster. While this would be an absolute ideal, its implementation can be next to impossible in some markets. The first barrier is, it often necessitates field research, which is expensive and time-consuming. Second, it is impossible to get accurate strategic data on a large number of customers. Third, if gathered, the analysis of the data can be a daunting task. These barriers lead most companies to use more qualitative and intuitive methods in measuring customer data, and more persuasive methods while selling, hoping to compensate for the gap of accurate data measurement.\nSubstantiality, i.e. \u201cthe variable should be relevant to a substantial group of customers\u201d. The challenge here is finding the right size or balance. If the group gets too large, there is a risk of diluting effectiveness; and if the group becomes too small, the company will lose the benefits of economies of scale. Also, as Webster rightly states, there are often very large customers that provide a large portion of a suppliers business. These single customers are sometimes distinctive enough to justify constituting a segment on their own. This scenario is often observed in industries which are dominated by a small number of large companies, e.g. aircraft manufacturing, automotive, turbines, printing machines and paper machines.\nOperational relevance to marketing strategy. Segmentation should enable a company to offer the suitable operational offering to the chosen segment, e.g. faster delivery service, credit-card payment facility, 24-hour technical service, etc. This can only be applied by companies with sufficient operational resources. For example, just-in-time delivery requires highly efficient and sizeable logistics operations, whereas supply-on-demand would need large inventories, tying down the supplier's capital. Combining the two within the same company - e.g. for two different segments - would stretch the company's resources.Nevertheless, academics as well as practitioners use various segmentation principles and models in their attempt to bring some sort of structure.\nThe goal for every industrial market segmentation scheme is to identify the most importantly significant differences among current and potential customers that will influence their purchase decisions or buying behavior, while keeping the scheme as simple as possible (Occam's Razor).  This will allow the industrial marketer to differentiate their prices, programs, or solutions for maximum competitive advantage.While similar to consumer market segmentation, segmenting industrial markets is different and more challenging because of greater complexity in buying processes, buying criteria, and the complexity of industrial products and services themselves. Further additional complications include role of financing, contracting, and complementary products/services.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The word \"infopreneur\" is a neologism portmanteau derived from the words \"information\" and \"entrepreneur\". The word \"infopreneur\" was registered as a trademark (USPTO) on February 1, 1984, by Harold F. Weitzen. In 1988, H. Skip Weitzen published \"Infopreneurs: Turning Data Into Dollars\" (John Wiley & Sons). Infopreneurs \"identify opportunities for creating enterprising information-based businesses by identifying knowledge deficiency situations and selling target-based information products and services, mostly through the internet\". An Infopreneur is a person who is \"in business to gather and disseminate electronic information\".", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Although information has been bought and sold since ancient times, the idea of an information marketplace is relatively recent. The nature of such markets is still evolving, which complicates development of  sustainable business models.  However, certain attributes of information markets are beginning to be understood, such as diminished participation costs, opportunities for customization, shifting customer relations, and a need for order.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Intelligent customer function or intelligent client (IC) is an in-house capability within a host organisation which has responsibility for the ownership, management and delivery of a defined service or range of services on behalf of part or all of the organisation, to that organisation. Examples of the IC service include IT/IS services, property and facilities, project delivery, human resources, marketing, and research & development. The services for which the IC has responsibility can be delivered by resources employed by the host organisation (members of staff) or can be sourced from the market (an outsourced service). The IC is responsible for engagement with the host organisation to understand and capture the important aspects of the organisation's core business and strategy which the defined managed service will need to deliver benefits, and providing a representation of that service in language that is understood by the organisation, and for which the organisation accepts it will fund, typically a service level agreement.  Where the service is to be delivered in part or full by a third party this agreement will need to be utilised in a specification or service requirement statement. This specification, as part of a tender document, enables the procurement of outsourced services.\nThe IC is often seen as facing both the host organisation and the supply chain; however it is typically the supply chain that uses the term \"intelligent customer function/client\". The IC must retain sufficient technical knowledge of the services being provided by a third party to competently specify requirements and manage delivery of the services.\nThe IC can be the responsibility of a single person; for example, a project manager. However, the requirement for a pervasive understanding of organisations at strategic, tactical and operational levels often requires the role of IC to be carried out by teams or organisations with defined, delegated responsibilities. The role of IC typically requires the collection and management of data that represents the dimensions, finances, assets, and resources of the host organisation that capture the requirement for the services that fall within the IC's area of responsibility. Understanding and interpreting the organisation's data, and how the services of the IC should be provided to meet the current and future needs of the organisation, are core responsibilities of the IC.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Interlocking directorate refers to the practice of members of a corporate board of directors serving on the boards of multiple corporations. A person that sits on multiple boards is known as a multiple director. Two firms have a direct interlock if a director or executive of one firm is also a director of the other, and an indirect interlock if a director of each sits on the board of a third firm.  This practice, although widespread and lawful, raises questions about the quality and independence of board decisions.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In sales, commerce, and economics, a customer (sometimes known as a client, buyer, or purchaser) is the recipient of a good, service, product or an idea - obtained from a seller, vendor, or supplier via a financial transaction or exchange for money or some  other valuable consideration.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An internal entrepreneur is a type of entrepreneur who operates inside the confines of an organisation such as a business unit or a government body.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In computing, internationalization and localization (American) or internationalisation and localisation (British English), often abbreviated i18n and L10n, are means of adapting computer software to different languages, regional peculiarities and technical requirements of a target locale. Internationalization is the process of designing a software application so that it can be adapted to various languages and regions without engineering changes. Localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by translating text and adding locale-specific components. Localization (which is potentially performed multiple times, for different locales) uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization (which is ideally performed only once before localization, or as an integral part of ongoing development).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An inverse floating rate note, or simply an inverse floater, is a type of bond or other type of debt instrument used in finance whose coupon rate has an inverse relationship to short-term interest rates (or its reference rate). With an inverse floater, as interest rates rise the coupon rate falls. The basic structure is the same as an ordinary floating rate note except for the direction in which the coupon rate is adjusted. These two structures are often used in concert.\nAs short-term interest rates fall, both the market price and the yield of the inverse floater increase. This link often magnifies the fluctuation in the bond's price. However, in the opposite situation, when short-term interest rates rise, the value of the bond can drop significantly, and holders of this type of instrument may end up with a security that pays little interest and for which the market will pay very little. Thus, interest rate risk is magnified and contains a high degree of volatility.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An invoice, bill or tab is a commercial document issued by a seller to a buyer relating to a sale transaction and indicating the products, quantities, and agreed-upon prices for products or services the seller had provided the buyer.\nPayment terms are usually stated on the invoice. These may specify that the buyer has a maximum number of days to pay and is sometimes offered a discount if paid before the due date. The buyer could have already paid for the products or services listed on the invoice. To avoid confusion and consequent unnecessary communications from buyer to seller, some sellers clearly state in large and capital letters on an invoice whether it has already been paid.\nFrom a seller's point of view, an invoice is a sales invoice. From a buyer's point of view, an invoice is a purchase invoice. The document indicates the buyer and seller, but the term invoice indicates money is owed or owing.\nWithin the European Union, an invoice is primarily legally defined by the EU VAT directive as an accounting voucher (to verify tax and VAT reporting) and secondly as a Civil law (common law) document.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The January barometer is the hypothesis that stock market performance in January (particularly in the U.S.) predicts its performance for the rest of the year. So if the stock market rises in January, it is likely to continue to rise by the end of December. The January barometer was first mentioned by Yale Hirsch in 1972.Historically, if the S&P 500 goes up in January, the trend will follow for the rest of the year. Conversely if the S&P falls in January, then it will fall for the rest of the year. From 1950 till 1984 both positive and negative prediction had a certainty of about 70% and 90% respectively with 75% in total. After 1985 however, the negative predictive power had been reduced to 50%, or in other words, no predictive power at all.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Jobber, in merchandising, can be synonymous with \"wholesaler\", \"distributor\", or \"intermediary\". A business which buys goods and bulk products from importers, other wholesalers, or manufacturers, and then sells to retailers, was historically called a jobbing house (or jobbing center). A jobber is a merchant\u2014e.g., (i) a wholesaler or (ii) reseller or (iii) independent distributor operating on consignment\u2014who takes goods in quantity from manufacturers or importers and sells or resells or distributes them to retail chains and syndicates, particularly supermarkets, department stores, drug chains, and the like. One objective is to distribute goods at lower costs through economies of scale, which, in sophisticated operations, typically uses complex transportation models. In competitive markets, the practice is an integral part of supply chain management\u2014one that might incorporate, among other things, operations research in areas of logistics involving supply chain networking, and supply chain optimization. A jobber is very different from a broker. A broker transacts on behalf of a merchandiser while a jobber supplies inventory at a merchandiser's site for consumers to purchase.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Kanban (Japanese: \u30ab\u30f3\u30d0\u30f3 and Chinese: \u770b\u677f, meaning signboard or billboard) is a scheduling system for lean manufacturing (also called just-in-time manufacturing, abbreviated JIT). Taiichi Ohno, an industrial engineer at Toyota, developed kanban to improve manufacturing efficiency. The system takes its name from the cards that track production within a factory. Kanban is also known as the Toyota nameplate system in the automotive industry.\nKanban became an effective tool to support running a production system as a whole, and an excellent way to promote improvement. Problem areas are highlighted by measuring lead time and cycle time of the full process and process steps. One of the main benefits of kanban is to establish an upper limit to work in process (commonly referred as \"WIP\") inventory to avoid overcapacity. Other systems with similar effect exist, for example CONWIP.  A systematic study of various configurations of kanban systems, such as Generalized Kanban or Production Authorization Card (PAC) and Extended Kanban, of which CONWIP is an important special case, can be found in Tayur (1993), and more recently Liberopoulos and Dallery (2000), among other papers.A goal of the kanban system is to limit the buildup of excess inventory at any point in production. Limits on the number of items waiting at supply points are established and then reduced as inefficiencies are identified and removed. Whenever a limit is exceeded, this points to an inefficiency that should be addressed.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A keepwell agreement is a contract that a parent company will keep a subsidiary solvent.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A knowledge broker is an intermediary (an organization or a person), that aims to develop relationships and networks with, among, and between producers and users of knowledge by providing linkages, knowledge sources, and in some cases knowledge itself, (e.g. technical know-how, market insights, research evidence) to organizations in its network.\nWhile the exact role and function of knowledge brokers are conceptualized and operationalized differently in various sectors and settings, a key feature appears to be the facilitation of knowledge exchange or sharing between and among various stakeholders, including researchers, practitioners, and policy makers.\nA knowledge broker may operate in multiple markets and technology domains.\n\nThe concept of knowledge brokers is closely related to the concept of knowledge spillovers.\nIn the fields of public health, applied health services research, and social sciences, knowledge brokers are often referred to as bridges or intermediaries that link producers of research evidence to users of research evidence as a means of facilitating collaboration to identify issues, solve problems, and promote evidence-informed decision making (EIDM), which is the process of critically appraising and incorporating the best available research evidence, along with evidence from multiple other sources into policy and practice decisions.Using a knowledge broker to facilitate the exchange of knowledge and the adoption of insights is one strategy in the broader field of Knowledge Management.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The knowledge economy (or the knowledge-based economy) is an economic system in which the production of goods and services is based principally on knowledge-intensive activities that contribute to advancement in technical and scientific innovation. The key element of value is the greater dependence on human capital and intellectual property for the source of the innovative ideas, information and practices. Organisations are required to capitalise this \"knowledge\" into their production to stimulate and deepen the business development process. There is less reliance on physical input and natural resources. A knowledge-based economy relies on the crucial role of intangible assets within the organisations' settings in facilitating modern economic growth.A knowledge economy features a highly skilled workforce within the microeconomic and macroeconomic environment; institutions and industries create jobs that demand specialized skills in order to meet the global market needs. Knowledge is viewed as an additional input to labour and capital.  In principle, one's primary individual capital is knowledge together with the ability to perform so as to create economic value.In a knowledge economy, highly skilled jobs require excellent technical skills and relational skills such as problem-solving, the flexibility to interface with multiple discipline areas as well as the ability to adapt to changes as opposed to moving or crafting physical objects in conventional manufacturing-based economies. A knowledge economy stands in contrast to an agrarian economy, in which the primary economic activity is subsistence farming for which the main requirement is manual labour or an industrialized economy that features mass production in which most of the workers are relatively unskilled.A knowledge economy emphasizes the importance of skills in a service economy, the third phase of economic development, also called a post-industrial economy. It is related to an information economy, which emphasizes the importance of information as non-physical capital, and a digital economy, which emphasizes the degree to which information technology facilitates trade. For companies, intellectual property such as trade secrets, copyrighted material, and patented processes become more valuable in a knowledge economy than in earlier eras.The global economy transition to a knowledge economy is also referred to as the Information Age, bringing about an information society.\nThe term knowledge economy was made famous by Peter Drucker as the title of Chapter 12 in his book The Age of Discontinuity (1969), that Drucker attributed to economist Fritz Machlup, originating in the idea of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The idea of a knowledge ecosystem is an approach to knowledge management which claims to foster the dynamic evolution of knowledge interactions between entities to improve decision-making and innovation through improved evolutionary networks of collaboration.In contrast to purely directive management efforts that attempt either to manage or direct outcomes, knowledge ecosystems espouse that knowledge strategies should focus more on enabling self-organization in response to changing environments. The suitability between knowledge and problems confronted defines the degree of \"fitness\" of a knowledge ecosystem. Articles discussing such ecological approaches typically incorporate elements of complex adaptive systems theory. Known implementation considerations of knowledge ecosystem include the Canadian Government.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Knowledge industries are those industries which are based on their intensive use of technology and/or human capital. While most industries are dependent in some way on knowledge as inputs, knowledge industries are particularly dependent on knowledge and technology to generate revenue. Some industries that are included in this category include education, consulting, science, finance, insurance, information technology, health service, and communications.  The term \"knowledge industry\" was suggested by Austrian-American economist Fritz Machlup to describe these industries in the context of his new idea of the knowledge economy.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Knowledge management (KM) is the collection of methods relating to creating, sharing, using and managing the knowledge and information of an organization. It refers to a multidisciplinary approach to achieve organisational objectives by making the best use of knowledge.An established discipline since 1991, KM includes courses taught in the fields of business administration, information systems, management, library, and information science. Other fields may contribute to KM research, including information and media, computer science, public health and public policy. Several universities offer dedicated master's degrees in knowledge management.\nMany large companies, public institutions and non-profit organisations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a part of their business strategy, IT, or human resource management departments. Several consulting companies provide advice regarding KM to these organizations.Knowledge management efforts typically focus on organisational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, integration and continuous improvement of the organisation. These efforts overlap with organisational learning and may be distinguished from that by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and on encouraging the sharing of knowledge. KM is an enabler of organizational learning.The most complex scenario for knowledge management may be found in the context of supply chain as it involves multiple companies without an ownership relationship or hierarchy between them, being called by some authors as transorganizational or interorganizational knowledge. That complexity is additionally increased by industry 4.0 (or 4th industrial revolution) and digital transformation, as new challenges emerge from both the volume and speed of information flows and knowledge generation.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Knowledge policies provide institutional foundations for creating, managing, and using organizational knowledge as well as social foundations for balancing global competitiveness with social order and cultural values.  Knowledge policies can be viewed from a number of perspectives: the necessary linkage to technological evolution, relative rates of technological and institutional change, as a control or regulatory process, obstacles posed by cyberspace, and as an organizational policy instrument.\nPolicies are the paradigms of government and all bureaucracies.  Policies provide a context of rules and methods to guide how large organizations meet their responsibilities.  Organizational knowledge policies describe the institutional aspects of knowledge creation, management, and use within the context of an organization's mandate or business model.  Social knowledge policies balance between progress in the knowledge economy to promote global competitiveness with social values, such as equity, unity, and the well-being of citizens.\nFrom a technological perspective, Thomas Jefferson (1816) noted that laws and institutions must keep pace with the progress of the human mind.  Institutions must advance as new discoveries are made, new truths are discovered, and as opinions and circumstances change.  Fast-forwarding to the late 20th century, Martin (1985) stated that any society with a high level of automation must frame its laws and safeguards so that computers can police other computers.  Tim Berners-Lee (2000) noted that both policy and technology must be designed with an understanding of the implications of each other.  Finally, Sparr (2001) points out that rules will emerge in cyberspace because even on the frontier, pioneers need property rights, standards, and rules of fair play to protect them from pirates.  Government is the only entity that can enforce such rules, but they could be developed by others.\nFrom a rate of change point of view, McGee and Prusak (1993) note that when an organization changes its culture, information policies are among the last thing to change.  From a market perspective, Martin (1996) points out that although cyberspace mechanisms change very rapidly, laws change very slowly, and that some businesses will use this gap for competitive advantage.   Similarly, Sparr (2001) discerned that governments have the interest and means to govern new areas of technology, but that past laws generally do not yet cover these emerging technologies and new laws take time to create.\nA number of authors have indicated that it will be very difficult to monitor and regulate cyberspace.  Negroponte (1997) uses a metaphor of limiting the freedom of bit radiation is like the Romans attempting to stop Christianity, even though early data broadcasters may be eaten by Washington lions.  Brown (1997) questions whether it will even be possible for governments to monitor compliance with regulations in the face of exponentially increasing encrypted traffic within private networks.  As cybernetic environments become central to commercial activity, monitoring electronic markets will become increasingly problematic.  From a corporate point of view, Flynn (1956) notes that employee use of corporate computer resources poses liability risks and jeopardizes security and that no organization can afford to engage in electronic communications and e-commerce unprepared.\nA key attribute of cyberspace is that it is a virtual rather than a real place.  Thus, a growing share of social and commercial electronic activity does not have a national physical location (Cozel (1997)), raising a key question of whether legislatures can even set national policies or coordinate international policies.  Similarly, Berners-Lee (2000) explains that key criterion of Trademark law \u2013 separation in location or market \u2013 does not work for World-Wide Web domain names because the Internet crosses all geographic boundaries and has no concept of a market area.\nFrom an organizational perspective, Simard (2000) states that \"if traditional policies are applied directly [to a digital environment], the Canadian Forest Service could become marginalized in a dynamic knowledge-based economy.\"  Consequently, the CFS developed and implemented an Access to Knowledge Policy that \"fosters the migration of the CFS towards providing free, open access to its knowledge assets, while recognizing the need for cost recovery and the need to impose restrictions on access in some cases\" (Simard, 2005).  The policy comprises a framework of objectives, guiding principles, staff responsibilities, and policy directives. The directives include ownership and use; roles, rights, and responsibilities; levels of access and accessibility; service to clients; and cost of access.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Knowledge spillover is an exchange of ideas among individuals. In knowledge management economics, knowledge spillovers are non-rival knowledge market costs incurred by a party not agreeing to assume the costs that has a spillover effect of stimulating technological improvements in a neighbor through one's own innovation. Such innovations often come from specialization within an industry.A recent, general example of a knowledge spillover could be the collective growth associated with the research and development of online social networking tools like Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter.  Such tools have not only created a positive feedback loop, and a host of originally unintended benefits for their users, but have also created an explosion of new software, programming platforms, and conceptual breakthroughs that have perpetuated the development of the industry as a whole.  The advent of online marketplaces, the utilization of user profiles, the widespread democratization of information, and the interconnectivity between tools within the industry have all been products of each tool's individual developments.  These developments have since spread outside the industry into the mainstream media as news and entertainment firms have developed their own market feedback applications within the tools themselves, and their own versions of online networking tools (e.g. CNN\u2019s iReport).\nThere are two kinds of knowledge spillovers: internal and external. Internal knowledge spillover occurs if there is a positive impact of knowledge between individuals within an organization that produces goods and/or services. An external knowledge spillover occurs when the positive impact of knowledge is between individuals without or outside of a production organization. Marshall\u2013Arrow\u2013Romer (MAR) spillovers, Porter spillovers and Jacobs spillovers are three types of spillovers.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The idea that knowledge has value is ancient. In the 1st century AD, Juvenal (55-130) stated \u201cAll wish to know but none wish to pay the price\". In 1775, Samuel Johnson wrote: \u201cAll knowledge is of itself of some value.\u201d\nIn the 19th century, Coleridge (1825) stated that : \u201cThe worth and value of knowledge is in proportion to the worth and value of its object.\u201d Auerbach (1865) asked: \u201cWhat is all our knowledge worth?\" although he proposed no answer. Largely the same ideas are already expressed in the term intellectual capital or the more ancient knowledge is power - given that power is a value in its own right.\nOnly towards of the end of the 20th century, however, was the value of knowledge in a business context generally recognized. The idea has since become something of a management fad, although many authors indicate that the underlying principles will become standard business practice. It is now understood that knowledge about how to produce products and provide services as well as their embedded knowledge is often more valuable than the products and services themselves or the materials they contain. Although measuring the value of knowledge remains elusive, describing its flow through value chains is a step in the right direction.\nFirestone was the first to relate knowledge to business when he noted that \u201cThought, not money is the real business capital.\u201d Alvin Toffler (1990) proposed that knowledge is a wealth and force multiplier, in that it augments what is available or reduces the amount needed to achieve a given purpose.\nIn comparing knowledge and product value, Amidon (1997) observes that knowledge about how to produce products may be more valuable than the products themselves. Leonard similarly points out that products are physical manifestations of knowledge and that their worth depends largely on the value of the embedded knowledge.\nDavis (1999) further notes that the computer chips in a high-end automobile are worth more than the steel, plastics, glass, or rubber. However, Davis and Botin (1994) indicate that awareness of the value of knowledge exceeds the ability of many businesses to extract it from the goods and services in which it is embedded.\nMeasuring the value of knowledge has not progressed much beyond an awareness that traditional accounting practices are misleading and can lead to wrong business decisions (Martin, 1996). Amidon (1997) points out that the shift from tangible to intangible assets will revolutionize the way that enterprises are measured and that there is an entirely new way to value economic wealth.\nSimard et al. (2007) developed a content value chain describing the flow of content through a sequence of stages in which its form is changed and its value or utility to users are notably increased at each stage: objects, data, information, knowledge, and wisdom. They also developed a knowledge services value chain, which describes the flow of knowledge services through a sequence of stages, in which value is embedded, advanced, or extracted.\nThe stages are: generate, transform, manage, use internally, transfer, add value, use professionally, use personally, and evaluate.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Knowledge workers are workers whose main capital is knowledge. Examples include programmers, physicians, pharmacists, architects, engineers, scientists, design thinkers, public accountants, lawyers, editors, and academics, whose job is to \"think for a living\".", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In supply chain management, the Kraljic matrix (or Kraljic model) is a method used to segment the purchases or suppliers of a company by dividing them into four classes, based on the complexity (or risk) of the supply market (such as monopoly situations, barriers to entry, technological innovation) and the importance of the purchases or suppliers (determined by the impact that they have on the profitability of the company). This subdivision allows the company to define the optimal purchasing strategies for each of the four types of purchases or suppliers.\nIt is named after Peter Kraljic, who first formulated the model in an article called Purchasing Must Become Supply Management, published in the Harvard Business Review in 1983.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Language localisation (or language localization) is the process of adapting a product's translation to a specific country or region. It is the second phase of a larger process of product translation and cultural adaptation (for specific countries, regions, cultures or groups) to account for differences in distinct markets, a process known as internationalisation and localisation.\nLanguage localisation differs from translation activity because it involves a comprehensive study of the target culture in order to correctly adapt the product to local needs. Localisation can be referred to by the numeronym L10N (as in: \"L\", followed by the number 10, and then \"N\").\nThe localisation process is most generally related to the cultural adaptation and translation of software, video games, websites, and technical communication, as well as audio/voiceover, video, or other multimedia content, and less frequently to any written translation (which may also involve cultural adaptation processes). Localisation can be done for regions or countries where people speak different languages or where the same language is spoken. For instance, different dialects of German, with different idioms, are spoken in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Belgium.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A learning economy is a society that values skills like assets, where learning and employment information is readily exchanged from institution to institution, and controlled by the learner and worker. \n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The terms legal case management (LCM), matter management or legal project management refer to a subset of law practice management and cover a range of approaches and technologies used by law firms and courts to leverage knowledge and methodologies for managing the life cycle of a case or matter more effectively. Generally, the terms refer to the sophisticated information management and workflow practices that are tailored to meet the legal field's specific needs and requirements.\nAs attorneys and law firms compete for clients they are routinely challenged to deliver services at lower costs with greater efficiency, thus firms develop practice-specific processes and utilize contemporary technologies to assist in meeting such challenges. Law practice management processes and technologies include case and matter management, time and billing, litigation support, research, communication and collaboration, data mining and modeling, and data security, storage, and archive accessibility.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A lemonade stand is a business that is commonly owned and operated by a child or children, to sell lemonade. The concept has become iconic of youthful summertime American culture to the degree that parodies and variations on the concept exist across media. The term may also be used to refer to stands that sell similar beverages like iced tea.The stand may be a folding table, while the archetypical version is custom-made out of plywood or cardboard boxes. A paper sign on front advertises the lemonade stand.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In negotiation, leverage is the power that one side of a negotiation has to influence the other side to move closer to their negotiating position. A party's leverage is based on its ability to award benefits or impose costs on the other side. Another conceptualization holds that the party that has the most to lose from a \"no deal\" outcome has less leverage than the party that has the least to lose.Leverage has been described as \"negotiation's prime mover,\" indicating its important role in bargaining and negotiation situations. Individuals with strong leverage can sometimes overcome weak negotiating skills, whereas those with poor leverage have a reduced likelihood of being successful even if they have strong negotiating skills.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In corporate finance, a leveraged recapitalization is a change of the company's capital structure, usually substitution of debt for equity.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Line management refers to the management of employees who are directly involved in the production or delivery of products, goods and/or services. As the interface between an organisation and its front-line workforce, line management represents the lowest level of management within an organisational hierarchy (as distinct from top/executive/senior management and middle management).\nA line manager is an employee who directly manages other employees and operations while reporting to a higher-ranking manager. Related job titles are supervisor, section leader, foreperson and team leader. They are charged with meeting corporate objectives in a specific functional area or line of business. As an example, one type of line management at an automobile conglomerate might be the \"light-truck or even more specifically, the \"light-truck marketing line\".  Similarly, one type of line management at a financial services firm might be \"retention marketing\" or \"state municipal bond funds\".", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Line of business (LOB) is a general term which refers to a product or a set of related products that serve a particular customer transaction or business need.\nIn some industry sectors, like insurance, \"line of business\" also has a regulatory and accounting definition to meet a statutory set of insurance policies. It may or may not be a strategically relevant business unit.\n\"Line of business\" often refers to an internal corporate business unit, whereas the term \"industry\" refers to an external view that includes all competitors competing in a similar market.  A line of business will often examine its position within an industry using a Porter five forces analysis (or other industry-analysis method) and other relevant industry information.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Linear scheduling method (LSM) is a graphical scheduling method focusing on continuous resource utilization in repetitive activities.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In corporate finance, a liquidity event is a transaction that enables the owners of a company to realize the value of their investment, such as a merger, acquisition or initial public offering. A liquidity event is a typical exit strategy for private investors, who otherwise have difficulty proving the company's value.\nA liquidity event is not to be confused with the liquidation of a company, in which the company's business is discontinued.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Many terms are used in the marketing field.\n\nAIDA (marketing)\nArrow information paradox\nAttack marketing\nBargain bin\nBusiness-to-business\nBusiness-to-consumer\nBusiness-to-government\nCause marketing\nCopy testing\nCost per conversion\nCustomer lifetime value\nCustomer relationship management\nDecision making unit\nDisintermediation\nDouble jeopardy (marketing)\nDouble loop marketing\nEmotional Branding\nEngagement (marketing)\nFacelift (product)\nFallacy of quoting out of context\nFine print\nFlighting (advertising)\nGrowth Hacking\nHeavy-up\nInseparability\nIntangibility\nIntegrated marketing communications\nLow-end market\nMarketing communications\nMarketing experimentation\nMarketing exposure\nMarketing information system\nMarketing mix for product software\nMarketing speak\nMegamarketing\nName program\nNext-best-action marketing\nNielsen ratings\nOut-of-box experience\nPerishability\nPermission marketing\nPrice Analysis\nProduct lifecycle\nProduct lifecycle management\nPromoter (entertainment)\nQ Score\nRelational goods\nRepresentative office\nResponse rate ratio\nReturn on event\nReturn on investment\nROI \u2013 Return on Investment\nScience-to-business marketing\nSEO \u2013 search engine optimization\nShare of Wallet\nSoft launch\nSolutions Marketing\nSports Entertainment\nSquare inch analysis\nSweeps period\nTop of mind awareness\nVisual merchandising\nWhite label", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Logistics is generally the detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation. In a general business sense, logistics is the management of the flow of things between the point of origin and the point of consumption to meet the requirements of customers or corporations. The resources managed in logistics may include tangible goods such as materials, equipment, and supplies, as well as food and other consumable items.\nIn military science, logistics is concerned with maintaining army supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy, since an armed force without resources and transportation is defenseless. Military logistics was already practiced in the ancient world and as the modern military has a significant need for logistics solutions, advanced implementations have been developed. In military logistics, logistics officers manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed.\nLogistics management is the part of supply chain management and supply chain engineering that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward, and reverse flow and storage of goods, services, and related information between the point of origin and point of consumption to meet customers' requirements. The complexity of logistics can be modeled, analyzed, visualized, and optimized by dedicated simulation software. The minimization of the use of resources is a common motivation in all logistics fields. A professional working in the field of logistics management is called a logistician.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A long squeeze is a situation in which investors who hold long positions feel the need to sell into a falling market to limit their losses. This pressure to sell usually leads to a further decline in market prices caused by the supply/demand-imbalance. This situation is less common than the opposite short squeeze, because in a short squeeze, the traders who have bought the short contracts have a legal obligation to settle with the promised shares. A trader who is 'long' in a long squeeze has no such obligation, but may sell out of fear of further losses. Other investors may see the rapid decline in price as irrational and a buying opportunity (more often than a rapid rise in price seen as a shorting opportunity). However, in times of significant market turmoil, identifying a long squeeze becomes of more practical interest rather than merely an investment opportunity. In 2008, Bear Stearns was wiped out after market rumors that the company had cash concerns. Investors started selling the scrip, resulting in a long squeeze, which triggered many other stop order losses and accelerated the decline of the company's stock.\nIn 2020, the oil futures market saw a long squeeze when the price of near-month futures for West Texas Intermediate oil fell below $0, causing long holders to be margin-called, forcing the price lower and triggering additional margin-calls, in a manner similar to a classic short squeeze, eventually reaching a bottom of $-37.63 per barrel, before later recovering to nearly $3.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A loss run is a document that records the history of claims made against a commercial insurance policy. It is analogous to a credit report. A loss run report will include information including the date of the claim, the amount paid, and a description of the event. Generally, a loss run will record 5 years of history. Because of the importance of loss run reports in underwriting commercial insurance accounts, most American states have laws requiring insurance providers to make these reports available on request.A loss run can, in principle, also be used to notify an insurer of a claim, although this has been disputed.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Loyalty Effect is a 1996 book by Fred Reichheld of the consulting firm Bain & Company, and the book's title is also sometimes used to refer to the broader loyalty business model as a whole. Reichheld's book was exceptionally popular with marketing and customer relationship management professionals, and as such the phrase \"loyalty effect\" has become synonymous in some circles with the more generic concepts covered by the loyalty business model.In 2001, Reichheld penned a sequel to the book called Loyalty Rules! and released a revised edition of the original work.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Lump sum turnkey (LSTK) is a combination of the business-contract concepts of lump sum and turnkey. Lump sum is a noun which means a complete payment consisting of a single sum of money while turnkey is an adjective of a product or service which means product or service will be ready to use upon delivery.\nIn the construction industry, LSTK combines two concepts. The LS (lump sum) part refers to the payment of a fixed sum for the delivery under e.g. an EPC contract. The financial risk lies with the contractor. TK (turn key) specifies that the scope of work includes start-up of the facility to a level of operational status. Ultimately the scope of work will define just exactly what is needed.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Managed decline is a phrase that refers to the management of the decline (or \"sunset\") phase at the end of a lifecycle, with the goal of minimizing costs or other forms of losses and harm. The concept originated in business where it referred to the management of companies and industries, but has since spread beyond to be used in other contexts.\nExamples of managed decline include the handling of the textiles, shipbuilding, coal and steel industries in North America and Europe in the 1980s (in 1981, it was proposed for the English city of Liverpool by Chancellor Geoffrey Howe); of the postal delivery services in Europe and the United States in the first decades of the 21st century, \nof the established churches in western Europe since the 1970s, and that of an individual's quality of life in their final years as they face old age or terminal illness.\nDecline can be managed through multiple means, including public or industrial policy efforts such as government provision of retraining.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The management by wandering around (MBWA), also management by walking around, refers to a style of business management which involves managers wandering around, in an unstructured manner, through the workplace(s), at random, to check with employees, equipment, or on the status of ongoing work. The emphasis is on the word wandering as an unplanned movement within a workplace, rather than a plan where employees expect a visit from managers at more systematic, pre-approved or scheduled times. \nThe expected benefit is that a manager, by random sampling of events or employee discussions, is more likely to facilitate improvements to the morale, sense of organizational purpose, productivity and total quality management of the organization, as compared to remaining in a specific office area and waiting for employees, or the delivery of status reports, to arrive there, as events warrant in the workplace.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Manufacturing resource planning  (MRP II) is defined as a method for the effective planning of all resources of a manufacturing company. Ideally, it addresses operational planning in units, financial planning, and has a simulation capability to answer \"what-if\" questions and is an extension of closed-loop MRP (Material Requirements Planning).This is not exclusively a software function, but the management of people skills, requiring a dedication to database accuracy, and sufficient computer resources.  It is a total company management concept for using human and company resources more productively.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Market cannibalization, market cannibalism, or corporate cannibalism is the practice of slashing the price of a product or introducing a new product into a market of established product categories. If a company is practising market cannibalization, it is seen to be eating its own market and in so doing, hoping to get a bigger share of it.  Concretely, it refers to the principle of a newly introduced product B eating up the market shares of an already established product A, both usually coming from the same company. In this case, both products belong to the same category of products. This occurrence can have either a positive or negative impact on the company's bottom line, can be accidental or deliberate, in which case it is commonly called cannibalisation strategy.\nAn interesting example is one involving a company achieving lower productions costs for a product produced in a socially evolved country than for the same product produced in a socially weak country. In this case lower production costs are easily achieved by virtue of to lower wages and social costs. This type of market and corporate cannibalism is one factor that makes it hard today in Europe for example to find any computer not produced in China. At the same time companies like Foxconn achieved not only low production costs, but also made it possible for innovative products to get on the market.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Market capitalization, sometimes referred to as market cap, is the total value of a publicly traded company's outstanding common shares owned by stockholders.Market capitalization is equal to the market price per common share multiplied by the number of common shares outstanding. Since outstanding stock is bought and sold in public markets, capitalization could be used as an indicator of public opinion of a company's net worth and is a determining factor in some forms of stock valuation.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Market entry strategy is a planned distribution and delivery method of goods or services to a new target market.  In the import and export of services, it refers to the creation, establishment, and management of contracts in a foreign country.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A master production schedule (MPS) is a plan for individual commodities to be produced in each time period such as production, staffing, inventory, etc. It is usually linked to manufacturing where the plan indicates when and how much of each product will be demanded. This plan quantifies significant processes, parts, and other resources in order to optimize production, to identify bottlenecks, and to anticipate needs and completed goods. Since a MPS drives much factory activity, its accuracy and viability dramatically affect profitability. Typical MPSs are created by software with user tweaking.\nDue to software limitations, but especially the intense work required by the \"master production schedulers\", schedules do not include every aspect of production, but only key elements that have proven their control effectivity, such as forecast demand, production costs, inventory costs, lead time, working hours, capacity, inventory levels, available storage, and parts supply. The choice of what to model varies among companies and factories. The MPS is a statement of what the company expects to produce and purchase (i.e. quantity to be produced, staffing levels, dates, available to promise, projected balance).The MPS translates the customer demand (sales orders, PIR\u2019s), into a build plan using planned orders in a true component scheduling environment. Using MPS helps avoid shortages, costly expediting, last minute scheduling, and inefficient allocation of resources.   Working with MPS allows businesses to consolidate planned parts, produce master schedules and forecasts for any level of the Bill of Material (BOM) for any type of part.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Material requirements planning (MRP) is a  production planning, scheduling, and inventory control system used to manage manufacturing processes. Most MRP systems are software-based, but it is possible to conduct MRP by hand as well.\nAn MRP system is intended to simultaneously meet three objectives:\n\nEnsure raw materials are available for production and products are available for delivery to customers.\nMaintain the lowest possible material and product levels in store\nPlan manufacturing activities, delivery schedules and purchasing activities.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Materials management is a core supply chain function and includes supply chain planning and supply chain execution capabilities. Specifically, materials management is the capability firms use to plan total material requirements.  The material requirements are communicated to procurement and other functions for sourcing.  Materials management is also responsible for determining the amount of material to be deployed at each stocking location across the supply chain, establishing material replenishment plans, determining inventory levels to hold for each type of inventory (raw material, WIP, finished goods), and communicating information regarding material needs throughout the extended supply chain.\nTypical roles in Materials Management include: Materials Manager, Inventory Control Manager, Inventory Analyst, Material Planner, Expediter and emerging hybrid roles like \"buyer planner\".\nThe primary business objective of Materials Management is assured supply of material, optimum inventory levels and minimum deviation between planned and actual results.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The McKinsey 7S Framework is a management model developed by business consultants Robert H. Waterman, Jr. and Tom Peters (who also developed the MBWA-- \"Management By Walking Around\" motif, and authored In Search of Excellence) in the 1980s. This was a strategic vision for groups, to include businesses, business units, and teams. The 7 S's are structure, strategy, systems, skills, style, staff and shared values.\nThe model is most often used as an organizational analysis tool to assess and monitor changes in the internal situation of an organization.\nThe model is based on the theory that, for an organization to perform well, these seven elements need to be aligned and mutually reinforcing. So, the model can be used to help identify what needs to be realigned to improve performance, or to maintain alignment (and performance) during other types of change.\nWhatever the type of change \u2013 restructuring, new processes, organizational merger, new systems, change of leadership, and so on \u2013 the model can be used to understand how the organizational elements are interrelated, and so ensure that the wider impact of changes made in one area is taken into consideration.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In economics, the menu cost is a cost that a firm incurs due to changing its prices. It is one microeconomic explanation of the price-stickiness of the macroeconomy put by New Keynesian economists. The term originated from the cost when restaurants print new menus to change the prices of items. However economists have extended its meaning to include the costs of changing prices more generally. Menu costs can be broadly classed into costs associated with informing the consumer, planning for and deciding on a price change and the impact of consumers potential reluctance to buy at the new price. Examples of menu costs include updating computer systems, re-tagging items, changing signage, printing new menus, mistake costs and hiring consultants to develop new pricing strategies. At the same time, companies can reduce menu costs by developing intelligent pricing strategies, thereby reducing the need for changes.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Merge-in-transit (MIT)  is a distribution method in which several shipments from suppliers originating at different locations are consolidated into one final customer delivery.  This removes the need for distribution warehouses in the supply chain, allowing customers to receive complete deliveries for their orders. Under a merge-in-transit system, merge points replace distribution warehouse. In today's global market, merge-in-transit is progressively being used in telecommunications and electronic industries. These industries are usually dynamic and flexible, in which products have been developed and changed rapidly.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A micro job is a temporary, task-type job of all types, often booked through the Internet. Work may included online or in-person jobs, such as writing blogs, virtual assistant, handyman, nanny, website design, dog boarding or errands, etc. The income varies depending on the job and the fee charged by the micro jobs website.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Microwork is a series of many small tasks which together comprise a large unified project, and it is completed by many people over the Internet. Microwork is considered the smallest unit of work in a virtual assembly line. It is most often used to describe tasks for which no efficient algorithm has been devised, and require human intelligence to complete reliably. The term was developed in 2008 by Leila Chirayath Janah of Samasource.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The oil and gas industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream, midstream and downstream. The midstream sector involves the transportation (by pipeline, rail, barge, oil tanker or truck), storage, and wholesale marketing of crude or refined petroleum products. Pipelines and other transport systems can be used to move crude oil from production sites to refineries and deliver the various refined products to downstream distributors. Natural gas pipeline networks aggregate gas from natural gas purification plants and deliver it to downstream customers, such as local utilities. \nThe midstream operations are often taken to include some elements of the upstream and downstream sectors. For example, the midstream sector may include natural gas processing plants that purify the raw natural gas as well as removing and producing elemental sulfur and natural gas liquids (NGL) as finished  end-products.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Mind share relates to the development of consumer awareness or popularity, and is one of the main objectives of advertising and promotion. When people think of examples of a product type or category, they usually think of a limited number of brand names. The aim of mind share is to establish a brand as being one of the best kinds of a given product or service, and to even have the brand name become a synonym for the product or service offered.   For example, a prospective buyer of a college education will have several thousand colleges to choose from. However, the evoked set, or set of schools considered, will probably be limited to about ten. Of these ten, the colleges that the buyer is most familiar with will receive the greatest attention.\nMarketers and promoters of mind share try to maximize the popularity of their product, so that the brand co-exists with deeper, more empirical categories of objects. Kleenex, for example, can distinguish itself as a type of tissue. But, because it has gained popularity amongst consumers, it is frequently used as a term to identify any tissue, even if it is from a competing brand. Q-tips and band-aids would be other examples of this.\nPopularity can be established to a greater or lesser degree depending on product and market. For example, in the Southern U.S. it is common to hear people refer to any cola-flavored soft drink as a \"coke\", regardless of whether it is actually produced by Coca-Cola or not.A legal risk of such popularity is that the name may become so widely accepted that it becomes a generic term and loses trademark protection. Examples include \"escalator\", \"panadol\", \"chapstick\", \"tupperware\", and \"bandaid\". Companies will often attempt to prevent a product name from becoming generic to avoid losing trademark protection. Xerox Corporation attempted to prevent the genericization of its core trademark through an extensive public relations campaign advising consumers to \"photocopy\" instead of \"xerox\" documents.Other objectives of mind share include short or long term increases in sales, market share, product information, and reputation.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A mission statement is a short statement of why an organization exists, what its overall goal is, identifying the goal of its operations: what kind of product or service it provides, its primary customers or market, and its geographical region of operation. It may include a short statement of such fundamental matters as the organization's values or philosophies, a business's main competitive advantages, or a desired future state\u2014the \"vision\".  Historically it is associated with Christian religious groups; indeed, for many years, a missionary was assumed to be a person on a specifically religious mission. The word \"mission\" dates from 1598, originally of Jesuits sending (\"missio\", Latin for \"act of sending\") members abroad.A mission is not simply a description of an organization by an external party, but an expression, made by its leaders, of their desires and intent for the organization. The purpose of a mission statement is to communicate the organisation's purpose and direction to its employees, customers, vendors, and other stakeholders. A mission statement also creates a sense of identity for its employees. Organizations normally do not change their mission statements over time, since they define their continuous, ongoing purpose and focus.According to Chris Bart, professor of strategy and governance at McMaster University, a commercial mission statement consists of three essential components:\nKey market: the target audience\nContribution: the product or service\nDistinction: what makes the product unique or why the audience should buy it over anotherBart estimates that in practice, only about ten percent of mission statements say something meaningful. For this reason, they are widely regarded with contempt.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A mobile enterprise is a corporation or large organization that supports critical business functions and use of business applications via remote work using wireless mobile devices. In a mobile enterprise, employees use mobile devices to do any or all of the following: access email, manage projects, manage documents, provide customer relationship management, conduct enterprise resource planning, fill out invoices and receipts, accounting vouchers, work orders, purchase orders, etc. and manage a corporate calendar and address book. These are the most common applications though many other corporate mobile applications are being developed and used by organizations around the world.\nA mobile enterprise generally implies aggressive use of mobile technology facilitated by Internet-based data transmissions. As long as wireless network connectivity is available, enterprise databases can be remotely accessed and updated from anywhere in the world, at any time, with any device equipped with a Web browser and by anyone with permission to access such services. A mobile enterprise leverages existing Internet infrastructure and TCP/IP installations. In a mobile enterprise, mobile clients are at parity with other traditional clients such as laptop and desktop computers. The emphasis is on expedient data interchange and communication; little or no emphasis is placed on the method of access.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A monetary system is a system by which a government provides money in a country's economy. Modern monetary systems usually consist of the national treasury, the mint, the central banks and commercial banks.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Month-to-date (MTD) is a period starting at the beginning of the current calendar month and ending at the current date. Month-to-date is used in many contexts, mainly for recording results of an activity in the time between a date (exclusive, since this day may not yet be \"complete\") and the beginning of the current month.\nIn the context of finance, MTD is often provided in financial statements detailing the performance of a business entity. Providing current MTD results, as well as MTD results for one or more past months as of the same date, allows owners, managers, investors, and other stakeholders to compare the company's current performance to that of past periods.\nMTD describes the return so far this month. For example: the month to date return for the stock is 8%. This means from the beginning of the current month until the current date, stock has appreciated by 8%.\nComparing MTD measures can be misleading if not much of the month has occurred, or the date is not clear. MTD measures are more sensitive to early changes than late changes.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Multisourcing is the concept of working with multiple suppliers who are also competitors. Large-scale buyers, such as the U.S. federal government, may want to feel assured that there is more than one supplier for an item.\nIt has been described as the opposite of \"one neck to wring\". The opposite is called sole-source.\nIntel, a large corporation, was not \"enough\" for the x86, and so others such as Advanced Micro Devices and Cyrix were needed.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A NewCo or Newco is a term used to describe a corporate spin-off, startup, or subsidiary company before they are assigned a final name, or to proposed merged companies to distinguish the to-be-formed combined entity with an existing company involved in the merger which may have the same (or a similar) name. In a handful of cases the new company may retain the name \"Newco\".The term can also be used to describe a company that was created to replace its predecessor, which ceased to exist for reasons such as financial issues: the creation of a NewCo to continue the existence of Rangers F.C. was a notable example.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A non-commercial (also spelled noncommercial) activity is an activity that does not, in some sense, involve commerce, at least relative to similar activities that do have a commercial objective or emphasis. For example, advertising-free community radio stations are typically nonprofit organizations staffed by individuals volunteering their efforts to air a wide variety of radio programming, and do not run explicit radio advertisements, included in the United States specific grouping of \"non-commercial educational\" (NCE) public radio stations. Some Creative Commons licenses include a \"non-commercial\" option, which has been controversial in definition.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Nonrecourse debt or a nonrecourse loan (sometimes hyphenated as non-recourse) is a secured loan (debt) that is secured by a pledge of collateral, typically real property, but for which the borrower is not personally liable.  If the borrower defaults, the lender can seize and sell the collateral, but if the collateral sells for less than the debt, the lender cannot seek that deficiency balance from the borrower\u2014its recovery is limited only to the value of the collateral. Thus, nonrecourse debt is typically limited to 50% or 60% loan-to-value ratios, so that the property itself provides \"overcollateralization\" of the loan.\nThe incentives for the parties are at an intermediate position between those of a full recourse secured loan and a totally unsecured loan. While the borrower is in first loss position, the lender also assumes significant risk, so the lender must underwrite the loan with much more care than in a full recourse loan. This typically requires that the lender have significant domain expertise and financial modeling expertise.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Occupational welfare is welfare distributed by industry as part of employment. First characterized by British social researcher and teacher Richard Titmuss in 1956, occupational welfare includes perks, salary-related benefits, measures intended to improve the efficiency of the workforce and some philanthropic measures.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An office broker is a more general term for a serviced office broker. The office broker company/ individual arranges transactions between a company or individual interested in renting office space and a business centre/ office space owner. Office brokers help business centre owners to advertise office space. The office broker then makes a commission when the deal is made. An office broker develops relationships with property management firms and business centre owners and negotiates favourable prices on behalf of clients. The purpose of an office broker is to provide a single point of contact in which clients can access the entire office space market globally or regionally.  An office broker will commonly advertise both office space and serviced office space.\nTo fulfill the goal of finding clients to rent serviced office space, a serviced office broker will often do the following.\n\nFind business centres/ office space in accordance with the clients needs and specification\nRequest a property condition disclosure form and any other forms that may be needed from the business centre owner\nRequest information from the business centre owner in order to describe the property successfully for advertising\nList the business centre/ office space available for rent to the public, often on the internet\nAdvertise the business centre/ office space through listings, newsletters, promotions and other methods.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Office sharing is a concept that allows companies who own or manage an office, that have redundant office space to share or rent the workstations or self-contained units to smaller companies looking for flexible workspace. This creates revenue for the company that runs the office, and provides a cheap, flexible alternative for companies looking for an office outside of their home. The main benefit of sharing an office is that it provides a more dynamic environment for both companies involved and access to new markets.\nHowever, sharing office space does come with some problems of its own:\nHigher office management costs (cleaning services, printer ink, office supplies and so on)\nFaster wear and tear of office equipment\nPotential NDA issues if the space isn't properly divided\nSetup costs (dividing the space with fake walls)\nManagement Software costs (resource management, reception desk software, meeting room management and so on)The arrangement can be particularly sensitive in the case of attorneys and MDs - in such cases, a legally-binding Office Sharing Agreement should be carefully considered and redacted.\nOffice Sharing is similar to Coworking, though coworking spaces tend to include more tenants, a broader range of amenities and a stronger emphasis on community and networking.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Objectives and key results (OKR, alternatively OKRs) is a goal-setting framework used by individuals, teams, and organizations to define measurable goals and track their outcomes. The development of OKR is generally attributed to Andrew Grove who introduced the approach to Intel. John Doerr published an OKR book which is called Measure What Matters: How Google, Bono, and the Gates Foundation Rock the World with OKRs in 2017.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "On-demand outsourcing is a trend in outsourcing wherein major internal operations processes of a company are being shifted to a provider that is paid for by the number of transactions involved. The business transferring the services pays for the quality, special skills and the competence of the service provider's employees. There has been an expansion of the outsourcing concept to include on-demand outsourcing. This refers to the process undertaken by business managers to adopt an outsourcing policy that ensures that the specific business and supplies including technical manpower are accessed as the need arises. It focuses a business strategy to improve its goods and services and to drive a business towards quality improvement.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "One for one (also known as \"buy-one give-one\") is a social entrepreneurship business model reputedly developed by Blake Mycoskie of TOMS Shoes, in which one needed item is given away for each item purchased.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Open business is an approach to enterprise that draws on ideas from openness movements like free software, open source, open content and open tools and standards. The approach places value on transparency, stakeholder inclusion, and accountability.\nOpen business structures make contributors and non-contributors visible so that business benefits are distributed accordingly. They seek to increase personal engagement and positive outcomes by rewarding contributors in an open way.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In R&D management and systems development, open coopetition  or open-coopetition is a neologism to describe cooperation among competitors in the open-source arena. The term was first coined by the scholars Jose Teixeira and Tingting Lin to describe how rival firms that, while competing with similar products in the same markets, cooperate which each other in the development of open-source projects (e.g., Apple, Samsung, Google, Nokia) in the co-development of Webkit).Open-coopetition is a compound-word term bridging coopetition and open-source. Coopetition refers to a paradoxical relationship between two or more actors simultaneously involved in cooperative and competitive interactions; and open-source both as a development method that emphasizes transparency and collaboration, and as a \"private-collective\" innovation model  with features both from the private investment and collective action \u2014 firms contribute towards the creation of public goods while giving up associated intellectual property rights such patents, copyright, licenses, or trade secrets.\n\nBy exploring coopetition in the particular context of open-source, Open-coopetition  emphasizes transparency on the co-development of technological artifacts that become available to the public under an open-source license\u2014allowing anyone to freely obtain, study, modify and redistribute them. Within open-coopetition, development transparency and sense of community are maximized; while the managerial control and IP enforcement are minimized. Open-coopetitive relationships are paradoxical as the core managerial concepts of property, contract and price play an outlier role.\nThe openness characteristic of open-source projects also distinguishes open-coopetition from other forms of cooperative arrangements by its inclusiveness: Everybody can contribute.  Users or other contributors do not need to hold a supplier contract or sign a legal intellectual property arrangement to contribute. Moreover, neither to be a member of a particular firm or affiliated with a particular joint venture or consortia to be able to contribute. In the words of Massimo Banzi, \"You don't need anyone's permission to make something great\".More recently open-coopetition is used to  describe open-innovation among competitors more broadly with many cases out of the software industry. While some authors use open-coopetition to emphasize the production of open-source software among competitors, others use open-coopetition to emphasis open-innovation among competitors.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Operating costs or operational costs, are the expenses which are related to the operation of a business, or to the operation of a device, component, piece of equipment or facility. They are the cost of resources used by an organization just to maintain its existence.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An operating model is both an abstract and visual representation (model) of how an organization delivers value to its customers or beneficiaries as well as how an organization actually runs itself.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Operational due diligence (ODD) is the process by which a potential purchaser reviews the operational aspects of a target company during mergers and acquisitions. Most often ODDs are conducted in the industrial sector.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In a business context, operational efficiency is a measurement of resource allocation and can be defined as the ratio between an output gained from the business and an input to run a business operation. When improving operational efficiency, the output to input ratio improves.\nInputs would typically be money (cost), people (measured either as headcount or as the number of full-time equivalents) or time/effort.\nOutputs would typically be money (revenue, margin, cash), new customers, customer loyalty, market differentiation, production, innovation, quality, speed & agility, complexity or opportunities.\nThe terms \"operational efficiency\", \"efficiency\" and \"productivity\" are often used interchangeably. An explanation of the difference between efficiency and (total factor) productivity is found in \"An Introduction to Efficiency and Productivity Analysis\". To complicate the meaning, operational excellence, which is about continuous improvement, not limited to efficiency, is occasionally used when meaning operational efficiency. Occasionally, operating excellence is also used with the same meaning as operational efficiency.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Operations management is an area of management concerned with designing and controlling the process of production and redesigning business operations in the production of goods or services. It involves the responsibility of ensuring that business operations are efficient in terms of using as few resources as needed and effective in meeting customer requirements.  \nIt is concerned with managing an entire production or service system which is the process that converts inputs (in the forms of raw materials, labor, consumers, and energy) into outputs (in the form of goods and/or services for consumers). Operations produce products, manage quality and create services. Operation management covers sectors like banking systems, hospitals, companies, working with suppliers, customers, and using technology. Operations is one of the major functions in an organization along with supply chains, marketing, finance and human resources. The operations function requires management of both the strategic and day-to-day production of goods and services.\nIn managing manufacturing or service operations several types of decisions are made including operations strategy, product design, process design, quality management, capacity, facilities planning, production planning and inventory control.  Each of these requires an ability to analyze the current situation and find better solutions to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of manufacturing or service operations. A modern, integrated vision of the many aspects of operations management may be found in recent textbooks on the subject.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Operations readiness and assurance (OR&A) is a process used in the performance of primarily oil, gas and energy projects, to measure progress towards achieving the state of \"readiness to operate\".  \nOR&A also includes an assurance component which gives an ongoing, real-time indication of the likelihood that the project will achieve that state by the time of handover to the eventual owner/operator.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In system administration, orchestration is the automated configuration, coordination, and management of computer systems and software.A number of tools exist for automation of server configuration and management, including Ansible, Puppet, Salt, Terraform, and AWS CloudFormation.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An order book is the list of orders (manual or electronic) that a trading venue (in particular stock exchanges) uses to record the interest of buyers and sellers in a particular financial instrument. A matching engine uses the book to determine which orders can be fully or partially executed.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Organic business growth is related to the growth of natural systems and organisms, societies and economies, as a dynamic organizational process, that for business expansion is marked by increased output, customer base expansion, or new product development, as opposed to mergers and acquisitions, which is inorganic growth.\nFor businesses organic growth typically excludes the impact of foreign exchange. \"Core growth\" is the term that is used to refer to growth that includes foreign exchange, but excludes divestitures and acquisitions.\nOrganic business growth is growth that comes from a company's existing businesses, as opposed to growth that comes from buying new businesses. It may be negative. Through Growth planning, businesses are able to achieve organic growth by selecting the best strategies available to them. For example, by examining Ansoff's matrix, businesses can select from market penetration, market development, product development and diversification to grow their revenue organically. In addition, organic business growth can be achieved utilizing content marketing efforts, which drive organic search traffic.\nOrganic business growth does include growth over a period that results from investment in businesses the company owned at the beginning of the period. What it excludes is the boost to growth from acquisitions, and the decline from sales and closures of whole businesses.When a company does not disclose organic growth numbers, it is usually possible to estimate them by estimating the numbers for acquisitions made in the period being looked at and in the previous year. It is useful to break down organic sales growth into that coming from market growth and that coming from gains in market share: this makes it easier to see how sustainable growth is.Relating to organic input in an organisation, it can also relate to the act of closing down cost centers through established organic methods instead of waiting for a Finance list.The mechanisms and rate of growth of firms experiencing organic growth was extensively studied by Edith Penrose in her 1958 book The Theory of the Growth of the Firm.An early reference to \"organic growth\" appeared in Inazo Nitobe's 1899 book The Soul of Japan.\nOrganic Growth is evolving to a new concept within the social media marketing of the 21st century. Social networks also do organic growth in terms of followers and social presence.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Organic volume, similar to organic growth, is a term used in business to describe the volume of a product produced due to a specific business process and not due to external circumstances such as acquisition from a separate source. For example, imagine a paper company that produces 1 million sheets of notebook paper per month from a plant but also buys 500,000 sheets of notebook paper at a discount from a surplus supplier in that same month, then sells all 1.5 million sheets of paper.  The total volume of notebook paper sold is 1.5 million sheets, however the organic volume of notebook paper sold is 1 million sheets of paper, since that was the amount actually produced from the paper company's own factory.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Organizational capital is the value to an enterprise which is derived from organization philosophy and systems which leverage the organization's capability in delivering goods or services.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Organizational memory (OM) (sometimes called institutional or corporate memory) is the accumulated body of data, information, and knowledge created in the course of an organization's existence. The concept of organizational memory includes the ideas of components knowledge acquisition, knowledge processing or maintenance, and knowledge usage like search and retrieval. Falling under the wider disciplinary umbrella of knowledge management, it has two repositories: an organization's archives, including its electronic data bases; and individuals' memories.\nOrganizational memory can only be applied if it can be accessed. To make use of it, organizations must have effective retrieval systems for their archives and members with good memory recall. Its importance to an organization depends upon how well individuals can apply it, a discipline known as experiential learning or evidence-based practice. In the case of individuals, organizational memory's accuracy is invariably compromised by the inherent limitations of human memory. Individuals' reluctance to admit to mistakes and difficulties compounds the problem. The actively encouraged flexible labor market has imposed an Alzheimer's-like corporate amnesia on organizations that creates an inability to benefit from hindsight.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An original equipment manufacturer (OEM) is generally perceived as a company that produces parts and equipment that may be marketed by another manufacturer.\nHowever, the term is also used in several other ways, which causes ambiguity. It sometimes means the maker of a system that includes other companies' subsystems, an end-product producer, an automotive part that is manufactured by the same company that produced the original part used in the automobile's assembly, or a value-added reseller.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In business, overhead or overhead expense refers to an ongoing expense of operating a business. Overheads are the expenditure which cannot be conveniently traced to or identified with any particular revenue unit, unlike operating expenses such as raw material and labor. Therefore, overheads cannot be immediately associated with the products or services being offered, thus do not directly generate profits. However, overheads are still vital to business operations as they provide critical support for the business to carry out profit making activities. For example, overhead costs such as the rent for a factory allows workers to manufacture products which can then be sold for a profit. Such expenses are incurred for output generally and not for particular work order; e.g., wages paid to watch and ward staff, heating and lighting expenses of factory, etc. Overheads are also a very important cost element along with direct materials and direct labor.Overheads are often related to accounting concepts such as fixed costs and indirect costs.\nOverhead expenses are all costs on the income statement except for direct labor, direct materials, and direct expenses. Overhead expenses include accounting fees, advertising, insurance, interest, legal fees, labor burden, rent, repairs, supplies, taxes, telephone bills, travel expenditures, and utilities.There are essentially two types of business overheads: administrative overheads and manufacturing overheads.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Overtrading is a term in financial statement analysis. Overtrading often occurs when companies expand their own operations too quickly (aggressively).  Overtraded companies enter a negative cycle, where an increase in interest expenses negatively impacts the net profit, which leads to lesser working capital, and that leads to increased borrowings, which in turn leads to interest expenses and the cycle continues.  Overtraded companies eventually face liquidity problems and can run out of working capital.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Owner earnings is a valuation method detailed by Warren Buffett in Berkshire Hathaway's annual report in 1986. He stated that the value of a company is simply the total of the net cash flows (owner earnings) expected to occur over the life of the business, minus any reinvestment of earnings.Buffett defined owner earnings as follows:\n\n\"These represent (a) reported earnings plus (b) depreciation, depletion, amortization, and certain other non-cash charges ... less (c) the average annual amount of capitalized expenditures for plant and equipment, etc. that the business requires to fully maintain its long-term competitive position and its unit volume ... Our owner-earnings equation does not yield the deceptively precise figures provided by GAAP, since (c) must be a guess - and one sometimes very difficult to make. Despite this problem, we consider the owner earnings figure, not the GAAP figure, to be the relevant item for valuation purposes ... All of this points up the absurdity of the 'cash flow' numbers that are often set forth in Wall Street reports. These numbers routinely include (a) plus (b) - but do not subtract (c).\"", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An owner controlled insurance program (OCIP) is an insurance policy held by a property owner during the construction or renovation of a property, which is typically designed to cover virtually all liability and loss arising from the construction project (subject to the usual exclusions).Although an OCIP may be set up in a variety of ways, a policy package usually contains, at a minimum, Commercial General Liability (CGL), excess liability insurance, workers' compensation (WC) and employers' liability (for regular civil actions arising from WC injuries).  Depending on the project, there may be endorsements providing additional coverage such as Contractors Pollution Liability (CPL), Builders Risk Insurance, terrorism insurance and umbrella insurance.  OCIPs are also frequently referred to as \"wrap-up insurance\" or \"wrap policies\" in the insurance industry.The traditional method for insuring construction consisted of each general contractor (GC) and subcontractor obtaining their own insurance policies from any provider of their choosing.  In turn, they would build their policy premiums into their cost structure, which then became part of their bids.  This meant that by accepting a GC's successful bid, the property owner was indirectly paying for administrative overhead at dozens of separate insurance brokers and insurance companies.In OCIP, all construction, materials, hazard, workers' compensation, environmental, terrorism, and other building-related insurance is purchased by the property owner as part of a single policy from a single insurer.  Thus, property owners benefit from OCIP in that all insurance costs are collected into a single policy premium, rather than embedded inside the bids of dozens of contractors and subcontractors, and they have direct control over administrative costs by dealing with a single broker and insurer.  A large property owner that always has many construction projects in progress at any particular moment\u2014like a real estate investment trust, an urban school district, or a state university system\u2014may attempt to realize additional savings by obtaining a single OCIP to cover multiple projects.\nA Contractor Controlled Insurance Program (CCIP) is similar to an OCIP except that the general contractor (GC) or construction manager sponsors the insurance program. There have also been hybrid programs combining features of an OCIP and CCIP on a loss-sensitive basis; that is, the property owner and GC share in the expected savings, but they also agree to share any additional costs if losses are higher than expected. A Developer Controlled Insurance Program (DCIP) is also similar to an OCIP but might not include WC; instead, a DCIP provides CGL, umbrella and excess mainly for protection against construction defect claims.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Pac-Man defense is a defensive business strategy used to stave off a hostile takeover, in which a company that is threatened with a hostile takeover \"turns the tables\" by attempting to acquire its would-be buyer. The name refers to Pac-Man, a video game in which the protagonist is at first chased around a maze of dots by 4 ghosts.  However, after eating a \"Power Pellet\" dot, he is able to chase and devour the ghosts.  The term (though not the technique) was coined by buyout guru Bruce Wasserstein.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Pareto priority index (PPI), so named because of its connection with the Pareto principle, which is in turn named after the economist Vilfredo Pareto, can be used to prioritize several (quality improvement) projects.  It is especially used in the surroundings of six sigma projects.  It has first been established by AT&T.The PPI is calculated as follows:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          PPI\n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                savings\n              \n              \u00d7\n              \n                probability of success\n              \n            \n            \n              \n                cost\n              \n              \u00d7\n              \n                time of completion\n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\text{PPI}}={\\frac {{\\text{savings}}\\times {\\text{probability of success}}}{{\\text{cost}}\\times {\\text{time of completion}}}}}\n  A high PPI suggests a high project priority.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A patent holding company (PHC) exists to hold patents on behalf of one or more other companies but does not necessarily manufacture products or supply services based upon the patents held. \nPatent holding companies may exist for tax reasons.  Patent holding companies may also operate patent pools in order to provide a single source for licensing a patented technology. However, patent holding companies that aggressively seek to enforce patent rights through litigation or threats of litigation are referred to as patent assertion entities (PAEs) or, more pejoratively, patent trolls.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A patent map is a graphical model of patent visualisation. This practice \"enables companies to identify the patents in a particular technology space, verify the characteristics of these patents, and ... identify the relationships among them, to see if there are any zones of infringement.\" Patent mapping is also referred to as patent landscaping.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In patent law, a patent pool is a consortium of at least two companies agreeing to cross-license patents relating to a particular technology. The creation of a patent pool can save patentees and licensees time and money, and, in case of blocking patents, it may also be the only reasonable method for making the invention available to the public. Competition law issues are usually important when a large consortium is formed.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Pay-to-fly is an aviation industry practice whereby professional pilots assume duty while paying for it. The practice extends to airline training in the form of type ratings with or without employment guarantee, that some pilots pay to increase their marketability. Even though studied, the subject matter is prevented under no regulation.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A payment is the voluntary tender of money or its equivalent or of things of value by one party (such as a person or company) to another in exchange for goods, or services provided by them, or to fulfill a legal obligation. The party making the payment is commonly called the payer, while the payee is the party receiving the payment.\nPayments can be effected in a number of ways, for example:\n\nthe use of money, cheque, or debit, credit or bank transfers.\nthe transfer of anything of value, such as stock, or using barter, the exchange of one good or service for another.In general, the payee is at liberty to determine what method of payment he or she will accept; though normally laws require the payer to accept the country's legal tender up to a prescribed limit. Payment is most commonly effected in the local currency of the payee unless the parties agree otherwise. Payment in another currency involves an additional foreign exchange transaction. The payee may compromise on a debt, i.e., accept part payment in full settlement of a debtor's obligation, or may offer a discount, E.G: For payment in cash, or for prompt payment, etc. On the other hand, the payee may impose a surcharge, for example, as a late payment fee, or for use of a certain credit card, etc.\nPayments are frequently preceded by an invoice or bill, which follow the supply of goods or services, but in some industries (such as travel and hotels) it is not uncommon for pre-payments to be required before the service is performed or provided. In some industries, a deposit may be required before services are performed, which acts as a part pre-payment or as security to the service provider. In some cases, progress payments are made in advance, and in some cases part payments are accepted, which do not extinguish the payer\u2019s legal obligations. The acceptance of a payment by the payee extinguishes a debt or other obligation. A creditor cannot unreasonably refuse to accept a payment, but payment can be refused in some circumstances, for example, on a Sunday or outside banking hours. A payee is usually obligated to acknowledge payment by producing a receipt to the payer. A receipt may be an endorsement on an account as \"paid in full\". The giving of a guarantee or other security for a debt does not constitute a payment.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "PDX is the Product Data eXchange standard for suppliers. PDX is a multi-part standard, represented by the IPC 2570 series of specifications.\nPDX files are text files in eXtensible Markup Language (XML) format. PDX files can be used to describe:\n\n[Bill of Materials] (BOM)\nApproved Manufacturer Lists (AML)\nDrawings\nEngineering Change Requests (ECR)\nEngineering Change Orders (ECO)\nDeviations (concessions)The specification of PDX is defined in three specification documents:", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A pension parachute is a form of poison pill that prevents the raiding firm of a hostile takeover from utilizing the pension assets to finance the acquisition.  When the target firm is threatened by an acquirer, the pension plan assets are only available to benefit the pension plan participants.\nIn corporate governance, the pension parachute protects the surplus cash in the pension fund of the target from unfriendly acquirers; the funds remain the property of the plan\u2019s participants in the target company.\nThe law firm of Kelley Drye & Warren claims to be the pioneers of the \"pension parachute\". Their first pension parachute was implemented for Union Carbide, and its design was upheld in Union Carbide\u2019s litigation with GAF.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Performance consulting is a practice that became popular in the  early 2000s. Performance consulting is a practice that evolved from the instructional design discipline. It is performed by performance consultants who use more of a systems-thinking approach to resolving workplace performance problems. Performance consulting acknowledges that there are other environmental factors that affect one's performance. While instructional design and the development of training or learning solutions helps to build knowledge and skills, performance consulting takes a more systems-thinking approach to investigate and identify other environmental factors that may degrade one's performance.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In company law, perpetual succession is the continuation of a corporation's or other organization's existence despite the death, bankruptcy, insanity, change in membership or an exit from the business of any owner or member, or any transfer of stock, etc.\nPerpetual succession, along with the common seal, is one of the factors explaining a corporation's legal existence as separate from those of its owners. This principle states that:\n\nany change in membership of a company does not  affect the status of the company,\ndeath, insolvency, insanity etc. of any member of a company does not affect the continuity of the company. Thus the life of the company does not depend upon the life of its members.\nit shall continue forever irrespective of continuity of its members or directors, except in case of liquidation (or \"winding up\") of a company.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Personal selling occurs when a sales representative meets with a potential client for the purpose of transacting a sale. Many sales representatives rely on a sequential sales process that typically includes nine steps. Some sales representatives develop scripts for all or part of the sales process. The sales process can be used in face-to-face encounters and in telemarketing.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Manufacturing companies often refer to their manufacturing plant transfer, consolidation and closure activities as physical restructuring. This can be done by moving production or services overseas, a process known as offshoring. Such projects began in the United States during the 1960s and by 2009 had showed little sign of having ended. Such corporate behavior has taken its toll on the manufacturing base and continues to do so.Chrysler planned a phase of physical restructuring  with the sale of its \"good assets\" to Fiat in 2009. Pfizer has executed numerous physical restructuring programs in the years prior to 2009, as a direct result of changes in the drug pipeline and an outdated and inefficient manufacturing and distribution network. General Motors announced a large wave of physical restructuring associated with their June 2009 bankruptcy filing.While the sell-off of assets is necessary in cases of bankruptcy, the costs associated with physical restructuring need to be managed by experts. Firms able to advise and oversee a program of physical restructuring include; PA Consulting Group, Boston Consulting Group, Bestshore Partners, AlixPartners and BOOZ and Company.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Order processing is the process or work-flow associated with the picking, packing and delivery of the packed items to a shipping carrier and is a key element of order fulfillment.  Order processing operations or facilities are commonly called \"distribution centers\" or \"DC's\".  There are wide variances in the level of automation associating to the \"pick-pack-and-ship\" process, ranging from completely manual and paper-driven to highly automated and completely mechanized; computer systems overseeing this process are generally referred to as Warehouse Management Systems or \"WMS\".", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "PIGS is a derogatory acronym that has been used to designate the economies of the Southern European countries of Portugal, Italy, Greece, and Spain. During the European debt crisis of 2009-2014 the variant PIIGS, or GIPSI, was coined to include Ireland. At the time these five EU member states were struggling to refinance their government debt or to bail out over-indebted banks.The term originated in the 1990s with the increased integration of the EU economies, and it was often used in reference to the growing debt and economic vulnerability of the Southern European EU countries. It was again popularised during the European sovereign-debt crisis of the late 2000s and expanded in use during this period. In the 1990s to late 2000s, Ireland was not included in this term; the country was still in the midst of its \"Celtic Tiger\" period, with debt significantly below the Eurozone average and a government surplus as late as 2006. However, taking on the guarantee of banks' debt, the Irish government budget deficit rose to 32% of GDP in 2010, which was the world's largest. Ireland then became associated with the term, replacing Italy or changing the acronym to PIIGS, with Italy also indicated as the second \"I\".After the crisis started in 2008, Karim Abadir used the term GIPSI to reflect the sequencing he believed would take place. Sometimes a second G (PIGGS or PIIGGS), for Great Britain, was also added.These terms are widely considered derogatory and their use was curbed by the Financial Times and Barclays Capital in 2010. PIGS is considered a racist framing that was utilized to blame South European populations for the general economic crisis, thereby legitimizing austerity measures and sovereignty losses. GIPSI is deemed even more poignantly racist for its pun on the pejorative English term for the Romani people.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Pink money describes the purchasing power of the LGBT community, often especially with respect to political donations.  With the rise of the gay rights movement, pink money has gone from being a fringe or marginalized market to a thriving industry in many parts of the Western world such as the United States and United Kingdom.  Many businesses now specifically cater to gay customers, including nightclubs, shops, restaurants, and even taxicabs; the demand for these services stems from common discrimination by traditional businesses.\nIn 2019, LGBT adults globally held a combined buying power of approximately $3.7 trillion.The economic power of pink money has been seen as a positive force for the gay community, creating a kind of \"financial self-identification\" which helps gay and lesbian individuals feel like part of a community which values them.  Indeed, upwards of 90% of gay people support businesses which target pink money, while actively boycotting anti-gay companies. However, criticism has been leveled at businesses which target pink money from gay groups, arguing that this segregates the gay and lesbian community from society, and holds back gay rights.It's been considered more often than not a market exclusive for the US, UK and some places in Europe, but its extension covers a large amount of Latin America and part of Asia, making its actual earns larger by year and giving marketing options some impulse and variety.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "One of the foundational definitions in the field of organizational development (aka OD) is planned change:\nAccording to Beckard defines that \n\u201cOrganization Development is an effort planned, organization-wide, and managed from the top, to increase organization effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organization's 'processes,' using behavioral-science knowledge.\u201d\n-- Beckard, \u201cOrganization development: Strategies and Models\u201d, Reading, MA: soweto mbeya, 2013, p. 9.\nTo understand the practice of OD, some of the key terms, embedded in James's formulation, include:\n\nPlanned - carefully thought through; based on data; documented\nEffectiveness - as measured by actual organizational performance versus desired organizational performance\nHealth - as measured by the organization's ability to respond, grow and adapt in its environmental context\nIntervention - the specific action(s) selected for implementation that are intended to bring about the envisioned change\nProcesses - how work gets done in an organization; e.g. delivery of service, billing, repair, etc.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The planning horizon is the amount of time an organization will look into the future when preparing a strategic plan. Many commercial companies use a five-year planning horizon, however a general Planning horizon is around one year. Other organizations such as the Forestry Commission in the UK have to use a much longer planning horizon to form effective plans.\nIn manufacturing, a planning horizon is a future time period during which departments that support production will plan production work and determine material requirements.\nIn economics, a planning horizon is the length of time an individual plans ahead. It's important in the quest for total value, as opposed to short term pleasure consumption.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Point-of-value is a department or a specialized area of a company that involves producing, saving or reinvesting money. It can be a replenishing quality, or a lack-of therein, in a product, service, or entity. Anything that is monetarily productive is said to have a high point-of-value and anything that is somewhat monetarily productive is said to have a low point-of-value. Anything that is not monetarily productive is said to have no point-of-value. Never can anything be monetarily destructive, because money is not destroyed.\nThis has no direct relationship with the point-of-sale, nor with the place of purchase.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Political risk is a type of risk faced by investors, corporations, and governments that political decisions, events, or conditions will significantly affect the profitability of a business actor or the expected value of a given economic action. Political risk can be understood and managed with reasoned foresight and investment.\nThe term political risk has had many different meanings over time. Broadly speaking, however, political risk refers to the complications businesses and governments may face as a result of what are commonly referred to as political decisions\u2014or \"any political change that alters the expected outcome and value of a given economic action by changing the probability of achieving business objectives\". Political risk faced by firms can be defined as \"the risk of a strategic, financial, or personnel loss for a firm because of such nonmarket factors as macroeconomic and social policies (fiscal, monetary, trade, investment, industrial, income, labour, and developmental), or events related to political instability (terrorism, riots, coups, civil war, and insurrection).\" Portfolio investors may face similar financial losses.  Moreover, governments may face complications in their ability to execute diplomatic, military or other initiatives as a result of political risk. The field has historically focused on analyzing political risks predominantly in emerging economies, but such risks also exist in developed economies and liberal democracies as well, albeit in different manifestations. The term is used in the sense of downside risks but political actions or developments can also create upside risks or opportunities for companies and governments. A low level of political risk in a given country does not necessarily correspond to a high degree of political freedom. Indeed, some of the more stable states are also the most authoritarian. Long-term assessments of political risk must account for the danger that a politically oppressive environment is only stable as long as top-down control is maintained and citizens prevented from a free exchange of ideas and goods with the outside world.Understanding risk partly as probability and partly as impact provides insight into political risk.  For a business, the implication for political risk is that there is a measure of likelihood that political events may complicate its pursuit of earnings through direct impacts (such as taxes or fees) or indirect impacts (such as opportunity cost forgone). As a result, political risk is similar to an expected value such that the likelihood of a political event occurring may reduce the desirability of that investment by reducing its anticipated returns.\nThere are both macro- and micro-level political risks.  Macro-level political risks have similar impacts across all foreign actors in a given location.  While these are included in country risk analysis, it would be incorrect to equate macro-level political risk analysis with country risk as country risk only looks at national-level risks and also includes financial and economic risks. Micro-level risks focus on sector, firm, or project specific risk.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Postponement is a business strategy which maximizes possible benefit and minimizes risk by delaying further investment into a product or service until the last possible moment. An example of this strategy is Dell Computers' build-to-order online store. One of the earliest references to the concept was in a paper by Zinn and Bowersox in the Journal of Business Logistics. They highlighted five types: Labelling, Packaging, Assembly, Manufacturing and Time postponements.past ponement of consumption number of uses share in total expenditure timeperiod\nA successful example of postponement \u2013 delayed differentiation \u2013 is the use of \u201cvanilla boxes\u201d. Semi-finished computers are stored in advance of seeing the actual demand for the finished products. Upon seeing the demand, thus with no residual uncertainty \u2013 these \u201cvanilla boxes\u201d are finished by adding (or removing) components. The three key interrelated decisions are: (a) how many different types of vanilla boxes to stock, (b) in what quantities, and (c) how to finish to meet the order most effectively.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A pre-determined overhead rate is the rate used to apply manufacturing overhead to work-in-process inventory. The pre-determined overhead rate is calculated before the period begins. The first step is to estimate the amount of the activity base that will be required to support operations in the upcoming period. The second step is to estimate the total manufacturing cost at that level of activity. The third step is to compute the predetermined overhead rate by dividing the estimated total manufacturing overhead costs by the estimated total amount of cost driver or activity base. Common activity bases used in the calculation include direct labor costs, direct labor hours, or machine hours.\nThis is related to an activity rate which is a similar calculation used in Activity-based costing.  A pre-determined overhead rate is normally the term when using a single, plant-wide base to calculate and apply overhead.  Overhead is then applied by multiplying the pre-determined overhead rate by the actual driver units. Any difference between applied overhead and the amount of overhead actually incurred is called over- or under-applied overhead.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In general, to pre-qualify is about passing or meeting an initial criteria or requirements before getting other opportunities opened up to such a person.\nPre-qualification is a process whereby a loan officer takes information from a borrower and makes a tentative assessment of how much the lending institution is willing to lend them.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Pre-Start-Up Audit (PSUA) or Pre-startup review is a part of the planning process for projects during which the safety and functionality of the process itself is checked to ensure that all systems should function as intended and potential hazards can be dealt with. This process is commonly used in projects related to construction, reconditioning or repair of equipment and facilities designed to process hazardous substances.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A preferred partner agreement normally refers to an agreement between a vendor (service provider) and those who are allowed to on-sell its products. In line with this agreement there are normally some prerequisites that the partner must meet to become a preferred partner. These prerequisites may include things like:\n\nTraining and certification\nMinimum sales volume and/or valueBeing a preferred partner provides pre-determined discounts, advantages and privileges from the vendor to the partner.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Preparation  is a management principle whereby people get ready for a final product or for a successful experience. Preparation means \"a substance especially prepared\". Preparation is a proceeding or readiness for a future event as a goal and an acceptable accomplished final outcome. It is to make something (e.g., child, food, procedures, machines) acceptable before you give it to others.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Presidential Award for Management Excellence\u2014the President\u2019s Quality Award (PQA)\u2014is the highest award given to Executive Branch agencies for management excellence.  The award was established in 1988 to recognize excellence in quality and productivity, applying to the public sector similar criteria used for the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award.\nIn 2002, the PQA was redesigned to recognize Federal agencies that best achieve the objectives of the President\u2019s Management Agenda (PMA). In 2009, the PQA program ceased operation.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In marketing, Price Analysis refers to the analysis of consumer response to theoretical prices in survey research.\nIn general business, price analysis is the process of examining and evaluating a proposed price without evaluating its separate cost elements and proposed profit. Price Analysis dates back to 1939 when an Economist by the name of Andrew Court decided to put his efforts towards Price Analysis to better understand the environmental factors that influence this practice. Price Analysis is relevant to every market in the world. The analysis is dependent on the characteristics of the marketing system in place within a certain country.  In developing countries around the world researchers use this analysis to help better understand data. It is most prevalent within agriculture when looked at through the lens of a researcher trying to understand more about the market examined.  \nPrice analysis may also refer to the breakdown of a price to a unit figure, usually per square metre or square foot of accommodation or per hectare or square metre of land. The price with suitable adjustment for various differences, is then applied to the valuation problem.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A price umbrella, also known as the umbrella effect, is a pricing effect often created by a dominant company, in which competing firms can find buyers as long as they set their price at or below the level of the dominant one.  This may not apply if the competing firm's products are inferior.\nCartels can generate a price umbrella effect, enabling less efficient rivals to charge higher prices than they might otherwise be able to.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A price-weighted index is a stock market index where each constituent makes up a fraction of the index that is proportional to its  component, the value would be:\nAdjustment Factor = Index specific constant \"Z\" / (Number of shares of the stock * Adjusted stock market value before rebalancing)A stock trading at $100 will thus be making up 10 times more of the total index compared to a stock trading at $10. \nThe Dow Jones Industrial Average and Nikkei 225 are examples of price-weighted stock market index.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Process Risk is considered to be a sub-component of operational risk. It exists when the process that supports a business activity lacks both efficiency and effectiveness, which may then lead to financial, customer, and reputational loss. This form of risk may be present within any stage of a business transactions. For instance, an error in pricing may be seen as loss in sales revenue, while a disruption in the fulfillment process may cause financial losses in terms of production quality and customer relationships. The majority of operational risk events occur due to losses from ineffective processing of business transactions or process management, and from inadequate relations with trade counter parties and vendors.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Procurement is the method of discovering and agreeing to terms and purchasing goods, services, or other works from an external source, often with the use of a tendering or competitive bidding process. When a government agency buys goods or services through this practice, it is referred to as public procurement.Procurement as an organizational process is intended to ensure that the buyer receives goods, services, or works at the best possible price when aspects such as quality, quantity, time, and location are compared. Corporations and public bodies often define processes intended to promote fair and open competition for their business while minimizing risks such as exposure to fraud and collusion.\nAlmost all purchasing decisions include factors such as delivery and handling, marginal benefit, and fluctuations in the prices of goods. Organisations which have adopted a corporate social responsibility perspective are also likely to require their purchasing activity to take wider societal and ethical considerations into account. On the other hand, the introduction of external regulations concerning accounting practices can affect ongoing buyer-supplier relations in unforeseen manners.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In marketing, a product is an object, or system, or service made available for consumer use as of the consumer demand; it is anything that can be offered to a market to satisfy the desire or need of a customer. In retailing, products are often referred to as merchandise, and in manufacturing, products are bought as raw materials and then sold as finished goods. A service is also regarded as a type of product.\nCommodities are usually raw materials such as metals and agricultural products, but a commodity can also be anything widely available in the open market. In project management, products are the formal definition of the project deliverables that make up or contribute to delivering the objectives of the project. \nA related concept is that of a sub-product, a secondary but useful result of a production process.\nDangerous products, particularly physical ones, that cause injuries to consumers or bystanders may be subject to product liability.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Product churning is the business practice whereby more of the product is sold than is beneficial to the consumer. An example is a stockbroker who buys and sells securities in a portfolio more frequently than is necessary, in order to generate commission fees.\nDollar cost averaging is a form of product churn under certain conditions. In this strategy, an investor is advised to repeatedly buy or sell small lots of a security as the price changes. Each transaction carries a commission fee. In this way the overall cost is averaged down as prices fall, and the investor is protected from market fluctuations which can be very difficult to accurately predict. The effectiveness of this as an investing strategy is open to debate, but it involves many transactions, creating brokerage commissions for the brokerage firm. Frequent trading in fee-based accounts is not an example of churning, since no commissions are generated in those transactions. However, the practice of putting clients who trade infrequently into a fee-based brokerage account is known as \"reverse churning\", since clients are charged fees in accounts with few if any transactions.Another form of product churning is sometimes practiced by maintenance service providers. By replacing worn-out parts with inferior quality parts, they are assured of a greater frequency of service requests. \nCompanies sometimes intentionally deliver products which are not durable or reliable, so that the customer will have to replace them, in what is known as planned obsolescence. Similarly, new models might be made incompatible with accessories used with old models to force consumers to purchase replacements. \nAnother example is refreshments and snacks sold in theaters, fairs, and other venues. Small servings are proportionally more expensive than large servings. Customers choose the bigger size even if it is more than they would like to eat or drink because it seems like a better deal.\nTextbook publishers are often accused of product churning for their practice of frequently publishing new editions of their texts (thus rendering previous editions obsolete, forcing students to purchase the new editions as required texts and minimizing or eliminating the prices paid for the old editions by bookstore buyback programs), often while making insignificant changes to the information presented in the text.   \nProduct churning is similar to the razor and blades business model. This involves selling a basic product at a loss (or low profit margin), but receiving very high profit margins on associated products that are necessary for the basic product's continued usage. Examples of this strategy include razors (and their blades), computer printers (and their ink cartridge refills), cell phones (and their usage time), and cameras (and film).\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Product life-cycle management (PLM) is the succession of strategies by business management as a product goes through its life-cycle. The conditions in which a product is sold (advertising, saturation) changes over time and must be managed as it moves through its succession of stages.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Product strategy defines the high-level plan for developing and marketing a product, how the product supports the business strategy and goals, and is brought to life through product roadmaps. A product strategy describes a vision of the future with this product, the ideal customer profile and market to serve, go-to-market and positioning (marketing), thematic areas of investment, and measures of success. A product strategy sets the direction for new product development. Companies utilize the product strategy in strategic planning and marketing to set the direction of the company's activities. The product strategy is composed of a variety of sequential processes in order for the vision to be effectively achieved. The strategy must be clear in terms of the target customer and market of the product in order to plan the roadmap needed to achieve strategic goals and give customers better value.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Technical support (abbreviated as tech support) is a service provided by companies to advise and assist registered users with issues concerning their technical products. Traditionally done on the phone, technical support can now be conducted online or through chat. At present, most large and mid-size companies have outsourced their tech support operations. Many companies provide discussion boards for users of their products to interact; such forums allow companies to reduce their support costs without losing the benefit of customer feedback.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A professional network service (or, in an Internet context, simply professional network) is a type of social network service that is focused solely on interactions and relationships of a business nature rather than including personal, nonbusiness interactions.A professional network service is used by business individuals to establish and maintain professional contacts and a way to either find work or get ahead in career as well as gain resources and opportunities for networking. According to LinkedIn managing director Clifford Rosenberg in an interview by AAP in 2010, \"[t]his is really a call to action for professionals to re-address their use of social networks and begin to reap as many rewards from networking professionally as they do personally.\" Businesses mostly depend on resources and information outside company and in order to get what they need, they need to reach out and professionally network to others, such as employees or clients as well as potential opportunities.\"Nardi, Whittaker and Schwarz (2002) point at three main tasks that they believe networkers need to attend in order to keep a successful professional (intentional) network:\nbuilding a network, maintaining the network and activating selected contacts. They stress that networkers need to continue to add new contacts to their network in order to access as many resources as possible, and to maintain their network through staying in touch with their contacts. This is so that the contacts are easy to activate when the networker has work that needs to be done.\"By using a professional network service, businesses are able to keep all of their networks up-to-date, in order, and help figure out the best way to efficiently get in touch with each of them. A service that can do all that helps relieve some of the stress when trying to get things done.\nNot all professional network services are online sites that help promote a business. There are services that connect the user to other services that help promote the business other than online sites, such as phone/Internet companies that provide services and companies that specifically are designed to do all of the promoting, online and in person, for a business.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Profit pools is a strategy model that can be used to help managers or companies focus on profits, rather than on revenue growth. The method was conceived by Orit Gadiesh and James L. Gilbert, both consultants at Bain & Co. presented the following definitions: \"the total profits earned at all points along the value chain of an industry. Companies that see what others do not see, will be best prepared for capturing a larger share of the profits in an industry.\"The idea states that managers need to look beyond revenues to see the shape of their industry's profit pool. Strategies can then be created which result in profitable growth. While the concept is simple, the structure of Profit Pools can usually be quite complex. Some segments of the value chain will have deeper pools than the others. The depths may also vary within an individual segment. For example, the profitability of a segment may vary widely by customer group, product category, geographic market, and distribution channel. The pattern of profit concentration in an industry will often differ from the pattern of revenue concentration.\nThe model is often applied to identify new sources of profit, to rethink the role of a company in the value chain, refocusing a company on its traditional sources of profit, and also applied when making product, pricing and operational decisions.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Profiteering is a pejorative term for the act of making a profit by methods considered unethical.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Programmatic Commerce is the phenomenon where consumers and businesses allow purchase decisions to be made on their behalf by connected devices based on pre-programmed parameters and learned preferences.\nIt was brought to The Netherlands by Rein Bird.\n This has been driven by the\nrise of the Internet of Things and smart devices.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A programming station is a terminal or computer that allows a machine operator to control a machine remotely, rather than being on the factory or shop floor. The programming station usually provides all the functionality including management and diagnostics that are found on the main control station.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A Projector in the business context is an individual who promotes a project or scheme to combine public benefit and private profit.:\u200a653\u200a The term came into use in sixteenth century England and remained in popular language until the nineteenth century when it fell from use.:\u200a48\u200a The term has often been used pejoratively.:\u200a48\u200a", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A promoter works with event production and entertainment industries to promote their productions, including in music and sports. Promoters are individuals or organizations engaged in the business of marketing and promoting live, or pay-per-view and similar, events, such as music concerts, gigs, nightclub performances and raves; sports events; and festivals.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Prompt payment is a commercial discipline which requires businesses to:\n\nagree fair and reasonable payment terms with their suppliers\nensure suppliers' invoices are approved and paid within agreed terms\nencourage adoption of the same practices throughout their supply chain.It is the opposite of late payment, to which the European Union's Late Payments Directive and the Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act 1998 in the United Kingdom are directed. Prompt payment may also be contrasted with excessively long or grossly unfair payment terms, such as payment terms in excess of 60 days, even where such terms are honoured by the business making payment.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A proxy fight, proxy contest or proxy battle (sometimes even called a proxy war) is an unfriendly contest for the control over an organization. The event usually occurs when a corporation's stockholders develop opposition to some aspect of the corporate governance, often focusing on directorial and management positions. Corporate activists may attempt to persuade shareholders to use their proxy votes (i.e., votes by one individual or institution as the authorized representative of another) to install new management for any of a variety of reasons. Shareholders of a public corporation may appoint an agent to attend shareholder meetings and vote on their behalf. That agent is the shareholder's proxy.In a proxy fight, incumbent directors and management have the odds stacked in their favor over those trying to force the corporate change. These incumbents use various corporate governance tactics to stay in power, including: staggering the boards (i.e., having different election years for different directors), controlling access to the corporation's money, and creating restrictive requirements in the bylaws. As a result, most proxy fights are unsuccessful; except those waged more recently by hedge funds, which are successful more than 60% of the time. However, previous studies have found that proxy fights are positively correlated with an increase in shareholder wealth.:\u200a8\u200a", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Psychological pricing (also price ending, charm pricing) is a pricing and marketing strategy based on the theory that certain prices have a psychological impact. In this pricing method, retail prices are often expressed as just-below numbers: numbers that are just a little less than a round number, e.g. $19.99 or \u00a32.98. There is evidence that consumers tend to perceive just-below prices (also referred to as \"odd prices\") as being lower than they actually are, tending to round to the next lowest monetary unit. Thus, prices such as $1.99 may to some degree be associated with spending $1 rather than $2. The theory that drives this is that pricing practices such as this cause greater demand than if consumers were perfectly rational. Psychological pricing is one cause of price points.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Public accommodations, in the law of the United States, are generally defined as facilities, whether publicly or privately owned, that are used by the public at large. Examples include retail stores, rental establishments, and service establishments as well as educational institutions, recreational facilities, and service centers.Under U.S. federal law, public accommodations must be accessible to the disabled and may not discriminate on the basis of \"race, color, religion, or national origin.\" Private clubs were specifically exempted under federal law as well as religious organizations. The definition of public accommodation within the Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is limited to \"any inn, hotel, motel, or other establishment which provides lodging to transient guests\" and so is inapplicable to  churches, mosques, synagogues, et al. Section 12187 of the ADA also exempts religious organizations from public accommodation laws, but religious organizations are encouraged to comply.   \nMost U.S. states have various laws (nonuniform) that provide for nondiscrimination in public accommodations, and some may be broader than federal law.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A purchasing card (also abbreviated as PCard, P-Card, or ProCard) is a form of company charge card that allows goods and services to be procured without using a traditional purchasing process. In the UK, purchasing cards are usually referred to as procurement cards.  \nPurchasing Cards are usually issued to employees who are expected to follow their organization\u2019s policies and procedures related to P-Card use, including reviewing and approving transactions according to a set schedule (at least once per month). The organization can implement a variety of controls for each P-Card; for example, a single-purchase dollar limit, a monthly limit, merchant category code (MCC) restrictions and so on. In addition, a cardholder\u2019s P-Card activity should be reviewed periodically by someone independent of the cardholder.\nRegular reviews should be part of an organization's ongoing Purchasing Card program management efforts. A variety of factors can contribute to its success or, conversely, its stagnation. There are common P-card program pitfalls to avoid, with the goal of developing success strategies that can put (or keep) a program on the right path.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Quality Filter Mapping is part of the Value Stream Mapping toolkit and is used to analyse processes/functions with respect to quality.  \nThe results of a Quality Filter Map shows how much waste is being generated within an organisation at each stage of the process.\nThree types of quality are measured as part of the model:\n\nProduct Quality \u2013 Defective Item provided to customer\nDefect Quality \u2013 Defective item found prior to receipt by customer\nService Quality \u2013 Defects that affect the ability of the supplier to provide the service or product to the customerQuality failures/defects are represented as a ratio (typically parts per million).\nResults of Quality Filter Mapping are commonly used to feed into continuous improvement plans.  A revised map is then generated after implementation of improvement plans to measure the result of improvements.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Quality function deployment (QFD) a method developed in Japan beginning in 1966 to help transform the voice of the customer into engineering characteristics for a product. Yoji Akao, the original developer, described QFD as a \"method to transform qualitative user demands into quantitative parameters, to deploy the functions forming quality, and to deploy methods for achieving the design quality into subsystems and component parts, and ultimately to specific elements of the manufacturing process.\" The author combined his work in quality assurance and quality control points with function deployment used in value engineering.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Quality investing is an investment strategy based on a set of clearly defined fundamental criteria that seeks to identify companies with outstanding quality characteristics. The quality assessment is made based on soft (e.g. management credibility) and hard criteria (e.g. balance sheet stability). Quality investing supports best overall rather than best-in-class approach.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Quarter-to-date (QTD) is a period starting at the beginning of the current quarter and ending at the current date. Quarter-to-date is used in many contexts, mainly for recording results of an activity in the time between a date (exclusive, since this day may not yet be \"complete\") and the beginning of either the calendar or fiscal quarter.\nIn the context of finance, QTD is often provided in financial statements detailing the performance of a business entity. Providing current QTD results, as well as QTD results for one or more past quarters as of the same date, allows owners, managers, investors, and other stakeholders to compare the company's current performance to that of past periods.\nQTD describes the return so far this quarter. For example, the quarter to date (quarter) return for the stock is 8%. This means from the beginning of the current quarter until the current date, stock has appreciated by 8%.\nComparing QTD measures can be misleading if not much of the quarter has occurred, or the date is not clear. QTD measures are more sensitive to early changes than late changes. \n\nExample: QTD outgoing shipments for March 3\n \n  January shipments-----   800,000 lbs\n  February shipments---   750,000 lbs\n  March shipments-------    50,000 lbs\n                         _________\n                               \n  QTD shipments          1,600,000 lbs", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Quick response manufacturing (QRM) is an approach to manufacturing which emphasizes the beneficial effect of reducing internal and external lead times.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A radius clause is a form of non-compete clause used in the live music industry, in which a tour promoter stipulates that a performer, for a certain length of time prior to or following an appearance at a concert or festival, must not hold concerts at other locations within a certain radius of the city where they are to perform. In essence, it gives the promoter a form of territorial exclusivity, ensuring that the performer does not book concerts with competing promoters and venues in nearby areas, which can undermine ticket sales for their main event.\nCritics in favor of radius clauses have agreed with their intent to protect the investments of organizers into the production and promotion of music events, and that they are a worthwhile trade-off for acts wanting to obtain the expanded exposure that a festival performance can provide. Others have criticized the concept, arguing that they effectively discourage major acts from performing in smaller cities, and are influenced by a profit-oriented mentality in the live events industry. In 2010, the state of Illinois also launched an antitrust investigation into the use of radius clauses by Lollapalooza.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In business, a rainmaker is a person who brings in new business and wins new accounts almost by magic, since it is often not readily apparent how this new business activity is caused. It means generating substantial new business or additional cash flow from sources sometimes outside established business channels, sometimes by connecting with people in non-traditional or hidden markets, and sometimes by prompting current clients to spend more money. A rainmaker is usually a key figure in the business or organization, not merely a salesperson, but a principal or executive who is usually highly regarded within the enterprise.The origin of the business sense of rainmaker may be an allusion to the Native American practice of dancing to encourage deities to bring forth the rain necessary for crops. In summertime during a drought, for instance, the rainmaker would dance and sing songs on the plains, and the activity was believed by others in the tribe to magically cause clouds to come and bring the life-giving rain.  By analogy, a business rainmaker would magically bring new business and clients to a firm or generate more revenue from existing customers and donors, and rain is a metaphor for money.The term rainmaking is also applied to political fund-raising.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Ramp-up is a term used in economics and business to describe an increase in a firm's production ahead of anticipated increases in product demand. Alternatively, ramp-up describes the period from completed initial product development to maximum capacity utilization, characterized by product and process experimentation and improvements.Ramp-up in the first sense often occurs when a company strikes a deal with a distributor, retailer, or producer, which will substantially increase product demand. For example, in June, 2008, after launching a joint venture with Guangzhou Automobile, Toyota announced that it would \"ramp up\" production in China to meet expected increases in market demand by constructing a plant in Guangdong, which would produce some 120,000 additional Camry sedans. In the consumer electronics industry, manufacturers often ramp-up production in the early fall to meet demand during the holiday selling season.As ramp-up is typical in early stages of firm or market development, the term and process is widely associated with venture capital, which seek to rapidly increase rate of return on investment, just prior to exit.  For example, Wrightspeed, the producer of the X1 electric car prototype, began to seek out capital in order to hire on 50 well-trained employees in order to \"ramp up\" production in anticipation of sales successes.Ramp up may also refer to how quickly dispatchable generation from power plants can increase, and ramp down by how quickly it can decrease whilst still remaining operational (not shutting down), with \"ramp\" being either way.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The RAQSCI model is a mnemonic summary of a business model used to define and structure business requirements. With elements ranked in order of importance, RAQSCI stands for:\n\nRegulatory\nAssurance of supply\nQuality\nService\nCost (or commercial)\nInnovation.The World Bank recommends the model as \"an effective way to ensure that [borrowers'] Procurement Objectives are comprehensive\". This model is used educationally to ensure that procurement professionals adopt a broad perspective on business needs and do not focus exclusively on costs.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A Rate Contract or a Rate Agreement (RC in short) is a procurement cost reduction strategy aimed at standardizing procurement prices for commonly procured, homogenous and price varying inputs.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Reconstruction, in law, is the transfer of a company's (or several companies') business to a new company. The old company will get put into liquidation, and shareholders will agree to take shares of equivalent value in the new company.\nIn UK company law, the governing provisions are in the Insolvency Act 1986, ss. 110\u2013111. The sanction of a court is not required (unlike under a so-called \"scheme of arrangement\", which could or creditors). Yet if a shareholder objects, he or she may require a cash payment instead of shares. Creditors who object to have their debts transferred to a new company can demand satisfactions during the old company's liquidation.\nSmall private companies, family companies and investment trusts often use the procedure. The purposes can vary, from changing the objects of the business, varying share class rights, or reorganize before a demerger takes place.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Red hat merchant (Chinese: \u7ea2\u9876\u5546\u4eba), alternatively translated as red-hat businessman, entrepreneur with red hat, refers to a government official who also appears as a businessman, combining the roles of civil servant and businessman, that is, \"government businessman\". The term originated from the Qing dynasty and was initially used to describe state officials who were also engaged in commercial activities. At that time, wealthy officials often wore caps with rubies. The typical representative of the \"red hat merchant\" is Hu Xueyan, a prominent businessman in the late Qing dynasty.Nowadays, the term \"red hat merchant\" is widely used to refer to a businessperson who has good relationships with important high-level government officials.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In business, a related party transaction is a transaction which takes place between two parties who hold a pre-existing connection prior to the transaction. An example is how a dominant shareholder may benefit from making one of their companies trade with another at advantageous prices. Related party transactions can be a reason for a Type II agency relationship (conflicts among controlling and non-controlling shareholders), as they are not necessarily in the best interest of minority shareholders.In commercial law, special regulations may apply restricting related party transactions, such as Part 2E of Australia's Corporations Act 2001, which requires companies to seek approval from their members for such a transaction to take place.International Financial Reporting Standard IAS 24 requires companies to disclose related party transactions in their financial statements.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In management, the relational view by Jeffrey H. Dyer and Harbir Singh is a theory for considering networks and dyads of firms as the unit of analysis to explain relational rents, i.e., superior individual firm performance generated within that network/dyad. This view has later been extended by Lavie (2006).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Rent-to-own, also known as rental purchase or rent-to-buy, is a type of legally documented transaction under which tangible property, such as furniture, consumer electronics, motor vehicles, home appliances, real property, and engagement rings, is leased in exchange for a weekly or monthly payment, with the option to purchase at some point during the agreement.\nA rent-to-own transaction differs from a traditional lease, in that the lessee can purchase the leased item at any time during the agreement (in a traditional lease the lessee has no such right), and from a hire purchase/installment plan, in that the lessee can terminate the agreement by simply returning the property (in a hire purchase the buyer has a limited time, if any, to cancel the agreement).The usage of rent-to-own transactions began in the United Kingdom and Europe, and first appeared in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. While rent-to-own terminology is most commonly associated with consumer goods transactions, the term is sometimes used in connection with real estate transactions.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A request for association (RFA) or request for collaboration, also called, though less frequently (see below) request for partnership, request for partner or request for alliance, is a commercial document issued by a party which invites association with another party. Kate Vitasek et al. refer to a \"request for partner\" or \"request for collaboration\" as part of a continuum of RfX approaches in a paper called \"Unpacking Collaborative Bidding\" published in 2016. \"RfX\" is a collective term for business invitation processes such as a request for information (RFI), request for proposal (RFP), or request for quotation (RFQ).\nThe request for association may be specific, with the addressee stated within, or unspecific, open to anyone interested in association.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A request for solution (RFS,  also known as request for proposed solution) is a commercial document that describes a technological or organizational situation and demands a solution (for example, a new arrangement of information technology, IT) to possible suppliers of this solution. This document is normally issued by the organization which would benefit from the solution. The buying organisation keeps a dialogue with would-be suppliers to determine together the best solution.The difference with a request for proposal (RFP) consists of the RFS being much more open and leaving more space to innovate. Both RFP and RFS have requirements, but those of RFS are more general.  RFSs also need less time to be answered, so they are likely to get a higher number of responses.\n\"A classic example of request for solution: the client gave general instructions regarding the solution while laying lesser restrictions on specific technology.\"\"In contrast to a detailed, buyer-led RFP, the RFS is an open-ended, collaborative process. The customer describes its environment, objectives, concerns, and risk tolerance and the potential suppliers come back with solutions that meet those general requirements.\"The RFS may be used as the first step in a procurement process. Once a determined solution has been selected, the process can advance one step, issuing, for example, a RFP, more specific and detailed.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Research Quotient (RQ) is a measure of companies' innovation capability developed by Anne Marie Knott., Robert and Barbara Frick Professor of Business at Washington University in St. Louis.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A responsibility assignment matrix (RAM), also known as RACI matrix () or linear responsibility chart (LRC), describes the participation by various roles in completing tasks or deliverables for a project or business process. RACI is an acronym derived from the four key responsibilities most typically used: responsible, accountable, consulted, and informed.  It is used for clarifying and defining roles and responsibilities in cross-functional or departmental projects and processes. There are a number of alternatives to the RACI model.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A responsible entity is a peculiarly Australian invention designed to replace the manager/trustee in managed investment schemes. It was created by the Managed Investments Act 1998, which made significant amendments to the prescribed interest provisions contained in the Australian Corporations Act.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Revenue sharing is the distribution of revenue, the total amount of income generated by the sale of goods and services among the stakeholders or contributors. It should not be confused with profit shares, in which scheme only the profit is shared, i.e., the revenue left over after costs have been removed, nor with stock shares, which may be bought and sold and whose value may fluctuate.\nRevenue shares are often used in industries such as game development, wherein a studio lacks sufficient capital or investment to pay upfront, or in instances when a studio or company wishes to share the risks and rewards with its team members. Revenue shares allow the stakeholders to realize returns as soon as revenue is earned before any costs are deducted.\nRevenue sharing in Internet marketing is also known as cost per sale, in which the cost of advertising is determined by the revenue generated as a result of the advertisement itself. This method accounts for about 80% of affiliate marketing programs, primarily dominated by online retailers such as Amazon and eBay.\nWeb-based companies such as Helium, HubPages, Infobarrel, and Squidoo also practice a form of revenue sharing, in which a company invites writers to create content for a website in exchange for a share of its advertising revenue, giving the authors the possibility of ongoing income from a single piece of work, and guaranteeing to the commissioning company that it will never pay more for content than it generates in advertising revenue. Pay rates vary dramatically from site to site, depending on the success of the site and the popularity of individual articles.\nIn professional sports leagues, \"revenue sharing\" commonly refers to the distribution of proceeds generated by ticket sales to a given event; the amount of money distributed to a visiting team can significantly impact a team's total revenue, which in turn affects the team's ability to attract (and pay for) talent and resources. In 1981, for example, the Scottish Premier League changed its policy from splitting a match's receipts evenly between its two competing football teams over to a system in which the hosting team could keep all of the proceeds from matches hosted at its facilities. This move is generally believed to have negatively affected the league's parity and enhanced the dominance of Celtic F.C. and Rangers F.C. In contrast, the National Football League distributes television revenue to all teams equally, regardless of team performance or number of viewers.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A revenue stream is a source of revenue of a company or organization.\nIn business, a revenue stream is generally made up of either recurring revenue, transaction-based revenue, project revenue, or service revenue.  In government, the term revenue stream often refers to different types of taxes.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "RevPAR, or revenue per available room, is a performance metric in the hotel industry that is calculated by dividing a hotel's total guestroom revenue by the room count and the number of days in the period being measured. However, if the calculation uses total hotel revenue instead of guestroom revenue it equals TRevPAR (Total Revenue Per Available Room). TRevPAR is another closely related performance metric in the hotel industry.\nSince RevPAR is only a measurement for a point in time (say a day, or month or year) it is most often compared to the same time frame. It is often used in comparison to competitors within a custom defined market, trading area, or advertising region or a self-selected competitive set as defined by the hotel's owner or manager, which is referred to as RevPAR Index or RGI (Revenue Generating Index).  Also, comparisons are usually best considered between hotels of the same type, or with target customers. (e.g. full service, luxury, extended stay, economy)\nA few syndicated data companies compile RevPAR information across markets via voluntary survey, and provide compiled blinded information back to the industry.  The STAR report is one such widely used report, and is provided by STR.\nOther Caveats:\n\nSuccessful RevPAR numbers differ from market to market based on demand and other factors.\nBest compared across like time periods.  For example, it is proper to compare RevPAR on a Friday only versus other Fridays.\nBest compared across similar seasonal time periods.  For example, comparing results from the Christmas week with the same a year previous is more credible than with a non-holiday week.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Robber baron is a derogatory term of social criticism originally applied to certain wealthy and powerful 19th-century American businessmen. The term appeared as early as the August 1870 issue of The Atlantic Monthly magazine. By the late 19th century, the term was typically applied to businessmen who purportedly used exploitative practices to amass their wealth. These practices included exerting control over natural resources, influencing high levels of government, paying subsistence wages, squashing competition by acquiring their competitors to create monopolies and raise prices, and schemes to sell stock at inflated prices to unsuspecting investors.  The term combines the sense of criminal (\"robber\") and illegitimate aristocracy (a baron is an illegitimate role in a republic).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Rolled throughput yield (RTY) in production economics is the probability that a process with more than one step will produce a defect free unit. It is the product of yields for each process step of the entire process. \nFor any process, it is ideal for that process to produce its product without defects and without rework. Rolled throughput yield quantifies the cumulative effects of inefficiencies found throughout the process. Rolled throughput yield and rolled throughput yield loss (RTYL) are often used in Six Sigma.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the context of commercial takeovers, safe harbors function as a form of shark repellent used to thwart hostile takeovers. Under implementation of this provision, a target company will acquire a troublesome firm in order to raise the acquisition price and make acquisition by other parties economically unattractive.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Safety stock is a term used by logisticians to describe a level of extra stock that is maintained to mitigate risk of stockouts (shortfall in raw material or packaging) caused by uncertainties in supply and demand. Adequate safety stock levels permit business operations to proceed according to their plans. Safety stock is held when uncertainty exists in demand, supply, or manufacturing yield, and serves as an insurance against stockouts.\nSafety stock is an additional quantity of an item held in the inventory to reduce the risk that the item will be out of stock. It acts as a buffer stock in case sales are greater than planned and/or the supplier is unable to deliver the additional units at the expected time.\nWith a new product, safety stock can be used as a strategic tool until the company can judge how accurate its forecast is after the first few years, especially when it is used with a material requirements planning (MRP) worksheet. The less accurate the forecast, the more safety stock is required to ensure a given level of service. With an MRP worksheet, a company can judge how much it must produce to meet its forecasted sales demand without relying on safety stock. However, a common strategy is to try to reduce the level of safety stock to help keep inventory costs low once the product demand becomes more predictable.  That can be extremely important for companies with a smaller financial cushion or those trying to run on lean manufacturing, which is aimed towards eliminating waste throughout the production process.\nThe amount of safety stock that an organization chooses to keep on hand can dramatically affect its business. Too much safety stock can result in high holding costs of inventory. In addition, products that are stored for too long a time can spoil, expire, or break during the warehousing process. Too little safety stock can result in lost sales and, in the thus a higher rate of customer turnover. As a result, finding the right balance between too much and too little safety stock is essential.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Sales management is a business discipline which is focused on the practical application of sales techniques and the management of a firm's sales operations.  It is an important business function as net sales through the sale of products and services and resulting profit drive most commercial business.  These are also typically the goals and performance indicators of sales management.\nSales manager is the typical title of someone whose role is sales management.  The role typically involves talent development.\nChurchil mentioned that the antecedents of sales performance are based on the meta-analysis for the period 1918- 1982 (76 years of previous research work). He suggested five factors that influence a salesperson\u2019s job behaviour and performance along with different categories like skill level, role perceptions, motivation, aptitude, personal factors, and organizational factors with three moderators.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Sales operations is a set of business activities and processes that help a sales organization run effectively, efficiently and in support of business strategies and objectives. Sales operations may also be referred to as sales, sales support, or business operations.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Sales operations is a set of business activities and processes that help a sales organization run effectively, efficiently and in support of business strategies and objectives. Sales operations may also be referred to as sales, sales support, or business operations.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A sales territory is the customer group or geographical area for which an individual salesperson or a sales team holds responsibility. Territories can be defined on the basis of geography, sales potential, history, or a combination of factors. Companies strive to balance their territories because this can reduce costs and increase sales.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Sales operations is a set of business activities and processes that help a sales organization run effectively, efficiently and in support of business strategies and objectives. Sales operations may also be referred to as sales, sales support, or business operations.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Scheduling is the process of arranging, controlling and optimizing work and workloads in a production process or manufacturing process. Scheduling is used to allocate plant and machinery resources, plan human resources, plan production processes and purchase materials.\nIt is an important tool for manufacturing and engineering, where it can have a major impact on the productivity of a process. In manufacturing, the purpose of scheduling is to keep due dates of customers and then minimize the production time and costs, by telling a production facility when to make, with which staff, and on which equipment. Production scheduling aims to maximize the efficiency of the operation and reduce costs.\nIn some situations, scheduling can involve random attributes, such as random processing times, random due dates, random weights, and stochastic machine breakdowns. In this case, the scheduling problems are referred to as \"stochastic scheduling.\"\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A scheme of arrangement (or a \"scheme of reconstruction\") is a court-approved agreement between a company and its shareholders or creditors (e.g. lenders or debenture holders). It may affect mergers and amalgamations and may alter shareholder or creditor rights.\nSchemes of arrangement are used to execute arbitrary changes in the structure of a business and thus are used when a reorganisation cannot be achieved by other means. They may be used for rescheduling debt, for takeovers, and for returns of capital, among other purposes. It is not a formal insolvency procedure, but it can be used alongside insolvency procedures such as administration.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Second product syndrome (also referred to as second-product syndrome or second product failure syndrome) is a business concept introduced by Steve Jobs in the documentary The Pixar Story. Steve Jobs describes the concept as when the company comes up with a very successful first product, it becomes more ambitious and boastful. The company then decides to go ahead with the second product without actually investigating and understanding the reason behind their first product's success. Therefore, the second product often ends up as a failure.Jobs stated his experience of second product syndrome at the technology company Apple as \"I lived through Apple -the Apple II was incredibly successful and Apple III was a dud- and I've seen a lot of companies not make it through that.\"", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In commerce, a \"third-party source\" means a supplier (or service provider) who is not directly controlled by either the seller (first party) nor the customer/buyer (second party) in a business transaction. The third party is considered independent from the other two, even if hired by them, because not all control is vested in that connection. There can be multiple third-party sources with respect to a given transaction, between the first and second parties. A second-party source would be under direct control of the second party in the transaction.In Information Technology, a \"third-party source\" is a supplier of software (or a computer accessory) which is independent of the supplier and customer of the major computer product(s).\nIn E-commerce, \"3rd Party (3P) source\" refers to a seller who publishes products on a marketplace, without this marketplace to own or physically carry those products. When an order comes in, a 3P seller has the item on hand and fulfills it. An example of 3P sellers are merchants participating in Amazon's FBM program.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A secret ingredient is a component of a product that is closely guarded from public disclosure for competitive advantage.  Sometimes the ingredient makes a noticeable difference in the way a product performs, looks  or tastes; other times it is used for advertising puffery. Companies can go to elaborate lengths to maintain secrecy, repackaging ingredients in one location, partially mixing them in another and relabeling them for shipment to a third, and so on. Secret ingredients are normally not patented because that would result in publication, but they are protected by trade secret laws. Employees who need access to the secret are usually required to sign non-disclosure agreements.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A secured loan is a loan in which the borrower pledges some asset (e.g. a car or property) as collateral for the loan, which then becomes a secured debt owed to the creditor who gives the loan. The debt is thus secured against the collateral, and if the borrower defaults, the creditor takes possession of the asset used as collateral and may sell it to regain some or all of the amount originally loaned to the borrower. An example is the foreclosure of a home. From the creditor's perspective, that is a category of debt in which a lender has been granted a portion of the bundle of rights to specified property. If the sale of the collateral does not raise enough money to pay off the debt, the creditor can often obtain a deficiency judgment against the borrower for the remaining amount.\nThe opposite of secured debt/loan is unsecured debt, which is not connected to any specific piece of property. Instead, the creditor may satisfy the debt only against the borrower, rather than the borrower's collateral and the borrower. Generally speaking, secured debt may attract lower interest rates than unsecured debt because of the added security for the lender; however, credit risk (e.g. credit history, and ability to repay) and expected returns for the lender are also factors affecting rates. The term secured loan is used in the United Kingdom, but the United States more commonly uses secured debt.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Selection in Planning also known as SIP is a method of selection used to identify suitable vendors and contractors and is an alternative to selection through Tendering.\nSIP has gained momentum in those environments where a customer's requirements are subject to ongoing changes or where the development of a project or procurement exercise is expected to be implemented gradually. In such circumstances customers may choose to employ the SIP process rather than issuing a formal tender.\nThe advantages of SIP are that changes to a customer's requirements or specifications do not require that this information be re-issued as would normally be the case with a tender (with the exception of minor modifications). Instead a customer, during the planning process of a project or procurement requirement, solicits ongoing information and feedback from prospective vendors and contractors making an assessment of their capability, skills, financial competitiveness and overall suitability during the communications process.\nThe SIP process is sometimes considered by critics to be a less formal procedure in which the qualification of vendors and contractors is not addressed with the same scrutiny as would be the case in a tender. This belief is however erroneous as the quality of the SIP process, just as with tendering, is at the discretion of the selector. Those customers bound by statutory procurement procedures or corporate policies governing the same, apply these requirements to the SIP process by means of ongoing dialogue and solicitation of information from vendors and contractors.\nFor these reasons and among specific industries, such as construction, as well as in certain economic environments, the SIP process is considered to be a viable alternative to traditional tendering and which has resulted in the rapid growth of this process in recent years.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Self-service is the practice of serving oneself, usually when making purchases. Aside from Automated Teller Machines, which are not limited to banks, and customer-operated supermarket check-out, labor-saving of which has been described as self-sourcing, there is the latter's subset, selfsourcing and a related pair: End-user development and End-user computing.\nNote has been made how paid labor has been replaced with unpaid labor, and how reduced professionalism and distractions from primary duties has reduced value obtained from employees' time.Over a period of decades, laws have been passed both facilitating and preventing self-pumping of gas  and other self-service.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Sensitivity analysis is the study of how the uncertainty in the output of a mathematical model or system (numerical or otherwise) can be divided and allocated to different sources of uncertainty in its inputs. A related practice is uncertainty analysis, which has a greater focus on uncertainty quantification and propagation of uncertainty; ideally, uncertainty and sensitivity analysis should be run in tandem.\nThe process of recalculating outcomes under alternative assumptions to determine the impact of a variable under sensitivity analysis can be useful for a range of purposes, including:\n\nTesting the robustness of the results of a model or system in the presence of uncertainty.\nIncreased understanding of the relationships between input and output variables in a system or model.\nUncertainty reduction, through the identification of model input that cause significant uncertainty in the output and should therefore be the focus of attention in order to increase robustness (perhaps by further research).\nSearching for errors in the model (by encountering unexpected relationships between inputs and outputs).\nModel simplification \u2013 fixing model input that has no effect on the output, or identifying and removing redundant parts of the model structure.\nEnhancing communication from modelers to decision makers (e.g. by making recommendations more credible, understandable, compelling or persuasive).\nFinding regions in the space of input factors for which the model output is either maximum or minimum or meets some optimum criterion (see optimization and Monte Carlo filtering).\nIn case of calibrating models with large number of parameters, a primary sensitivity test can ease the calibration stage by focusing on the sensitive parameters. Not knowing the sensitivity of parameters can result in time being uselessly spent on non-sensitive ones.\nTo seek to identify important connections between observations, model inputs, and predictions or forecasts, leading to the development of better models.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A service network is a structure that brings together several entities to deliver a particular service. For instance, one organisation (the buyer) may sub-contract another organisation (the supplier) to deliver after-sales services to a third party (the customer). The buyer may use more than one supplier. Likewise, the supplier may participate in other networks. The rationale for a service network is that each organisation is focusing on what they do best.A service network can also be defined as a collection of people and information brought together on the internet to provide a specific service or achieve a common business objective.  It is an evolving extension of service systems and applies Enterprise 2.0 technologies, also known as enterprise social software, to enable corporations to leverage the advances of the consumer internet for the benefit of business. In this case, the service network is designed to benefit from the wisdom of crowds and a human's natural tendency and desire to share information, collaborate, and self organize into communities of common interests and objectives.  In business, the value of collaboration is clearly recognized, but the ability is often hampered by rigid organizational boundaries and fragmented information systems.  A service network enables businesses to realize the benefits of mass collaboration despite the constraints of modern organizational structures and systems.\nThe term service network is increasingly being used within the context of service innovation initiatives that span academia, business, and government.  Some examples include:\n\nThe University of Cambridge and IBM Corporation use the term service network in their discussion paper, \"Succeeding through Service Innovation\" and describe it within the context of service systems networks.\nIngres Corporation uses the term service network as a new paradigm in software service to enable Enterprise 2.0 IT service management.\nOpenwater Corporation uses the term service network to help describe and brand their product offerings and solutions.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A service provider (SP) is an organization that provides services, such as consulting, legal, real estate, communications, storage, and processing services, to other organizations. Although a service provider can be an sub-unit of the organization that it serves, it is usually a third-party or outsourced supplier. Examples include telecommunications service providers (TSPs), application service providers (ASPs), storage service providers (SSPs), and internet service providers (ISPs). A more traditional term is service bureau.\nIT professionals sometimes differentiate between service providers by categorizing them as type I, II, or III. The three service types are recognized by the IT industry although specifically defined by ITIL and the U.S. Telecommunications Act of 1996.\n\nType I: internal service provider\nType II: shared service provider\nType III: external service providerType III SPs provide IT services to external customers and subsequently can be referred to as external service providers (ESPs) which  range from a full IT organization/service outsource via managed services or MSPs (managed service providers) to limited product feature delivery via ASPs (application service providers).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Serviceable addressable market (SAM; also served available market) is the part of the total addressable market (TAM) that can actually be reached.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Servicescape is a model developed by Booms and Bitner to emphasize the impact of the physical environment in which a service process takes place. The aim of the servicescapes model is to explain behavior of people within the service environment with a view to designing environments that does not accomplish organisational goals in terms of achieving desired behavioural responses. For consumers visiting a service or retail store, the service environment is the first aspect of the service that is perceived by the customer and it is at this stage that consumers are likely to form impressions of the level of service they will receive.Booms and Bitner defined a servicescape as \"the environment in which the service is assembled and in which the seller and customer interact, combined with tangible commodities that facilitate performance or communication of the service\". In other words, the servicescape refers to the non-human elements of the environment in which service encounters occur. The servicescape does not include: processes (e.g. methods of payment, billing, cooking, cleaning); external promotions (e.g. advertising, PR, social media, web-sites) or back-of-house (kitchen, cellars, store-rooms, housekeeping, staff change rooms), that is; spaces where customers do not normally visit.\n\nThe servicescape includes the facility's exterior (landscape, exterior design, signage, parking, surrounding environment) and interior (interior design and decor, equipment, signage, layout) and ambient conditions (air quality, temperature and lighting). In addition to its effects on customer's individual behaviors, the servicescape influences the nature and quality of customer and employee interactions, most directly in interpersonal services. Companies design their servicescapes to add an atmosphere that enhances the customer experience and that will affect buyers' behavior during the service encounter.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Shared leadership is a leadership style that broadly distributes leadership responsibility, such that people within a team and organization lead each other. It has frequently been compared to horizontal leadership, distributed leadership, and collective leadership and is most contrasted with more traditional \"vertical\" or \"hierarchical\" leadership that resides predominantly with an individual instead of a group.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A shared services center \u2013 a center for shared services in an organization \u2013 is the entity responsible for the execution and the handling of specific operational tasks, such as accounting, human resources, payroll, IT, legal, compliance, purchasing, security. The shared services center is often a spin-off of the corporate services to separate all operational types of tasks from the corporate headquarters, which has to focus on a leadership and corporate governance type of role. As shared services centers are often cost centers, they are quite cost-sensitive also in terms of their headcount, labour costs and location selection criteria.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A shareholder (in the United States often referred to as stockholder) of a corporation is an individual or legal entity (such as another corporation, a body politic, a trust or partnership) that is registered by the corporation as the legal owner of shares of the share capital of a public or private corporation. Shareholders may be referred to as members of a corporation. A person or legal entity becomes a shareholder in a corporation when their name and other details are entered in the corporation's register of shareholders or members, and unless required by law the corporation is not required or permitted to enquire as to the beneficial ownership of the shares. A corporation generally cannot own shares of itself.The influence of a shareholder on the business is determined by the shareholding percentage owned. Shareholders of a corporation are legally separate from the corporation itself. They are generally not liable for the corporation's debts, and the shareholders' liability for company debts is said to be limited to the unpaid share price unless a shareholder has offered guarantees. The corporation is not required to record the beneficial ownership of a shareholding, only the owner as recorded on the register. When more than one person is on the record as owners of a shareholding, the first one on the record is taken to control the shareholding, and all correspondence and communication by the company will be with that person.Shareholders may have acquired their shares in the primary market by subscribing to the IPOs and thus provided capital to the corporation. However, most shareholders acquire shares in the secondary market and provided no capital directly to the corporation. Shareholders may be granted special privileges depending on a share class. The board of directors of a corporation generally governs a corporation for the benefit of shareholders.\nShareholders are considered by some to be a subset of stakeholders, which may include anyone who has a direct or indirect interest in the business entity. For example, employees, suppliers, customers, the community, etc., are typically considered stakeholders because they contribute value or are impacted by the corporation.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance structure of modern corporations. In this structure, shareholders bear ultimate controlling authority over the corporation, as they are the owners and may exercise control within their economic rights. Although shareholders own the corporation, they generally take a passive interest in managing the day-to-day operations of the company. Shareholders who are interested in actively influencing corporate affairs are called activist shareholders. In the American system, shareholders typically elect the company's board of directors on an annual basis. These directors bear a fiduciary responsibility to the shareholders and must represent the interests of the shareholders (as opposed to the interests of themselves or any third parties) when making decisions. In turn, the board may select the individual executives and officers who operate the company, and they may also act on behalf of the corporation when establishing company policy for products, services, wages, and labor relations. The structure is akin to the political model of representative democracy, whereby citizens may elect political representatives to serve in public office. Similarly, the directors and shareholders face the principal-agent problem, where the directors may fail to properly represent the interests of the shareholders and may be in violation of their legal fiduciary obligations.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Shareholder value is a business term, sometimes phrased as shareholder value maximization or as the shareholder value model, which implies that the ultimate measure of a company's success is the extent to which it enriches shareholders. It became prominent during the 1980s and 1990s along with the management principle value-based management or \"managing for value\".", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Shelfware at one time referred to binders of unused documentation and at present refers to unused software. It also refers to security and other policies and procedures that fill an \"array of binders\" collecting dust. The highest-risk definition of shelfware is security software, purchased to fill an identified weakness, sitting uninstalled on a shelf. Another aspect is the opportunity cost for software that will ultimately go totally unused.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In banking, shiftability is an approach to keep banks liquid by supporting the shifting of assets. When a bank is short of ready money, it is able to sell or repo its assets to a more liquid bank.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A short shipment describes the absence, non-delivery, or incomplete fulfillment of cargo on a shipping list. Conversely, an over shipment describes a surplus of cargo. Short shipment and over shipment can occur for a number of reasons and can refer to an actual incorrect shipment or to a report by the recipient that disputes shipping records.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Short-termism is giving priority to immediate profit, quickly executed projects and short-term results, over long term results and far-seeing action.Short-termism is attributed to certain cognitive biases.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A shotgun clause (or Texas Shootout Clause) is a term of art, rather than a legal term. It is a specific type of exit provision that may be included in a shareholders' agreement, and may often be referred to as a buy-sell agreement. The shotgun clause allows a shareholder to offer a specific price per share for the other shareholder(s)' shares; the other shareholder(s) must then either accept the offer or buy the offering shareholder's shares at that price per share.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The single-window system or single-window concept  is a trade facilitation concept which allows an international (cross-border) trader to submit information to a single agency, rather than having to deal with multiple agencies in multiple locations to obtain the necessary papers, permits, and clearances to complete their import or export processes. There is an obvious time saving benefit to the single window system. The concept is recognised by organisations such as the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and its Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business (UN/CEFACT), World Customs Organization (WCO), the United Nations Network of Experts for Paperless Trade and Transport in Asia and the Pacific (UNNExT), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In process improvement, a SIPOC (sometimes COPIS) is a tool that summarizes the inputs and outputs of one or more processes in table form. It is used to define a business process from beginning to end before work begins. The acronym SIPOC stands for suppliers, inputs, process, outputs, and customers which form the columns of the table.  It was in use at least as early as the total quality management programs of the late 1980s and continues to be used today in Six Sigma, lean manufacturing, and business process management.\nTo emphasize putting the needs of the customer foremost, the tool is sometimes called COPIS and the process information is filled in starting with the customer and working upstream to the supplier.\nThe SIPOC is often presented at the outset of process improvement efforts such as Kaizen events or during the \"define\" phase of the DMAIC process. It has three typical uses depending on the audience:\n\nTo give people who are unfamiliar with a process a high-level overview\nTo reacquaint people whose familiarity with a process has faded or become out-of-date due to process changes\nTo help people in defining a new processSeveral aspects of the SIPOC that may not be readily apparent are:\n\nSuppliers and customers may be internal or external to the organization that performs the process.\nInputs and outputs may be materials, services, or information.\nThe focus is on capturing the set of inputs and outputs rather than the individual steps in the process.To create a SIPOC diagram, one must first map the overall process in a few steps. Then one must identify process outputs, who will receive them, and what the necessary inputs and suppliers are for each process. The final step is to share the diagram with the stakeholders to evaluate and verify the results. \n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Six Sigma (6\u03c3) is a set of techniques and tools for process improvement. It was introduced by American engineer Bill Smith while working at Motorola in 1986.Six Sigma strategies seek to improve manufacturing quality by identifying and removing the causes of defects and minimizing variability in manufacturing and business processes. This is done by using empirical and statistical quality management methods and by hiring people who serve as Six Sigma experts. Each Six Sigma project follows a defined methodology and has specific value targets, such as reducing pollution or increasing customer satisfaction.\nThe term Six Sigma originates from statistical modeling of manufacturing processes. The maturity of a manufacturing process can be described by a sigma rating indicating its yield or the percentage of defect-free products it creates\u2014specifically, to within how many standard deviations of a normal distribution the fraction of defect-free outcomes corresponds.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A skeleton crew is the minimum number of personnel needed to operate and maintain an item\u2014such as a business, organization, or ship\u2014at its most simple operating requirements. Skeleton crews are often utilized during an emergency and are meant to keep an item's vital functions operating. The COVID-19 Pandemic is an example of when skeleton crews are used, such as in news stations.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "To have \"skin in the game\" is to have incurred risk (monetary or otherwise) by being involved in achieving a goal.\nIn the phrase, \"skin\" refers to an investment (literal or figurative), and \"game\" is the metaphor for actions on the field of play under discussion. The aphorism is particularly common in business, finance, and gambling, and is also used in politics.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Social Consumerism occurs when the consumer's needs are met, the business achieves profitability and a social issue is positively affected. This is very different than traditional business models where only the first two objectives are achieved.\nThe value of social consumerism is that it takes the responsibility of the charitable donation away from the consumer and ties the philanthropic action to what consumers do naturally (e.g. eat out and part of the tab goes to a food charity.)\nAs many as 92% of moms and 88% of millennials want to buy from organizations that support a good cause.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Social selling is the process of developing relationships as part of the sales process. Today this often takes place via social networks such as LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, and Pinterest, but can take place either online or offline. Examples of social selling techniques include sharing relevant content, interacting directly with potential buyers and customers, personal branding, and social listening. Social Selling is gaining popularity in a variety of industries, though it is used primarily for B2B (business-to-business) selling or highly considered consumer purchases (e.g., financial advisory services, automotive, realty). C2C companies (often referred to as direct selling companies) have been using social selling techniques (i.e. relationship building) since far before the Internet existed. B2B and B2C companies are now adopting many of those techniques as they are translated to social media platforms.\nWhile social selling is sometimes confused with social marketing, there are two key differences. First, social selling is focused on sales professionals, rather than marketing professionals. Second, social selling aims to cultivate one-on-one relationships, rather than broadcast one-to-many messages. social marketing is a powerhouse which can provide right info at right time, but potential consumer expects established relationship rather than just info, so a completely successful selling process requires both social selling and social marketing to act together.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Spend analysis or spend analytics is the process of collecting, cleansing, classifying and analyzing expenditure data with the purpose of decreasing procurement costs, improving efficiency, and monitoring controls and compliance. It can also be leveraged in other areas of business such as inventory management, contract management, complex sourcing, supplier management, budgeting, planning, and product development.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Split billing is the division of a bill for service into two or more parts.  Bills may be split to divide work between clients, payers or for reimbursement to different service providers for performing a shared service.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The sprinkler strategy (also known as sprinkler diffusion strategy) is a market entry strategy based on the principle of diversification in which a company attempts to enter as many markets as possible in a relatively short time. \nA successful implementation of the sprinkler strategy requires a high standardization of marketing activities due to the extreme difficulty implied in the simultaneous maximization of marketing activities' customization and of the number of successful market entries. Usually, a certain amount of failed market entries and withdrawals from some markets is accepted if a sprinkler strategy is used. In case a waterfall strategy and a sprinkler strategy are used together, this yields a combined waterfall-sprinkler-strategy.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Staff management is the management of subordinates in an organization. Often, large organizations have many of these functions performed by a specialist department, such as personnel or human resources, but all line managers are still required to supervise and administer the activities and ensure the well-being of the staff that report to them.Staff managers include people who lead revenue consuming departments, for example, accounting, customer service, or human resources. They serve the line managers of the organization in an advisory or support capacity by providing them with information and advice. Furthermore, staff managers usually do not make operating decisions.\nStaff management may involve moving a workforce around and utilizing human resources. Within staff management there is also line management, which involves the hierarchy system of the organization. Human resources and line management are often aligned as they both involve employees of any given organization.\nSee explanation of staff and line.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A strategic alliance (also see strategic partnership) is an agreement between two or more parties to pursue a set of agreed upon objectives needed while remaining independent organizations.\nThe alliance is a cooperation or collaboration which aims for a synergy where each partner hopes that the benefits from the alliance will be greater than those from individual efforts. The alliance often involves technology transfer (access to knowledge and expertise), economic specialization, shared expenses and shared risk.\nA strategic alliance will usually fall short of a legal partnership entity, agency, or corporate affiliate relationship. Typically, two companies form a strategic alliance when each possesses one or more business assets or have expertise that will help the other by enhancing their businesses. \nStrategic alliances can develop in outsourcing relationships where the parties desire to achieve long-term win-win benefits and innovation based on mutually desired outcomes. This form of cooperation lies between mergers and acquisitions and organic growth. Strategic alliances occur when two or more organizations join together to pursue mutual benefits.\nPartners may provide the strategic alliance with resources such as products, distribution channels, manufacturing capability, project funding, capital equipment, knowledge, expertise, or intellectual property.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The aim of a strategic early warning system (SEWS) is to assist organizations in dealing with discontinuities or strategic surprises. By detecting weak signals (Igor Ansoff, 1975), which can be perceived as important discontinuities in an organizational environment, SEWS allows organizations to react strategically ahead of time.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Strategic financial management is the study of finance with a long term view considering the strategic goals of the enterprise.  Financial management is nowadays increasingly referred to as \"Strategic Financial Management\" so as to give it an increased frame of reference.\nTo understand what strategic financial management is about, we must first understand what is meant by the term \"Strategic\". Which is something that is done as part of a plan that is meant to achieve a particular purpose.\nTherefore, Strategic Financial Management are those aspect of the overall plan of the organisation that concerns financial managers. This includes different parts of the business plan, for example marketing and sales plan, production plan, personnel plan, capital expenditure, etc. These all have financial implications for the financial managers of an organisation.\nThe objective of the Financial Management is the maximisation of shareholders wealth. To satisfy this objective a company requires a \"long term course of action\" and this is where strategy fits in.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the field of management, strategic management involves the formulation and implementation of the major goals and initiatives taken by an organization's  managers on behalf of stakeholders, based on consideration of resources and an assessment of the internal and external environments in which the organization operate. Strategic management provides overall direction to an enterprise and involves specifying the organization's objectives, developing policies and plans to achieve those objectives, and then allocating resources to implement the plans. Academics and practicing managers have developed numerous models and frameworks to assist in strategic decision-making in the context of complex environments and competitive dynamics. Strategic management is not static in nature; the models can include a feedback loop to monitor execution and to inform the next round of planning.Michael Porter identifies three principles underlying strategy:\ncreating a \"unique and valuable [market] position\"\nmaking trade-offs by choosing \"what not to do\"\ncreating \"fit\" by aligning company activities with one another to support the chosen strategyCorporate strategy involves answering a key question from a portfolio perspective: \"What business should we be in?\" Business strategy involves answering the question: \"How shall we compete in this business?\"Management theory and practice often make a distinction between strategic management and operational management, with operational management concerned primarily with improving efficiency and controlling costs within the boundaries set by the organization's strategy.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A strategic partnership (also see strategic alliance) is a relationship between two commercial enterprises, usually formalized by one or more business contracts. A strategic partnership will usually fall short of a legal partnership entity, agency, or corporate affiliate relationship. Strategic partnerships can take on various forms from shake hand agreements, contractual cooperation's all the way to equity alliances, either the formation of a joint venture or cross-holdings in each other.\n\nTypically, two companies form a strategic partnership when each possesses one or more business assets or have expertise that will help the other by enhancing their businesses. This can also mean, that one firm is helping the other firm to expand their market to other marketplaces, by helping with some expertise. According to Cohen and Levinthal a considerable in-house expertise which complements the technology activities of its partner is a necessary condition for a successful exploitation of knowledge and technological capabilities outside their boundaries. Strategic partnerships can develop in outsourcing relationships where the parties desire to achieve long-term \u201cwin-win\u201d benefits and innovation based on mutually desired outcomes.\nNo matter if a business contract was signed, between the two parties, or not, a trust-based relationship between the partners is indispensable.\nOne common strategic partnership involves one company providing engineering, manufacturing or product development services, partnering with a smaller, entrepreneurial firm or inventor to create a specialized new product. Typically, the larger firm supplies capital, and the necessary product development, marketing, manufacturing, and distribution capabilities, while the smaller firm supplies specialized technical or creative expertise.\nAnother common strategic partnership involves a manufacturer/supplier partnering with a distributor or wholesale consumer.  Rather than approach the transactions between the companies as a simple link in the product or service supply chain, the two companies form a closer relationship where they mutually participate in advertising, marketing, branding, product development, and other business functions. As examples, an automotive manufacturer may form strategic partnerships with its parts suppliers, or a music distributor with record labels.\nThe activities of a strategic partnership can also include a shared research & development department between the partners. This requires a higher level of knowledge sharing as well as a higher level of sharing the technological capabilities. But by doing so, the costs and risks of innovation can be spread between the partners.Strategic partnerships also have emerged to solve many company business problems. The book Vested: How P&G, McDonald\u2019s and Microsoft are Redefining Winning in Business Relationships profiles strategic partnerships in large scale business process outsourcing relationships, public-private infrastructure projects, facilities management and supply chain relationships. Contemporary strategic sourcing and procurement processes enable organizations to use performance-based or vested sourcing business models for establishing strategic supplier relationships.There can be many advantages to creating strategic partnerships. As Robert M. Grant states in his book Contemporary Strategy Analysis, \"For complete strategies, as opposed to individual projects, creating option value means positioning the firm such that a wide array of opportunities become available\". Firms taking advantage of strategic partnerships can utilize other company's strengths to make both firms stronger in the long run.\nStrategic partnerships raise questions concerning co-inventorship and other intellectual property ownership, technology transfer, exclusivity, competition, hiring away of employees, rights to business opportunities created in the course of the partnership, splitting of profits and expenses, duration and termination of the relationship, and many other business issues. Another risk of strategic partnerships, especially between manufacturer and key supplier, is the potential forward integration by the key supplier. Also different developments or development plans can lead to a broken strategic partnership. The relationships are often complex as a result, and can be subject to extensive negotiation. Strategic partnerships are also prone to conflict. The University of Tennessee has done significant research into strategic partnerships, especially in the area of strategic outsourcing relationships.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Strategic risk is the risk that failed business decisions may pose to a company. Strategic risk is often a major factor in determining a company's worth, particularly observable if the company experiences a sharp decline in a short period of time. Due to this and its influence on compliance risk, it is a leading factor in modern risk management.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Strategic sourcing is the process of developing channels of supply at the lowest total cost, not just the lowest purchase price. It expands upon traditional organisational purchasing activities to embrace all activities within the procurement cycle, from specification to receipt, payment for goods and services  to sourcing production lines where the labor market would increase firms' ROI.  Strategic sourcing processes aim for continuous improvement and re-evaluation of the purchasing activities of an organisation.\nIn the services industry, strategic sourcing refers to a service solution, sometimes called a strategic partnership, which is specifically customized to meet the client's individual needs. In a production environment, it is often considered one component of supply chain management. Modern supply chain management professionals have placed emphasis on defining the distinct differences between strategic sourcing and procurement. Procurement operations support tactical day-to-day transactions such as issuing purchase orders to suppliers, whereas strategic sourcing represents to strategic planning, supplier development, contract negotiation, supply chain infrastructure, and outsourcing models.\nThe term \"strategic sourcing\" was popularized through work with a variety of blue chip companies by a number of consulting firms in the late 1980s and early to mid 1990s. This methodology has become the norm for procurement departments in large, sophisticated companies such as Fortune 500 companies.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A straw-man (or straw-dog) proposal is a brainstormed simple draft proposal intended to generate discussion of its disadvantages and to provoke the generation of new and better proposals. The term is considered American business jargon, but it is also encountered in engineering office culture.\nOften, a straw man document will be prepared by one or two people prior to kicking off a larger project. In this way, the team can jump start their discussions with a document that is likely to contain many, but not all, of the key aspects to be discussed. As the document is revised, it may be given other edition names such as the more solid-sounding \"stone-man\", \"iron-man\", and so on.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In business, a street date is the date a particular product is to be released for sale to the general public.\nTypically, retailers receive shipments of stock prior to its street date release, so that the product can be placed on display shelves for store opening that day. Shipments come marked very clearly with a \"do not sell before release date\" label designating a street date mandated by the distributor. Shipments may sometimes arrive up to three weeks in advance.\nRetail outlets can be severely punished by manufacturers for releasing a product even a day before the street date, a process known as \"breaking street.\" One example of this is with the launch of DVD, while the street date was set for March 25, 1997; some retailers sold the format's releases one day earlier on the 24th. If a retailer breaches the contract establishing a street date, the manufacturer may impose fines, may withdraw privileges to distribute future products from that manufacturer, and may file a lawsuit to enforce the contract.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A structured sale  or structured installment sale, is a special type of installment sale pursuant to the Internal Revenue Code. In an installment sale, the seller defers recognition of gain on the sale of a business or real estate to the tax year in which the related sale proceeds are received. In a structured sale, the seller is able to pay U.S. Federal income tax over time while having the seller's right to receive those payments guaranteed by a high credit quality alternate obligor. This obligor assumes the buyer's periodic payment obligation. Transactions can be arranged for amounts as small as $100,000.\nTo fund its future payment obligation, the assignment company then purchases an annuity from a life insurance company, United States treasuries via a trust or other financial instrument. Case law and administrative precedents support recognition of the original contract terms after a substitution of obligors. In addition, proper handling of the transaction will help the parties avoid problems with constructive receipt and economic benefit issues.\nAfter Allstate Life stopped taking new annuity business in 2013, other structured sale opportunities arose. In lieu of annuities, United States Treasury obligations held in a trust (treasury funded structured settlements) are used to fund the future cash flows. Some companies use Key Man Life Insurance Policies in place of annuities, which provide the added protection of a death benefit to the seller and a payout that continues long after the seller passes. This arrangement may preferable when the seller is interested in passing wealth to the seller's beneficiaries after death. A Key Man Policy may also pay out more than an annuity in certain circumstances.While negotiating the installment payments, the seller is free to design payment streams with a great deal of flexibility. Each installment payment to the seller has three components: return of basis, capital gain, and ordinary income earned on the money in the annuity. Under the doctrine of constructive receipt, with a properly documented structured sale, no taxable event is recognized until a payment is actually received. Taxation is the same as if the buyer were making installment payments directly.\nStructured sales are an alternative to a section 1031 exchange. In a 1031 exchange, however, the seller is required to continue to hold some form of property. Structured sales work well for sellers who want to create a continuing stream of income without management worries. Retiring business owners and downsizing homeowners are examples of sellers who can benefit.\nThe structured sale must be documented, and money must be handled in such a way that the ultimate recipient is not treated as having constructively received the payment prior to the time it is actually made. For the buyer, there is no difference from a traditional cash-and-title-now deal, except for additional paperwork. Because of tax advantages to the seller, structuring the sale might, however, make the buyer's offer more attractive. Because the buyer has paid in full, the buyer gets full title at time of closing.\nThere are no direct fees to the buyer or seller to employ the structured sale strategy.Alternatives\nA sales method called the Installment sale and a Monetized Installment Sale, are variations of the Structured sale and is intended to protect the seller of a capital asset completely from the risk in connection with the buyer's creditworthiness.\nConfusion Created by Secondary Market Firms\nSome buyers of structured settlement payment rights have attempted to play off the popularity of the term structured sale to lure prospects for the sale of structured settlement payment rights.The structured settlement specialist who implements the transaction is paid directly by the life insurance company that writes the annuity, or by the service provider for the treasury funded structured settlements.\nThe internal rate of return is comparable to long term high quality debt instruments.Internal Revenue Service Private Letter Ruling 150850-07, dated June 2, 2008, confirmed the IRS position the taxpayer does not constructively receive payment for tax purposes until the actual cash payment is made pursuant to a properly drafted non-qualified assignment.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Super Bowl Indicator is a spurious correlation that says that the stock market's performance in a given year can be predicted based on the outcome of the Super Bowl of that year. It was \"discovered\" by Leonard Koppett in 1978 when he realized that it had never been wrong, until that point.  This pseudo-macroeconomic concept states that if a team from the American Football Conference (AFC) wins, then it will be a bear market (or down market), but if a team from the National Football Conference (NFC) or a team that was in the NFL before the NFL/AFL merger wins, it will be a bull market (up market).\nAs of January 2022, the predictor has been right 41 out of 55 games, a 75% success rate. Without retrospective predictions, i.e. after its invention in 1978, it had been correct in 29 out of 43 games, a success rate of 67%.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A supplier association is a business term used when a customer company brings a group of its major suppliers together on a formal and  regular basis in order to achieve strategic and operational alignment.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Supplier convergence is a business model in which a company offers a combination of services or products that were previously supplied by separate companies.  It is not to be confused with product convergence, where one product combines and replaces several others; rather, supplier convergence happens primarily through mergers and acquisitions, or through the expansion of larger companies into areas previously dominated by specialty businesses.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Supplier diversity refers to the use of minority-owned businesses as suppliers, and a supplier diversity program is a proactive business program which encourages such use within an organisation's supply chain. Minority-owned includes black and minority ethnic business ownership, women owned, veteran owned, LGBT-owned [1], service disabled veteran owned, historically underutilized business, and Small Business Administration (SBA)-defined small business concerns. It is not directly correlated with supply chain diversification, although utilizing more vendors may enhance supply chain diversification. Supplier diversity programs recognize that sourcing products and services from previously under-used suppliers helps to sustain and progressively transform a company's supply chain, thus quantitatively reflecting the demographics of the community in which it operates by recording transactions with diverse suppliers.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Supplier evaluation and supplier appraisal are terms used in business and refer to the process of evaluating and approving potential suppliers by quantitative assessment. The aim of the process is to ensure a portfolio of best-in-class suppliers is available for use, thus it can be an effective tool to select suppliers in the awarding stage of an auction. Supplier evaluation can also be applied to current suppliers in order to measure and monitor their performance for the purposes of ensuring contract compliance, reducing costs, mitigating risk and driving continuous improvement.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In commerce, supply chain management (SCM) is the management of the flow of goods and services between businesses and locations. This can include the movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, finished goods, and end to end order fulfilment from the point of origin to the point of consumption. Interconnected, interrelated or interlinked networks, channels and node businesses combine in the provision of products and services required by end customers in a supply chain.Supply-chain management has been defined as the \"design, planning, execution, control, and monitoring of supply chain activities with the objective of creating net value, building a competitive infrastructure, leveraging worldwide logistics, synchronizing supply with demand and measuring performance globally\".\nSCM practice draws heavily on industrial engineering, systems engineering, operations management, logistics, procurement, information technology and marketing, and strives for an integrated, multidisciplinary, multimethod approach. Marketing channels play an important role in supply-chain management. Current research in supply-chain management is concerned with topics related to sustainability and risk management, among others. An important concept discussed in SCM is supply chain resilience. Some suggest that the \u201cpeople dimension\u201d of SCM, ethical issues, internal integration, transparency/visibility, and human capital/talent management are topics that have, so far, been underrepresented on the research agenda. SCM is the broad range of activities required to plan, control and execute a product's flow from materials to production to distribution in the most economical way possible. SCM encompasses the integrated planning and execution of processes required to optimize the flow of materials, information and capital in functions that broadly include demand planning, sourcing, production, inventory management and logistics\u2014or storage and transportation.Although it has the same goals as supply chain engineering, supply chain management is focused on a more traditional management and business based approach, whereas supply chain engineering is focused on a mathematical model based one.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A supply chain responsiveness matrix is a tool that is used to analyze inventory and lead time within an organization.\nThe matrix is one of a number of Value Stream Mapping tools The matrix is represented by showing lead time along the X- Axis and inventory along the y axis.  The result shows where slow moving stock resides.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In poker and other gambling games, table stakes is a rule that a player may bet no more money than they had on the table at the beginning of that hand; they cannot go back to their pocket for more money once a hand is dealt. This limits the amount that a player can lose, while also limiting the amount other players may have to bet.  In between hands, a player is free to re-buy or add-on so long as their entire stack after the re-buy or add-on does not exceed the maximum buy-in. \nThis rule generally applies to cash or ring games of poker rather than tournament games and is intended to level the stakes by creating a maximum and minimum buy-in as well as rules for adding and removing chips from play when playing with cash. A player also may not take a portion of their money off the table, unless they leave the game and take their entire stack out of play.\nTable stakes is the rule in most cash poker games because it allows players with vastly different bankrolls a reasonable amount of protection when playing with one another. Contrary to classic Hollywood poker movie scenes, money taken from the wallet during a hand (called \"open stakes\") does not play under table stakes.\n\"Table stake\" (singular form) is related, and is the minimum amount of money a player must put on the table, and thus be able to bet under the table stakes rule, to play a hand.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Tacit Relocation in Scots Law is a principle whereby leases of land or buildings are renewed on the same conditions as previously existed if no notice of termination is given within the requisite period, subject to a minimum period of one year, applying in perpetuity until such notice is given. The concept is also known in the law of South Africa.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Test and learn is a set of practices followed by retailers, banks and other consumer-focused companies to test ideas in a small number of locations or customers to predict impact. The process is often designed to answer three questions about any tested program before rollout: \n\nWhat impact will the program have on key performance indicators if executed across the network or customer base?\nWill the program have a larger impact on some stores/customers than others?\nWhich components of the idea are actually working?", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, a third-party administrator (TPA) is an organization that processes insurance claims or certain aspects of employee benefit plans for a separate entity. It is also a term used to define organizations within the insurance industry which administer other services such as underwriting and customer service. This can be viewed as outsourcing the administration of the claims processing, since the TPA is performing a task traditionally handled by the company providing the insurance or the company itself. Often, in the case of insurance claims, a TPA handles the claims processing for an employer that self-insures its employees. Thus, the employer is acting as an insurance company and underwrites the risk. The risk of loss remains with the employer, and not with the TPA. An insurance company may also use a TPA to manage its claims processing, provider networks, utilization review, or membership functions. While some third-party administrators may operate as units of insurance companies, they are often independent.Third-party administrators also handle many aspects of other employee benefit plans such as the processing of retirement plans and flexible spending accounts. Many employee benefit plans have highly technical aspects and difficult administration that can make using a specialized entity such as a TPA more cost effective than doing the same processing in house.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In commerce, a \"third-party source\" means a supplier (or service provider) who is not directly controlled by either the seller (first party) nor the customer/buyer (second party) in a business transaction. The third party is considered independent from the other two, even if hired by them, because not all control is vested in that connection. There can be multiple third-party sources with respect to a given transaction, between the first and second parties. A second-party source would be under direct control of the second party in the transaction.In Information Technology, a \"third-party source\" is a supplier of software (or a computer accessory) which is independent of the supplier and customer of the major computer product(s).\nIn E-commerce, \"3rd Party (3P) source\" refers to a seller who publishes products on a marketplace, without this marketplace to own or physically carry those products. When an order comes in, a 3P seller has the item on hand and fulfills it. An example of 3P sellers are merchants participating in Amazon's FBM program.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Throughput is rate at which a product is moved through a production process and is consumed by the end-user, usually measured in the form of sales or use statistics. The goal of most organizations is to minimize the investment in inputs as well as operating expenses while increasing throughput of its production systems. Successful organizations which seek to gain market share strive to match throughput to the rate of market demand of its products.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Throughput accounting (TA) is a principle-based and simplified management accounting approach that provides managers with decision support information for enterprise profitability improvement. TA is relatively new in management accounting. It is an approach that identifies factors that limit an organization from reaching its goal, and then focuses on simple measures that drive behavior in key areas towards reaching organizational goals. TA was proposed by Eliyahu M. Goldratt as an alternative to traditional cost accounting. As such, Throughput Accounting is neither cost accounting nor costing because it is cash focused and does not allocate all costs (variable and fixed expenses, including overheads) to products and services sold or provided by an enterprise. Considering the laws of variation, only costs that vary totally with units of output (see definition of T below for TVC) e.g. raw materials, are allocated to products and services which are deducted from sales to determine Throughput. Throughput Accounting is a management accounting technique used as the performance measure in the Theory of Constraints (TOC). It is the business intelligence used for maximizing profits, however, unlike cost accounting that primarily focuses on 'cutting costs' and reducing expenses to make a profit, Throughput Accounting primarily focuses on generating more throughput.  Conceptually, Throughput Accounting seeks to increase the speed or rate at which throughput (see definition of T below) is generated by products and services with respect to an organization's constraint, whether the constraint is internal or external to the organization. Throughput Accounting is the only management accounting methodology that considers constraints as factors limiting the performance of organizations.\nManagement accounting is an organization's internal set of techniques and methods used to maximize shareholder wealth. Throughput Accounting is thus part of the management accountants' toolkit, ensuring efficiency where it matters as well as the overall effectiveness of the organization. It is an internal reporting tool. Outside or external parties to a business depend on accounting reports prepared by financial (public) accountants who apply Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) issued by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and enforced by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and other local and international regulatory agencies and bodies such as International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).\nThroughput Accounting improves profit performance with better management decisions by using measurements that more closely reflect the effect of decisions on three critical monetary variables (throughput, investment (AKA inventory), and operating expense \u2014 defined below).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Time and materials (T&M) is a standard phrase in a contract for construction, product development or any other piece of work in which the employer agrees to pay the contractor based upon the time spent  by the contractor's employees and subcontractors employees to perform the work, and for materials used in the construction (plus the contractor's mark up on the materials used), no matter how much work is required to complete construction. Time and materials is generally used in projects in which it is not possible to accurately estimate the size of the project, or when it is expected that the project requirements would most likely change.This is opposed to a fixed-price contract in which the owner agrees to pay the contractor a lump sum for fulfillment of the contract no matter what the contractors pay their employees, sub-contractors and suppliers.\nMany time and materials contracts also carry a guaranteed maximum price, which puts an upper limit on what the contractor may charge, but also allow the owner to pay a lesser amount if the job is completed more quickly.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In commerce, time to market (TTM) is the length of time it takes from a product being conceived until its being available for sale. The reason that time to market is so important is since being late erodes the addressable market into which producers have to sell their product. A common assumption is that TTM matters most for first-of-a-kind products, but actually a late product launch in any industry can negatively impact revenues\u2014from reducing the window of opportunity to generate revenues to causing the product to become obsolete faster.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A tonnage tax is a taxation mechanism that can be applied to shipping companies instead of ordinary corporate taxation. The tax is determined by the net tonnage of the entire fleet of vessels under operation or use by a company. It is on the basis of this variable that taxation is applied. The effective tonnage tax paid is typically considerably lower than a corresponding ordinary corporate tax liability, making the tonnage tax one of the main maritime subsidies by governments in recent decades.Given that the tax perceived is independent from the volume of material transported and from the operating profit of a shipping company, it is less complex to manage for tax authorities and shipping companies. This method of taxation is based on an internationally recognized variable - net tonnage - by independent certifying bodies that determine the transport capacity of the vessels. \nIt is estimated that during the period 2005-2019, the global shipping industry as a whole paid taxes corresponding to an effective corporate income tax rate of 7%, compared to the OECD average corporate tax rate of 23.7%. One of the main reasons for the favorable tax treatment was the tonnage tax arrangements of several countries.The first country to introduce a tonnage tax was Greece back in 1957. By 2019, tonnage tax rules were applied in many countries, including Japan, South Korea and 22 EU countries.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Total addressable market (TAM), also called total available market, is a term that is typically used to reference the revenue opportunity available for a product or service.  TAM helps prioritize business opportunities by serving as a quick metric of a given opportunity's underlying potential.One approach is to estimate how much of the market any company can gain if there were no competitors.  A more encompassing variation is to estimate the market size that could theoretically be served with a specific product or service. TAM can be defined as a global total (even if a particular company could not reach some of it) or, more commonly, a market that one specific company could serve (within realistic expansion scenarios). This focuses strategic marketing and sales efforts and addresses actual customer needs. The inclusion of constraints such as competition and distribution challenges then modifies the strategy to frame it with realistic boundaries, reducing the market down to the serviceable available market (SAM), the percentage of the market that can be served (either by that company or all providers) out of the TAM. This is occasionally referred to as PAU (Potential Active Use).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) started as a method of physical asset management focused on maintaining and improving manufacturing machinery, in order to reduce the operating cost to an organization. After the PM award was created and awarded to Nippon Denso in 1971, the JIPM (Japanese Institute of Plant Maintenance), expanded it to include 8 pillars of TPM that required involvement from all areas of manufacturing in the concepts of lean Manufacturing.\nTPM is designed to disseminate the responsibility for maintenance and machine performance, improving employee engagement and teamwork within management, engineering, maintenance, and operations.\n\n  There are eight types of pillars TPM. \n\n1- focused Improvements\n2- JH Pillar (Autonomous Maintenance) \n3- PM pillar (Planned Maintenance) \n4- QM pillar (Quality Maintenance) \n5- DM pillar (Development Maintenance) \n6- E&T pillar (Education and Training) \n7- OTPM    (Office TPM) \n8- SHE Pillar (Safety, Health and Environment)", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Total quality management (TQM) consists of organization-wide efforts to \"install and make permanent \nclimate where employees continuously improve their ability to provide on demand products and services that customers will find of particular value.\"  \"Total\" emphasizes that departments in addition to production (for example sales and marketing, accounting and finance, engineering and design) are obligated to improve their operations; \"management\" emphasizes that executives are obligated to actively manage quality through funding, training, staffing, and goal setting.  While there is no widely agreed-upon approach, TQM efforts typically draw heavily on the previously developed tools and techniques of quality control. TQM enjoyed widespread attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s before being overshadowed by ISO 9000, Lean manufacturing, and Six Sigma.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Trade finance signifies financing for trade, and it concerns both domestic and international trade transactions. A trade transaction requires a seller of goods and services as well as a buyer. Various intermediaries such as banks and financial institutions can facilitate these transactions by financing the trade. Trade finance manifest itself in the form of letters of credit (LOC), guarantees or insurance and is usually provided by intermediaries.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Trading account assets refer to a separate account managed by banks that buy (underwriting) U.S. government securities and other securities for their own trading account or for resale at a profit to other banks and to the public, rather than for investment in the bank's own investment portfolio. Trading assets are segregated from the investment portfolio. They are recorded separately when acquired until they are disposed of or sold, and are then recorded at the price in effect when these securities are purchased or sold. Trading assets held for other banks are marked to market (adjusted to current market value) while held by a bank.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Traffic management is a key branch within logistics. It concerns the planning,*[1]* control and purchasing of transport services needed to physically move vehicles (for example aircraft, road vehicles, rolling stock and watercraft) and freight.\nTraffic management is implemented by people working with different job titles in different branches:\n\nWithin freight and cargo logistics: traffic manager, assessment of hazardous and awkward materials, carrier choice and fees, demurrage, documentation, expediting, freight consolidation, insurance, reconsignment and tracking\nWithin air traffic management: air traffic controller\nWithin rail traffic management: rail traffic controller, train dispatcher or signalman\nWithin road traffic management: traffic controllerTraffic Control Management is the design, auditing and implementation of traffic control plans at worksites and civil infrastructure projects. Traffic Management can include: flagging, lane closures, detours, full freeway closures, pedestrian access, traffic plans, traffic management vehicles and sidewalk closures.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A transparency report is a statement issued on a regular basis by a company, disclosing a variety of statistics related to requests for user data, records, or content. Transparency reports generally disclose how frequently and under what authority governments have requested or demanded data or records over a certain period of time. This form of corporate transparency allows the public to discern what private information governments have gained access to through search warrants and court subpoenas, among other methods. Some transparency reports describe how often, as a result of government action or under copyright provisions, content was removed. Disclosing a transparency report also helps people to know about the appropriate scope and authority of content regulation for online discussions. Google first launched a transparency report in 2010, with Twitter following in 2012. Additional companies began releasing transparency reports as during the aftermath of the global surveillance disclosures beginning in 2013, and the number of companies issuing them has increased rapidly ever since. Transparency reports are issued today by a variety of technology and communications companies, including Google, Microsoft, Verizon, AT&T, Twitter, Apple, Dropbox, Facebook, Yahoo and CloudFlare. Several companies and advocacy groups have lobbied the U.S. government to allow the number of secret data requests (requests which include a gag order, including National Security Letters) to be described within ranges in the report.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Travel and subsistence expenses describe the cost of spending on business travel, meals, hotels, sundry items such as laundry (though usually only on long trips) and similar ad hoc expenditures. These reimbursements often have tax and related implications, and vary depending on the country of the business.An organization may refund or reimburse these costs on the basis of an itemized list, or may conclude that cost of doing so is disproportionately high and instead pay a per diem (\"per day\") allowance. This provides a budget from which the traveler may recover their costs. In this case, the traveler may choose to stay in more expensive hotels and pay the additional cost themselves.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "TRevPAR, or total revenue per available room, is a performance metric in the hotel industry. TRevPAR is calculated by dividing the total net revenues of a property by the total available rooms.TRevPAR is the preferred metric for accountants and hotel owners because it effectively determines the overall financial performance of a property, while RevPAR only takes into account revenue from rooms. TRevPAR is useful for hotels where rooms are not necessarily the largest component of the business. Outlets such as banquet halls also provide a source of revenue for these hotels.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In business, a trojan horse is an advertising offer made by a company that is designed to draw potential customers by offering them cash or something of value for acceptance, but following acceptance, the buyer is forced to spend a much larger amount of money, either by being signed into a lengthy contract, from which exit is difficult, or by having money automatically drawn in some other method. The harmful consequences faced by the customer may include spending far above market rate, large amount of debt, or identity theft.\nThe term, which originated in New England during the 2000s, and has spread to some other parts of the United States, is also sometimes misused in reference to an item offered seemingly at a bargain price. But through fine print and other hidden trick, the item is ultimately sold at above market rate.\nSome of the items involved in trojan horse sales include cash, gift cards or merchandise viewed as a high-ticket item, but the item actually being given away is made cheaply, has a very low value, and does not satisfy the expectations of the recipient. Meanwhile, the victim of the trojan horse is likely to end up spending far more money over time, either through continual withdrawals from the customer's bank account, charges to a debit or credit card, or add-ons to a bill that must be paid in order to avoid loss of an object or service of prime importance (such as a house, car, or phone line).\nVictims of trojan horses include poor people or those who are searching for bargains or the best price on an item. Many of these victims end up with overdrawn accounts or over-the-limit on their credit cards due to fees that are automatically charged.\nSome of the businesses using trojan horse marketing include banks, internet and cell phone service providers, record and book clubs and other companies in which the customer will be expected to have a continuing relationship. Banks often offer cash initially for opening an account, but later charge fees in much larger amounts to the account holder. Auto-manufacturers and car dealerships will often advertise free or subsidized gas to car buyers for a certain amount of time, but increase the cost of the car in other ways. Cell phone companies use trojan horse marketing by attempting to sell items like ringtones to customers, who unknowingly are sold many more ringtones over time.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Under-capitalization refers to any situation where a business cannot acquire the funds they need. An under-capitalized  business may be one that cannot afford current operational expenses due to a lack of capital, which can trigger bankruptcy, may be one that is over-exposed to risk, or may be one that is financially sound but does not have the funds required to expand to meet market demand.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An undervalued stock is defined as a stock that is selling at a price significantly below what is assumed to be its intrinsic value. For example, if a stock is selling for $50, but it is worth $100 based on predictable future cash flows, then it is an undervalued stock. The undervalued stock has the intrinsic value below the investment's true intrinsic value.  \nNumerous popular books discuss undervalued stocks. Examples are The Intelligent Investor by Benjamin Graham, also known as \"The Dean of Wall Street,\" and The Warren Buffett Way by Robert Hagstrom. The Intelligent Investor puts forth Graham's principles that are based on mathematical calculations such as the price/earning ratio. He was less concerned with the qualitative aspects of a business such as the nature of a business, its growth potential and its management. For example, Amazon, Facebook, Netflix and Tesla in 2016, although they had a promising future, would not have appealed to Graham, since their price-earnings ratios were too high. Graham's ideas had a significant influence on the young Warren Buffett, who later became a famous US billionaire.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In business, the utilization rate is an important number for firms that charge their time to clients and for those that need to maximize the productive time of their employees. It can reflect the billing efficiency or the overall productive use of an individual or a firm.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Value chain management capability refers to an organisation's capacity to manage the internationally dispersed activities and partners that are part of its value chain. It is found to consist of an international orientation, network capability, market orientation, technological capability and teamwork management capability.  Value chain management capability is a higher level capability that draws together a variety of lower level capabilities.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Value investing is an investment paradigm that  involves buying securities that appear underpriced by some form of fundamental analysis. The various forms of value investing derive from the investment philosophy first taught by Benjamin Graham and David Dodd at Columbia Business School in 1928, and subsequently developed in their 1934 text Security Analysis.\nThe early value opportunities identified by Graham and Dodd included stock in public companies trading at discounts to book value or tangible book value, those with high dividend yields, and those having low price-to-earning multiples, or low price-to-book ratios.\nHigh-profile proponents of value investing, including Berkshire Hathaway chairman Warren Buffett, have argued that the essence of value investing is buying stocks at less than their intrinsic value. The discount of the market price to the intrinsic value is what Benjamin Graham called the \"margin of safety\". For the last 25 years, under the influence of Charlie Munger, Buffett expanded the value investing concept with a focus on \"finding an outstanding company at a sensible price\" rather than generic companies at a bargain price. Hedge fund manager Seth Klarman has described value investing as rooted in a rejection of the efficient-market hypothesis (EMH). While the EMH proposes that securities are accurately priced based on all available data, value investing proposes that some equities are not accurately priced.Graham never used the phrase value investing \u2013 the term was coined later to help describe his ideas and has resulted in significant misinterpretation of his principles, the foremost being that Graham simply recommended cheap stocks. The Heilbrunn Center at Columbia Business School is the current home of the Value Investing Program.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In marketing, a company\u2019s value proposition is the full mix of benefits or economic value which it promises to deliver to the current and future customers (i.e., a market segment) who will buy their products and/or services. It is part of a company's overall marketing strategy which differentiates its brand and fully positions it in the market. A value proposition can apply to an entire organization, or parts thereof, or customer accounts, or products or services. \nA value proposition can be written as a business or marketing statement (called a \"positioning statement\") which summarizes why a consumer should buy a product or use a service. A compellingly worded positioning statement has the potential to convince a prospective consumer that a particular product or service the company offers will add more value or better solve a problem (i.e. the \"pain-point\") for them than other similar offerings will, thus turning them into a paying client. The positioning statement usually contains references to which sector the company is operating in, what products or services they are selling, who are its target clients and which points differentiate it from other brands and make its product or service a superior choice for those clients. It is usually communicated to the customers via the company's website and other advertising and marketing materials. \nCreating a value proposition is a part of the overall business strategy of a company. Kaplan and Norton say \"Strategy is based on a differentiated customer value proposition. Satisfying customers is the source of sustainable value creation.\" Developing a value proposition is based on a review and analysis of the benefits, costs, and value that an organization can deliver to its customers, prospective customers, and other constituent groups within and outside the organization. It is also a positioning of value, where Value = Benefits \u2212 Cost (cost includes economic risk).Viewed from the perspective of two dimensions of performance (quality) and price, there are usually five value propositions upon which companies can position their products or services. Firstly, they can offer the best performing product or service and charge a high price for it (more for more). Secondly, a company can offer a product of a very high performance (compared to the market leader) but at a previous price (more for the same). Thirdly, a company can offer a product with the same existing performance for a lower price (same for less). Fourthly, a company can offer lower quality, worse-performing products for a certain class of customers who have lower performance or quality requirements than the average consumer, but do it at a much lower price (less for much less) Finally, a company can offer better performing product for a lower price than before (more for less), which is ambitious and hard to achieve, as offering more quality usually requires an increase in production cost.Conversely, a customer's value proposition is the perceived subjective value, satisfaction or usefulness of a product or service (based on its differentiating features and its personal and social values for the customer) delivered to and experienced by the customer when they acquire it. It is the net positive subjective difference between the total benefits they obtain from it and the sum of monetary cost and non-monetary sacrifices (relative benefits offered by other alternative competitive products) which they have to give up in return. However, often there is a discrepancy between what the company thinks about its value proposition and what the clients think it is.A company's value propositions can evolve, whereby values can add up over time. For example, Apple's value proposition contains a mix of three values. Originally, in the 1980s, it communicated that its products are creative, elegant and \"cool\" and thus different from the status quo (\"Think different\"). Then in the first two decades of the 21st century, it communicated its second value of providing the customers with a reliable, smooth, hassle-free user experience within its ecosystem (\"Tech that works\"). In the 2020s, Apple's latest differentiating value is the protection of its client's privacy (\"Your data is safe with us\").\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Value-stream mapping,  also known as \"material- and information-flow mapping\", is a lean-management method for analyzing the current state and designing a future state for the series of events that take a product or service from the beginning of the specific process until it reaches the customer. A value stream map is a visual tool that displays all critical steps in a specific process and easily quantifies the time and volume taken at each stage. Value stream maps show the flow of both materials and information as they progress through the process.Whereas a value stream map represents a core business process that adds value to a material product, a value chain diagram shows an overview of all activities within a company. Other business activities may be represented in \"value stream diagrams\" and/or other kinds of diagram that represent business processes that create and use business data.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Venture equity is an investment strategy that includes a hybrid of venture capital and private equity approaches. Firms or individuals involved in venture equity acquire struggling startups, make improvements to the companies to help spur growth, and resell them for a profit.Venture equity firms work with early-stage startups that may have raised seed funding and are generating revenue, but may be unable to achieve the level of growth needed to secure additional funding or attract buyers. Venture equity involves companies with high growth potential, similar to venture capital. Similar to traditional private equity firms, venture equity firms acquire companies and take control in their operation. Venture equity firms invest in sales, marketing and operations in an effort to achieve greater growth.The term \u201cventure equity\u201d, a portmanteau of \u201cventure capital\u201d and \u201cprivate equity\u201d, was coined in 2016 by Ed Byrne, a general partner at the firm Scaleworks.Some of the first firms to use this investment strategy include Scaleworks, Xenon Ventures and Turn/River Capital.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Vertical disintegration refers to a specific organizational form of industrial production. As opposed to vertical integration, in which production occurs within a singular organization, vertical disintegration means that various diseconomies of scale or scope have broken a production process into separate companies, each performing a limited subset of activities required to create a finished product.\nFilmed entertainment was once highly vertically integrated into a studio system whereby a few large studios handled everything from production to theatrical presentation. After the second world war, the industry was broken into small fragments, each specializing on particular tasks within the division of labor required to produce and show a finished piece of filmed entertainment. Hollywood became highly vertically disintegrated, with specialized firms who only performed certain tasks such as editing, special effects, trailers etc. Bell System divestiture had a similar effect on a larger industry later in the 20th century. \nOne major reason for vertical disintegration is to share risk. Also, in some cases, smaller firms can be more responsive to changes in market conditions. Vertical disintegration is thus more likely when operating in volatile markets. Stability and standardized products more typically engender integration, as it provides the benefits of scale economies.\nThe geography of a disintegrated industry is not a given. Economic geographers typically differentiate between knowledge-intensive, volatile, unstandardized activities, and standardized, routinized production. The former tend to be clustered in space, as they require proximity to build a common conceptual framework and share new ideas. The latter can be far flung and are exemplified by global commodity chains such as apparel and automotive industries. Even in those industries however, design and other creative and non-repetitive tasks tend to exhibit some geographical clustering.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In microeconomics, management, and international political economy, vertical integration is an arrangement in which the supply chain of a company is integrated and owned by that company. Usually each member of the supply chain produces a different product or (market-specific) service, and the products combine to satisfy a common need. It is contrasted with horizontal integration, wherein a company produces several items that are related to one another. Vertical integration has also described management styles that bring large portions of the supply chain not only under a common ownership but also into one corporation (as in the 1920s when the Ford River Rouge Complex began making much of its own steel rather than buying it from suppliers).\nVertical integration and expansion is desired because it secures supplies needed by the firm to produce its product and the market needed to sell the product. Vertical integration and expansion can become undesirable when its actions become anti-competitive and impede free competition in an open marketplace. Vertical integration is one method of avoiding the hold-up problem. A monopoly produced through vertical integration is called a vertical monopoly.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A very small business (VSB) is a company that is at the lower end, in terms of size, of companies that are considered small and medium enterprise. The actual definition of what size companies classify as VSBs varies from region to region, but upper limit is usually considered to be 25\u201350 employees.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A Viability study is an in depth investigation of the profitability of the business idea to be converted into a business enterprise.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A virtual business (short: virtubis) employs electronic means to transact business as opposed to a traditional brick and mortar business that relies on face-to-face transactions with physical documents and physical currency or credit.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A virtual office is part of the flexible workspace industry that provides businesses with any combination of services, space and/or technology, without those businesses bearing the capital expenses of owning or leasing a traditional office.\nVirtual office services started in the 1960s as serviced offices and have evolved with technology to include a wide variety of personnel, physical space, digital storage and communication services. Customers pay a contract fee for these services which may be offered \u00e0 la carte, as packages or membership subscription. The concept is popular with companies of all sizes, including self-employed entrepreneurs. One of the primary allures of the virtual office is the flexibility it offers for employees and freelancers to work from a satellite office, home office, remote location or even on-the-go via a mobile device. At the same time, a company can offer its clients and employees a stable home office with access to amenities such as receptionist, conference rooms, desk space, mailboxes, printing and faxing at a permanent address, which are owned and maintained by the virtual office provider or a third party. Virtual office providers may also include digital capital such as cloud storage, web hosting, email and other web-based applications.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A vision statement is an inspirational statement of an idealistic emotional future of a company or group. Vision describes the basic human emotion that a founder intends to be experienced by the people the organization interacts with. It grounds the group so it can actualize some existential impact on the world.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "VRIO is a business analysis framework that forms part of a firm's larger strategic scheme. The basic strategic process that any firm begins with a vision statement, and continues on through objectives, internal & external analysis, strategic choices (both business-level and corporate-level), and strategic implementation. The firm will hope that this process results in a competitive advantage in the marketplace they operate in.\nVRIO falls into the internal analysis step of these procedures, but is used as a framework in evaluating just about all resources and capabilities of a firm, regardless of what phase of the strategic model it falls under.\nVRIO is an initialism for the four question framework asked about a resource or capability to determine its competitive potential: the question of Value, the question of Rarity, the question of Imitability (Ease/Difficulty to Imitate), and the question of Organization (ability to exploit the resource or capability). \n\nThe Question of Value: \"Is the firm able to exploit an opportunity or neutralize an external threat with the resource/capability?\"\nThe Question of Rarity: \"Is control of the resource/capability in the hands of a relative few?\"\nThe Question of Imitability: \"Is it difficult to imitate, and will there be significant cost disadvantage to a firm trying to obtain, develop, or duplicate the resource/capability?\"\nThe Question of Organization: \"Is the firm organized, ready, and able to exploit the resource/capability?\" \"Is the firm organized to capture value?\"\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A window of opportunity (also called a margin of opportunity or critical window) is a period of time during which some action can be taken that will achieve a desired outcome. Once this period is over, or the \"window is closed\", the specified outcome is no longer possible.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The term workload can refer to a number of different yet related entities.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workspace is a term used in various branches of engineering and economic development.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Yield management is a variable pricing strategy, based on understanding, anticipating and influencing consumer behavior in order to maximize revenue or profits from a fixed, time-limited resource (such as airline seats or hotel room reservations or advertising inventory). As a specific, inventory-focused branch of revenue management, yield management involves strategic control of inventory to sell the right product to the right customer at the right time for the right price. This process can result in price discrimination, in which customers consuming identical goods or services are charged different prices. Yield management is a large revenue generator for several major industries; Robert Crandall, former Chairman and CEO of American Airlines, gave yield management its name and has called it \"the single most important technical development in transportation management since we entered deregulation.\"", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Zero Defects (or ZD) is a collaborative programme or philosophy within an organisation, whereby everyone works together towards the ideal goal of there being no defects in quality. As a management-led program to eliminate defects in industrial production, the concept enjoyed brief popularity in American industry from 1964 to the early 1970s. Quality expert Philip Crosby later incorporated it into his \"Absolutes of Quality Management\" and it enjoyed a renaissance in the American automobile industry\u2014as a performance goal more than as a program\u2014in the 1990s. Although applicable to any type of enterprise, it has been primarily adopted within supply chains wherever large volumes of components are being purchased (common items such as nuts and bolts are good examples).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The term zone of possible agreement (ZOPA), also known as zone of potential agreement  or bargaining range, describes the range of options available to two parties involved in sales and negotiation, where the respective minimum targets of the parties overlap. Where no such overlap is given, in other words where there is no rational agreement possibility, the inverse notion of NOPA (no possible agreement) applies. Where there is a ZOPA, an agreement within the zone is rational for both sides. Outside the zone no amount of negotiation should yield an agreement.\n\nAn understanding of the ZOPA is critical for a successful negotiation, but the negotiants must first know their BATNA (best alternative to a negotiated agreement), or \"walk away positions\". To determine whether there is a ZOPA both parties must explore each other's interests and values. This should be done early in the negotiation and be adjusted as more information is learned. Essential is also the ZOPA\u2019s size. Where a broad ZOPA is given, the parties might use strategies and tactics to influence the distribution within the ZOPA. Where the parties have a small ZOPA, the difficulty lies in finding agreeable terms.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Business travel is travel undertaken for work or business purposes, as opposed to other types of travel, such as for leisure purposes or regularly commuting between one's home and workplace.  According to a survey, 88% small business owners enjoy business travel.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Bleisure travel (UK /\u02c8ble\u0292.\u0259\u02b3/ US /\u02c8bli\u02d0.\u0292\u025a/) is a portmanteau of \"business\" and \"leisure\", and, it refers to a trend of business people to add on some sightseeing to a tripThe term bleisure was first published in 2009 by the Future Laboratory as part of their biannual Trend Briefing written by writer Jacob Strand, then a future forecaster working for The Future Laboratory, and journalist and futurologist Miriam Rayman.\nIn corporate business travel, extending a business trip for personal purposes is also known as \"bizcation\"This phenomenon has been studied since 2011, and from this year on, a report shows that bleisure travel has been maintaining a constant growth, accounting for 7% of all business trips.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Christopherson Business Travel is a corporate Travel Management Company headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah and founded in 1953.\nChristopherson is the largest travel agency in Utah, and the largest national travel affiliate of BCD Travel, with US$682 million in annual sales (2018) and more than 480 employees.\nChristopherson owns and operates Andavo Travel, a network of independent vacation travel agents  and All Seasons Sports Travel, which specializes in fan-based travel planning and packages. They also acquired CV Travel, a travel agency focused on humanitarian and faith-based travel.\nThe State of Utah currently lists Christopherson as its Contracted Travel Agency.Christopherson Business Travel developed AirPortal, an integrated travel technology platform that houses the company's proprietary technology, user dashboards, benchmarking and reporting tools, online booking tools, and mobile applications.\nIn 2012, Christopherson Business Travel developed and released AirPortal 360, an intelligent dashboard for travel managers, which grants access to Christopherson's collection of corporate travel management software. The technology was designed to assist in the reduction of corporate travel spend, facilitate duty of care responsibilities, keep track of unused tickets, access traveler profiles, and ensure policy compliance. In conjunction with their AirPortal 360 software release, Christopherson also released, My Travel, a similarly customized dashboard with specific tools for individual business travelers. In 2013, the company developed and released AirPortal 360 Mobile, the first app created for travel managers to manage their travel programs from mobile devices.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "CNN Business Traveller is a monthly television program on CNN International hosted by Richard Quest.\nThe program was launched in 2002 and the program investigates various topics related to business related travel, including airlines, airport lounges, frequent-flyer programs, hotels and the travelling lifestyle.James Williams was also a producer and occasional presenter on the program, before being given his own CNN program in 2016 titled In 24 Hours.In 2016, the program attempted a stunt to fly around the world travelling only on low cost carriers, comparing experiences on each airline and interviewing executives from the carriers over two episodes of CNN Business Traveller. Quest travelled on 10 airlines, through 9 countries across 8 days.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Corporate travel management is the function of managing a company\u2019s strategic approach to travel (travel policy), the negotiations with all vendors, day-to-day operation of the corporate travel program, traveler safety and security, credit-card management and travel and expenses ('T&E') data management.\nCTM should not be confused with the work of a traditional travel agency. While agencies provide the day-to-day travel services to corporate clients, they are the implementing arm of what the corporation has negotiated and put forth in policy. In other words, CTM decides on the class of service which employees are allowed to fly, negotiates corporate fares/rates with airlines and hotels and determines how corporate credit cards are to be used. The agency on the other hand makes the actual reservation within the parameters given by the corporation.\nFor many companies, T&E costs represent the second highest controllable annual expense, exceeded only by salary and benefits, and are commonly higher than IT or real estate costs. T&E costs are not only limited to travel (airline, rail, hotel, car rental, ferry/boat, etc.) but include all costs incurred during travel such as staff and client meals, taxi fares, gratuities, client gifts, supplies (office supplies and services), etc. Furthermore, this area often includes meeting management, traveler safety and security as well as credit card and overall travel data management.\nThe management of these costs is usually handled by the Corporate Travel Manager, a function which may be part of the Finance, HR, Procurement or Administrative Services Department.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "FCM Travel is the corporate travel business of the Flight Centre Travel Group (FCTG). The company is headquartered in Brisbane and operates a network spanning over 100 countries across Europe, Middle East, Africa, Asia Pacific and the Americas.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Business tourism or business travel is a more limited and focused subset of regular tourism. During business tourism (traveling), individuals are still working and being paid, but are doing so away from both their workplace and home.Some definitions of tourism exclude business travel. However, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) defines tourists as people \"traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes\".Primary business tourism activities include meetings, and attending conferences and exhibitions. Despite the term business in business tourism, when individuals from government or non-profit organizations engage in similar activities, this is still categorized as business tourism (travel).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Travel Management Companies (TMCs) are travel agencies that manage organizations' corporate or business travel program. They will often provide an end-user online booking tool, mobile application, program management, and consulting teams, executive travel services, meetings and events support, reporting functionality, and more. Non-Profit Travel Management companies also provide services to manage complex visa requirements, pre-trip medical needs, remote area travel, and immediate disaster relief planning. These companies use Global Distribution Systems (GDS) to book flights for their clients. This allows the travel consultant to compare different itineraries and costs by displaying availability in real-time, allowing users to access fares for air tickets, hotel rooms and rental cars simultaneously.\nSome major TMCs include: SAP Concur, American Express Global Business Travel, Egencia (part of Expedia Group), BCD Group, Carlson Wagonlit Travel, FCM Travel Solutions, Tripactions and Travelperk.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "TravelPerk is a travel management company that sells its services to businesses. It provides travel and expense management services for businesses by automating spending limits and travel policies. It is headquartered in London, Barcelona, Berlin and has raised $134 million in six funding rounds.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A workplace is a location where someone works for their employer or themselves, a place of employment. Such a place can range from a home office to a large office building or factory. For industrialized societies, the workplace is one of the most important social spaces other than the home, constituting \"a central concept for several entities: the worker and [their] family, the employing organization, the customers of the organization, and the society as a whole\". The development of new communication technologies has led to the development of the virtual workplace and remote work.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A 360-degree feedback (also known as multi-rater feedback, multi source feedback, or multi source assessment) is a process through which feedback from an employees subordinates, colleagues, and supervisor(s), as well as a self-evaluation by the employee themselves is gathered. Such feedback can also include, when relevant, feedback from external sources who interact with the employee, such as customers and suppliers or other interested stakeholders. 360-degree feedback is so named because it solicits feedback regarding an employee's behavior from a variety of points of view (subordinate, lateral, and supervisory). It therefore may be contrasted with \"downward feedback\" (traditional feedback on work behavior and performance delivered to subordinates by supervisory or management employees only; see traditional performance appraisal), or \"upward feedback\" delivered to supervisory or management employees by subordinates only.\nOrganizations have most commonly utilized 360-degree feedback for developmental purposes, providing it to employees to assist them in developing work skills and behaviors. However, organizations are increasingly using 360-degree feedback in performance evaluations and employment decisions (e.g., pay; promotions). When 360-degree feedback is used for performance evaluation purposes, it is sometimes called a \"360-degree review\".\nThere is a great deal of debate as to whether 360-degree feedback should be used exclusively for development purposes or for evaluation purposes as well. This is due primarily to feedback providers' subjectivity and motivations, inter-rater variations, and whether feedback providers have the ability to fairly evaluate attainment of work and organizational objectives. While these issues exist when 360-degree feedback is used for development, they are more prominent when employers use them for performance evaluation purposes, as they can unfairly influence employment decisions, and even lead to legal liability.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Absenteeism is a habitual pattern of absence from a duty or obligation without good reason. Generally, absenteeism is unplanned absences. Absenteeism has been viewed as an indicator of poor individual performance, as well as a breach of an implicit contract between employee and employer. It is seen as a management problem, and framed in economic or quasi-economic terms. More recent scholarship seeks to understand absenteeism as an indicator of psychological, medical, or social adjustment to work.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An anti-pattern in software engineering, project management, and business processes is a common response to a recurring problem that is usually ineffective and risks being highly counterproductive. The term, coined in 1995 by computer programmer Andrew Koenig, was inspired by the book Design Patterns (which highlights a number of design patterns in software development that its authors considered to be highly reliable and effective) and first published in his article in the Journal of Object-Oriented Programming.\nA further paper in 1996 presented by Michael Ackroyd at the Object World West Conference also documented anti-patterns.It was, however, the 1998 book AntiPatterns that both popularized the idea and extended its scope beyond the field of software design to include software architecture and project management.\nOther authors have extended it further since to encompass environmental/organizational/cultural anti-patterns.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Computer surveillance in the workplace is the use of computers to monitor activity in a workplace. Computer monitoring is a method of collecting performance data which employers obtain through digitalised employee monitoring. Computer surveillance may nowadays be used alongside traditional security applications, such as closed-circuit television.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is employee behavior that goes against the legitimate interests of an organization. These behaviors can harm organizations or people in organizations including employees and clients, customers, or patients. It has been proposed that a person-by-environment interaction(the relationship between a person's psychological and physical capacities and the demands placed on those capacities by the person's social and physical environment.) can be utilized to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors. For instance, an employee who is high on trait anger (tendency to experience anger) is more likely to respond to a stressful incident at work (e.g., being treated rudely by a supervisor) with CWB.\nSome researchers use the CWB term to subsume related constructs that are distinct. Workplace deviance is behavior at work that violates norms for appropriate behavior. Retaliation consists of harmful behaviors done by employees to get back at someone who has treated them unfairly. Workplace revenge are behaviors by employees intended to hurt another person who has done something harmful to them. Workplace aggression consists of harmful acts that harm others in organizations.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace deviance, in group psychology, may be described as the deliberate (or intentional) desire to cause harm to an organization \u2013 more specifically, a workplace. The concept has become an instrumental component in the field of organizational communication. More accurately, it can be seen as \"voluntary behavior that violates institutionalized norms and in doing so threatens the well-being of the organization\".\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Culture of fear (or climate of fear) is the concept that people may incite fear in the general public to achieve political or workplace goals through emotional bias; it was developed as a sociological framework by Frank Furedi and has been more recently popularized by the American sociologist Barry Glassner.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, discrimination based on hair texture is a form of social injustice that has been predominantly experienced by African Americans and predates the existence of the country. There is no existing federal law that prohibits this form of discrimination, but there have been legislative proposals to do so. In the 21st century, multiple states and local governments have passed laws that prohibit such discrimination, California being the first state to do so in 2019 with the Crown Act.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The business case for diversity stems from the progression of the models of diversity within the workplace since the 1960s. In the United States, the original model for diversity was situated around affirmative action drawing from equal opportunity employment objectives implemented in the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Equal employment opportunity was centered around the idea that any individual academically or physically qualified for a specific job could strive for (and possibly succeed) at obtaining the said job without being discriminated against based on identity. This compliance-based model gave rise to the idea that tokenism was the reason an individual was hired into a company when they differed from the dominant group. Dissatisfaction from minority groups eventually altered and/or raised the desire to achieve perfect employment opportunities in every job.\nThe social justice model evolved next and extended the idea that individuals outside the dominant group should be given opportunities within the workplace, not only because it was instituted as a law,  but because it was the right thing to do. Kevin Sullivan an ex-vice president of Apple Inc. said that \"diversity initiatives must be sold as business, not social work.\" This model still revolved around the idea of tokenism, but it also brought in the notion of hiring based on a \"good fit\".In the deficit model, it is believed that organizations that do not have a strong diversity inclusion culture will invite lower productivity, higher absenteeism, and higher turnover which will result in higher costs to the company. Establishments with more diversity are less likely to have successful unionization attempts.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) is a term most often used to describe a training format in the workplace. DEI training is utilized to encourage functional knowledge of fellow employees' identities and how to navigate diversity in an organization. That said, the concept of DEI has a much broader scope of application. \"Diversity\" describes a wide variety of differences that may exist amongst people in any setting, including race, ethnicity, nationality, gender and sexual identity, disability, neurodiversity, and others. This is the cause of the need for DEI awareness. \"Equity\" is the concept of providing equal opportunities through a personalized approach, utilizing unequal distribution of resources to \"level the playing field.\" Applying equity includes factoring in a variety of disparities within society that affect individuals to varying levels. Equity is the application of principles encapsulated by DEI. \"Inclusion\" details the desired outcome; ensuring that those who fall under the title of \"diverse\" genuinely feel safe, welcome, and included. Inclusion is a step past integration, where diverse individuals blend completely into the environment without a second thought. Due to the complexity of these issues in society, DEI is not simple or cookie-cutter. Though DEI is best known as a form of corporate training, these angles can be explored in a variety of environments, including but not limited to academia, corporate workplaces, schools, and medical spaces.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Divide and rule policy (Latin: divide et impera), or divide and conquer, in politics and sociology is gaining and maintaining power divisively. Historically, this strategy was used in many different ways by empires seeking to expand their territories. However, it has been hard to distinguish between the exploitation of pre-existing divisions by opponents, and the deliberate creation or strengthening of these divisions implied by \"divide and rule\". \nThe strategy, but not the phrase, applies in many ancient cases: the example of Aulus Gabinius exists, parting the Jewish nation into five conventions, reported by Flavius Josephus in Book I, 169\u2013170 of The Jewish War (De bello Judaico). Strabo also reports in Geographica, 8.7.3 that the Achaean League was gradually dissolved when it became part of the Roman province of Macedonia, as the Romans treated the various states differently, wishing to preserve some and to destroy others.Elements of this technique involve:\n\ncreating or encouraging divisions among the subjects to prevent alliances that could challenge the sovereign and distributing forces that they overpower the other.\naiding and promoting those who are willing to cooperate with the sovereign\nfostering distrust and enmity between local rulers\nencouraging meaningless expenditures that reduce the capability for political and military spending\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Emotions in the workplace play a large role in how an entire organization communicates within itself and to the outside world. \"Events at work have real emotional impact on participants. The consequences of emotional states in the workplace, both behaviors and attitudes, have substantial significance for individuals, groups, and society\". \"Positive emotions in the workplace help employees obtain favorable outcomes including achievement, job enrichment and higher quality social context\". \"Negative emotions, such as fear, anger, stress, hostility, sadness, and guilt, however increase the predictability of workplace deviance,\", and how the outside world views the organization.\n\"Emotions normally are associated with specific events or occurrences and are intense enough to disrupt thought processes.\". Moods on the other hand, are more \"generalized feelings or states that are not typically identified with a particular stimulus and not sufficiently intense to interrupt ongoing thought processes\". There can be many consequences for allowing negative emotions to affect your general attitude or mood at work. \"Emotions and emotion management are a prominent feature of organizational life. It is crucial \"to create a publicly observable and desirable emotional display as a part of a job role.\"\"The starting point for modern research on emotion in organizations seems to have been sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild's (1983) seminal book on emotional labor: The Managed Heart\".  Ever since then the study of emotions in the workplace has been seen as a near science, with seminars being held on it and books being writing about it every year to help us understand the role it plays, especially via the Emonet website and Listserv, founded by Neal M. Ashkanasy in 1997.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An employee assistance program (EAP) is an employee benefit program that assists employees with personal problems and/or work-related problems that may impact their job performance, health, mental and emotional well-being. EAPs generally offer free and confidential assessments, short-term counseling, referrals, and follow-up services for employees. EAP counselors may also work in a consultative role with managers and supervisors to address employee and organizational challenges and needs. Many corporations, academic institution and/or government agencies are active in helping organizations prevent and cope with workplace violence, trauma, and other emergency response situations. There is a variety of support programs offered for employees. Even though EAPs are mainly aimed at work-related issues, there are a variety of programs that can assist with problems outside of the workplace. EAPs have grown in popularity over the years, and are more desirable economically and socially.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Employee engagement is a fundamental concept in the effort to understand and describe, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the nature of the relationship between an organization and its employees. An \"engaged employee\" is defined as one who is fully absorbed by and enthusiastic about their work and so takes positive action to further the organization's reputation and interests. An engaged employee has a positive attitude towards the organization and its values. In contrast, a disengaged employee may range from someone doing the bare minimum at work (aka 'coasting'), up to an employee who is actively damaging the company's work output and reputation.\nAn organization with \"high\" employee engagement might therefore be expected to outperform those with \"low\" employee engagement.\nEmployee engagement first appeared as a concept in management theory in the 1990s,\nbecoming widespread in management practice in the 2000s, but it remains contested. It stands in an unspecified relationship to earlier constructs such as morale and job satisfaction. Despite academic critiques, employee engagement practices are well established in the management of human resources and of internal communications.\nEmployee engagement today has become synonymous with terms like 'employee experience' and 'employee satisfaction'. The relevance is much more due to the vast majority of new generation professionals in the workforce who have a higher propensity to be 'distracted' and 'disengaged' at work. A recent survey by StaffConnect suggests that an overwhelming number of enterprise organizations today (74.24%) were planning to improve employee experience in 2018.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Employee experience design (EED or EXD) is the application of experience design in order to intentionally design HR products, services, events, and organizational environments with a focus on the quality of the employee experience whilst providing relevant solutions for an organization. EED is one of the core components of Employee experience management that emphasizes understanding and fulfilling employees' experiential needs.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Employee monitoring is the (often automated) surveillance of workers' activity. Organizations engage in employee monitoring for different reasons such as to track performance, to avoid legal liability, to protect trade secrets, and to address other security concerns. This practice may impact employee satisfaction due to its impact on the employee's privacy. Among organizations, the extent and methods of employee monitoring differ.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Employee recognition is the timely, informal or formal acknowledgement of a person's behavior, effort, or business result that supports the organization's goals and values, and exceeds his superior's normal expectations. Recognition has been held to be a constructive response and a judgment made about a person's contribution, reflecting not just work performance but also personal dedication and engagement on a regular or ad hoc basis, and expressed formally or informally, individually or collectively, privately or publicly, and monetarily or non-monetarily (Brun & Dugas, 2008).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Employee silence refers to situations where employees withhold information that might be useful to the organization of which they are a part, whether intentionally or unintentionally.  This can happen if employees do not speak up to a supervisor or manager.\n\nWithin organizations people often have to make decisions about whether to speak up or remain silent - whether to share or withhold their ideas, opinions, and concerns ... [The problem is that] in many cases, they choose the safe response of silence, withholding input that could be valuable to others or thoughts that they wish they could express.\u2014 Frances J. Milliken and Elizabeth Wolfe Morrison, Shades of Silence: Emerging Themes and Future Directions for Research on Silence in Organizations\n\nThis means the situation is not going to change for the better anytime soon.  Employee silence does not only occur between management and employees, it also occurs during conflict among employees, and as a result of organizational decisions.  This silence keeps managers from receiving information that may help to improve the organization.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Employee surveys are tools used by organizational leadership to gain feedback on and measure employee engagement, employee morale, and performance. Usually answered anonymously, surveys are also used to gain a holistic picture of employees' feelings on such areas as working conditions, supervisory impact, and motivation that regular channels of communication may not. Surveys are considered effective in this regard provided they are well-designed, effectively administered, have validity, and evoke changes and improvements.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Employment discrimination is a form of illegal discrimination in the workplace based on legally protected characteristics. In the U.S., federal anti-discrimination law prohibits discrimination by employers against employees based on age, race, gender, sex (including pregnancy, sexual orientation, and gender identity), religion, national origin, and physical or mental disability. State and local laws often protect additional characteristics such as marital status, veteran status and caregiver/familial status. Earnings differentials or occupational differentiation\u2014where differences in pay come from differences in qualifications or responsibilities\u2014should not be confused with employment discrimination. Discrimination can be intended and involve disparate treatment of a group or be unintended, yet create disparate impact for a group.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the workplace, an evaluation is a tool employers use to review the performance of an employee.\nUsually, the employee's supervisor (and frequently, a more senior manager) is responsible for evaluating the employee. A private conference is often scheduled to discuss the evaluation.\nThe process of an evaluation may include one or more of these things:\n\nAn assessment on how well the employee is doing. Sometimes, this may include a scale rating indicating strengths and weaknesses in key areas (e.g., following instructions, promptness, and ability to get along with others). Often, the supervisor and manager will discuss the key areas. Or, as some have dared to expose, employers often time don't care about following instructions, arriving on time, or the ability to get along with others. Michael Lewis (author), non- fictional author, once wrote about working at a financial institution: \"The bosses rightly cared far more about how much money we squeezed from our customers than how much time we spent squeezing.\"\nEmployee goals that are expected to be met (or have significant progress made) by a set time, such as the next evaluation. Sometimes, the employee may voluntarily offer a goal, while other times it will be set by his boss. A significantly underperforming employee may be given a performance improvement plan, which details specific goals that must be met to maintain their job.\nSharing of feedback by a worker's fellow employees and supervisors. The employee is given his chance to share their feelings, concerns and suggestions about the workplace as well.\nDetails about workplace standing, promotions and pay raises. Sometimes, an employee who has performed very well since his last review period may get an increase in pay or be promoted to a more prestigious position. However, a pay raise that is denied is not always the result of a poor review, as economic conditions and other factors dictate the ability for employers to raise their workers' pay.The frequency of an evaluation, and policies concerning them, varies widely from workplace to workplace. Sometimes, an evaluation will be given to a new employee after a probationary period lapses, after which they may be conducted on a regular basis (such as every year). According to the 2014 Performance Management survey, 96% of employers perform annual performance evaluations and 44% of employers perform a 90-day performance review for new employees.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The feminization of the workplace is the feminization, or the shift in gender roles and sex roles and the incorporation of women into a group or a profession once dominated by men, as it relates to the workplace. It is a set of social theories seeking to explain occupational gender-related discrepancies.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The working environment has gone through a major transformation over the last decades, particularly in terms of population in the workforce. The generations dominating the workforce in 2022 are baby boomers, Generation X, millennials and Generation Z. The coming decades will see further changes with emergence of newer generations, and slower removal of older generations from organisations as pension age is pushed out. Many reports, including a publication by Therese Kinal and Olga Hypponen of Unleash, warn that understanding differences between the generations, and learning to adapt their management practices is critical to building a successful multigenerational workplace.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Gossip is idle talk or rumour, especially about the personal or private affairs of others; the act is also known as dishing or tattling.Gossip is a topic of research in evolutionary psychology, which has found gossip to be an important means for people to monitor cooperative reputations and so maintain widespread indirect reciprocity. Indirect reciprocity is a social interaction in which one actor helps another and is then benefited by a third party. Gossip has also been identified by Robin Dunbar, an evolutionary biologist, as aiding social bonding in large groups.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Despite a large body of positive psychological research into the relationship between happiness and productivity, happiness at work has traditionally been seen as a potential by-product of positive outcomes at work, rather than a pathway to business success. Happiness in the workplace is usually dependent on the work environment. During the past two decades, maintaining a level of happiness at work has become more significant and relevant due to the intensification of work caused by economic uncertainty and increase in competition. Nowadays, happiness is viewed by a growing number of scholars and senior executives as one of the major sources of positive outcomes in the workplace. In fact, companies with higher than average employee happiness exhibit better financial performance and customer satisfaction. It is thus beneficial for companies to create and maintain positive work environments and leadership that will contribute to the happiness of their employees.Happiness is not fundamentally rooted in obtaining sensual pleasures and money, but those factors can influence the well-being of an individual at the workplace. However, extensive research has revealed that freedom and autonomy at a workplace have the most effect on the employee's level of happiness, and other important factors are gaining knowledge and the ability to influence the self's working hours.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Healthy environment is a standard whose registrar is the Bureau de Normalisation du Qu\u00e9bec. The standard aims to recognize companies that have implemented actions of workplace health promotion and workplace wellness.The standard has 5 main requirements :\n\nExecutive engagement in practices that promote health and wellness in the workplace;\nThe institution of a health and wellness committee that collects suggestions from employees;\nPerform a data collection to establish a clear picture of employee health;\nImplement strategies or activities to promote health or prevent disease;\nEvaluate activities that have been implementedTo be recognized a company has to act in at least two of the following areas of action.\n\nHealthy behaviors (mandatory)\nManagement practices\nWorkplace environment\nWork\u2013life balance", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In United States labor law, a hostile work environment exists when one's behavior within a workplace creates an environment that is difficult or uncomfortable for another person to work in, due to illegal discrimination. Common complaints in sexual harassment lawsuits include fondling, suggestive remarks, sexually-suggestive photos displayed in the workplace, use of sexual language, or off-color jokes. Small matters, annoyances, and isolated incidents are usually not considered to be statutory violations of the discrimination laws. For a violation to impose liability, the conduct must create a work environment that would be intimidating, hostile, or offensive to a reasonable person. An employer can be held liable for failing to prevent these workplace conditions, unless it can prove that it attempted to prevent the harassment and that the employee failed to take advantage of existing harassment counter-measures or tools provided by the employer.A hostile work environment may also be created when management acts in a manner designed to make an employee quit in retaliation for some action. For example, if an employee reported safety violations at work, was injured, attempted to join a union, or reported regulatory violations by management, and management's response was to harass and pressure the employee to quit. Employers have tried to force employees to quit by imposing unwarranted discipline, reducing hours, cutting wages, or transferring the complaining employee to a distant work location.\nThe United States Supreme Court stated in Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc. that Title VII is \"not a general civility code\". Thus, federal law does not prohibit simple teasing, offhand comments, or isolated incidents that are not extremely serious. Rather, the conduct must be so objectively offensive as to alter the conditions of the individual's employment. The conditions of employment are altered only if the harassment culminates in a tangible employment action or is sufficiently severe or pervasive.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Leaveism (leavism) is a term first coined in 2013 by Dr Ian Hesketh, a researcher at University of Manchester - in the UK, to describe the phenomena of employees using flexitime, annual leave, rest days and other leave entitlement schemes to have time off when they are in fact too unwell to go to work. He later extended this to include occasions whereby employees took work home and/or on holiday that they could not complete in paid working hours. Hesketh's research, which centred on well-being in the UK police service, sought to identify a gap in current thinking around absenteeism and presenteeism; of which there is a plethora of academic study and commentary. The aim of his studies was to highlight that the true extent of sickness absence may be masked by the practice of leaveism, and that there may be a hidden populace experiencing significant workload overload.\nLeaveism is the practice of:\n\nemployees using allocated time off such as annual leave entitlements, flexi hours banked, re-rostered rest days and so on, to take time off when they are in fact unwell;\nemployees using these leave entitlements to look after dependents, including children and/or elderly relatives;\nemployees taking work home that cannot be completed in normal working hours;\nemployees working while not at work, on leave or holiday to catch up.In a later paper Hesketh et al. explored the relationship of leaveism with aspects of work-life balance, or integration as he preferred to call it; and the extent to which the practice existed amongst senior police officers.In support, research carried out by Gerich (n=930) suggested that fear of job loss or downgrading and low perceived job gratification appeared to increase the likelihood of the first element of leaveism.Findings from a national survey of police officers in the UK carried out in 2016 (n= 16,841) for the Police Federation of England and Wales noted that 59% of respondents had used annual leave, flexi time or rest days to have time away from the workplace due to the state of their physical health, and 42% had done the same due to psychological health conditions. Furthermore, the same survey reported 50% of respondents conceded they had taken work home that could not have completed in normal working hours, and 40% had worked while on holiday or annual leave in order to catch up with outstanding work.On a 2017 study visit to the United States, Hesketh noted a further manifestation in respect of US police patrol officers taking vacation allocations to mask sickness. In some of these cases it was in order to negate complaints or criticisms of working additional duties or employment outside of their police department. A culture of long hours and relatively high wages drove officers to use their own vacation time if suffering ill health to continue on additional paid work that was not as emotionally taxing or physically demanding.\nHesketh and Cooper are currently researching the second aspect of leaveism, associated with using time off such as annual leave, flexitime and other rest day allocations to look after dependents, including both children and elderly relatives; the so-called sandwich generation. The global pandemic of COVID-19 has highlighted this aspect as schools around the world close down in attempts to reduce the spread of the virus. Again, the consequences of this are that employees are vulnerable to workload overload, which may, over time, have major health implications to those individuals. This may also impact on workplace outcomes, such as lost productivity and/or reduced performance and efficiency. This work also looks at the implications for resilience, engagement and discretionary effort which is discussed in depth in Hesketh and Cooper's book Managing Health and Wellbeing in the Public SectorThe CIPD and Simply Health, following research with over 1,000 HR professionals representing 4.6m employees in the UK, reported that 87% considered that technology affected people's ability to switch off out of work hours (element 4 of leaveism), taking phone calls and answering emails were cited by way of example. Further, that 69% had observed leaveism over the last 12 months. A link to the report, Health and Well-being at Work, can be found here. A report by Deloitte in Jan 2020, titled Mental health and employers -  Refreshing the case for investment detailed a 'deep dive' into leaveism. It modelled numerous studies conducted over recent years and highlighted the criticality of the phenomena in understanding employees workplace responses to stress and ill-health. The report concluded that younger employees were more susceptible to leaveism and, as such, required more support. The report also made recommendations about what organisations could practically do to reduce the associated risks of leaveism behaviours. Steps such as setting clear boundaries between work and personal time, enabling policy-driven culture change and encouraging people to take their annual leave allocation to switch off and relax.Leaveism is also cited in the BBC publication aptly named,'The 101 people, ideas and things changing how we work today' published in July 2019.March 2020 saw a distinct change in leaveism behaviours, with the impact of COVID-19 striking hard. Employees isolating and shielding largely ceased to use allocated time off when unwell, element 1 of the practice. Conversely, there appears to be an enormous rise in a version of elements 3 and 4, in that employees are working incredibly long hours on Zoom, Teams, FaceTime and Skype calls without a break. Many seeing their workloads rise exponentially. The National Forum for Health and Wellbeing  noted the propensity for employees to conduct back to back online meetings without a break for very long hours throughout the working day and well beyond. The impact of which inhibits exercise and healthy living generally. They also witnessed employees effectively working from bed when they were unwell. Hesketh & Cooper are currently engaged on a study of these behaviours and will report late 2020.\nIn the CIPD Wellbeing Survey of 2021  the overwhelming majority of respondents (84%) have observed \u2018presenteeism\u2019, both in the workplace (75%) and while working at home (77%), over the past 12 months. Further, seven in ten (70%) have observed some form of \u2018leaveism\u2019, such as working outside contracted hours or using holiday entitlement to work, over the past 12 months.  Whilst it was reported that more organisations are taking steps to address both \u2018presenteeism\u2019 and \u2018leaveism\u2019 compared with last year, although over two-fifths of those experiencing these issues are not taking any action (43% for those experiencing presenteeism; 47% in the case of leaveism).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) is a psychological assessment instrument comprising 22 symptom items pertaining to occupational burnout. The original form of the MBI was developed by Christina Maslach and Susan E. Jackson with the goal of assessing an individual's experience of burnout. As underlined by Schaufeli (2003), a major figure of burnout research, \"the MBI is neither grounded in firm clinical observation nor based on sound theorising. Instead, it has been developed inductively by factor-analysing a rather arbitrary set of items\" (p. 3). The instrument takes 10 minutes to complete. The MBI measures three dimensions of burnout: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment.Following the publication of the MBI in 1981, new versions of the MBI were gradually developed to apply to different groups and different settings. There are now five versions of the MBI: Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS), Human Services Survey for Medical Personnel (MBI-HSS (MP)), Educators Survey (MBI-ES), General Survey (MBI-GS), and General Survey for Students (MBI-GS [S]).Two meta-analyses of primary studies that report sample-specific reliability estimates for the three MBI scales found that emotional exhaustion scale has good enough reliability; however, reliability is problematic regarding depersonalization and personal accomplishment scales. Research based on the job demands-resources (JD-R) model indicates that the emotional exhaustion, the core of burnout, is directly related to demands and inversely related to the extensiveness of resources. The MBI has been validated for human services populations, educator populations, and general work populations.The MBI is often combined with the Areas of Worklife Survey (AWS) to assess levels of burnout and worklife context.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Menopause in the workplace is a social and human resources campaigning issue  in which people work to raise awareness of the impact menopause symptoms can have on attendance and performance in the workplace.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Narcissism in the workplace involves the impact of narcissistic employees and managers in workplace settings.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The O-ring theory of economic development is a model of economic development put forward by Michael Kremer in 1993, which proposes that tasks of production must be executed proficiently together in order for any of them to be of high value. The key feature of this model is positive assortative matching, whereby people with similar skill levels work together.The name comes from the 1986 Challenger shuttle disaster, a catastrophe caused by the failure of a single O-ring.\nKremer thinks that the O-ring development theory explains why rich countries produce more complicated products, have larger firms and much higher worker productivity than poor countries.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Occupational inequality is the unequal treatment of people based on gender, sexuality, height, weight, accent, or race in the workplace. When researchers study trends in occupational inequality they usually focus on distribution or allocation pattern of groups across occupations, for example, the distribution of men compared to women in a certain occupation. Secondly, they focus on the link between occupation and income, for example, comparing the income of whites with blacks in the same occupation.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Occupational injustice derives from the concept of occupational justice, which originated in 1997 with social scientists/ occupational therapists Ann Wilcock of Australia and Elizabeth Townsend of Canada. As a particular application of social justice, occupational injustice occurs when a person is denied, excluded from or deprived of opportunity to pursue meaningful occupations or when unchosen occupations are imposed upon them  thus limiting life satisfaction. The construct of occupational rights stems from human rights but focuses on the inherent right of individuals to participate in occupations, construed as their personally meaningful and goal-directed use of time. Through this participation, occupational rights contribute to fulfillment and self-actualization.\nGroups of people that may be vulnerable to experiencing occupational injustices include cultural, religious, and ethnic minority groups, child labourers, the unemployed, prisoners, persons with substance use disorder, residents of institutions, refugees, and/or women.There are several categories of occupational injustice:\n\nOccupational apartheid occurs when a certain population, generally those who are marginalized, are denied access to participation in occupations due to environmental conditions. Moreover, they are not granted the right to participate in meaningful occupations, thus limiting their health and well-being. This can occur at an individual, community, or societal level. OTs providing interventions within a segregated population must focus on increasing occupational engagement through large-scale environmental modification and occupational exploration. OTs can address occupational engagement through group and individual skill-building opportunities, as well as community-based experiences that explore free and local resources.\nOccupational deprivation evolves over time and results from external factors that prevent an individual from engaging in meaningful occupations.  Occupational deprivation can negatively impact feelings of self-efficacy and identity.  Prisoners represent a population that experiences prolonged occupational deprivation. \u00b7 OTs can help in raising awareness and bringing communities together to reduce occupational deprivation. OTs can recommend removal of environmental barriers to facilitate occupation, while designing programs that enable engagement. Advocacy by providing information to policy to prevent possible unintended occupational deprivation and increase social cohesion and inclusion.\nOccupational marginalization occurs when the decision-making process is taken away from people attempting to participate in occupations. An overarching force places standards on how, where, and when an individual should participate in occupations. Thus, there is not a limit on participation itself, however the choices associated with occupational participation are restricted. A higher power such as government, or managerial policies put restrictions on time, places, policies, laws, and funding, that ultimately limit client choice. OTs can design, develop, and/or provide programs that mitigate the negative impacts of occupational marginalization and enhance optimal levels of performance and wellbeing that enable participation.\nOccupational alienation represents prolonged isolation, disconnectedness, sense of meaninglessness, and emptiness resulting from lack of resources and opportunities to experience enrichment in occupations.  A population vulnerable to experiencing occupational alienation is refugees in confinement who are required to work in unpreferred environments doing unpreferred tasks for little or no wages. OTs can develop individualized activities tailored to the interests of the individual to maximize their potential. OTs can design, develop and promote programs that can be inclusive and provide a variety of choices that the individual can engage in.\nOccupational imbalance occurs when a certain population is unable to reap the benefits of economic production. The underemployed and over-employed are left out of occupations that enrich one's lives. Social and economic segregation occurs, leading to an imbalance in privileges and benefits that are associated with certain occupations of a higher socioeconomic status. OTs can advocate fostering for supportive environments for participation in occupations that promote individuals\u2019 well-being and in advocating for building healthy public policy.\nTerritorial occupational injustice (occupational displacement): represents a negative impact on occupational life that occurs when individuals or groups of people are removed or uprooted from territories of occupational, cultural, or economic significance.The role of occupational therapists working with this population involves advocating for justice to ensure that the occupational rights of clients are fulfilled.  More specifically, this includes ensuring that individuals are given equal opportunities to engage in meaningful occupations. Occupational therapists collaborate with their clients to form goals and objectives that give way to social inclusion, and focus on client-centered therapy in order to allow individuals to participate in occupations of their choosing. Advocacy by practitioners and researchers can include funding for the underprivileged, all-inclusive research that encompasses excluded populations, bringing occupational therapy services to developing countries, and conscious advocacy with schools, transportation systems, government, corrections, higher education, and worldwide systems. Occupational therapists can also address occupational injustices through increasing awareness of injustices, providing occupation-focused services, and promoting collaboration with those experiencing injustices as well as other relevant stakeholders such as community organizations, government programs, or other professionals.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Occupational justice is a particular category of social justice related to the intrinsic need for humans to explore and act on their environments in ways that provide healthy levels of intellectual stimulation, and allow for personal care and safety, subsistence, pleasure, and social participation.\nThe originators of the concept, social scientists and occupational therapists Ann Wilcock of Australia and Elizabeth Townsend of Canada, maintain that abundant research in the social and behavioral sciences demonstrates the adverse consequences of isolation, sensory deprivation, unemployment, incarceration, alienation, and boredom, suggesting that the denial of opportunities to engage in purposeful activities necessary for health and well-being creates a type of social injustice, or occupational deprivation, which has been termed \"occupational injustice.\"  Contemplating a utopian vision of an 'occupationally just' world, the originators of the concept note that while \"social justice addresses the social relations and social conditions of life, occupational justice addresses what people do in their relationships and conditions for living\" (p. 84).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Occupational stress is psychological stress related to one's job. Occupational stress refers to a chronic condition. Occupational stress can be managed by understanding what the stressful conditions at work are and taking steps to remediate those conditions. Occupational stress can occur when workers do not feel supported by supervisors or coworkers, feel as if they have little control over the work they perform, or find that their efforts on the job are incommensurate with the job's rewards. Occupational stress is a concern for both employees and employers because stressful job conditions are related to employees' emotional well-being, physical health, and job performance. A landmark study conducted by the World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization found that exposure to long working hours, which are theorized to operate through increased psycho-social occupational stress, is the occupational risk factor with the largest attributable burden of disease, according to these official estimates causing an estimated 745,000 workers to die from ischemic heart disease and stroke events in 2016.A number of disciplines within psychology are concerned with occupational stress including occupational health psychology, human factors and ergonomics, epidemiology, occupational medicine, sociology, industrial and organizational psychology, and industrial engineering.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Office humor, also often called workplace comedy, is humor  within the workplace, in particular, office, environment.  It is a subject that receives significant attention from students of industrial and organizational psychology and of the sociology of work, as well as in popular culture.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Office landscape (German: B\u00fcrolandschaft/Gro\u00dfraumb\u00fcro) was an early (1950s) movement in open plan office space planning that typically used irregular geometry and organic circulation patterns.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Open allocation refers to a management style in which employees are given a high degree of freedom in choosing what projects to work on, and how to allocate their time. They do not necessarily answer to a single manager, but to the company and their peers. They can transfer between projects regardless of headcount allowances, performance reviews, or tenure at the company, as long as they are providing value to projects that are useful to the business goals of the company. Open allocation has been described as a process of self-organization. Rather than teams and leadership arrangements existing permanently in a company, such relationships form as they are needed (around important projects) and disband when they are no longer necessary. Additionally, open allocation implies that projects are not unilaterally created and staffed by executive mandate. Rather, the person forming the project (who might not be an official manager) is responsible for convincing others to invest their time, energy, and careers into the effort.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Organizational network analysis (ONA) is a method for studying communication and socio-technical networks within a formal organization. This technique creates statistical and graphical models of the people, tasks, groups, knowledge and resources of organizational systems. It is based on social network theory and more specifically, dynamic network analysis.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A packed lunch (also called pack lunch, sack lunch or brown-bag lunch in North America) is a lunch which is prepared before arriving at the place where it is to be eaten. Typically it is prepared at home or at a hotel, or produced commercially for sale in vending machines (especially in Japan) or at convenience stores. They are often eaten in a school or workplace, or on an outing.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A performance appraisal, also referred to as a performance review, performance evaluation, (career) development discussion, or employee appraisal, sometimes shortened to \"PA\", is a periodic and systematic process whereby the job performance of an employee is documented and evaluated. Performance appraisals are a part of career development and consist of regular reviews of employee performance within organizations.\nPerformance appraisals are most often conducted by an employee's immediate manager or line manager. While extensively practiced, annual performance reviews have also been criticized  as providing feedback too infrequently to be useful, and some critics argue that performance reviews in general do more harm than good. It is an element of the principal-agent framework, that describes the relationship of information between the employer and employee, and in this case the direct effect and response received when a performance review is conducted.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In a workplace setting, probation (or a probationary period) is a status given to new employees and trainees of a company, business, or organization. This status allows a supervisor, training official, or manager to evaluate the progress and skills of the newly-hired employee, determine appropriate assignments, and monitor other aspects of the employee such as honesty, reliability, and interactions with co-workers, supervisors, or the public.\nProbation is often done in companies and businesses, but similar programs are also done in other organizations such as churches, associations, clubs, or orders, where members must gain experience before becoming full-fledged members. Similar practices can be seen in emergency services, using programs such as a field training program (also called probation).\nA probationary period varies widely depending on the organization, but can last anywhere from 30 days to several years. In cases of several years, probationary levels may change as time goes on. If the employee shows promise and does well during the probationary period, they are usually removed from probationary status, and may also be given a raise or promotion (in addition to other privileges, as defined by the organization). Probation is usually defined in an organization's employee handbook, typically given to workers when they first begin a job.\nThe probationary period allows an employer to terminate an employee who is not doing well at their job or is otherwise deemed not suitable for a particular position or any position. Whether or not this empowers employers to abuse their employees by, without warning, terminating their contract before the probation period has ended, is open for debate. To avoid problems arising from the termination of a new employee, some organizations have waived probationary periods entirely, and instead conduct multiple interviews of the candidate, under a variety of conditions, before making the decision to hire.\nThe placement of an employee on probationary status is usually at the discretion of their manager.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Industrial and organizational psychology (I-O psychology), an applied discipline within psychology, is the science of human behavior in the workplace. Depending on the country or region of the world, I-O psychology is also known as occupational psychology in the United Kingdom, organizational psychology in Australia and New Zealand, and work and organizational (WO) psychology throughout Europe and Brazil. Industrial, work, and organizational psychology (IWO) psychology is the broader, more global term for the science and profession.I-O psychologists are trained in the scientist\u2013practitioner model. As an applied field, the discipline involves both research and practice and I-O psychologists apply psychological theories and principles to organizations and the individuals within them. They contribute to an organization's success by improving the job performance, wellbeing, motivation, job satisfaction and the health and safety of employees.An I-O psychologist conducts research on employee behaviors and attitudes, and how these can be improved through recruitment processes, training programs, feedback, and management systems. I-O psychology research and practice also includes the work\u2013nonwork interface such as selecting and transitioning into a new career, retirement, and work-family conflict and balance.I-O psychology is one of the 17 recognized professional specialties by the American Psychological Association (APA). In the United States the profession is represented by Division 14 of the APA and is formally known as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). Similar I-O psychology societies can be found in many countries.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The presence of psychopathy in the workplace\u2014although psychopaths typically represent a relatively small percentage of workplace staff\u2014can do enormous damage when in senior management roles. Psychopaths are usually most common at higher levels of corporate organizations and their actions often cause a ripple effect throughout an organization, setting the tone for an entire corporate culture. Examples of detrimental effects are increased bullying, conflict, stress, staff turnover and absenteeism; reduction in productivity and in social responsibility. Ethical standards of entire organisations can be badly damaged if a corporate psychopath is in charge. A 2017 UK study found that companies with leaders who show \"psychopathic characteristics\" destroy shareholder value, tending to have poor future returns on equity.Academics refer to psychopaths in the workplace individually variously as workplace psychopaths, executive psychopaths, corporate psychopaths, business psychopaths, successful psychopaths, office psychopaths, white-collar psychopaths, industrial psychopaths, organizational psychopaths or occupational psychopaths. Criminal psychologist Robert D. Hare coined the term \"Snakes in Suits\" as a synonym for workplace psychopaths.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Quality of working life (QWL) describes a person's broader employment-related experience. Various authors and researchers have proposed models of quality of working life \u2013 also referred to as quality of worklife \u2013 which include a wide range of factors, sometimes classified as \"motivator factors\" which if present can make the job experience a positive one, and \"hygiene factors\" which if lacking are more associated with dissatisfaction. A number of rating scales have been developed aiming to measure overall quality of working life or certain aspects thereof. Some publications have drawn attention to the importance of QWL for both employees and employers, and also for national economic performance.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A rat race is an endless, self-defeating, or pointless pursuit. The phrase equates humans to rats attempting to earn a reward such as cheese, in vain. It may also refer to a competitive struggle to get ahead financially or routinely.\nThe term is commonly associated with an exhausting, repetitive lifestyle that leaves no time for relaxation or enjoyment.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Resistance (also referred to as backlash) to diversity efforts in organizations is a well-established and ubiquitous phenomenon that may be characterized by thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that undermine the success of diversity-related organizational change initiatives to recruit or retain diverse personnel. The use of such initiatives may be referred to as diversity management. Scholars note the presence of resistance to diversity before and after the civil rights movement; as pressures for diversity and social change increased in the 1960s, dominant group members (i.e. Whites) faced workplace concerns over displacement by minorities.In the workforce, resistance to diversity is often studied as resistance to organizational change, which can be construed as hostile and intentional, as well as a subtler occurrence. Some scholars have deemed the \"resistance perspective\" as reactive, highlighting psychological and behavioral consequences such as denial, avoidance, defiance or manipulation that serve to maintain the status quo. Other scholars define resistance to diversity as the behavior of both individuals and organizations that may undermine diversity-driven opportunities for \"learning and effectiveness\", whether intentional or not.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Role conflict occurs when there are incompatible demands placed upon a person relating to their job or position. People experience role conflict when they find themselves pulled in various directions as they try to respond to the many statuses they hold. Role conflict can be something that can be for either a short period of time, or a long period of time, and it can also be connected to situational experiences.Intra-role conflict occurs when the demands are within a single domain of life, such as on the job. An example would be when two superiors ask an employee to do a task, and both cannot be accomplished at the same time. Inter-role conflict occurs across domains of life. An example of inter-role conflict would be a husband and father who is also Chief of Police. If a tornado strikes the small town he is living in, the man has to decide if he should go home and be with his family and fulfill the role of being a good husband and father or remain and fulfill the duties of a \"good\" Chief of Police because the whole town needs his expertise.\"Conflict among the roles begins because of the human desire to reach success, and because of the pressure put on an individual by two imposing and incompatible demands competing against each other. The effects of role conflict, as found through case-studies and nationwide surveys, are related to individual personality characteristics and interpersonal relations. Individual personality characteristic conflicts can arise within personality role conflict where \"aspects of an individual's personality are in conflict with other aspects of that same individual's personality\". Interpersonal relations can cause conflict because they are by definition \"having an association between two or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring, which can cause that conflict.\"\nExample: \"People in modern, high-income countries juggle many responsibilities demanded by their various statuses and roles.  As most mothers can testify both parenting and working outside the home are physically and emotionally draining.  Sociologists thus recognize role conflict as conflict among the roles corresponding to two or more statuses\".:\u200a90\u200aThe discipline of group dynamics in psychology recognizes role conflict within a group setting.  Members of a group may feel that they are responsible for more than one role within this setting and that these roles may become disagreeable with each other.  When the expectations of two or more roles are incompatible, role conflict exists.  For example, a supervisor at a factory may feel strain due to his or her role as friend and mentor to the subordinate employees, while having to exhibit a stern and professional watchful eye over the employees.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Rowac (acronym for Robert Wagner Chemnitz) was a hardware factory founded by Carl Robert Wagner in 1888 in Chemnitz, Germany which most notably produced furniture for industrial use. Carl Robert Wagner is regarded as the inventor of the steel stool, which among other things was chosen for the workshops and classrooms of the Bauhaus Dessau. Today, mainly stools, chairs and cabinets carrying the Rowac name are traded as antiques.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Social undermining is the expression of negative emotions directed towards a particular person or negative evaluations of the person as a way to prevent the person from achieving their goals.\nThis behavior can often be attributed to certain feelings, such as dislike or anger. The negative evaluation of the person may involve criticizing their actions, efforts or characteristics. Social undermining is seen in relationships between family members, friends, personal relationships and co-workers. Social undermining can affect a person's mental health, including an increase in depressive symptoms. This behavior is only considered social undermining if the person's perceived action is intended to hinder their target. When social undermining is seen in the work environment the behavior is used to hinder the co-worker's ability to establish and maintain a positive interpersonal relationship, success and a good reputation. Examples of how an employee can use social undermining in the work environment are behaviors that are used to delay the work of co-workers, to make them look bad or slow them down, competing with co-workers to gain status and recognition and giving co-workers incorrect or even misleading information about a particular job.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Total Worker Health is a trademarked strategy defined as policies, programs, and practices that integrate protection from work-related safety and health hazards with promotion of injury and illness prevention efforts to advance worker well-being. It was conceived and is funded by the  National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Total Worker Health is tested and developed in six Centers of Excellence for Total Worker Health in the United States.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A \u201ctoxic workplace\u201d is a colloquial term used to describe a place of work, usually an office environment, that is marked by significant personal conflicts between those who work there. Such infighting can often harm productivity. Toxic workplaces are often considered the result of toxic employers and/or toxic employees who are motivated by personal gain (power, money, fame or special status), use unethical means to psychologically manipulate and annoy those around them; and whose motives are to maintain or increase power, money or special status or divert attention away from their performance shortfalls and misdeeds. Toxic workers do not recognize a duty to the organization for which they work or their co-workers in terms of ethics or professional conduct toward others. Toxic workers define relationships with co-workers, not by organizational structure but by co-workers they favour and those they do not like or trust.Quite similarly, Harder et al. (2014) define a toxic work environment as an environment that negatively impacts the viability of an organization. They specify: \"It is reasonable to conclude that an organization can be considered toxic if it is ineffective as well as destructive to its employees\".\nIn the United States, the issue of workplace bullying is getting increasing attention from state governments; twenty-six states have introduced a version of the Healthy Workplace Bill which provides a definition of this conduct and support for employers to address the behavior through discipline.Studies by National Occupational Safety and Health found toxic workplace environments a leading cause of workplace violence such as \"violent acts, including physical assaults and threats of assault, directed toward persons at work or on duty.\" Studies on this issue include verbal violence (threats, verbal abuse, hostility, harassment, and the like) can cause significant psychological trauma and stress, even if no physical injury takes place. Verbal assaults and hostility can also escalate to physical violence.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the context of human resources, turnover is the act of replacing an employee with a new employee. Partings between organizations and employees may consist of termination, retirement, death, interagency transfers, and resignations. An organization\u2019s turnover is measured as a percentage rate, which is referred to as its turnover rate. Turnover rate is the percentage of employees in a workforce that leave during a certain period of time. Organizations and industries as a whole measure their turnover rate during a fiscal or calendar year.If an employer is said to have a high turnover rate relative to its competitors, it means that employees of that company have a shorter average tenure than those of other companies in the same industry. High turnover may be harmful to a company's productivity if skilled workers are often leaving and the worker population contains a high percentage of novices. Companies will often track turnover internally across departments, divisions, or other demographic groups, such as turnover of women versus men. Additionally, companies track voluntary turnover more accurately by presenting parting employees with surveys, thus identifying specific reasons as to why they may be choosing to resign.\nMany organizations have discovered that turnover is reduced significantly when issues affecting employees are addressed immediately and professionally. Companies try to reduce employee turnover rates by offering benefits such as paid sick days, paid holidays and flexible schedules.\nIn the United States, the average total of non-farm seasonally adjusted monthly turnover was 3.3% for the period from December 2000 to November 2008. However, rates vary widely when compared over different periods of time and with different job sectors. For example, during the 2001-2006 period, the annual turnover rate for all industry sectors averaged 39.6% prior to seasonal adjustments, while the Leisure and Hospitality sector experienced an average annual rate of 74.6% during this same period. External factors, such as financial needs and work-family balances due to environmental changes (e.g. economic crisis), can also lead to increased turnover rate.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Violence and Harassment Convention, formally the Convention concerning the elimination of violence and harassment in the world of work is a convention to \"recognize the right of everyone to a world of work free from violence and harassment, including gender-based violence and harassment\". It is the 190th ILO convention (code C190) and was adopted during the 108th session of the International Labour Organization. It entered into force on 25 June 2021, upon ratification of Fiji and Uruguay. Five other countries (Argentina, Ecuador, Greece, Mauritius, Namibia and Somalia) have deposited their instrument of ratification, but the convention only enters into force 1 year after ratification.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A virtual workplace is a workplace that is not located in any one physical space. It is usually a network of several workplaces technologically connected (via a private network or the Internet) without regard to geographic boundaries. Employees are thus able to interact in a collaborative working environment  regardless of where they are located. A virtual workplace integrates hardware, people, and online processes.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Wing is a women-focused, co-working space collective and proprietary club with offices in New York City, Washington, D.C., San Francisco, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Boston. It was founded by Audrey Gelman and Lauren Kassan in 2016. As of July 2019, the club has about 10,000 members. At its peak The Wing had eleven locations in two countries; as of 2021 there were seven branches in the USA.\nThe Wing initially only accepted people who identify as women or non-binary, but to comply with non-discrimination laws now accepts people of any gender identity.After complaints about how The Wing failed to address racist behavior of its members, and an employee walkout, Gelman stepped down as CEO in June 2020.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Work behavior is the behavior one uses in employment and is normally more formal than other types of human behavior. This varies from profession to profession, as some are far more casual than others. For example, a computer programmer would usually have far more leeway in their work behavior than a lawyer.\nPeople are usually more careful than outside work in how they behave around their colleagues, as many actions intended to be in jest can be perceived as inappropriate or even harassment in the work environment. In some cases, men may take considerably more care so as not to be perceived as being sexually harassing than they would ordinarily.\nWork behavior is one of the significant aspects of Human Behavior. It is an individual's communication towards the rest of the members of the work place. It involves both verbal as well as non-verbal mode of communication. For example, trust is a non-verbal behavior which is often reflected by a verbal communication at a work place. It represents your attitude towards your team and colleagues. A positive and good work behavior of an individual leads to higher performance, productivity and great outputs by the team or an individual. From the organizational perspective it is the most important area where Human Resource managers should focus.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Work engagement is the \"harnessing of organization member's selves to their work roles: in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, emotionally and mentally during role performances\".:\u200a694\u200a Three aspects of work motivation are cognitive, emotional and physical engagement.There are two schools of thought with regard to the definition of work engagement. On the one hand Maslach and Leiter assume that a continuum exists with burnout and engagement as two opposite poles. The second school of thought operationalizes engagement in its own right as the positive antithesis of burnout. According to this approach, work engagement is defined as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption. Vigor is characterized by high levels of energy and mental resilience while working, the willingness to invest effort in one's work, and persistence even in the face of difficulties; dedication by being strongly involved in one's work, and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenge; and absorption by being fully concentrated and happily engrossed in one's work, whereby time passes quickly and one has difficulties with detaching oneself from work.Organizations need energetic and dedicated employees: people who are engaged with their work. These organizations expect proactivity, initiative and responsibility for personal development from their employees.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Work etiquette is a code that governs the expectations of social behavior in a workplace. This code is put in place to \"respect and protect time, people, and processes.\" There is no universal agreement about a standard work etiquette, which may vary from one environment to another. Work etiquette includes a wide range of aspects such as body language, good behavior, appropriate use of technology, etc. Part of office etiquette is working well with others and communicating effectively.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Work motivation \"is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual's being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration.\" Understanding what motivates an organization's employees is central to the study of I\u2013O psychology. Motivation is a person's internal disposition to be concerned with and approach positive incentives and avoid negative incentives. To further this, an incentive is the anticipated reward or aversive event available in the environment. While motivation can often be used as a tool to help predict behavior, it varies greatly among individuals and must often be combined with ability and environmental factors to actually influence behavior and performance. Results from a 2012 study, which examined age-related differences in work motivation, suggest a \"shift in people's motives\" rather than a general decline in motivation with age. That is, it seemed that older employees were less motivated by extrinsically related features of a job, but more by intrinsically rewarding job features. Work motivation is strongly influenced by certain cultural characteristics. Between countries with comparable levels of economic development, collectivist countries tend to have higher levels of work motivation than do countries that tend toward individualism. Similarly measured, higher levels of work motivation can be found in countries that exhibit a long versus a short-term orientation. Also, while national income is not itself a strong predictor of work motivation, indicators that describe a nation's economic strength and stability, such as life expectancy, are. Work motivation decreases as a nation's long-term economic strength increases. Currently work motivation research has explored motivation that may not be consciously driven. This method goal setting is referred to as goal priming. Effects of primed subconscious goals in addition to goals that are consciously set related to job performance have been studied by Stajkovic, Latham, Sergent, and Peterson, who conducted research on a CEO of a for-profit business organization using goal priming to motivate job performance. Goal priming refers to the achievement of a goal by external cues given. These cues can affect information processing and behaviour the pursuit of this goal. In this study, the goal was primed by the CEO using achievement related words strategy placed in emails to employees. This seemingly small gesture alone not only cost the CEO very little money, but it increased objectively measured performance efficiency by 35%  and effectiveness by 15% over the course of a 5-day work week. There has been controversy about the true efficacy of this work as to date, only four goal priming experiments have been conducted. However, the results of these studies found support for the hypothesis that primed goals do enhance performance in a for-profit business organization setting.It is important for organizations to understand and to structure the work environment to encourage productive behaviors and discourage those that are unproductive given work motivation's role in influencing workplace behavior and performance. Motivational systems are at the center of behavioral organization. Emmons states, \u201cBehavior is a discrepancy-reduction process, whereby individuals act to minimize the discrepancy between their present condition and a desired standard or goal\u201d (1999, p. 28).  If we look at this from the standpoint of how leaders can motivate their followers to enhance their performance, participation in any organization involves exercising choice; a person chooses among alternatives, responding to the motivation to perform or ignore what is offered. This suggests that a follower's consideration of personal interests and the desire to expand knowledge and skill has significant motivational impact, requiring the leader to consider motivating strategies to enhance performance. There is general consensus that motivation involves three psychological processes: arousal, direction, and intensity. Arousal is what initiates action. It is fueled by a person's need or desire for something that is missing from their lives at a given moment, either totally or partially. Direction refers to the path employees take in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves. Finally, intensity is the vigor and amount of energy employees put into this goal-directed work performance. The level of intensity is based on the importance and difficulty of the goal. These psychological processes result in four outcomes.  First, motivation serves to direct attention, focusing on particular issues, people, tasks, etc. It also serves to stimulate an employee to put forth effort. Next, motivation results in persistence, preventing one from deviating from the goal-seeking behavior. Finally, motivation results in task strategies, which as defined by Mitchell & Daniels, are \"patterns of behavior produced to reach a particular goal.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Historically, \"work spouse\" is a phrase, mostly in American English, referring to a co-worker, with whom one shares a special relationship, having bonds similar to those of a marriage. Early references suggest that a work spouse may not just be a co-worker, but can also be someone in a similar field who the individual works closely with from a partnering company. \nA work spouse has been defined as \u201ca special, platonic friendship with a work colleague characterized by a close emotional bond, high levels of disclosure and support, and mutual trust, honesty, loyalty, and respect\u201d.A \"work spouse\" is also referred to as \"workplace spouse\", \"work wife\", or \"office husband\", \"work husband\", or \"wusband\".\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Work\u2013family conflict occurs when an individual experiences incompatible demands between work and family roles, causing participation in both roles to become more difficult. This imbalance creates conflict at the work-life interface.\nIt is important for organizations and individuals to understand the implications linked to work-family conflict. In certain cases, work\u2013family conflict has been associated with increased occupational burnout, job stress, decreased health, and issues pertaining to organizational commitment and job performance.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Work\u2013family enrichment or work\u2013family facilitation refers to a process at the work-life interface whereby experience or participation in one role increases the quality or performance in the other role.\nEnrichment of facilitation can occur when involvement in one role leads to benefits, resources, and/or personality enrichment which then may improve performance or involvement in the other role. Enrichment can occur bi-directionally such as work-family enrichment or family-work enrichment. Work\u2013family enrichment occurs when involvement in work provides benefits such as skill growth, or changing of mood to be more positive, which has a positive effect on the family. Family-work enrichment occurs when involvement within the family results in the creation of a positive mood, feeling of support, or feeling of success which can help that individual to cope better, more efficient, more confidence, or recharged for one's role at work.\nWork\u2013family enrichment has been shown to affect a range of outcomes including, but not limited to, job and family satisfaction.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace aggression is a specific type of aggression which occurs in the workplace. Workplace aggression can include a wide range of behaviors, ranging from verbal acts (e.g., insulting someone or spreading rumors) to physical attacks (e.g., punching or slapping). Workplace aggression can decrease the ability of a person to do their job well, lead to physical declines in health and mental health problems, and can also change the way a person behaves at their home and in public. If someone is experiencing aggression at work, it may result in an increase in missed days (absence from work) and some may decide to leave their positions.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace democracy is the application of democracy in various forms (examples include voting systems, debates,  democratic structuring, due process, adversarial process, systems of appeal) to the workplace. It can be implemented in a variety of ways, depending on the size, culture, and other variables of an organization.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace deviance, in group psychology, may be described as the deliberate (or intentional) desire to cause harm to an organization \u2013 more specifically, a workplace. The concept has become an instrumental component in the field of organizational communication. More accurately, it can be seen as \"voluntary behavior that violates institutionalized norms and in doing so threatens the well-being of the organization\".\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Gossip is idle talk or rumour, especially about the personal or private affairs of others; the act is also known as dishing or tattling.Gossip is a topic of research in evolutionary psychology, which has found gossip to be an important means for people to monitor cooperative reputations and so maintain widespread indirect reciprocity. Indirect reciprocity is a social interaction in which one actor helps another and is then benefited by a third party. Gossip has also been identified by Robin Dunbar, an evolutionary biologist, as aiding social bonding in large groups.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace harassment is the belittling or threatening behavior directed at an individual worker or a group of workers.Recently, matters of workplace harassment have gained interest among practitioners and researchers as it is becoming one of the most sensitive areas of effective workplace management, because a significant source of work stress is associated with aggressive behaviors at workplace. In Asian countries, workplace harassment is one of the poorly attended issues by managers in organizations. However, it attracted much attention from researchers and governments since the 1980s. Under occupational health and safety laws around the world, workplace harassment and workplace bullying are identified as being core psychosocial hazards. Overbearing supervision, constant criticism, and blocking promotions are all considered workplace harassment.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace health surveillance or occupational health surveillance (U.S.) is the ongoing systematic collection, analysis, and dissemination of exposure and health data on groups of workers. The Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health at its 12th Session in 1995 defined an occupational health surveillance system as \"a system which includes a functional capacity for data collection, analysis and dissemination linked to occupational health programmes\".The concept is new to occupational health and is frequently confused with medical screening. Health screening refers to the early detection and treatment of diseases associated with particular occupations, while workplace health surveillance refers to the removal of the causative factors.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace incivility has been defined as low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target. Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others. The authors hypothesize there is an \"incivility spiral\" in the workplace made worse by \"asymmetric global interaction\".Incivility is distinct from aggression. The reduction of workplace incivility is an area for ongoing industrial and organizational psychology research.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Occupational health psychology (OHP) is an interdisciplinary area of psychology that is concerned with the health and safety of workers. OHP addresses a number of major topic areas including the impact of occupational stressors on physical and mental health, the impact of involuntary unemployment on physical and mental health, work-family balance, workplace violence and other forms of mistreatment, psychosocial workplace factors that affect accident risk and safety, and interventions designed to improve and/or protect worker health. Although OHP emerged from two distinct disciplines within applied psychology, namely, health psychology and industrial and organizational psychology, for a long time the psychology establishment, including leaders of industrial/organizational psychology, rarely dealt with occupational stress and employee health, creating a need for the emergence of OHP. OHP has also been informed by other disciplines, including occupational medicine, sociology, industrial engineering, and economics, as well as preventive medicine and public health. OHP is thus concerned with the relationship of psychosocial workplace factors to the development, maintenance, and promotion of workers' health and that of their families. The World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization estimate that exposure to long working hours causes an estimated 745,000 workers to die from ischemic heart disease and stroke in 2016, mediated by occupational stress.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace listening is a type of active listening that is generally employed in a professional environment. Listening skills are imperative for career success, organizational effectiveness, and worker satisfaction. Workplace listening includes understanding the listening process (i.e. perception, interpretation, evaluation, and action) and its barriers that hamper the flow of that process. Like other skills, there are specific techniques for improving workplace listening effectiveness. Moreover, it is imperative to become aware of the role of nonverbal communication in communicating in the workplace, as understanding messages wholly entails more than simple verbal messages.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Mobbing, as a sociological term, means bullying of an individual by a group, in any context, such as a family, peer group, school, workplace, neighborhood, community, or online. When it occurs as physical and emotional abuse in the workplace, such as \"ganging up\" by co-workers, subordinates or superiors, to force someone out of the workplace through rumor, innuendo, intimidation, humiliation, discrediting, and isolation, it is also referred to as malicious, nonsexual, non-racial/racial, general harassment.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Employee morale or workspace morale is the morale of employees in workspace environment. It is proven to have a direct effect on productivity.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace politics is the process and behavior that in human interactions involves power and authority. It is also a tool to assess the operational capacity and to balance diverse views of interested parties. It is also known as office politics and organizational politics.\nIt involves the use of power and social networking within a workplace to achieve changes that benefit the organization or individuals within it. \"Organizational politics are self-serving behaviors\" that \"employees use to increase the probability of obtaining positive outcomes in organizations\". Influence by individuals may serve personal interests without regard to their effect on the organization itself. Some of the personal advantages may include:\n\naccess to tangible assets\nor intangible benefits such as status\npseudo-authority that influences the behavior of othersPositive politics are behaviors that are designed to influence others with the goal of helping both the organization and the person playing the politics.\nExamples of positive politics include portraying a professional image, publicizing one's accomplishments, volunteering, and complimenting others.\nOn the other hand, organizational politics can increase efficiency, form interpersonal relationships, expedite change, and profit the organization and its members simultaneously.\nBoth individuals and groups may engage in office politics which can be highly destructive, as people focus on personal gains at the expense of the organization. \"Self-serving political actions can negatively influence our social groupings, cooperation, information sharing, and many other organizational functions.\" Thus it is vital to pay attention to organizational politics and create the right political landscape. Negative politics are designed to achieve personal gain at the expense of others and the organization.\nExamples of negative politics are spreading rumors, talking behind someone\u2019s back, and not telling someone important information.\n\"Politics is the lubricant that oils your organization's internal gears.\"  John Eldred has characterized politics as \"simply how power gets worked out on a practical, day-to-day basis.\"Psychologist Oliver James identifies the dark triadic personality traits (psychopathy, narcissism and Machiavellianism) as of central significance in understanding office politics.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace privacy is related with various ways of accessing, controlling, and monitoring employees' information in a working environment. Employees typically must relinquish some of their privacy while in the workplace, but how much they must do can be a contentious issue. The debate rages on as to whether it is moral, ethical and legal for employers to monitor the actions of their employees. Employers believe that monitoring is necessary both to discourage illicit activity and to limit liability. With this problem of monitoring employees, many are experiencing a negative effect on emotional and physical stress including fatigue, lowered employee morale and lack of motivation within the workplace. Employers might choose to monitor employee activities using surveillance cameras, or may wish to record employees activities while using company-owned computers or telephones. Courts are finding that disputes between workplace privacy and freedom are being complicated with the advancement of technology as traditional rules that govern areas of privacy law are debatable and becoming less important.Workplace privacy of employees also involves privacy of using approved websites on firm computers without monitoring. Workplace privacy involves the employer putting in the effort to protect employee privacy from both within the firm and outside the firm.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace relationships are unique interpersonal relationships with important implications for the individuals in those relationships, and the organizations in which the relationships exist and develop.Workplace relationships directly affect a worker's ability and drive to succeed. These connections are multifaceted, can exist in and out of the organization, and can be both positive and negative. One such detriment lies in the nonexistence of workplace relationships, which can lead to feelings of loneliness and social isolation. Workplace relationships are not limited to friendships, but also include superior-subordinate,  romantic, and family relationships.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace revenge refers to the general action of purposeful retaliation within the workplace in an attempt to seek silence the victim and avoid accountability.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace robotics safety is an aspect of occupational safety and health when robots are used in the workplace.  This includes traditional industrial robots as well as emerging technologies such as drone aircraft and wearable robotic exoskeletons.  Types of accidents include collisions, crushing, and injuries from mechanical parts.  Hazard controls include physical barriers, good work practices, and proper maintenance. Previous research showed that robot application is associated with an increase in the rate of occupational injuries in the first two years, and then becomes insignificant and even negative afterwards. Local governments can reduce or even eliminate the effect of robot application on occupational injuries by strengthening safety regulations. In addition, although local governments are keen on pushing robot application and industrial intelligence, the wide application of robots may impose a burden on the public health expenditure of local governments due to occupational injuries.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace spirituality or spirituality in the workplace is a movement that began in the early 1920s.  It emerged as a grassroots movement with individuals seeking to live their faith and/or spiritual values in the workplace.  Spiritual or spirit-centered leadership is a topic of inquiry frequently associated with the workplace spirituality movement.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace Strategy is the dynamic alignment of an organization\u2019s work patterns with the work environment to enable peak performance and reduce costs.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Workplace wellness, known as 'corporate wellbeing' outside the US, is a broad term used to describe activities, programs, and/or organizational policies designed to support healthy behavior in the workplace. This often involves health education, medical screenings, weight management programs, and onsite fitness programs or facilities. Recent developments in wearable health technology have led to a rise in self-tracking devices as workplace wellness. Other common examples of workplace wellness organizational policies include allowing flex-time for exercise, providing onsite kitchen and eating areas, offering healthy food options in vending machines, holding \"walk and talk\" meetings, and offering financial and other incentives for participation. Over time, workplace wellness has expanded from single health promotion interventions to describe a larger project intended to create a healthier working environment.\nCompanies most commonly subsidize workplace wellness programs in the hope that they will save money on employee health benefits like health insurance in the long run.  Although the academic debate is still unsettled, existing research has failed to establish a clinically significant difference in health outcomes, prove a return on investment, or demonstrate causal effects of treatments. The largest benefits have been observed in groups that were already attempting to manage health concerns, which indicates a strong possibility of selection bias. Additionally, this rationale has been critiqued for conflating productivity with physical and emotional wellbeing and prioritizing profit-centric measures over genuine attempts to create a healthy workplace environment.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "10,000 Women is a program organized by Goldman Sachs and the Goldman Sachs Foundation with the goal of helping to grow local economies by providing business education, mentoring and networking, and access to capital to underserved women entrepreneurs globally. The program was announced on March 5, 2008, at Columbia University. The initiative is one of the largest philanthropic projects the bank has been involved with. The program was in its initial years run by Dina Habib Powell, a managing director at Goldman Sachs.The program was continuing in 2022; Goldman Sachs published a report on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on female entrepreneursfrom the viewpoint of the  10,000 Women program.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "22 point regulation was a guideline approved by the Chinese Communist Party in 1988 to encourage Taiwanese investments in the People's Republic of China.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "100 Best Workplaces in Europe is a ranking of the 100 workplaces in Europe performed each year by the Financial Times, in partnership with Great Place to Work. The list is based on employee surveys and a review of the company's culture. Two thirds of the total score is from employee responses to a 57 question survey on the culture of the company. The rest of the score is based on demographics, pay, benefits, culture, and community involvement.\nThe 2007 survey winner was the car manufacturer Ferrari of Italy.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Abandonment costs or Abandonment expenditure (ABEX) are costs associated with the abandonment of a business venture. \nAbandonment costs traditionally applied to the process of abandoning an under-producing or non-producing oil or gas well. In that context, it means the removal of equipment, plugging of the well with cement, any environmental clean-up, etc. necessary to shut the well down. It is occasionally referred to as \"Removal and Abandonment\" or R & A. The objective of well abandonment is to ensure that no hydrocarbons leak into surface water or into the atmosphere.  The cost of a routine abandonment of a typical well in the United States is about $5,000 (~Texas average cost in year 2000). If a well has developed a leak that allows gas to flow up the outside of the well casing, finding and correcting the leak can push the cost of abandonment beyond $100,000. Wells that have been used as injectors or have been subject to fracking operation are more likely to develop leaks because the injected substances can create channels that permit uncontrolled flow outside the casing. \nThe term's application has been broadened from its original context to apply to the abandonment of other business ventures, primarily in manufacturing. It is often used in a cost-benefit analysis to determine if a marginal venture should be continued or if it is more financially beneficial to abandon the venture and plow the remaining money into something else in an attempt to recoup the losses. For example, General Motors had some abandonment costs from shutting down the Pontiac and Saturn brands. The existence of abandonment costs in an industry implies that there is no free exit from that industry.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An acceptable loss, also known as acceptable damage or acceptable casualties, is a military euphemism used to indicate casualties or destruction inflicted by the enemy that is considered minor or tolerable. In combat situations, leaders have to often choose between options where no one solution is perfect and all choices will lead to casualties or other costs to their own troops.A small scale practical example might be when the advancement of troops is halted by a minefield. In many military operations, the speed of advancement is more important than the safety of troops. Thus, the minefield must be \"breached\" even if this means some casualties.On a larger strategic level, there is a limit to how many casualties a nation's military or the public are willing to withstand when they go to war. For example, there is an ongoing debate on how the conceptions of acceptable losses affect how the United States conducts its military operations.The concept of acceptable losses has also been adopted to business use, meaning taking necessary risks and the general costs of doing business, also covered with terms such as waste or shrinkage.The euphemism is related to the concept of acceptable risk, which is used in many areas such as medicine and politics, to describe a situation where a course of action is taken because the expected benefits outweigh the potential hazards.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Acqui-hiring or Acq-hiring (a portmanteau of \"acquisition\" and \"hiring\", also called talent acquisition) is a neologism which describes the process of acquiring a company primarily to recruit its employees, rather than to gain control of its products or services. Ben Zimmer traced the derivation of the phrase to a blog post in May 2005.Talent acquisitions can provide a relatively favorable exit strategy for employees, with the prestige of being bought by a larger company, combined with the typical process of hiring. A risk to talent acquisitions are employees that are not interested in working within a corporate environment \u2014 which may cause them to defect elsewhere.By the early 2010s, acqui-hiring had become increasingly common in venture capital-backed startup companies, especially within the competitive technology sector (where skilled software engineers working for startups were considered lucrative). By March 2013, Facebook was the largest performer of talent acquisitions, with 12 over the previous five fiscal quarters. One such Facebook purchase in 2009, FriendFeed, brought several high-profile Google alumni into the company, including Bret Taylor \u2014 who became Facebook's chief technology officer shortly after the purchase. Twitter, Yahoo!, and Google ranked alongside Facebook as a similarly major user of talent acquisitions.Typically, a company that performs a talent acquisition does not show an interest in the products and services of the target, which results in them being discontinued upon the purchase (so that their staff will focus exclusively on incorporating their knowledge into their new employer's projects) or some time afterward. The file sharing service Drop.io was shut down after its 2010 purchase by Facebook, while FriendFeed was left dormant (with no new feature development and a slowly shrinking user base) until 2015, when it was discontinued.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Activated Content is a digital watermarking company based in Seattle, Washington. The company has its own proprietary audio watermarking technology and provides solutions based around watermarking.\nThe system was designed with help from Sony Music and Universal Music.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The ADRI approach to evaluation of an organization's effectiveness considers the following:\nApproach: what processes, strategies, and structures have been developed and reasons why they have been selected;\nDeployment: how these processes, strategies, and structures have been implemented;\nResults: what trends are indicated by the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and how this is assessed; and\nImprovement: what process is used for reviewing the appropriateness and effectiveness of the Approach and Deployment above.The approach is used to improve quality in a cyclical manner at many universities. It is also used for independent reviews of organizations.The ADRI approach originated in Australia is used by the Oman Academic Accreditation Authority. The approach has been used in programming courses too.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An agent-owned company is a private company, controlled by its agents, for which it provides common marketing and business coordination. It is common in the moving company sector, where moves are performed by local agents, under a national brand.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Agentic leadership derives from the term agency. This leadership style is generally found in the business field by a person who is respected by subordinates. This person demonstrates assertiveness, competitiveness, independence, courageousness, and is masterful in achieving their task at hand.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "aisle411 Inc. is a St. Louis based company that has developed a consumer service called aisle411, which allows customers to use their phones to find products in stores. Founded in 2008 by Nathan Pettyjohn (Founder) and Matthew Kulig (Co-Founder), aisle411 entered the market in August 2009 with a mobile service that allowed consumers to search retail stores for product locations inside stores using their mobile phones.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Allied London is a property development and investment company that develops landmark projects ranging from re-use to regeneration developments across retail, commercial, office, residential, restaurant, and leisure sectors. The company also offers rental options. They own several buildings in the Spinningfields area of Manchester, as well as Glasgow, Leeds and London.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Amalie Oil Company is an American company that manufactures various weights of motor oil, synthetic oil, transmission fluid, and other automotive fluids. The company was founded in Franklin, Pennsylvania, in 1903, giving rise to its current slogan \"Better than it has to be... Since 1903.\"The company was the first to sell multi-grade motor oil and is currently North America's largest private, independent blender of motor oils and industrial lubricants. Amalie primarily produces private label products for companies such as Walmart, O'Reilly Auto Parts, Advance Auto Parts, Carquest and AutoZone but is starting to sell its own branded products more widely. The company also owns the Wolf's Head brand.The company is currently run by the Barkett family. The Barketts entered the motor oil business by buying Petroleum Packers, a company in Port Tampa Bay, in 1977. In 1997 the Barketts acquired Amalie Oil from Sun Oil Company and merged Petroleum Packers into Amalie. The combined company has been headquartered in Tampa, Florida, since 1998. As the company attempts to increase its brand awareness, it has become increasingly visible in the Tampa Bay Area. Since 2011 Amalie has been the home field sponsor of the Tampa Bay Storm of the Arena Football League. In 2014 Amalie acquired the naming rights to the then Tampa Bay Times Forum and the Forum was renamed Amalie Arena. The company is also a sponsor of the arena's tenants the Tampa Bay Lightning of the NHL and the Tampa Bay Storm. The company is also the title sponsor of the Gatornationals and a sponsor of the National Hot Rod Association.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The annual business survey, formerly the annual business inquiry, is a census of production in the United Kingdom, produced by the Office for National Statistics. It was introduced in 1988 and consolidated earlier surveys. Results were first published in 2000.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, annual enrollment (also known as open enrollment or open season) is a period of time, usually but not always occurring once per year, when employees of companies and organizations, including the government, may make changes to their elected employee benefit options, such as health insurance.  The term also applies to the annual period during which individuals may buy individual health insurance plans through the online, state-based health insurance exchanges established by the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Prior to January 1, 2014 insurers offering individual medical coverage typically allowed new members passing underwriting to enroll at any time throughout the year. \nAnnual enrollment is also prominent in Medicare, where almost 50 million enrollees can choose to stay in original Medicare, or join or change plans within the Medicare Advantage and Medicare Part D Prescription Drug programs for the coming calendar year. Individuals usually can make changes to, or sign up for, their health insurance or fringe benefits only once per year during the annual enrollment period or when they have experienced a specific qualifying event. Open enrollment periods are indeed used in insurance markets to limit adverse selection risks resulting when enrollees can switch plans at will.During this time period, an employer will typically communicate to all eligible employees what options they have for their benefit program.  Often the vendors or insurance providers will be present to explain the details of their products. This can be done either with group presentations, \"benefit fairs\" or meetings one on one with each employee. As travel expenses continue to rise many vendors and insurance providers have turned to using independent \"contract enrollers\" to do the communication on their behalf. Some companies and organizations distinguish between an active enrollment benefits election period, where employees must re-review or confirm their benefits selections for the coming year, and a passive enrollment benefits election period, where employees are automatically renewed with their existing benefits selections from the current year if no action is taken.Open season is a prominent feature of the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program during which some three million federal civilian employees and retirees may choose among several dozen health insurance plans for the coming year. Open season is scheduled in the fall each year, and plan enrollment decisions take effect in the following calendar year.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Antipoaching is an anti-competitive conduct where companies conspire not to hire each other's employees.Antipoaching agreements, or no-poach agreements, are related to non-compete clauses, but distinct -- no-poach agreements are among employers, non-compete clauses are between employer and company. In the United States, antipoaching agreements have been widespread among franchise businesses: Research has found that 58 percent of major franchisors' contracts in 2016, including those of McDonald's, Burger King, Jiffy Lube, and H&R Block, contained agreements not to hire the workers of other franchisees. Some franchisors have since stated that they would drop those agreements.Antipoaching agreements may be illegal under U.S. antitrust law in some circumstances. Allegations about such agreements among major high-tech companies, including Apple and Google, were the basis of the High-Tech Employee Antitrust Litigation.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Armadillo Tea Rooms was a caf\u00e9 in Liverpool that were a significant part of the early '80s music scene. This was helped by their proximity to Mathew Street and Probe Records.They were especially noted for the furry seat covers on the toilets.\nThe building is now occupied by Flanagan's Apple.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Arrow diagramming method (ADM) is a network diagramming technique in which activities are represented by arrows.  ADM is also known as the activity-on-arrow (AOA) method.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Assam Global Investors' Summit or Advantage Assam Global Investors' Summit on 3\u20134 February 2018 was an economic summit organised by the Government of Assam. The main aim of the summit is to increase the trade and other relations with Southeast Asia. Members and Delegates from ASEAN and BBIN countries along with industrialists and business leaders of India and around the world are invited in this summit. The Summit aims at highlighting the geo-strategic advantages offered to investors by Assam. The summit will also focus on India's Act East Policy which will help in achieving balanced and fast-paced growth of the north-eastern region and development of MSME sector.The summit is organised in Sarusajai Stadium, Guwahati.\nIt is the first of its type of summit organised in Assam and Northeast India.\nThe summit will focus investing on different sectors like: Power, Agriculture & Food Processing, IT & ITeS, River Transport & Port Townships, Plastics & Petrochemicals, Pharmaceuticals & Medical Equipment, Handloom, Textiles & Handicrafts, Tourism, Hospitality & Wellness, Civil Aviation and Petroleum and Natural Gas.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An asset lock is a legal clause that prevents the assets of a company from being used for private gain rather than the stated purposes of the organisation. Asset locks may be incorporated into the formal structure of a \"bencom\" (a type of industrial and provident society), community interest company, or charitable organisation.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An Autographic Register is a business machine invented in 1883 by James C. Shoup.  The device consisted two separate rolls of paper interleaved with carbon paper. Usually one or both of the rolls would be preprinted with form information. To operate the machine the user would write, for example, a sales receipt and the machine automatically produced a copy. The crank on the machine ejected the records and moved a blank form into view.  The original receipt produced would go to the user and the copy was filed. Shoup founded the Autographic Register Company in Hoboken, NJ to manufacture his invention.The Autographic Register was an advance over use of separate forms and carbon paper as it guaranteed that the copy was made and kept the forms in relative alignment. A number of advancements were soon made, including the use of sprocket-fed paper, invented by Theodore Schirmer. This helped avoid slippage and misalignment of forms, allowing more copies to be produced simultaneously. In 1912 Schirmer founded the Standard Register Company in Dayton, Ohio.The invention of sprocket-fed paper later found use in computer printers.\nAlthough the Autographic Register has been largely replaced by newer technology it remains in use as of 2015.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A balanced job complex is a way of organizing a workplace or group that is both directly democratic and also creates relative equal empowerment among all people involved.\nSpecifically a balanced job complex is a collection of tasks within a given workplace that is balanced for its equity and empowerment implications against all other job complexes in that workplace. It was developed as an alternative to the corporate division of labor.\nEach worker must do a share of rote tasks (unskilled work) for some time each work day or each week. All workers also share the most rewarding and empowering tasks in the workplace so it is coordinated with everyone's involvement. In this way workers share the burdens and benefits of work that impact each person's ability to participate in democratic decision-making within the workplace.\nBalanced job complexes imply a lack of owners or formal managers involved in the workplace, as all tasks are balanced for empowerment.\nBalanced job complexes are central to the theory of participatory economics which emerged from the work of radical theorist Michael Albert and that of radical economist Robin Hahnel.The concept of the balanced job complex was developed and put into practice at South End Press in the late 1970s.\nIn the 1990s, a series of worker-run collectives in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, were founded using parecon-inspired principles, including balanced job complexes, as part of their internal structures.  Most notable in this regard have been Mondragon Bookstore and Coffee House, G7 Welcoming Committee Records, and Arbeiter Ring Publishing.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A banishment room (also known as a chasing-out-room and a boredom room) is a modern employee exit management strategy whereby employees are transferred to another department where they are assigned meaningless work until they become disheartened and resign.  Since the resignation is voluntary, the employee would not be eligible for certain benefits. The legality and ethicality of the practice is questionable and may be construed as constructive dismissal in some regions.\nThe practice, which is not officially acknowledged, is common in Japan which has strong labor laws and a tradition of permanent employment.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Belmar is a shopping mall in Lakewood, Colorado that opened in 2004 as a redevelopment of the Villa Italia Mall.  It is owned by Starwood Capital and managed by Jones Lang LaSalle.\nThere are over 80 stores including Best Buy, DSW, Target, Century Theatres and Sola Salons.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Benchmark-driven investment strategy is an investment strategy where the target return is usually linked to an index or combination of indices of the sector or any other like S&P 500.With the Benchmarks approach the investor chooses an index of the market (benchmark). The goal of the fund manager is to try to beat the index performance-wise.\n\nThe strategic asset allocation is usually delegated to the benchmark chosen\nThe asset managers stay concentrated to tactical asset allocation and fund (security) selection\nNo volatility control over time\nWithout volatility constraints over a long period the investor is expected to get higher returns", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Beneficial owner is a legal term where specific property rights (\"use and title\") in equity belong to a person even though legal title of the property belongs to another person. Beneficial owner is subject to a state's statutory laws regulating interest or title transfer. This often relates where the legal title owner has implied trustee duties to the beneficial owner. A common example of a beneficial owner is the real or true owner of funds held by a nominee bank.\nUnder United States copyright law, an author may transfer some rights to the copyright owner (often an employer) while retaining a future \"reversionary interest,\" such as that of copyright renewal.  For example, \"[t]he legal or beneficial owner of an exclusive right under a copyright . . . to institute an action for any infringement of that particular right committed while he or she is the official owmer of it.\" 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 501(b)", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Beverly Hills Caviar Automated Boutique sells caviar, escargot and truffles from vending machines.In 2013, the machines began operating in three locations: Westfield Century City, Westfield Topanga and Hollywood and Highland Center.  The owners credit their daughter for coming up with the idea when they were purchasing a cupcake from a vending machine. The coverage of the placement of the machines included the comments \"I feel sure that, very soon, you will be able to buy engagement rings, tiaras, mink coats and leather bodices amid all the excitement of the mall -- but without the interruption of some obsequious store assistant,\" from CNet, and a marketing analyst stating that the idea was merely to generate buzz.The machines offer a selection of caviar in different sizes ranging from 40 grams (1.5 ounces) to 400 grams (a little less than a pound). The caviar ranges in price from $30 an ounce for American Black caviar to $500 an ounce for Imperial River Beluga caviar, as well as vegan caviar and dried mullet caviar (popular in Algerian, French, Jordanian, Spanish, and Tunisian cuisine). In addition to caviar, the machines offer blinis, escargot, flavored salts, and Italian truffles. The machine was built in Spain.  The machine holds about $50,000 worth of temperature-controlled merchandise. After being dispensed, the product takes about 30 minutes to thaw but can stay cool up to 3 hours in an insulated box.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Big Tobacco is a name used to refer to the largest companies in the tobacco industry. The six largest tobacco companies are: China National Tobacco Company (Chinese state monopoly with almost no exports), British American Tobacco, Philip Morris International, Imperial Brands, Altria Group, and Japan Tobacco International. These are collectively referred to as Big Tobacco.[1] These companies have substantial power economically, with revenues matching some small countries. These companies are well-known for lobbying governments, advocating for looser restrictions and lower taxes.These companies have garnered significant controversy for the product they produce and the tactics with which they sell and market them. Tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable death and disease in the United States. Despite a general decrease in cigarette use in the United States, there has been no change in the use of smokeless tobacco.Some of the tactics utilized by these companies have been noted to be similar to that of other industries such as the oil, sugar, and cell phone industries.These companies are controversial due to the negative health effects of the products they produce, and attempts to misinform on this topic. In the United States, the big five tobacco companies have worked together to conceal scientific evidence on the negative affects of tobacco. There is also a history of manipulating and destroying evidence. The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control was designed by the World Health Assembly as an international legal approach to reducing the effect of tobacco on public health. However, it's implementation has also been interfered with by these tobacco companies. Tobacco companies have also been known to foster relations with governments and communities to maintain loose regulations on tobacco products.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Blair County Convention Center is a convention center located just south of Altoona, Pennsylvania. It has two floor levels with the exhibit floor and ballroom on separate levels. Rocco Alianiello is the Executive Director and COO. The facility is near the Interstate 99 and Route 36.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Boursorama is a French financial technology company that offers banking services. The company is a subsidiary of Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 G\u00e9n\u00e9rale and  headquartered in Boulogne-Billancourt, close to Paris. It offers accounts featuring currency exchange, debit cards, virtual cards, Apple Pay, commission-free stock trading and other services.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A bowl sink, the first coined term for the more commonly known vessel sink, is a free-standing sink that sits directly on the counter-top or furniture on which it is mounted. Originally invented by Meredith Wolf, a former Rhode Island resident, the product serves as a conventional sink while providing a decorative feature. \nThis type of sink is produced by numerous firms, and is found in many hotels, restaurants, and homes.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A breakup fee (sometimes called a termination fee) is a penalty set in takeover agreements, to be paid if the target backs out of a deal (usually because it has decided instead to accept a more attractive offer). The breakup fee is ostensibly to compensate the original acquirer for the cost of the time and resources expended in negotiating the original agreement. A breakup fee also serves to inhibit competing bids, since such bids would have to cover the cost of the breakup fee as well.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The British Coffee House was a coffeehouse at 27 Cockspur Street, London.\nIt is known to have existed in 1722, and was run in 1759 by a sister of John Douglas (bishop of Salisbury), and then by Mrs. Anderson, and was particularly popular with the Scottish. English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries acted as public meeting places. Ned Ward, the 18th century writer was a client to the coffeehouse.\nIt was rebuilt by Robert Adam in 1770, and was owned by David Hatton Morley, the father of Atkinson Morley.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Broadband Lifecycle is a model for looking at the planning, implementation, and adoption of broadband networks, providing a framework for understanding the natural progression and sound business planning to drive local economic development through broadband (high-speed Internet networks). It has been utilized by multiple North-American States since 2010.Developed by Strategic Networks Group  in the late 2000s as an alternative means to view broadband deployments, the Broadband Lifecycle is a departure from the dominant economic model of broadband network operators\u2019 that relies on the \u201csupply side\u201d assumption that if a network is built adoption will follow.Thus, the Broadband Lifecycle considers broadband from a \u201cdemand side,\u201d recognizing that adoption and utilization only comes through understanding benefits, supporting the Demand side and the benefits for communities, demonstrating to individual businesses, organizations and households the value of broadband and its transformative effects through Internet enabled applications, which include global market reach, ability to do remote work, use of telemedicine, etc.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Broadcast Electronics (BE) is a manufacturer of AM and FM transmitters, Marti Electronics STL and RPU equipment, developer of the AudioVAULT radio automation system and parent company to Commotion - a social media company for radio.\nFounded in 1959 in Silver Spring, Maryland, BE initially manufactured endless loop cartridge \"cart\" machines. Through the years, BE also manufactured turntables, audio consoles, and program automation equipment which was the precursor to today\u2019s automation systems for radio stations.\nIn 1977, BE relocated to Quincy, Illinois and it was there that BE began designing and manufacturing FM and AM transmitters. Initially the offering was for tube transmitters but their line also expanded to solid state broadcast transmitters.\nThe AudioVAULT automation system was one of the first digital audio storage and playout solutions for radio. AudioVAULT compensated for the slow PC processing speeds at the time by manufacturing their own sound cards and using off-bus technology. Today, AudioVAUL is in its 4th generation architecture since the time the technology was known as a \"cart\" machine replacement product.\nIn 1994, BE acquired MARTI Electronics. Today, Marti Electronics equipment is also manufactured in Quincy, Illinois.\nBE is the largest radio only equipment manufacturer in the United States.In December 2017, BE was acquired by Italian manufacturer Elenos. \n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Bruntwood is a family-owned property company offering office space, serviced offices, retail space and virtual offices in the north of England and Birmingham in the United Kingdom. They own several high-profile buildings in the Manchester area, as well as in Liverpool, Leeds and Birmingham.\nBruntwood's portfolio of over 100 properties is worth over one billion pounds and includes over 560,000 square metres (6,000,000 sq ft) of floorspace.In October 2018, Bruntwood announced a 50:50 partnership with Legal & General Capital focussed on science and technology in regional cities. The new partnership has been named Bruntwood SciTech. Interests include Circle Square and Alderley Park.Alongside the creation of Bruntwood SciTech, the core work space assets were ring fenced into a business named Bruntwood Works, specialising in different types of workspace products from coworking and serviced offices to traditional leased offices.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In stock market trading, a bull trap is an inaccurate signal that shows a decreasing trend in a stock or index has reversed and is now heading upwards, when in fact, the security will continue to decline.\nIt is seen as a trap because the bullish investor purchases the stock, thinking it will increase in value, but is trapped with a poor performing stock whose value is still falling.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A business college is a school that provides education above the high school level but could not be compared to that of a traditional university or college.  Unlike universities and even junior and community colleges, business colleges typically train the student for a specific vocational aspect, usually clerical tasks such as typing, stenography or simple bookkeeping. Proprietary schools can be traced back as far as 1636 to the puritans of Massachusetts. They served as a trade school for both business and necessary skills, from shipbuilding to sewing.\nThe first business college founded in the United States is said to have been Nelson Business College in Cincinnati, founded by Richard Nelson in 1856. The goal of a business college is not to provide a thorough education, as is the model of modern universities in the liberal arts fields, but rather to provide training for a very specific task, such as legal terms, marketing, strategy, planning, Human resources, management information systems, finance, or negotiation. Academic credits earned at a business college do not transfer to other colleges or universities and students cannot earn a bachelor's degree, though an associate degree may be offered. Business College's do offer degrees in business administration and management. These are typically offered through a 1-2 year program.\nIn recent decades the number of these institutions has been declining as business colleges have been finding more competition coming from community colleges, which provide both vocational as well as liberal arts classes and are often able to offer the classes at a lower rate of tuition, as they are usually nonprofit and subsidized by one or more levels of government assistance. Business colleges should not be confused with business schools which typically offer a Master of Business Administration (MBA) program after a student has completed a bachelor's degree. MBA programs typically take two academic years to complete.\nIn the US, business colleges are sometimes also called proprietary colleges, especially when they grant associate degrees or higher.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A business fable (also termed management fiction) is a motivational fable, parable or other fictional story that shares a lesson or lessons that are intended to be applied in the business world with the aim to improve the organizational culture.\nThe genre saw a peak in the early 2000s.New York Times bestsellers in the business fable genre include:\n\nJohnson, Spencer; Blanchard, Ken (1998). Who moved my cheese? : An a-mazing way to deal with change in your work and in your life. Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-101-49587-2.\nBlanchard, Ken; Johnson, Spencer (1982). The one minute manager. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-688-01429-2. OCLC 8475284.\nLencioni, Patrick (2002). The five dysfunctions of a team: A leadership fable. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 978-0-7879-6075-9. OCLC 48588434.\nAndrews, Andy (2002). The traveler's gift: Seven decisions that determine personal success. Nashville: T. Nelson Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7852-6428-6. OCLC 49942201.\nSwanepoel, Stefan (2011). Surviving Your Serengeti: 7 Skills to Master Business and Life. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-00859-1.\nKotter, John Paul; Rathgeber, Holger (2005). Our Iceberg is Melting: Changing and succeeding under adverse conditions. Authors. ISBN 978-0-230-01685-9. Later republished by  St. Martin's Press, Macmiliians, and Portfolio.Other notable business fables include:\n\nGoldratt, Eliyahu M.; Cox, J. (1984). The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement. Pretoria, South Africa: National Productivity Institute. ISBN 978-0-947015-45-9.\nBurg, Bob; Mann, John David (2007). The go-giver: A Little Story about a Powerful Business Idea. Portfolio. ISBN 978-1-59184-200-2.\nFish! Philosophy by Stephen Lundin (2000)\nThe Chicken and the Pig", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Business game (also called business simulation game) refers to simulation games that are used as an educational tool for teaching business. Business games may be carried out for various business training such as: general management, finance, organizational behavior, human resources, etc. Often, the term \"business simulation\" is used with the same meaning.\nA business game is defined as \"a game with a business environment that can lead to one or both of the following results: the training of players in business skills (hard and/or soft), or the evaluation of players' performances (quantitatively and/or qualitatively)\".Business games are used as a teaching method in universities, and more particularly in business schools, but also for executive education.\nSimulation are considered to be an innovative learning method, and are often computer-based.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The business mileage reimbursement rate is an optional standard mileage rate used in the United States for purposes of computing the allowable business deduction, for Federal income tax purposes under the Internal Revenue Code, at 26 U.S.C. \u00a7 162, for the business use of a vehicle. Under the law, the taxpayer for each year is generally entitled to deduct either the actual expense amount, or an amount computed using the standard mileage rate, whichever is greater.\nThe business mileage reimbursement rate is used by some employers for computing employee reimbursement amounts when an employee operates a motor vehicle not owned by the employer for the employer's business purposes. The General Services Administration (GSA) sets the rate for federal jobs. In general, the GSA rate matches the annual rate set by the IRS, although by law the government employee reimbursement rate cannot exceed the mileage rate set by the IRS for business deductions.Reimbursement by an employer on a per-mile basis is also used in other countries; it offers a similar simplification to payment of subsistence per diem.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A business oligarch is generally a business magnate who controls sufficient resources to influence national politics. A business leader can be considered an oligarch if the following conditions are satisfied:\n\nuses monopolistic tactics to dominate an industry;\npossesses sufficient political power to promote their own interests;\ncontrols multiple businesses, which intensively coordinate their activities.More generally, an oligarch (from Ancient Greek  \u1f40\u03bb\u03af\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 (oligos) 'few', and  \u1f04\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (archein) 'rule') is a \"member of an oligarchy; a person who is part of a small group holding power in a state\".\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A business service provider (BSP) is one of several categories of service provider in the business world. As opposed to an application service provider which provides application components over a computer network, the services provided by a BSP are more in the area of infrastructure: mail delivery, building security, finance, administration, and human services.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A buydown is a mortgage financing technique where the buyer attempts to obtain a lower interest rate for at least the first few years of the mortgage. The seller of the property usually provides payments to the mortgage lending institution, which, in turn, lowers the buyer's monthly interest rate, and therefore, monthly payment. This is typically done for a period of about one to five years. In a seller's market, the seller might raise the purchase price to compensate for the costs of the buydown, but in most markets, it would not be to their advantage to use a buydown as an enticement if they are going to offset the benefit by raising the price.  In most cases, the buydown does not even involve the seller.  It is an arrangement between the lender and the buyer.You may also use the buydown option on a refinance.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Caliburn International LLC is a professional services provider headquartered in Reston, Virginia, with approximately 8,500 employees. They offer engineering, environmental, and technical solutions; logistics; risk management; construction; and consulting activities, as well as medical and humanitarian services.  They serve the U.S. government and commercial clients worldwide, including the Department of Defense and Department of State. The company was formed by DC Capital Partners and is currently managed by James Van Dusen, former Chief Financial Officer of Comprehensive Health Services. The board includes Generals John Kelly, Anthony C. Zinni, Michael Hayden, and admirals Stephen F. Loftus, and Kathleen Martin. Retired Admiral James G. Stavridis previously served on the board and resigned in September 2019. Caliburn's Chief Strategy Officer and Executive Vice President for Corporate Development for is retired Vice Admiral Frank Craig Pandolfe.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Canned responses are predetermined responses to common questions.\nIn fields such as technical support, canned responses to frequently asked questions may be an effective solution for both the customer and the technical adviser, as they offer the possibility to provide a quick answer to common inquiries while requiring little human intervention.Improperly used, canned responses can prove frustrating to users by providing inadequate answers.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Capital impairment is the case when the company lost its asset, so the asset is lower than the stock of a company. One way to avoid capital impairment is reduction of capital without any compensation.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Central Product Classification (CPC) is a product classification for goods and services promulgated by the United Nations Statistical Commission. It is intended to be an international standard for organizing and analyzing data on industrial production, national accounts, trade, prices and so on.\nThe European Union's Classification of Products by Activity (CPA) is based on CPC.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In financial analysis, a channel check is third-party research on a company's business based on collecting information from the distribution channels of the company. It may be conducted in order to value the company, to perform due diligence in various contexts, and the like. Industries where channel checks are more often conducted include retail, technology, commodities, etc.\nIt is a practice performed by third party researchers and financial analysts in order to collect information about a company's business. The Channel Check process includes interviewing people within other organizations connected to the company's supply and distribution channels. These interviews usually occur without the target company's knowledge. For example, a channel check could include one or multiple conversations with a store manager to understand their targeted customer. Analysts generally look for top products, customer buying patterns and past performance.\nAnalysts could also contact one or several suppliers or vendors to obtain information about the targeted company. In these interviews analysts are looking for quantity of materials being demanded and prices. Suppliers could also help Analysts to see the \u201cBigger Picture\u201d of a company's production plans, new products and more. Suppliers may also give an indication of the raw material availability, finished product inventory levels, promotion plans to the Analysts.\nChannel checks can give insights complementary to balance sheet analysis, such as distributor and retailer attitudes towards a product and its competitors, seasonal and geographic variation, inventory levels (notably channel stuffing), and so on.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Charles Egan Gallery opened at 63 East 57th Street (Manhattan) in about 1945, when Charles Egan was in his mid-30s. Egan's artists helped him fix up the gallery: \"Isamu Noguchi did the lighting... Willem de Kooning and Franz Kline painted the walls.\"A group show the next year included works by de Kooning, Joseph Stella, Josef Albers, Mark Rothko, Paul Klee and Georges Braque.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Chester Business Park is located to the south of the city of Chester, Cheshire, England and is sited to the east of Wrexham Road (A483) and to the north of the Chester southerly bypass (A55).\nThe park opened in 1988 and occupies an area of 175 acres (0.71 km2). At the centre of the site is the former Wrexham Road Farm, a model farm designed by John Douglas for the 1st Duke of Westminster and built in 1877\u201384; otherwise it was a greenfield site. The farmhouse and outbuildings of the farm were converted into offices, and a number of businesses built premises in modern architectural styles. One of the first major businesses to occupy a new building was Shell Chemicals U.K., and other businesses included Marks & Spencer Financial Services, MBNA International Bank, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Trinity International.A Leaping Salmon bronze sculpture by Laurence Broderick is displayed at the Chester Business Park.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A chief content officer (CCO) is a corporate executive responsible for the digital media creation and multi-channel publication of the organization's content (text, video, audio, animation, etc.).\nThe CCO is usually an executive role or senior vice president position, typically reporting to the chief executive officer or the president of the organization.\nIn a broadcasting organisation, the CCO is generally the highest ranking creative member of the organization. However, the chief content officer position is also common in many other industries, ranging from insurance to video production based on a LinkedIn study.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The chief merchandising officer (CMO) is a top-level executive employee who controls the merchandising in a company or other organization.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "China Galaxy Securities Co., Ltd. (Chinese: \u4e2d\u56fd\u94f6\u6cb3\u8bc1\u5238\u80a1\u4efd\u6709\u9650\u516c\u53f8) is a Chinese brokerage and investment bank.\nIt raised US$1.1 billion on the Stock Exchange of Hong Kong in its debut in May 2013. In January 2015, the company announced plans to issue new shares worth US$2.3 billion on HKSE. On 21 April 2015, the company announced in a HKSE filing its plans to raise another US$3.1 billion by selling 2 billion new shares.Since June 2017, it was part of Shanghai Stock Exchange's blue chip index: SSE 50 Index.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "China Hospitality Technology Alliance (CHTA) is the largest Chinese non-profit organization for the technological product and technology development of the domestic hotel and the education and training of IT practitioners in the hotel industry.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "China Plus One, also known simply as Plus One, is the business strategy to avoid investing only in China and diversify business into other countries. For the last 20 years, western companies have invested in China, drawn in by their low production costs, and enormous domestic consumer markets. Developing from the overconcentration of business interests in China, it may be done for reasons of cost, safety, or long-term stability. It has also been described as a 'macro-level phenomenon'.The increasing cost of doing business in China has also increased operating costs, especially for manufacturers. The advantages of the cheap labor and market demand that China initially provided has increasingly been overshadowed by the advantages that ASEAN countries  can provide. These benefits include cost control, as workers in Southeast Asian countries are generally less expensive than Chinese employees, risk diversification, and new market access into economies  There is also a high level of risk for investors in the Chinese transitional economy, the sources of this risk can be credited to social, and political change.  Multinational corporations have been looking at countries with adequately stable governments such as India, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Bangladesh . Countries like Japan and United States are part of the phenomenon, with the strategy conceptualizing in businesses in these countries as early as 2008. However the China Plus One strategy has it own share of difficulties, including navigating new laws, new markets, and streamlining the business over multiple locations. Some say that moving out of China now is not even practical. The China Plus One strategy does give China its own benefits. China is able to maintain low-end manufacturing while also growing higher-value sectors. China Plus One strategy did not reduce the number of manufacturers, nor jobs in manufacturing. It does, however, reduce the number of growth, giving other economies a chance to flourish. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous Indian companies have adopted strategy to find alternative supply chains. India's largest air conditioner manufacturer Voltas has started production of motors in India to reduce its reliance on China; Indian auto component manufacturers are also building the base to shift out of China, changing reliance to local vendors for some components; the same is the case for pharma companies.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Churn and burn refers to a tactic used by large anti-union businesses with high turnover in order to bust an already-existent union in a given workplace.  \"Churning\" refers to the management practice of filtering new workers based on their support of unionism.  In a large business with poorly paid, entry-level workers with a high rate of turnover, support for a union can be gradually reduced by making sure during the hiring process that only anti-union workers are hired.  Eventually, support drops low enough to \"burn\" the union through decertification.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A clearing account is usually a temporary account containing costs or amounts that are to be transferred to another account. An example is the income summary account containing revenue and expense amounts to be transferred to retained earnings at the close of a fiscal period.Other example of clearing account is excise clearing account.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A cockroach is a business that - from inception forward - grows gradually and progressively. It puts a specific emphasis on revenues as well as profits and ensures a tight cost control in order to make its growth especially robust as far as finances are concerned. Oftentimes these cockroaches are more resilient and thus considered a less risky investment than \"unicorns\".\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A Collateral Billing number (CBN) is a number that sometimes can be given in place of a purchase order or a credit card number to ensure a products return. For example, you receive a defective product and call the manufacturer, they in turn send you a replacement unit after collecting a purchase order, credit card or collateral billing number from you to charge the cost of the unit to in the event that you do not return the original unit.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Commodity management is the process of developing a systematic approach to the entire usage cycle for a group of items.\nThe term is often used interchangeably with category management.\nIt is generally considered as one aspect of the procurement management toolkit, and frequently used in combination with other tools \u2013 such as 'two-by-four-box' analysis, looking at the strategic positioning of that commodity with respect to an organisation and its supplier. This may then be further developed with supplier relationship management (SRM), with designated buyers managing key suppliers in given commodities.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A common fund is a form of collective investment scheme based upon contractual law rather than being enacted through a trust, corporation or insurance policy.\nThe model for this type of arrangement is the Fonds commun de placement common in France and Luxembourg.  The common contractual fund in Ireland is another prominent example.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Convention on Common Transit is a treaty between the countries of the European Union and a number of other countries for common procedures for international transit of goods, thus simplifying or eliminating much of the paperwork normally associated with moving goods across international borders.As of August 2020, the countries of the convention were the 27 EU member states, the four European Free Trade Association member states, the Republic of North Macedonia, Serbia, and Turkey.The United Kingdom, formerly part of the European Union, will remain part of the Common Transit Convention when the Brexit transition period ends.In June 2022, Ukraine altered its domestic law to be in conformity with EU customs rules for the purpose of later joining the convention\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The community contribution company is a type of corporate structure set up in 2012 in British Columbia, Canada. It is intermediate between a commercial, for-profit, model, and the charitable, non-profit organisation.  Traditionally, non-profit organizations either depend a combination of government funding, philanthropy, and earned income. This corporate model was set up to help build earned income to secure long-term growth.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A competent person is designated by a company to ensure that the company's health and safety responsibilities are being met. This may be a legal obligation required of the company, to ensure that the business understands, and can act on, the health and safety risks that might occur during their particular type of work.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Compliance training refers to the process of educating employees on laws, regulations and company policies that apply to their day-to-day job responsibilities. An organization that engages in compliance training typically hopes to accomplish several goals: (1) avoiding and detecting violations by employees that could lead to legal liability for the organization; (2) creating a more hospitable and respectful workplace; (3) laying the groundwork for a partial or complete defense in the event that employee wrongdoing occurs despite the organization's training efforts; and (4) adding business value and a competitive advantage.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A computer bureau is a service bureau providing computer services.\nComputer bureaus developed during the early 1960s, following the development of time-sharing operating systems. These allowed the services of a single large and expensive mainframe computer to be divided up and sold as a fungible commodity. Development of telecommunications and the first modems encouraged the growth of computer bureau as they allowed immediate access to the computer facilities from a customer's own premises.\nThe computer bureau model shrank during the 1980s, as cheap commodity computers, particularly the PC clone but also the minicomputer allowed services to be hosted on-premises.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A 'concert party' is a group of people acting in concert in a takeover bid. In the UK, there are rules for such bids, regulated by regulators such as the Takeover Panel.\nThere is a 30% threshold at which a mandatory offer must be made. This is considered to be reached when a concert party jointly hold 30% of the shares in a company, not when one of them does. The same applies to other financial instrument holdings such as derivatives.\nSome entities are presumed to be acting in concert unless shown otherwise. These include the directors, subsidiaries, associate companies and the parent company of the bidder.\nEven entities that are not part of a concert party may find that rules applying to them: they are required to disclose dealings in the share of the bidder or the target. These \"associates\" are people who have an interest in the outcome of the bid (other than simply as shareholders) but who are not deliberately acting in concert with the bidder, An example of associates are the directors the target company even when they are not acting in concert with either the bidder or a potential counter-bidder.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A considered purchase is a complex buying decision with a high degree of financial and/or emotional risk and reward.  This process requires meaningful investigation and comparison by key decision makers and influencers prior to a transaction.  All purchase decisions fall along a spectrum of complexity and consequence depending on the variables and relevant information involved. Unlike an impulse purchase, a considered purchase typically has a long purchase cycle and significant consequences.  Considered purchase decisions exist in both the consumer and commercial realms involving both products and services.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Consumer services refers to the formulation, deformulation, technical consulting and testing of most consumer products, such as food, herbs, beverages, vitamins, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, hair products, household cleaners, paints, plastics, metals, waxes, coatings, minerals, ceramics, construction materials plus water, indoor air quality testing, non-medical forensic testing and failure analysis.\nIt involves services in a wide variety of fields such as biological, chemical, physical, engineering and Web based services.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A control environment, also called \"Internal control environment\", is a term of financial audit, internal audit and Enterprise Risk Management. It means the overall attitude, awareness and actions of directors and management (i.e. \"those charged with governance\") regarding the internal control system and its importance to the entity. They express it in management style, corporate culture, values, philosophy and operating style, the organisational structure, and human resources policies and procedures.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In  accounting, the convention of conservatism, also known as the doctrine of prudence, is a policy of anticipating possible future losses but not future gains. This policy tends to understate rather than overstate net assets and net income, and therefore lead companies to \"play safe\". When given a choice between several outcomes where the probabilities of occurrence are equally likely, you should recognize that transaction resulting in the lower amount of profit, or at least the deferral of a profit.In accounting, it states that when choosing between two solutions, the one that will be least likely to overstate assets and income should be selected. Essentially, \"expected losses are losses but expected gains are not gains\".\nThe conservatism principle is the foundation for the lower of cost or market rule, which states that you should record inventory at the lower of either its acquisition cost or its current market value.\nConservatism plays an important role in a number of accounting rules, including the allowance for doubtful debts and the lower of cost or market rule.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Copy Exactly! is a factory strategy model developed by the computer chip manufacturer, Intel, to build new manufacturing facilities with high capacity practices already in place. The Copy Exactly! model allows factories that successfully design and manufacture chips to be replicated in locations globally.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Corporate sourcing refers to a system where divisions of companies coordinate the procurement and distribution of materials, parts, equipment, and supplies for the organization.  This is a supply chain, purchasing/procurement, and inventory function. This enables bulk discounting, auditing, and Sarbanes-Oxley compliance.\nDuties of a corporate sourcing agent include:\n\nCoordinating all activities related to procurement of a commodity beginning with intent to purchase through delivery\nAnalyzing the requirements of the commodity, including preliminary specifications, preferred supplier, and date commodity is needed\nSoliciting and evaluating proposals for the requested commodity. Investigating and/or interviewing potential suppliers to determine if they meet the specified requirements.Some of corporate sourcing agents:\nRichman Chemical, Onetouch, Worldwide Brands, SAOS", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A Credit Derivatives Product Company, or CDPC, is a business focused on trading in credit default swaps contracts. CDPC typically sells insurance against someone failing to pay back a loan ('defaulting'). A CDPC is usually highly leveraged, meaning that if even a portion of its held credit default portfolio were to be 'triggered' at once, the CDPC would not have the capital to fully pay out the resulting insurance claims. \nThe CDPC business model is dependent on a triple-A rating from a credit rating agency and must trade within closely defined limitations to be allowed to maintain their credit rating.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Customer lifecycle management or CLM is the measurement of multiple customer-related metrics, which, when analyzed for a period of time, indicate performance of a business. The overall scope of the CLM implementation process encompasses all domains or departments of an organization, which generally brings all sources of static and dynamic data, marketing processes, and value-added services to a unified decision supporting platform through iterative phases of customer acquisition, retention, cross- and upselling, and lapsed customer win-back.Some detailed CLM models further break down these phases into acquisition, introduction to products, profiling of customers, growth of customer base, cultivation of loyalty among customers, and termination of customer relationship.Any customer lifecycle management program would need to use a customer relationship management system (CRM). \nAccording to a DM Review magazine article by Claudia Imhoff, et al., \"The purpose of the customer life cycle is to define and communicate the stages through which a customer progresses when considering, purchasing and using products, and the associated business processes a company uses to move the customer through the customer life cycle.\"", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "DealsPlus is an online coupon and deal social commerce website. It combines aspects of an online coupon site and user-generated content driven deal focused sites. Like other coupon and deals sites, SEO plays an important role in DealsPlus\u2019 business. Based on an SEO analysis, Priceonomics ranked DealsPlus third behind RetailMeNot and Coupons.com for a sample of key word terms.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Colloquially, a depository institution is a financial institution in the United States (such as a savings bank, commercial bank, savings and loan associations, or credit unions) that is legally allowed to accept monetary deposits from consumers.  Under federal law, however, a \"depository institution\" is limited to banks and savings associations - credit unions are not included.An example of a non-depository institution might be a mortgage bank. While licensed to lend, they cannot accept deposits.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A design brief is a document for a design project developed by a person or team (the designer or design team) in consultation with the client/customer. They outline the deliverables and scope of the project including any products or works (function and aesthetics), timing and budget. They can be used for many projects including those in the fields of architecture, interior design and industrial design. Design briefs are also used to evaluate the effectiveness of a design after it has been produced and during the creation process to keep the project on track and on budget. Some firms rely on them more than others but there is a move towards greater accountability in the design process and therefore many people find them most useful. They usually change over time and are adjusted as the project scope evolves. Often they are signed off by the client and designer at set stages in the project.\nA design brief may use the following layout:\n\nTitle page\nTable of contents\nHistory\nCompany history\nCompany Profile\nSpecializations\nDesigner Profile\nCompany Name\nPast Accomplishments\nProblem Statement\nProblem Description\nConstraints\nBudget\nTime\nNeeds of the Problem\nGoals\nWhat you plan to accomplish\nDue dates\nSolution Analysis\nRisks/Benefits\nPlanned Solutions\nSketches\nSynopsis\nEvaluation\nConclusion/SummaryIn the project management frameworks PRINCE2, a project brief is a document established in the startup process of the project and before the project starts, and is used as a foundation for the project initiation documentation.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Direct costs are costs which are directly accountable to a cost object (such as a particular project, facility, function or product). Direct cost is the nomenclature used in accounting. The equivalent nomenclature in economics is specific cost. By contrast, a joint cost is a cost incurred in the production or delivery of multiple products or product lines. For instance, in civil aviation, substantial costs of a flight (pilots, fuel, wear and tear on the plane, landing and takeoff fees) are a joint cost between carrying passengers and carrying freight, and underlie economies of scope across passenger and freight services. By contrast, some costs are specific to the services, for instance, meals and flight attendants are specific costs of carrying passengers.\nDirect costs are directly attributable to the object. In construction, the costs of materials, labor, equipment, etc., and all directly involved efforts or expenses for the cost object are direct costs. In manufacturing or other non-construction industries, the portion of operating costs which is directly assignable to a specific product or process is a direct cost. Direct costs are those for activities or services that benefit specific projects, for example salaries for project staff and materials required for a particular project. Because these activities are easily traced to projects, their costs are usually charged to projects on an item-by-item basis.\nThe economics term for the same concept is specific cost.Direct costs typically include:\n\nDirect materials used in manufacturing\nDirect labour\nDirect expenses, e.g. a royalty payment to a patent holder for a specific production process \n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Disciplinary probation is a disciplinary status that can apply to students at a higher educational institution or to employees in the workplace. For employees, it can result from both poor performance at work or from misconduct. For students, it results from misconduct alone, with poor academic performance instead resulting in scholastic probation.For a student, disciplinary probation means that the student is on formal notice, and subject to special rules and regulations. The violation of these rules may lead to more severe forms of discipline, such as suspension, dismissal, and expulsion.For employees, disciplinary probation is one common step in a scheme of progressive discipline. It is a common replacement, in non-unionized workplaces, for the progressive disciplinary step of suspension without pay. A usual period for such probation is 90 days.\nSome companies may place permanent employees on probationary status, particularly if their performance is below a set standard or for disciplinary reasons. In this instance, the employee is usually given a period of time to either improve their performance or modify their behavior before more severe measures are taken.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A distribution deal (also known as distribution contract or distribution agreement) is a legal agreement between one party and another, to handle distribution of a product.\nThere are various forms of distribution deals.  There are exclusive and non-exclusive distribution agreements.  In an exclusive distribution agreement, there is only one distributor or distribution agent.  The product supplier is excluded from having any other distributors.  Thus the product supplier is limited to the performance of that distributor.  If the distributor does not sell product, then no product will be sold.  Thus the law implies some degree of effort into these distribution agreements.  Thus regardless what the distribution agreement says, the law will find it is breached if the distributor does not actually try to distribute the products.  Likewise distribution agreements should have explicit terms on point.  This problem arises when distributors distribute several products and/or have other businesses.  \nIn a non-exclusive distribution agreement, the supplier may use other distributors, mitigating the above concern.  However, at the other end of the spectrum, the supplier may have several distributors, and this may amount to a glut of them in the market, such that distributors have difficulty due to fierce competition on price and terms.\nDistribution agreements are frequently broken up in terms of countries, such that a set of supply companies in one market/country, possibly supply companies in related fields like sports equipment, share a distribution agent in another market/country.  This keeps costs down, allowing the distributor to use economies of scale.\nAnother issue that arises is when either the quality of the supplier or distributor substantially deteriorate.  If the counterpart supplier/distributor is excessively tied to them, they may suffer as the supplier/distributor's quality/service deteriorates.  All of this should be considered when entering distribution deals.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Dividing territories (also market division) is an agreement by two companies to stay out of each other's way and reduce competition in the agreed-upon territories. The process known as geographic market allocation is one of several anti-competitive practices outlawed under United States antitrust laws. The term is generally understood to include dividing customers as well.\nFor example, in 1984, FMC Corp. and Asahi Chemical agreed to divide territories for the sale of microcrystalline cellulose, and later FMC attempted to eliminate all vestiges of competition by inviting smaller rivals also to collude.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Downdraft tables or downdraught benches are workbenches with built-in ventilation to capture dust, smoke, and fumes and draw them away from the operator and the material being worked on. They typically consist of a perforated surface whose underside is connected to a ventilation or dust collection system, to draw material through the holes and away from the work.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The drink industry (also known as the beverage industry) produces drinks, in particular ready to drink products. Drink production can vary greatly depending on the product being made. ManufacturingDrinks.com explains that, \"bottling facilities differ in the types of bottling lines they operate and the types of products they can run\". Drinks may be canned or bottled (plastic or glass), hot-fill or cold-fill, and natural or conventional. Innovations in the drink industry, catalysed by requests for non-alcoholic drinks, include: drink plants, drink processing, and drink packing.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Dubai Investments Park (DIP), including Dubai Investment Park \u2013 1 (to the west) and 2 (to the east), is a business park area in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, including commercial, and industrial, and residential development. The Green Community Village and Green Community East are to the north and Dunes Village is to the northeast. DIP was established in 1997.Dubai Investments Park covers an area of 2,300 hectares. Greenfield International School, a private international school established in 2007, is located here.\nThe Dubai Investment Park metro station in the Green Community Village area is on the Route 2020 branch line of the Dubai Metro to the Expo 2020 site immediately to the south of Dubai Investment Park, across Expo Road (E77). To the west is the Jebel Ali Industrial Area, across the E311 road, and to the southwest is the Jebel Ali Free Zone Extension.\nThe development includes the Lagoons, under development by Sch\u00f6n Properties since 2005; Sch\u00f6n's assets were seized by the Dubai Real Estate Regulatory Agency in August 2018 over the company's failure to complete the development.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A duvet day is a formal allowance of time off given by some employers, most commonly in the United Kingdom and United States. It differs from holiday allowance in that no prior notice is needed. Employees receive an allocation of days where if they do not want to go to work for any reason they can use a duvet day. The name is a reference to the item of bedding.\nDuvet days were originally given to employees by UK company August One Communications in 1997, and the idea has grown in popularity as some companies aim to address the changing work-life climate where people work longer hours. It can be stipulated formally in a contract of employment and is considered part of the remunerations package along with holiday allowance. The term has also since become used by people to reference taking a day off work for no normally accepted reason (such as mild sickness, grievance or holiday) even if they have no official duvet day entitlement with their employer.\nIn the Indian subcontinent, this is historically called a casual leave. Employees usually are sanctioned a fixed number of days off (usually 12 per year for government and 8-12 for private employees). These days can be taken with or without planning. Since these leave days could not be accumulated or carried over into the next year, they would expire at the year end. This created a tendency to utilize all the left over casual leave in November and December. The Indian casual leave has been around for more than 50 years.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "EasyChair is a free web-based conference management software system used, among other tasks, to organise paper submission and review. EasyChair is widely used, since 2002, in the scientific community, with reportedly more than two and a half million users in 2019.The EasyChair website also provides an open access online publication service for conference proceedings. When launched, in 2012, the service was for computer science only, but in 2016 it was expanded to all sciences.The EasyChair software has been in continuous development since 2002. As of 2015, the code base consist of nearly 300,000 lines of code, and it has been used by more than 41,000 conferences.EasyChair is similar to other event management system software such as OpenConf. EasyChair is hosted by the Department of Computer Science at the University of Manchester. It is owned by an English company.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Eco commerce is a business, investment, and technology-development model that employs market-based solutions to balancing the world\u2019s energy needs and environmental integrity.  Through the use of green trading and green finance, eco-commerce promotes the further development of \"clean technologies\" such as wind power, solar power, biomass, and hydropower.\nEcoCommerce is an integrated ecological-economical model that provides a means to account for and value land management activities that improves the condition of natural capital and values the output of ecoservices.  EcoCommerce is more comprehensive than a compilation or organization of ecosystems service markets as it provides the framework to build an ecological intelligence system that allows the public arena of commerce to define sustainability.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Economic Development Board (EDB) is the national investment promotion agency of the Government of Mauritius with the mandate to promote and facilitate investment in the country. It is the first point of contact for investors exploring business opportunities in Mauritius and the region. EDB also assists investors in the growth, nurturing and diversification of their business.With a view to facilitating the implementation of investment projects and, more importantly, to continuously improve the investment and business climate, EDB works in close collaboration with Government bodies, institutions and private sector companies. EDB has an important role of policy advocacy to continuously improve the competitiveness of Mauritius and accompanies investors looking at opportunities in Africa.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In economics and microeconomics, the economic region of production is an offshoot of the theory of production function with two variables. It is a cost-oriented theory which defines the region in which the optimal factor combination will lie. It serves as a map of the region of optimal production. Economic region of production consist of negatively sloped portion of all isoquants.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Editorial-related advertising is associated with the concept of contextual advertising but differs in its ability to match advertising to content in a much more specific manner. Where contextual advertising is keyword based, editorial-related advertising is able to also take in the content of the whole article and match on a conceptual level, rather than simply looking for the existence of pre-selected words. For example, there is no chance that an auto mechanic could advertise next to an article about the Detroit Pistons. It has many different ways to go and one would be to not.\nThis specificity also ensures that:\n\nAdvertisers do not advertise next to defamatory articles (or they can create content that will offer a right of reply)\nAdvertisers do not advertise next to inappropriate content such as obituaries or negative news articles\nAdvertisers can appear next to articles in the general subject area of interest, for example for keywords that are not actually included in the on page text.Advertisers can supply a number of specifically targeted pages, each with their own message to attract users to their 'microsite'. This 'microsite' is housed within a publication on a searchable vertical directory. Advertisers who are not completely related to the publication will not be considered for the program. This creates a directory resource of related suppliers within the publication's website that is also optimized for search engine traffic.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Employer Registration is the process by which a person or legal entity registers their intent to employ someone.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Employment practices liability is an area of United States labor law that deals with wrongful termination, sexual harassment, discrimination, invasion of privacy, false imprisonment, breach of contract, emotional distress, and wage and hour law violations. It may be categorized as a form of professional liability. Employment practices liability insurance (EPL) is sold as a type of management liability insurance, which is related to professional liability insurance.\nMost commonly, employment practices liability deals with laws and protections brought under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) of 1990, the Civil Rights Act of 1991, ADEA (Age Discrimination in Employment Act) of 1967, and Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA). The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) interprets and enforces these laws.\nThe EEOC recognizes eleven types of employment practices discrimination: age, disability, equal pay/compensation, genetic information, national origin, pregnancy, race/color, religion, retaliation, sex, and sexual harassment.Analysis of annual claims totals suggests that EPL claims rates correspond to unemployment rates: from 2007 to 2008, total claims in the U.S. jumped 13% as mass layoffs increased by roughly a third. In 2012, charges of retaliation, race, and sex discrimination (including harassment and pregnancy) were the most common types of discrimination that prompted EPL filings.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Enkeltpersonforetak (ENK) is a type of sole proprietorship in Norway. The company is considered part of the personal assets of the owner, who holds the full juridical and economic liability of the company. The sole proprietorship entity holds a number of advantages, such as that there is no minimum equity, requirements for auditing or registration fee at the Br\u00f8nn\u00f8ysund Register Centre. Sole proprietorships do not have to have the two or three letter corresponding company type in the official company name. Instead they are required to have the surname of the proprietor somewhere in the company name.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Enterprise information access refers to information systems that allow for enterprise search; content classification; content clustering; information extraction; enterprise bookmarking; taxonomy creation and management; information presentation (for example, visualization) to support analysis and understanding; and desktop or personal knowledge search.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In a service-oriented architecture business software implementation, the enterprise service layer is the highest level of abstraction.Any application programming interface defined at the enterprise service layer can cross domain boundaries; it calls directly the domain device layer, which in turn interacts with the application service layer or the RDBMS Service Layer.  Therefore, any application programming interface which must access multiple domains to execute correctly must exist at the enterprise level.Since the enterprise service layer is the application programming interface of the entire enterprise, all the components in the enterprise can call it directly, and it can sometimes be accessed from outside the service-providing entity.The enterprise service layer exposes a number of application programming interface considerably lower than the application service layer because it works at a higher level of abstraction.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Executive MBA Council is an educational accreditation council formed in 1981 to accredit schools of business offering EMBA degrees worldwide. The council was formed with the assistance of the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB International).The council's stated mission is to promote the advancement of executive MBA worldwide through its partnerships, conference, and research and outreach activities. The EMBA Council is governed by a Board of Trustees, which consists mainly of the Deans or Program Directors of its business school members and sets goals on council initiatives.The council is headquartered in Beckman Hall, Orange, California, United States.\nAs of May 2010, the Executive MBA Council has accredited 237 full business schools on six continents and 18 corporate members.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Express pricing is a form of price discrimination where, in a reverse of economies of scale, retailers raise their prices slightly in smaller stores. The name of it originates from Tesco Express, but it can be used to apply to any retailer operating a similar policy. A 2018 Inside Out investigation found that some Express prices were 178% more than their non-Express counterparts. According to Sainsbury's, this can be attributed to discrepancies in \"operational requirements and running costs. Rents, for example\", it being \"more of a challenge to deliver products to our local stores\" and \"other factors such as staffing, local rates and a focus on convenience products\".Tesco themselves have acknowledged this, saying \"Our prices don\u2019t differ greatly but they will differ slightly because of the difference in costs of running the smaller stores. Express stores are typically on the high street, which means Tesco don\u2019t very often own the land. So the overheads involved in running a smaller store are higher.\"In 2011, Marks and Spencer's policy of charging express pricing in their Simply Food branches was reported on. A spokesperson has admitted \"prices are a little higher than at our high street stores\".Aldi charged express pricing as soon as they opened.Express pricing attracted particular opprobrium in 2021 after Tesco rebranded 89 of its Metro stores into Express stores; with their Express branches not taking part in Tesco's Aldi Price Match scheme, many shoppers reported overnight price increases of up to 50% on some lines.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Flexplace refers to a policy or program that enables employees to have more authority to remote work. It can be the result of a formal agreement between the employer and the employee or it can simply entail the fact that a job can be performed in any context or place. For example, an employee may choose to work in the office or from home or from a client's office or even a caf\u00e9.It is the workplace equivalent of the workforce policy of flextime and flexbenefits.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Carl Foerster & Sons was a Milwaukee maker of bandone\u00f3ns, concertinas, accordions, reed organs, and roller organs. Founded by German migrants, it was active from at least 1909 through at least the 1920s.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "For Keeps (stylized as For Keeps!) is a bookstore in Atlanta, Georgia, that specializes in Black classic and rare books. The shop opened in 2018 and is owned and operated by Rosa Duffy.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Forecast by analogy is a forecasting method that assumes that two different kinds of phenomena share the same model of behaviour. For example, one way to predict the sales of a new product is to choose an existing product which \"looks like\" the new product in terms of the expected demand pattern for sales of the product.\n\"Used with care, an analogy is a form of scientific model that can be used to analyze and explain the behavior of other phenomena.\"According to some experts, research has shown that the careful application of analogies improves the accuracy of the forecast.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Fortune Global Forum is an annual conference held by Fortune magazine. The first conference was held in Singapore in 1995. The Fortune Global Forum convenes the presidents, chairmen, CEOs of the world's top companies and also prestigious economists.\nThe latest forum will take place in Guangzhou, China in Dec, 2017. The topic is \"Openness and Innovation: Shaping the Global Economy\".", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Founder's Pie Calculator is a tool for distributing shares when starting a business venture. It was first described in an article by Frank Demmler, who is an Adjunct Teaching Professor of Entrepreneurship at Carnegie Mellon University.In contrast to popular notion, the shares are not distributed equally (because \"it's fair\") but using a system of 5 important aspects of any business venture, assigning a relative weight to them and then rating the founders in each of these aspects.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "FSN analysis is an inventory management technique. It is an important aspect in logistics. The items are classified according to their rate of consumption. The items are classified broadly into three groups: F \u2013 means Fast moving, S \u2013 means Slow moving, N \u2013 means Non-moving. The FSN analysis is conducted generally on the following basis:\n\nThe last date of receipt of the items or the last date of the issue of items, whichever is later, is taken into account.\nThe time period is usually calculated in terms of months or number of days and it pertains to the time elapsed since the last movement was recorded.FSN analysis helps a company in identification of the following\n\nThe items considered to be \u201cactive\u201d may be reviewed regularly on more frequent basis.\nItems whose stocks at hand are higher as compared to their rates of consumption.\nNon-moving item have zero consumption are generally absolutely.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "FXMarketSpace (FXMS) was a centrally cleared, global foreign exchange (FX) platform for the over the counter (OTC) cash market.  It was launched in May 2006 as a joint venture between Reuters and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange but they decided to close the platform in October 2008 as it had not attracted enough liquidity.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Gas Technology Institute is an American non-profit research and development organization which develops, demonstrates, and licenses new energy technologies for private and public clients, with a particular focus on the natural gas industry.  GTI is located in Des Plaines, Illinois.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "General line of merchandise or general merchandise is a term used in retail and wholesale business in reference to merchandise not limited to some particular category. General merchandise stores (general stores) address this sector of retail.\nAccording to the North American Industry Classification System 2002, the following types of general merchandise are excluded from the line carried by general stores:\ngeneral line of building and home improvement materials (44411, Home Centres)\ngeneral line of grocery items (44511, Supermarkets and Other Grocery (except Convenience) Stores)\ngeneral line of used goods (45331, Used Merchandise Stores)Regardless of this classification system, general stores indeed carry basic grocery items, often limited produce, basic hardware and gardening tools, and other necessaries of rural life.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Georgia Statewide Minority Business Enterprise Center is funded by the U.S. Department of Commerce\u2019s Minority Business Development Agency (MBDA) and operated by the Enterprise Innovation Institute (EI2). The MBDA Business Center (MBC), Atlanta, Ga., is part of a national network of centers established to increase the number of minority-owned businesses and strengthen existing ones.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "GigSky is a Palo Alto, California-based mobile technology company that provides e-SIM and SIM card-based data services to international travelers. Users connect to public data networks using a mobile app and a GigSky e-SIM or Apple SIM card. GigSky also offers services for enterprise customers, and provides mobile data for airline electronic flight bag (EFB) solutions.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Gold in the mine is a metaphor for the potential savings in quality improvement efforts. It is essentially a restatement of the Pareto principle in the context of quality costs; digging in the right place can produce great savings, though investigating every possible opportunity is not economically feasible.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Golden Gimmick refers to a foreign tax credit deal enacted in November 1950 by the U.S. Government under President Harry Truman between King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia and the Arabian-American Oil Company (ARAMCO), a consortium comprising Standard Oil of California (Chevron), Standard Oil of New Jersey (Exxon), Standard Oil of New York (Mobil) and Texaco. King Ibn Saud was being influenced by Juan Pablo P\u00e9rez Alfonso of Venezuela who cut a similar 50/50 deal with New Jersey Standard Oil and Royal Dutch Shell. This 50/50 deal accorded the American oil companies a tax break equivalent to 50% of their profits on oil sales, with the other 50% to be diverted to King Ibn Saud via the US Treasury. The King agreed to this 50/50 splitting of Aramco's oil profits instead of nationalizing Aramco's oil facilities on Saudi soil. Venezuela eventually led the effort in forming OPEC and Saudi Arabia gained full control of Aramco by 1980.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Marino Golinelli (11 October 1920 \u2013 19 February 2022) was an Italian art collector, businessman, and philanthropist. He was honored with the Order of Merit for Labour (1979). Golinelli was also a winner of the Golden Neptune Award (2010).Golinelli died on 19 February 2022, at the age of 101.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A government contractor is a company (privately owned, publicly traded or a state-owned enterprise) \u2013 either for profit or non-profit \u2013 that produces goods or services under contract for the government. Some communities are largely sustained by government contracting activity; for instance, much of the economy of Northern Virginia consists of government contractors employed directly or indirectly by the federal government of the United States.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique, commonly known as GERT, is a network analysis technique used in project management that allows probabilistic treatment both network logic and estimation of activity duration. The technique was first described in 1966 by Dr. Alan B. Pritsker of Purdue University and WW Happ.Compared to other techniques, GERT is only rarely used in complex systems. Nevertheless, the GERT approach addresses the majority of the limitations associated with PERT/CPM technique. GERT allows loops between tasks. The fundamental drawback associated with the GERT technique is the complex programme (Monte Carlo simulation) required to model the GERT system. Development in GERT includes Q-GERTS - allowing the user to consider queuing within the system.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Greater Philadelphia Expo Center at Oaks is an exhibition center located in Oaks, Pennsylvania, which is approximately 7 miles (11 km) northwest of King of Prussia via the Pottstown Expressway (U.S. Route 422). It has five adjoining exhibit halls, 15 meeting rooms, two small food courts, and a total area of over 240,000 square feet on one floor. It is among the largest suburban exposition centers on the East Coast of the United States.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Greater Reading Expo Center  was an exhibition center located just north of Reading, Pennsylvania and access from the Warren Street Bypass (Route 12.) It had 30 meeting rooms, two food courts, and a total area of over 270,000 square feet on one floor. The expo center opened in 2006 and closed in 2013.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "GS1 DataBar is a family of symbols most commonly seen in the GS1 DataBar Coupon. \nThe symbology is formally defined as ISO/IEC 24724:2006.\nThe name was changed from RSS to GS1 DataBar due to the potential for confusion with Really Simple Syndication.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "HeadBlade is a head shaving razor brand produced by The HeadBlade Company. Founded by Todd Greene, a 1989 graduate of Bowdoin College, HeadBlade is headquartered in Gardena, California.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An honesty bar is an unattended beverage bar, typically in the lobby or lounge of a hotel, where payment is left to the guest. Honesty bars differ significantly from in-room mini-bars, where any consumption is automatically charged to the guest's account.\nHonesty bars are less common than staffed bars, but can be found in a number of boutique hotels and other small hotels, and the executive floors of fine hotels. No staff attend the bar and therefore it is left to the honesty of the guest to report their own consumption. Honesty bars are convenient, since a guest can make or serve a drink at any time, keeping a tab for themself for the length of the stay. Generally drinks are cheaper in an honesty bar, since no staff must be paid to attend the area continuously.\nHonesty bars are generally stocked with popular beverages, mixers, and feature a standard bar setup. It is common to find a manual of basic cocktails.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Hungarian Industrial & Commercial Bank (Hungarian: Magyar Ipar-\u00e9s Kereskedelmi Bank) was an important Hungarian bank in the late 19th and early 20th century. It was a mediocre bank until the appointment of Istv\u00e1n Tisza, a prominent businessman and politician, as its president. Under his direction, it became the largest bank in Hungary within a decade.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Hupan University (\u6e56\u7554\u5927\u5b66) is a corporate business school located in Yuhu Bay, Xihu (\u897f\u6e56) Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China. It was founded in 2015 by Jack Ma, founder of Alibaba Group, a multinational technology conglomerate.This business school have 9 co-founders including Jack Ma, Chuanzhi Liu, Lun feng, Guangchang Guo, Yuzhu Shi, Guojun Shen, Yingyi Qian, Hongbing Cai and Xiaofeng Shao.\nHupan University is ranked 101-200th in WURI Global Top 100 Innovative Universities Ranking 2021.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "International Accounting Standard 7: Statement of Cash Flows or IAS 7 is an accounting standard that establishes standards for cash flow reporting used in International Financial Reporting Standards.\nA statement of cash flows for the periods, is an integral \"Component of financial statements\" as per IAS 1 \u2014 Presentation of Financial Statements.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Ibrachy & Dermarkar law firm is a legal practice that serves business legal needs since 1932. The firm acts as legal counsel to several companies operating in Egypt.\nMa\u00eetre Charles Chalom was head of the Egyptian bar association of mixed courts, but he was also a qualified accountant. So, when he set up his legal practice in 1932, the mix of business and law was the seedling of Ibrachy and Dermarkar, the prestigious international law firm as it is known today. In 1952, Messrs. Hassan & Hussein El Ibrachy and Said Dermarkar negotiated a partnership agreement with Mr. Chalom creating Chalom, Ibrachy & Dermarkar.\nDr. Hassan Elibrachy, then the secretary of the royal cabinet, joined the firm in 1953. The firm saw another change in 1956, when Ma\u00eetre, Charles Chalom, resigned from the practice and left Egypt in 1956. That was the birth of the present Ibrachy and Dermarkar law firm; I&D, as it is known.\nThe history of I&D stands out with achievements; I&D were the main lawyers for the Baron Empain who had established the city of Heliopolis, acted as consultants for Siemens as it modernized the Egyptian telecom system during the Sadat administration era. It consulted for the Japanese group, headed by Toyo Menka Kaisha as it founded the Dekheila Steel Project, the first of its kind in Egypt.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Immersive commerce or iCommerce is an extension of E-commerce that focuses on improving customer experience by using augmented reality, virtual reality and immersive technology to create virtual smart stores from existing brick and mortar locations.\nRather than an iteration of traditional eCommerce, iCommerce is a form of online shopping that blends physical elements of traditional stores (i.e. rows, shelves, racks, counters, etc.) with digital elements of traditional eCommerce web sites (i.e. mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, digital marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange, inventory management systems, automated data collection systems and CRM). Immersive commerce platforms give consumers the ability to browse and shop aisles of a virtual store using any online device.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Ince Park is a resource recovery facility being developed by Peel Group near Ince, Cheshire.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An individual development plan, or IDP, is a document completed by individual for the plan of self-development over the next period, usually one year. This plan is then reviewed and discussed by supervision to match the individual goals with company goals. They also discuss various options and approaches to achieve the plan. At the end of one year (or other time period) this plan is reviewed to see how many goals are fulfilled and what are the new goals and plans for the next year.\nContents of the IDP can vary. Some employees focus on fixing weaknesses. Others focus on playing to their strengths. Some focus on short-term goals and development, other on the long-term. One key component to any good IDP is that the employee feels total ownership of the content. It's generally regarded a bad practice to write \"what the boss wants to hear\".", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Inevitable disclosure is a legal doctrine through which an employer can claim trade secret to enjoin a former employee from working in a job that may result in the use of trade secrets without the need for proof or evidence.  \nThe inevitable-disclosure doctrine is one's means in demonstrating a revelation of trade secrets, and some have recently found some renewed judicial support. Where it is acceptable, the doctrine allows the court to find that a former employee would disclose proprietary information in their position with a new employer, even if there is no evidence of actual disclosure. Thus, allowing a company to make a critical showing, when it can't do so if required to come forward with evidence of misconduct. However, because it also rests on a prediction about a future harm, inevitable disclosure also is in tension with the general principle that injunctive relief will not be given to prevent a conjectural injury at any means.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Innosight is a strategy consultancy within Huron Consulting Group, advising enterprises on business strategy. Innosight was founded in 2000 by Harvard Business School professor Clayton M. Christensen and senior partner Mark W. Johnson. Innosight uses methods based on the concept of disruptive innovation, a theory defined by Christensen in his book The Innovator's Dilemma. The company headquarters is located in Lexington, MA, with additional offices in Singapore and Switzerland. Scott D. Anthony is the firm's managing partner.In 2018, the company launched a new online platform called Innosight X.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "InteliSpend Prepaid Solutions is a private company formed as a joint venture by American Express and Maritz, Inc in 1997. InteliSpend provides incentive programs for 76% of Fortune 500 companies. In 2010, Maritz bought out American Express' interest in the company to obtain 100% ownership.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Interkommunalt selskap or IKS (in English: Intermunicipal company) is a type of municipal or county owned company in Norway. It resembles very closely a Municipal Enterprise (Kommunalt foretak) or County Enterprise, but the IKS requires multiple municipalities and/or counties to be owners. The form is regulated by the Municipal Act. Typical activities organised as IKS's include waterworks, archives, museums and garbage disposal.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Intermarket sweep orders (ISO) is a type of stock market order that sweeps several different market centers and scoop up as many shares as possible from them all. These work against the order-protection rule under regulation NMS. \nFor example, if a trader is trying to buy 1000 shares of X, and there are 100 shares of X being offered at $1 at one exchange and 2000 at $1.10 at another exchange, the order protection rule would let you buy ONLY those 100 shares at $1, after which you would need to send in other orders. With the ISO, you can buy the 100 shares at $1 and the remaining 900 at $1.10 on the other exchange subsequently.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The International Defence Exhibition & Conference, or IDEX, is a biennial arms and defence technology sales exhibition. The exhibition is the largest defence exhibition and conference in the Middle East and takes place in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The International Manufacturing Technology Show (IMTS), first held in Cleveland, Ohio in 1927\n, is a trade show that features industrial machinery and technology. It is the largest manufacturing technology trade show in North America, and in 1990 was renamed from the original \"International Machine Tool Show\" to reflect the growing scope of the show to additional technologies such as welding, lubrication, and materials engineering.The six-day show is held in even-numbered years at Chicago's McCormick Place and draws attendees and exhibitors from the U.S. and some 119 other countries. The 2012 show registered 102,000 attendees and 1,909 exhibitors across four buildings and 1,240,863 square feet (115,279.9 m2) of exhibit space.In addition to being an exhibition for suppliers of machinery and other manufacturing technology, since 2004 IMTS has sponsored the Emerging Technology Center, where new developments from both academia and industry are showcased.  IMTS 2012, for example, featured a Local Motors Rally Fighter car built live right on the show floor, MTConnect, the open-source communication and interconnectivity standard, and MTInsight, the game-changing customized manufacturing business intelligence system.The show is managed by the Association for Manufacturing Technology.\nAn agreement between the AMT and the CECIMO (European Machine Tool Industry Association), which organizes the European-based EMO trade show for the metal working industry, coordinates the IMTS and the EMO such that every even-numbered year the IMTS is held in Chicago, and every odd-numbered year the EMO is held in Europe.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An intra-company transfer is where a company reassigns an employee to work in a different physical office space. Many countries offer expedited processes to obtain travel visas and work permits for intra-company transfers if the applicant performs certain categories of work. These categories of work may include executives, managers, long-term employees, and those with specialized expertise.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Invented here or Not Invented There (NIT), an opposite of \"not invented here\", is a type of argument or attitude that occurs when management of an organisation is uncomfortable with innovation or development conducted in-house. Reasons this might be the case are varied, and range from a lack of confidence in the staff within the organisation to a desire to have a third party to blame in the event that a project fails. One effect of this version of \"invented here\" may be that detailed knowledge of the innovation or development never passes to permanent employees, possibly resulting in recurring additional expenditure and a less goodwill and bankable experience by employees.One quotation that sums up the \"invented here\" attitude is \"Gee, it can't be worth much if someone local thought of it first.\"", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Investor-owned utilities (IOUs) are private enterprises acting as public utilities. Examples may range from a family that owns a well on their property to international energy conglomerates.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Inward investment is the injection of money from an external source into a region, in order to purchase capital goods for a branch of a corporation to locate or develop its presence in the region.\nForeign sources, such as transnational corporations or multinational corporations invest money by introducing new industrial sites to an area, in order to produce more of their product, sometimes in response to changes noticed in that area, such as a growing population or enhanced transport network. Inward investment creates jobs in an area and brings wealth into the economy.\nSome places do however attract inward investment due to their relative remoteness, for example a company wanting to recruit personnel with relatively common skills might deliberately relocate to an area where wage rates are relatively low, a factor that could arise because of the absence of similar jobs or localised underemployment. Some international investors might seek to take advantage of relatively lax regulation through investing abroad.\nSome economic development agencies, governments or local authorities are occasionally accused of concentrating on attracting inward investment to such an extent that they neglect to nurture home-grown small businesses or entrepreneurs with exciting ideas. As with much marketing effort, a balance is often required to maximise economic progress that is socially and environmentally appropriate.\nAnother aspect of inward investment is financial inward investment activity, which rather than focusing on attracting \"offshoot\" operations of overseas companies, focuses on encouraging global focused overseas venture capitalist and hedge-fund investment into companies in a country or region.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The IPR-Helpdesk is a project funded by the European Commission (EC) and a source and guide to patent information. The project was launched in 1998 (at the same time as Espacenet) to be a central reference point for intellectual property inquiries and advice throughout the European Union. The IPR-Helpdesk is a project implemented by \"a European network consisting of several research institutes, law firms and consultancies.\" It notably offers a free-of-charge enquiry service, or \"Helpline service\", for addressing intellectual property issues, that is \"targeted at researchers and European small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) participating in EU-funded collaborative research projects.\"According to a 2005 OECD report, the IPR-Helpdesk \"offers an example of what governments can do to help compensate for a lack of technology transfer competence among [public research organisations (PROs)]\" and \"has, since 1998, played a key role in building a culture of innovation in EU countries\". The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe later reported, in 2011, that the IPR Helpdesk \"not only benefits EU RTD participants, but also the wider research and SME communities\".The University of Alicante (Spain) was responsible for the FP5, FP7 and CIP IPR-Helpdesk editions from January 2001 to February 2011. From March 2011, a consortium formed by infeurope S.A. (a Luxembourg-based company), the Intellectual Property Institute of Luxembourg (a Luxembourg-based IP institute) and Eurice GmbH (a company based in Saarbr\u00fccken, Germany) is in charge of the project as a result of a European Commission's tender.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Jeanette \"Jinny\" Rosemary Janvrin (1931\u20132018) was acclaimed as Britain's perfect secretary in 1953.  She subsequently married Henry Brandon and became Lady Brandon of Oakbrook when he became a Law Lord in 1981.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Kommandittselskap or KS is a Norwegian type of company. The company is owned by two types of entities; the komplementar, who holds unlimited liability, and one or more komandittist who hold limited liability. The company type is thus a middle form between a limited and unlimited company. The komplementar can be, and often is, a limited liability company, which indirectly and in practice will limit the liability for the ultimate owner(s) of the komplementar.\nEach komandittist must pay equity of NOK 20,000, of which 20% must be paid before the registration at Br\u00f8nn\u00f8ysund Register Centre. The komplementar must supply at least 10% of the total equity. Dividend is paid out in proportion to the supplied equity, unless otherwise agreed upon. Taxation of a KS follows the same rules as taxation from an ansvarlig selskap (unlimited company, ANS), so there is no double taxation. KS's must be audited and submit their accounts to the authorities.\nOf tax reasons, the company was quite popular in the 1980s, but after changes in the tax law most of the advantages disappeared. After this the company form is mainly used for real estate investment collaborations.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A kommunalt foretak or KF (English: \"municipal enterprise\") is a Norwegian company type. Specifically the term relates to an undertaking owned by a municipality. An equivalent enterprise owned by a county is known as a fylkeskommunalt foretak or FKF (\"county enterprise\"). Each KF and FKF has its own separate board of directors and a managing director, but the undertakings are not limited liability companies. If more than one municipality and/or county is the owner, the company is instead classed as an interkommunalt selskap or IKS (\"intermunicipal company\"). Municipalities and counties are also permitted to own limited companies.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the law of contracts, under the last shot rule, a party implicitly assented to and thereby accepted a counter-offer by conduct indicating lack of objection to it. In addition to being based on a questionable notion of implied assent, the last shot rule tended in practice to favor sellers over buyers, because sellers normally \u201cfire the last shot\u201d \u2013 i.e., send the last form.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Legacy costs is a term formed by analogy with the computer industry's legacy systems. Legacy costs are those incurred by an organization (whether corporation or city) in prior years under different leadership or when the entity's priorities and resources were different. While it can refer to other commitments (particularly existing infrastructure) as well, it primarily refers to obligations to pay health care costs and pensions under defined-benefit plans for current employees and retirees, usually incurred during the labor peace era after World War II. Legacy costs are believed to hinder American jobs, such as auto manufacturers and central cities, and older airlines worldwide. This belief leads to the idea that legacy costs will lower the company's competitiveness. Organized labor sees such criticisms as part of a desire to abandon any form of social contract between worker and employer.Newer, less-established entities have few or no problems with legacy costs, because they have less pension and health care liabilities (this applies to new suburbs, for example, as well as new companies), and are therefore able to out-compete (in some cases) the older entities.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) is a unique global identifier for legal entities participating in financial transactions.  Also known as an LEI code or LEI number, its purpose is to help identify legal entities on a globally accessible database. Legal entities are organisations such as companies or government entities that participate in financial transactions. An individual person may not obtain an LEI.  The identifier is used in regulatory reporting to financial regulators and all financial companies and funds are required to have an LEI.\nThe identifier is formatted as a 20-character, alpha-numeric code based on the ISO 17442 standard developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It connects to key information that enables clear and unique identification of legal entities participating in financial transactions. Each LEI database entry contains information about an entity's ownership and thus answers the questions of 'who is who\u2019 and \u2018who owns whom\u2019. Therefore the publicly available LEI data pool can be regarded as a global directory of non-individual participants in the financial market.\nThere are a number of LEI issuers around the world that issue and maintain the identifiers and act as primary interfaces to the global directory, these are typically financial exchanges or financial data vendors.  These are accredited by the Global Legal Entity Identifier Foundation (GLEIF) to issue LEIs.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Lehigh Valley Railroad Engine House is a former railroad repair shop, or \"engine house\" at 99 Towanda Street, White Haven, Pennsylvania. It was built in 1889 as a more permanent structure for the repair shop belonging to the Lehigh Valley Railroad Company, and now serves as a community library.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Brian Douglas Lennard (18 June 1935 \u2013 27 June 2019) founded Sacha Shoes \u2013 a chain of 200 shoe shops in the UK. He gambled away much of his fortune and was an early member of Gamblers Anonymous which he helped to establish in the UK. He was married to actress Marilyn Galsworthy, who divorced him after finding out he lost most of their fortune. Lennard had three daughters with  Galsworthy, Jasmine Lennard, Pandora and Jessica.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A letter of resignation is written to announce the author's intent to leave a position currently held, such as an office, employment or commission.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In project management, level of effort (LOE) is a support-type project activity that must be done to support other work activities or the entire project effort. It usually consists of short amounts of work that must be repeated periodically. Examples of such an activity may be project budget accounting, customer liaison, or oiling machinery during manufacturing.\nSince an LOE activity is not itself a work item directly associated with accomplishing the final project product, service or result, but rather one that supports such work, its duration is based on the duration of the discrete work activity it is supporting\u2014oiling machinery will start when manufacturing starts and finish when it finishes. As a result, an LOE activity should never be on the critical path of the project schedule, as it never of itself adds time to the project. Rather, manufacturing would be on the critical path, and the oiling activity would become shorter or longer only if manufacturing does. LOE activities should not have variances either, because they cannot be ahead of or behind schedule based on their meaning. \nIn inserting LOE activities to a critical path method schedule, the LOE is usually scheduled as both a start-to-start (SS) and finish-to-finish successor of the driving activity. In a network logic diagram, these two relationships make it look as though the LOE is hanging from the start and finish of the discrete activity. As a result, an LOE thus diagrammed is sometimes referred to as a \"hammock\" activity or relationship. \nLOE is used to define the amount of work performance within a time and is measured in staff days or staff hours per day/week/month. \nLOE estimation is one of the primary tasks of a project manager.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A lifestyle business (also referred to as a lifestyle venture) is a business set up and run by its founders primarily with the aim of sustaining a particular level of income and no more; or to provide a foundation from which to enjoy a particular lifestyle.\nSome types of enterprise are more accessible than others to the would-be lifestyle business person. Those requiring extensive capital (for example: car manufacturing) are difficult to launch and sustain on a lifestyle basis; others such as small creative industries businesses are more practical for sole practitioners or small groups such as husband-and-wife teams.\nLifestyle businesses typically have limited scalability and potential for growth because such growth would destroy the lifestyle for which their owner-managers set them up. However, lifestyle businesses can and do win awards and provide satisfaction to their owners and customers. If sufficient high-quality creative producers begin to naturally cluster together, such as in Brighton, England, during the 1990s, the perception of a place can be radically changed (see Porter's cluster).\n\nThese are firms that depend heavily on founder skills, personality, energy, and contacts. Often their founders create them to exercise personal talent or skills, achieve a flexible schedule, work with other family members, remain in a desired geographic area, or simply to express themselves. But without the founder\u2019s deep personal involvement, such businesses are likely to, well, flounder. Professional investors are therefore rarely involved with lifestyle businesses.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Lineagen, Inc. is a privately held personal genomics and biotechnology company based in Salt Lake City, UT. The company was incorporated in 2006 and collaborated with two leading autism research institutions: the University of Utah and The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP), to identify novel genetic variants likely causal of autism spectrum disorder. Lineagen was granted an exclusive commercial license to these novel genetic variants. Notably, the markers from CHOP, published in Nature and PLoS Genetics, were named by TIME magazine as one of the top ten medical breakthroughs of 2009.Since 2010, Lineagen provides genetic laboratory services to healthcare providers, which include fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), karyotyping and chromosomal microarray testing for children with childhood development disorders.  In 2012,  Lineagen and Affymetrix, Inc. announced that the companies have signed an agreement where Lineagen receives exclusive rights to develop a proprietary chromosomal microarray assay based on Affymetrix' GeneChip technology platform.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The IBM Linux Technology Center (LTC) is an organization focused on development for the Linux kernel and related open-source software projects. In 1999, IBM created the LTC to combine its software developers interested in Linux and other open-source software into a single organization. Much of the LTC's early effort was focused on making \"all of its server platforms Linux friendly.\" The LTC collaborated with the Linux community to make Linux run optimally on processor architectures such as x86, mainframe, PowerPC, and Power ISA. In recent years, the focus of the LTC has expanded to include several other open source initiatives.\nWith about 185 IBM employees working for the LTC in 1999, this number grew steadily to about 600 in 2006, 300 of whom worked full-time on Linux.\nIn December 2000, IBM claimed to have invested approximately one billion US dollars in Linux by the year 2000, and to currently have about 1,500 developers working on the alternative operating system. It announced that it would invest a similar amount in 2001 and also build the largest Linux-based supercomputer for Royal Dutch/Shell Oil. While most of the money was invested in Linux development, some of it went into others, mainly AIX. The following year, senior vice president Bill Zeitler claimed to have recouped most of this spending in the first year through the sale of software and systems.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A magic store (also magic shop or magician's supply shop) is an establishment which sells materials for performing magic tricks. Magic shops often also sell practical jokes and novelty items, and frequently serve as informal gathering places for amateur magicians, with some hosting organized magic clubs.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Mang Inasal Philippines, Inc., also known as Mang Inasal, (Hiligaynon for \"Mr. Barbecue\") is a barbecue fast food restaurant chain in the Philippines, established in Iloilo City in 2003.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A Manufacturer's Certificate of Origin (MCO), also known as a Manufacturer\u2019s Statement of Origin (MSO), is a specified document certifying the country of origin of the merchandise required by certain foreign countries for tariff purposes. It sometimes requires the signature of the consulate of the country to which it is destined.\nA certificate of origin is employed to certify that a good being exported either from the United States into Canada or Mexico or from Canada or Mexico into the United States qualifies as an originating good for purposes of preferential tariff treatment under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A market requirements document (MRD) in project management and systems engineering, is a document that expresses the customer's wants and needs for the product or service.\nIt is typically written as a part of product marketing or product management. The document should explain:\n\nWhat (new) product is being discussed\nWho the target customers are\nWhat products are in competition with the proposed one\nWhy customers are likely to want this product.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A mastermind group is a peer-to-peer mentoring group used to help members solve their problems with input and advice from the other group members.  The concept was coined in 1925 by author Napoleon Hill in his book The Law of Success, and described in more detail in his 1937 book Think and Grow Rich.  In his books, Hill discussed the idea of the Master Mind, which referred to two or more people coming together in harmony to solve problems.Cooperation through the use of mastermind groups was one of the laws of success that Hill learned studying successful Americans including Henry Ford, Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, Theodore Roosevelt, John D. Rockefeller, and Charles M. Schwab.Several companies offer mastermind group environments to members and guidance in planning effective groups.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In financial investment, the Maximum downside exposure (MDE) values the maximum downside to an investment portfolio. In other words, it states the most that the portfolio could lose in the event of a catastrophe. As such, MDE obviates the need to worry about the market's unpredictable swings as it virtually \"eliminates\" downside surprises. The formula: \n\nMDE = unhedged exposure/total portfolio value.(For example, if half of the funds are in inflation-protected cash, and the other half in stocks, the portfolio could not lose more than 50%  \u2013 the portfolio's MDE.)\nThe main benefit of MDE is that \u2013 unlike probabilistic risk models (such as VaR) \u2013 it appropriately factors in all risks to the portfolio without looking at historical (and often erroneous) data and relying on simplistic statistical assumptions that don't correspond to the real world. This makes MDE a very robust risk management tool.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In organizational management, mean down time (MDT) is the average time that a system is non-operational. This includes all downtime associated with repair, corrective and preventive maintenance, self-imposed downtime, and any logistics or administrative delays.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Mean time to recovery (MTTR) is the average time that a device will take to recover from any failure. Examples of such devices range from self-resetting fuses (where the MTTR would be very short, probably seconds), to whole systems which have to be repaired or replaced.\nThe MTTR would usually be part of a maintenance contract, where the user would pay more for a system MTTR of which was 24 hours, than for one of, say, 7 days. This does not mean the supplier is guaranteeing to have the system up and running again within 24 hours (or 7 days) of being notified of the failure. It does mean the average repair time will tend towards 24 hours (or 7 days). A more useful maintenance contract measure is the maximum time to recovery which can be easily measured and the supplier held accountably.\nNote that some suppliers will interpret MTTR to mean 'mean time to respond' and others will take it to mean 'mean time to replace/repair/recover/resolve'. The former indicates that the supplier will acknowledge a problem and initiate mitigation within a certain timeframe. Some systems may have an MTTR of zero, which means that they have redundant components which can take over the instant the primary one fails, see RAID for example. However, the failed device involved in this redundant configuration still needs to be returned to service and hence the device itself has a non-zero MTTR even if the system as a whole (through redundancy) has an MTTR of zero. But, as long as service is maintained, this is a minor issue.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A meat market is, traditionally, a marketplace where meat is sold, often by a butcher. It is a specialized wet market. The term is sometimes used to refer to a meat retail store or butcher's shop, in particular in North America. During the mid and late 19th century scientific research into epidemiology, sanitation and urban planning in Western countries led to the establishment of meat markets so that the slaughtering and sale of meat could be easily monitored and the risk of disease outbreaks could be minimized.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Meen\u0101 B\u0101z\u0101r or Mina Bazaar (Urdu: \u0645\u06cc\u0646\u0627 \u0628\u0627\u0632\u0627\u0631, Hindi: \u092e\u0940\u0928\u093e \u092c\u093e\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0930, Bengali: \u09ae\u09c0\u09a8\u09be \u09ac\u09be\u099c\u09be\u09b0) is a special bazaar to sell items to raise money for charity and non-profit organizations. It also refers to a number of modern-day shopping centres and retail stores.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Mega Brands America, Inc., formerly known as Rose Art Industries, LLC, is an American arts and stationery company based in Irvine, California. It sells products primarily under the brands RoseArt, The Board Dudes, The Write Dudes, USA Gold, Moon Products, MEGA Puzzles and Fuzzy Poster. It is owned by parent company MEGA Brands Inc., a Montreal-based company. It has additional operations in Fife, Washington; Lafayette, Indiana; and Lewisburg, Tennessee.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Memphis Furniture Manufacturing Company was the largest component of what was once the largest furniture manufacturing operation in the United States. It was founded in 1896 by Robertson Morrow and, despite a major fire in 1904, quickly grew to include Little Rock Furniture, New Orleans Furniture, and Oklahoma City Furniture.\nMemphis Furniture itself employed over 1,000 people at its peak. By the late 1970s, it faced growing competition from Carolina furniture manufacturers and unionization of its workforce. The multi-story urban manufacturing facility that was so efficient in the 1920s was not competitive with the large, single story rural manufacturing facilities. It ceased operation and went into liquidation in 1983.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Metals Disintegrating Company was founded by Professor Everett Joel Hall in 1916 to manufacture metal powders.  It was acquired by Alcan in 1963 and renamed as Alcan Powders and Pigments.  The aluminium powder business was separated and is now part of Toyal America while the copper-based powder business continued as ACuPowder International", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Metcalfe's Skinny is a healthy snack food business set up in 2009 by Julian Metcalfe and, since September 2016, fully owned by the owner of Kettle Foods, Snyder's-Lance.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The metra potential method (MPM) (M\u00e9thode des potentiels M\u00e9tra) was developed by French researcher Bernard Roy in 1958 for the construction of the French paquebot France and of the first French nuclear power plant.\nMPM is a means of describing organizing and planning a project. It is an equivalent of the PERT method.\nUsing summits for tasks and path for interdependencies between the different tasks, the solution is set are graphically.\nUsing MPM, the length of the critical path is shown directly in the diagram and the critical path itself can be identified easily.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In business and investing, term microcap stock (also micro-cap) refers to the stock of public companies in the United States which have a market capitalization of roughly $50 million to $300 million. The shares of companies with a market capitalization of less than $50 million are typically referred to as nano-cap stocks. Many micro-cap and nano-cap stocks are traded over-the-counter with their prices quoted on the OTCBB, OTC Link LLC, or the Pink Sheets. The larger, more established micro-caps are listed on the NASDAQ Capital Market or American Stock Exchange (AMEX).\nMicrocap stocks are in many ways different from other stocks since they are from companies with a small market capitalization and are usually traded on stock exchanges that do not require minimum standards, such as a minimum amount of net assets or a minimum number of stock holders. In addition, these micro cap stock companies often have fewer resources to make their information available to the public. These micro cap stocks are less likely to be published and talked about by stockbrokers compared to larger public companies. Often, microcap stock companies will specialize in innovative products or services that may be unknown to the general public.Micro-cap and especially nano-cap stocks can sometimes experience volatility. Some of these companies fail to execute their business plans and go out of business. Fraud and market manipulation are not uncommon and the transaction costs in trading can be quite high. Pricing is more likely to be inefficient, since fewer institutional investors and analysts operate in this space, due to the relatively small dollar amounts involved and the lack of liquidity. \nInvestors and finance experts have proposed microcaps can be good investments. David Maley of Ariel Investments argues that ample evidence indicates holding a portion of a portfolio in micro-cap stocks can offer advantages.  Micro-caps as a group tend to out-perform stocks from larger companies over time, Daley notes, and micro-caps are not closely correlated with larger company stocks or index funds and thus potentially offset broader market volatility. Furthermore, micro-caps being relatively neglected by analysts offers more potential opportunities for value investors. Similarly, professor Jeremy J. Siegel of Wharton School of Business notes in his book Stocks for the Long Run how a review of American stock data from 1926 to 1996 found that the smallest quintile of stocks by capitalization (including micro-caps) outperformed the largest quintile by an average of almost 4% per year. But this over-performance was not consistent, with multi-year stretches of time when smaller company stocks under-performed relative to larger company stock.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Founded in 1978, Micron Products, Inc. is a contract manufacturing organization with an emphasis on precision machining and plastic injection molding.Micron Products is a wholly owned subsidiary of Micron Solutions Inc. (NYSE MKT:MICR). Prior to March 24, 2017, Micron Solutions was known as Arrhythmia Research Technology (NYSE MKT:HRT); it was rebranded to better align with Micron Products.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Microsegmentation is a marketing process that uses techniques such as data mining, artificial intelligence, and algorithms to recognize and predict minute consumer spending and behavioral patterns. The collected information is used to help marketers identify extremely precise microsegments (down to the individual consumer level).  Microsegments can then be the focus of personalized direct micromarketing and micropromotion campaigns.\nThis form of micromarketing considers that each consumer has different ideas and feelings about a company\u2019s products, services, prices, and promotions, and sets out to recognize these differences and respond to them in an appropriate manner.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Microsoft for Startups, formerly known as Microsoft BizSpark, is a Microsoft program that provides support, Azure credits and free licenses to selected Microsoft products to software entrepreneurs and start ups. providing the benefits and the perks to the selected members of this program for a term of 3 years. Microsoft launched BizSpark One in 2009 as an enhanced service for selected startups. The BizSpark program was discontinued on February 14, 2018. and replaced by the Microsoft for Startups program. In October 2021 a new hub for Founders was added providing improved oversight of benefits and the startup company profile.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Midmarket Institute is an organization based in Princeton, New Jersey, that offers \"in-person events, publishing, sponsored research and advocacy\" to middle-market companies, which the institute defines as firms with annual revenues between $10 million and $500 million and with 100 to 5,000 employees.The company was founded in 2009 by Ram V. Iyer, who is now its president.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Milestones are tools used in project management to mark specific points along a project timeline. These points may signal anchors such as a project start and end date, or a need for external review or input and budget checks. Some contracts for products include a \"milestone fee\" that may be paid out when certain points are achieved.\nIn many instances, milestones do not impact project duration. Instead, they focus on major progress points that must be reached to achieve success.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Minor Thread is a handmade goods company from California, founded in 2003.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Mobile Workflows within mobile technology are specialized workflows. The purpose is to address deployment of workflows in mobile device infrastructure, thus enabling automation of process interaction for traditional business processes from within the device.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A mock interview is an emulation of a job interview used for training purposes. The conversational exercise usually resembles a real interview as closely as possible, for the purpose of providing experience for a candidate. It can help a job applicant to understand what is expected in a real job interview, and can help an applicant improve his or her self-presentation. Mock interviews can be videotaped; the candidate can view the tape afterward, and get feedback. There are coaches who can provide feedback on aspects of the interview process. Mock interviews are most common for job interviews, but may also be used to train public figures to handle interrogations by journalists, as well as help candidates for office prepare for debates. Some organizations schedule mock interview events to help many students prepare for job interviews. For example, some schools have mock interview training days, often organized by career and guidance counselors. While the usual sense of the term is an exercise done as a form of preparation prior to applying for jobs, there is another sense of the term which describes a playful or non-serious interview. Mock interviews can help a person gain confidence for real interviews, as well as provide the interviewee with information about how to handle an upcoming interview.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the music industry, a collection of musical compositions is cataloged into a music catalog. The owner owns the copyrights of the cataloged compositions.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Founded in 1991, Muze, Inc. was a business-to-business provider of media information, metadata, and digital preview samples that enable search, discovery, and purchase of digital entertainment content. \n\n\"Muze was founded by Zullo and Trev Huzley in 1986 under the name Digital Radio Network, which used to trade air time with rock music radio stations, giving the stations a segment that allowed listeners to call up and get information on album being released on CD in exchange for allowing Digital Radio to sell advertising time to sponsors.\"\nMuze media information databases are used by businesses to support the sale of entertainment products \u2013 such as music tracks and albums, videos and DVDs, books, and video games \u2013 and to attract and retain subscribers to Internet, mobile, and social networking sites. Muze was based in New York City with operations in North America and the United Kingdom.In April 2009, Macrovision (now TiVo) announced that it had signed a definitive agreement to acquire substantially all of the assets of Muze, Inc. in a $16.5 million cash transaction.  The transaction closed on April 30.Among Muze's clients were eBay, ArkivMusic, Netflix and Rotten Tomatoes.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Nanotronics Imaging is a nanotechnology startup in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio. It has an office in Brooklyn, New York at New Lab and manufactures its devices in California.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The National Board for Consumer Disputes (Swedish: Allm\u00e4nna reklamationsn\u00e4mnden, ARN) is a Swedish government agency that answers to the Ministry of Finance. The agency is headquartered in Stockholm.  Its main task is to issue non-binding recommendations on the resolution of disputes between consumers and business operators. A person can, free of charge, file complaints against a company. If the company does not follow the recommendation from ARN, the consumer has the possibility to take the matter to court.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Navis Logistics Network (NLN) is the former parent company of Navis Pack & Ship, based in Denver, Colorado.  The company formerly franchised Navis Pack & Ship (NP&S) and Handle With Care Packaging Store (HWCPS) shipping centers.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Needs Convenience is a chain of convenience stores throughout Atlantic Canada.\nThe Needs logo and trademark are owned by Sobeys. Individual stores are operated by independent franchisees. Sobeys is the exclusive supplier to the chain.\nMany stores operate from 6am-midnight; however, there are some 24-hour locations in larger urban centres. The Needs chain has installed gasoline stations at some locations using either the Ultramar Limited or Sobeys Fast Fuels brands.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "NewStore, Inc. is an enterprise omnichannel platform that is delivered as a service (SaaS), providing retail businesses with a cloud-based order management system (OMS) and mobile point of sale (POS).\nThe company was founded in 2015 by Stephan Schambach, who also founded Intershop Communications and Demandware, which was acquired by Salesforce in 2016 for US$2.8 billion.\nIt is headquartered in Boston, USA with offices in New York City, Berlin, Hanover and Erfurt. It received a Series A investment of US$38M in September 2015 and Series B investment of US$50M in July 2017.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Next Jump is an e-commerce company. The company handles loyalty programs for Dell, AARP, Intel, and Hilton Hotel.Headquartered in New York City, the company has some merchant partners, both retailers and manufacturers. The firm has offices in New York City, Boston, San Francisco and London.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Nieco (National Industrial Equipment Co.) is a commercial kitchen equipment manufacturer specializing in automatic broilers based in Windsor, California.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Nigerian-American Chamber of Commerce is a non-profit and non-governmental organization. The chamber was the first to pioneer bilateral chamber of commerce in Nigeria. It was created in 1960 to foster bilateral relations between United States and Nigeria. According to the Guardian report, Nigeria has become the largest trading partners in sub-Saharan Africa.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The NYSE Listed Company Manual is a set of regulations applicable to all corporations who wish to sell securities by listing themselves on the New York Stock Exchange. The Manual covers regulations on how a corporation's board should be composed, its internal audit and remuneration committees function, the voting rights of stockholders, standards for disclosure when issuing shares, and so forth.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "O'Henry Sound Studios was a commercial studio complex in Burbank, California, that was owned by engineer Hank Sanicola and his wife, Jacqueline Sanicola.  Hank's father, Hank Sanicola, Sr. (1914\u20131974), was a long time manager (until 1962) for Frank Sinatra.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Office 2.0 Conference is an annual conference coordinated by Ismael Ghalimi on the subject of Office 2.0, \"focused heavily on using collaborative Web technologies to increase productivity gains and business agility\". The first conference was in 2006 and the next is scheduled for 2009.\nU.S. Trademark 77,010,112 applies to the term  this context and is owned by Ghalimi's Monolab, Inc.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An official function is either an event, such as a convention, that has an official purpose for one's employment, vocation or profession-whether run by a person, institution or governmental agency-or an official duty.\nAttending events with official purposes is one of the duties of many persons in many organizations.  Attending such events fall into categories of networking, protocol, information gathering, among others. Networking may involve an economic network, an entrepreneurial network, an old boy network, a social network, and a value network. Protocol deals with etiquette and other forms of intercultural competence that should be followed to show respect for those with whom one is networking. Information may be gained as a message, a pattern, or an input.\nAttending events with official purposes helps one build an augmented social network, a  community of practice, and a network of practice. Such attendance increases occupational competence and achievement.\nOfficial duties are those performed to facilitate the achievement of one's assignments as an employee.  They may include duties that are performed in a routine manner and duties whose performance demonstrates innovation and leadership. They may include duties that are commonly performed, and duties that must be performed because of new circumstances.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Offshoring as a service (OaaS) is a business model in which the offshore office is not owned by the entity itself, instead it is outsourced to a vendor. The concept of offshoring is not new; however, in the past, some companies have tried to open their own offshore offices. The OaaS model leans towards utilizing a team or company which specializes in offshoring work and uses them on a contractual basis as a part of their own team.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "\"On-track\" or \"on-target\" earnings (OTE) is a term  often seen in job advertisements, especially for sales personnel. It is the expected total pay, if performance matches the expected targets. Actual pay may be higher or lower. The typical pay structure may be composed of a basic salary with an additional amount of commission, known together as a \"package\". The package usually involves a contract between the company and the salesperson that ensures a specific commission percentage, fixed lump sum payment, or a combination of both, provided that the salesperson hits specified sales targets. While all commission plans are unique, often exceeding sales targets results in higher commission rates on sales beyond target for a specific period. Alternatively, on target earnings can refer to an executive pay schedule contingent upon the achievement of specified goals.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Onsite health (also known as onsite care) is a benefit given to employees of companies, particularly companies in the technology sector such as Apple and Amazon, in order to save money and better support their employees.One study attributed the rising popularity of onsite health to the fact that \"employers who have adopted on-site preventive care services have reported enhanced performance ranging from heightened morale and cost savings to productivity.\"Onsite health services are provided in a variety of forms, depending on the needs of employers and their employees. Services can include full primary care, onsite pharmacies, occupational health, and chiropractic and acupuncture treatments.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An operational-level agreement (OLA) defines interdependent relationships in support of a service-level agreement (SLA). The agreement describes the responsibilities of each internal support group toward other support groups, including the process and timeframe for delivery of their services. The objective of the OLA is to present a clear, concise and measurable description of the service provider's internal support relationships.\nOLA is sometimes expanded to other phrases but they all have the same meaning:\n\norganizational-level agreement\noperating-level agreement\noperations-level agreement.OLA is not a substitute for an SLA. The purpose of the OLA is to help ensure that the underpinning activities that are performed by several support team components are aligned to provide the intended SLA. If the underpinning OLA is not in place, it is often very difficult for organizations to go back and engineer agreements between the support teams to deliver the SLA. OLA has to be seen as the foundation of good practice and common agreement.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Output budgeting is a wide-ranging management technique introduced into the United States in the mid-1960s by Robert S. McNamara's collaborator Charles J. Hitch, not always with ready cooperation with the administrators and based on the industrial management techniques of program budgeting. Subsequently, the technique has been introduced into other countries including Canada and the UK.\nPlanning, Programming, and Budgeting System (PPBS) is in effect an integration of a number of techniques in a planning and budgeting process for identifying, costing and assigning a complexity of resources for establishing priorities and strategies in a major program and for forecasting costs, expenditure and achievements within the immediate financial year or over a longer period.\nUnited States Department of Defense leaders use their Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System to link operational requirements with financial obligations. Department of Defense branches typically divide the process into plans, programs and budgets.  While planning, programming, and budgeting continues throughout the year, PPBS dictates a sequential and annual process culminating with annual Defense Plan, followed by a Defense Program, then a Defense Budget.\nPPBS requires  Planners focus on operational requirements, programmers link the plans to a six-year financial plan (known as a Future Years Defense Plan (FYDP)), and budgeters prepare a two-year Congressional budget.  While each step contains more detailed financial data, the two-year Congressional budget stems from the six-year Future Years Defense Plan, which is based on the even longer term Defense Plan.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "An owner-operator is a small business or microbusiness owner who also runs the day-to-day operations of the company. Owner-operators are found in many business models and franchising companies in many different industries like restaurant chains, health care, logistics, maintenance, repair, and operations.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Park In-chon (Korean:\ubc15\uc778\ucc9c, hanja:\u6734\u4ec1\u5929, July 5, 1901 - June 16, 1984) was a South Korean businessman. He was the founder and first head of the Kumho Asiana Group, Kumho Asiana Transportation Group and the Korean Synthetic Rubbers company.\n1st child : Park Seong-yong February 17, 1932, died May 23, 2005\n2nd child : Park Kyung-Ae 1934\n3rd child : Park Jeong-Koo born: 10 August 1937 (85 years old if alive), died 13 July 2002 (65 years old) Male.\n4th child : Park Gang-Ja 1941\n5th child: Park Sam-koo born: March 19, 1945 (77 years old), Gwangju is the biggest shareholder, has a daughter named Park Se Jin 1978 (44 years)\n6th child: Park Chan-koo August 13, 1948\n7th child: Park Hyun-Ju March 7, 1953", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A passenger market is a securities market where, due to regulation, securities are required to be held at the country's central securities depository in a separate account in the name of the beneficial owner..  Compare this to a market such as the United States where most securities are held in street name, that is, in the accounts of the brokers or custodians rather than the clients.\nAn example of a passenger market is Bangladesh.Some central depositories, such as CREST and CHESS, support but do not require individual membership.  These are not considered passenger markets.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A passive investor is one who does not participate in the day-to-day decisions of running a company. In partnerships, such investors may be deemed limited partners rather than general partners. According to Steve Penman, \"The passive investor assumes the market is efficient and that stocks are correctly priced to reflect the risk involved in buying the stock.\" A passive investor relies on the controlling stakeholders and the management to conduct the business of the corporation in such a way as both to maximize its value and to share the upside potential with the passive investor.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Patara (translates as \u2018gracious lady\u2019) is an international restaurant group of fine dining Thai restaurants in London, Geneva, Bangkok, Singapore, Beijing and Vienna. Patara's menu is based on blending eastern and western techniques.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Pe\u00f1asquito Polymetallic Mine is the fifth largest silver mine in the world and the second largest in Mexico. It is located in north-eastern corner of the State of Zacatecas and is wholly owned by Newmont Goldcorp. It is an open pit operation which began operations in March 2010, but still managed to produce 13,952,600 ounces of silver that year. Estimated reserves for the Pe\u00f1asquito Mine are 17.82 million oz of gold, 1,070.1 million oz of silver, 3,214 tons of lead and 7,098 million tons of zinc.\nThe mine has its own radio station, XHESP-FM 98.9 \"Radio Pe\u00f1asco\".", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In finance, permanent interest bearing shares, or PIBS, are fixed-interest securities issued by building societies. PIBS become perpetual subordinated bonds if their issuer demutualises. Building societies use them in the way public limited companies use preference shares. Although similar to bonds, PIBS typically exist as long as their issuer does.\nMany PIBS were originally issued in an era of higher interest rates, and so appear attractive to investors looking for income in a world of lower interest rates. However, there are some disadvantages to  PIBS; unlike bonds they have no fixed redemption date, so the buyer is at the mercy of the markets when they want to sell. Also, PIBS are not covered by UK government compensation schemes, interest does not 'roll up' - if a payment is missed, it is gone for good - and they rank behind depositors and other members in the event of financial distress.\nPIBS often have a call date at which the building society (not the investor) has the option to cancel the share and repay the face value to the holder.  This may be attractive to the society if, for example, the rate being paid on PIBS is well above current market interest rates.  \nThe Basel III rules are expected to phase out PIBS' inclusion in Tier 1 regulatory capital, meaning that building societies will be looking to replace PIBS as the opportunity arises.  A replacement instrument has been created as Core Capital Deferred Shares.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A permit service is a company that specializes in obtaining transportation permits for the trucking industry, predominantly in the US and Canada. The two permits that may be required in lieu of IFTA Registration would be Trip and Fuel. A vehicle registered under IFTA does not need either permit as member jurisdictions work together to track, collect and share the taxes payable on motor fuels. A third permit is commonly required for oversize or overweight loads. There might also be specialty permits required for unusual circumstances. A permit service generally has an online portal which allows permits to be obtained within a few hours.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A person specification describes the personal attributes desired in a potential employee. It is a companion document to a job description, describing the personal attributes being sought from applicants to ensure that they are suitable for the role. These attributes include qualifications, skills, experience, and knowledge, and sometimes personal attributes  which a candidate needs to possess in order to perform the job duties. The specification should be derived from the job description and thus help form the foundation for the recruitment process. Person specifications are also good for helping potential applicants understand the job's requirements and self-select accordingly.When writing a person specification, it is often suggested by guides that the content be measurable, and it cannot contain content that would directly or indirectly discriminate unnecessarily against protected groups.Many employers currently use core competencies to build their person specification.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Phanes Press is a New Age book publishing imprint of Red Wheel Weiser Conari.\nPhanes Press was founded by David Fideler in 1985 to publish Neoplatonic and other esoteric texts. One of its representative and more significant publications was The Pythagorean Sourcebook translated by Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie issued in 1987. The company had published 52 titles by 2004, when it was purchased by Red Wheel/Weiser.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Phantom stock is a contractual agreement between a corporation and recipients of phantom shares that bestow upon the grantee the right to a cash payment at a designated time or in association with a designated event in the future, which payment is to be in an amount tied to the market value of an equivalent number of shares of the corporation's stock. Thus, the amount of the payout will increase as the stock price rises, and decrease if the stock falls, but without the recipient (grantee) actually receiving any stock. Like other forms of stock-based compensation plans, phantom stock broadly serves to align the interests of recipients and shareholders, incent contribution to share value, and encourage the retention or continued participation of contributors. Recipients (grantees) are typically employees, but may also be directors, third-party vendors, or others. Business owners may offer phantom stocks as a way to reward and retain employees, however employees can only own phantom stock during the duration of their employment with the company.For startups, phantom shares can be used in lieu of stock options to provide prospective contributors to the success of the startup with a simple form of equity participation, since the phantom share grants can be tied to negotiated vesting schedules with the payout being tied to a change of control or liquidity event such as an IPO or acquisition. Both the startup and the recipients benefit from the flexibility of the agreement and the minimal legal and tax filing paperwork involved.\nFor established companies, phantom shares can be used as a cash bonus plan, although some plans pay out the benefits in the form of shares. \nPhantom stock can, but usually does not, pay dividends. When the grant is initially made, there is no tax impact. When the payout is made, however, it is taxed as ordinary income to the grantee and is deductible to the employer. Generally, phantom plans require the grantee to become vested, either through seniority or meeting a performance target.\nPhantom stock can be taxable upon vesting, even if not paid out, if the value of the phantom shares is pegged to shares that themselves have value. Use of a \"rabbi trust\" may solve this problem in some jurisdictions; however, that subjects the payout to significant risk, such as not being protected from the company's creditors in the event of corporate bankruptcy. Another way to avoid incurring a taxable event at the time of vesting is to peg the payout only to the increase in value from the time of the vesting to the time of the payout. Thus, the value of the phantom shares at the time of vesting is zero and not subject to taxation as compensation.\nA company can also issue Phantom Stock Options, which create a similar result as non-qualified stock options (NSOs). Typically the Phantom Options are issued at a strike price equivalent to the fair market value of the company, resulting in no tax liability at issuance. As the value of the company grows over time, the value of the Phantom Options grows as well. Like NSOs, there are no tax liabilities upon vesting. Upon exercise, the owner of the Phantom Options receives a cash payout equivalent to the stock share price less the Phantom Option strike price. Like NSOs, the payout is taxed as ordinary income. There is no ability to exercise the Phantom Options are receive Stock shares, although there may be a provision to receive Phantom Shares. Like Phantom Shares, Phantom Stock Options do not confer ownership rights, or dilute the share ownership of a company, although they do create liabilities to the company. They are used for constructing future cash payouts to a beneficiary, the value of which is tied to the appreciation of the company. They are considered deferred compensation plans as per section 409a of the tax code. \nFor accounting purposes, phantom stock is treated in the same way as deferred cash compensation. As the amount of the liability changes each year, an entry is made for the amount accrued. A decline in value would reduce the liability. These entries are not contingent on vesting. Phantom stock payouts are taxable to the employee as ordinary income and deductible to the company. However, they are also subject to complex rules governing deferred compensation that, if not properly followed, can lead to penalty taxes.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Phased implementation is a method of System Changeover from an existing system to a new one that takes place in stages.  \nAs an example, think of a supermarket. In this supermarket the checkout system is being upgraded to a newer version. Imagine that only the checkout counters of the vegetable section are changed over to the new system, while the other counters carry on with the old system. If the new system does not work properly, it would not matter because only a small portion of the supermarket has been computerised. If it does work, staff can take turns working on the vegetable counters to get some practice using the new system.\nAfter the vegetables section is working perfectly, the meat section might be next, then the confectionery section, and so on. Eventually all the various counters in the supermarket system would have been phased in, and everything would be running. This takes a long time as there are two systems working until the changeover is completed. However, the supermarket is never in danger of having to close and the staff are all able to get plenty of training in operating the new system, so it is a much friendlier method.\nOther methods of system changeover include direct changeover and parallel running.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Photokina (rendered in the promoters' branding as \"photokina\") is a trade fair held in Europe for the photographic and imaging industries. It is the world's largest such trade fair. The first Photokina was held in Cologne, Germany, in 1950, and since 1966 it has been held biennially in September at the koelnmesse Trade Fair and Exhibition Centre in Deutz. The final Photokina under the then-current biennial cycle took place in 2018. Initially, the promoters planned to start a new annual cycle in 2019, with future shows to be held in May, but they later decided not to begin the new annual cycle until 2020. The worldwide outbreak of the Coronavirus disease 2019 and its effect on the imaging industry made koelnmesse decide to cancel both Photokina 2020 and Photokina 2021. Many photographic and imaging companies introduce and showcase state of the art imaging products at Photokina.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Pilot Software, Inc. is a long-time United States business intelligence vendor that now focuses on operational performance management. \nSAP AG acquired Pilot Software in February 2007 and Pilot Software's product, PilotWorks, has been rebranded SAP Strategy Management.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Platform capitalism refers to the activities of companies such as Google, Facebook, Apple, Microsoft, Uber, Airbnb and others to operate as platforms. In this business model both hardware and software are used as a foundation (platform) for other actors to conduct their own business.Platform capitalism is either heralded as beneficial  or denounced as detrimental  by various authors. The trends identified in platform capitalism have similarities with those described under the heading of surveillance capitalism.The possible effect of platform capitalism on open science has been discussed.Platform capitalism have been contrasted with platform cooperativism. Companies that try to focus on fairness and sharing, instead of just profit motive, are described as cooperatives, whereas more traditional and common companies that focus solely on profit, like Airbnb and Uber, are platform capitalists (or cooperativist platforms vs capitalist platforms). In turn, projects like Wikipedia, which rely on unpaid labor of volunteers, can be classified as commons-based peer-production initiatives.:\u200a31,\u200a36\u200a", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Pop Train is a scheme of using Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) card benefits to purchase soda and then re-selling the soda to turn a profit.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Port letter and number (PLN) is a code identifying fishing vessels and other boats printed on the boat. This is used in Europe, including the United Kingdom. The format is XYZ123.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Portland Farmers Market is a farmers market in Portland, Maine, U.S., which has been in continuous operation since 1768.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Portland Farmers Market is a nonprofit organization operating six farmers markets in Portland, Oregon, United States. The markets provide a direct connection to more than 200 vendors with deep roots in Oregon and Southwest Washington, including farms, nurseries, bakeries, meat and seafood providers, cheese makers and specialty food producers. The flagship market at Portland State University was named the best farmers market in the United States for its size, varied offerings, live entertainment, weekly cooking demos, and more, by Bravo TV. The same market was ranked #2 in the country for its number of vendors, amount of local, seasonal produce, year-round live music, the market managers' consideration of every detail, and making the most of what the region has to offer by supporting local farmers, by The Daily Meal.The organization's mission is to operate world-class farmers markets that contribute to the success of local food growers and producers, and create vibrant community gatherings. The organization's vision and values include access to farm fresh food for all residents, sustainability, and organizational integrity.During peak season, the markets serve up to 30,000 shoppers each week. Market programming includes Kids Cook at the Market, where kids learn about the seasonality of food, meet local farmers, and prepare ingredients purchased fresh at the market, and Chef in the Market, where Portland\u2019s top chefs and Portland Farmers Market vendors celebrate height-of-the-season market ingredients as they educate and inspire home cooks with cooking demonstrations.Portland Farmers Market was established in 1992 and held its first market in the parking lot of Alber's Mill along the Willamette River that year. This allowed Portlanders, who once had to settle for markets in the suburbs or traveling to the farms themselves, easier access to farm fresh produce. In 2016, Portland Farmers Market celebrated its 25th anniversary.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Positive recall is a term used in quality systems, most notably ISO9000. It is part of receiving inspection procedures. It defines the concept that if a producer or manufacturer receives a product or process that requires inspection and it wishes to postpone the inspection process, it must have a system in place that will ensure that the postponed inspection process will take place at some point prior to final product/process acceptance. In ISO 9000 it is defined as clause 4.10.2.3, also known as Urgent production release.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Potomac Associates is an American consortium of four independent non-partisan consulting firms engaged in research and policy consulting on substantive economic and legal issues in international trade, foreign investment, and economic development. They also work to further trade capacity building in developing countries, especially in the areas of trade policy analysis and economic modeling.\nThe four entities are:\n\nADR International Ltd.\nJames L. Kenworthy, Esq.\nLarson Global Consulting\nVORSIM.They were on the master list of Nixon political opponents because of polling and public opinion work they did.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Praenumeration (German: Pr\u00e4numeration, IPA: [Pr\u00e6numeration]) was an early form of the subscription business model. It was a common business practice in the 18th century book trade in Germany. The publisher offered to sell a book that was planned but had not yet been printed, usually at a discount, so as to cover their costs in advance. The business practice was particularly common with magazines, helping to determine in advance how many subscribers there would be.For example, when Johann Heinrich Zedler decided to issue a collection of works of Martin Luther he advertised that the book would be for sale through praenumeration at the Leipzig Easter Fair in 1728, with the first volume to be available at the following Michaelmas Fair in early October. \nWhen the eleventh and final volume was issued in 1733, Zedler found himself in difficulty. He had been using praenumeration payments for the future volumes to pay the bills for previous volumes, and now the last bills were due with no future payments to cover them.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A pre-mortem, or premortem, is a managerial strategy in which a project team imagines that a project or organization has failed, and then works backward to determine what potentially could lead to the failure of the project or organization.The technique breaks possible groupthinking by facilitating a positive discussion on threats, increasing the likelihood the main threats are identified. Management can then reduce the chances of failure due to heuristics and biases such as overconfidence and planning fallacy by analyzing the magnitude and likelihood of each threat, and take preventive actions to protect the project or organization from suffering an untimely \"death\". It formalizes and expands on the acknowledgedly much older concept of prospective hindsight (Mitchell, Russo, and Pennington 1989) in which participants \"look back from the future\" to identify problems before they occur.\nAccording to a Harvard Business Review article from 2007, \"unlike a typical critiquing session, in which project team members are asked what might go wrong, the premortem operates on the assumption that the 'patient' has died, and so asks what did go wrong.\"The pre-mortem analysis seeks to identify threats and weaknesses via the hypothetical presumption of near-future failure. But if that presumption is incorrect, then the analysis may be identifying threats/weaknesses that are not in fact real.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Precious metals streaming is a term for when a company makes an agreement with a mining company to purchase all or part of their precious metals production at a predetermined discounted price to which both parties agree. In return, streaming companies provide upfront financing for mining companies looking for capital. The precious metals defined by the agreement are usually a by-product of what the mining company's business is based on, typically base metals such as copper. The first known example of precious metals streaming was in 1987, relating to gold at the Goldstrike mine.Wheaton Precious Metals, Franco-Nevada, Royal Gold, Osisko Mining and Sandstorm Gold are the largest precious metals streaming companies. These streaming companies have no control over the mines that produce these materials, meaning that when production falls short of expectations or is affected by political instability, the streaming companies must incur the losses themselves. On the other hand, their investment is limited and the operation of a mine as well as its cost are the responsibility of the corresponding mining company. Earnings of the streaming companies are based on the market price of the minerals.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The premium business model is the concept of offering high end products and services appealing to discriminating consumers. Brand image is an important factor in the premium business model, as quality is often a subjective matter. This business model seeks a higher profit margin on a lower sales volume.\nExamples of this model include Rolls-Royce, BMW and Mercedes-Benz in the auto industry, Gucci bags and Rolex watches in the luxury accessories industry, and elite personal services such as using a chauffeur.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Presstalis, known until December 2009 as Nouvelles Messageries de la Presse Parisienne (NMPP), is a French media distribution corporation. More than 100 newspapers and 3,500 French and foreign magazines are distributed by Presstalis. The company distributes many of the national newspapers of France and nearly 80% of its magazines and multimedia products, using depositories (distribution in France), independent subsidiaries, or local distributors (export distribution).\nIt is now bankrupt and has ceased operations as of July 1, 2020. Some of its assets will transfer into a new distribution company, France Messagerie.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A process hazard analysis (PHA) (or process hazard evaluation) is a set of organized and systematic assessments of the potential hazards associated with an industrial process. A PHA provides information intended to assist managers and employees in making decisions for improving safety and reducing the consequences of unwanted or unplanned releases of hazardous chemicals. A PHA is directed toward analyzing potential causes and consequences of fires, explosions, releases of toxic or flammable chemicals and major spills of hazardous chemicals, and it focuses on equipment, instrumentation, utilities, human actions, and external factors that might impact the process.\nThere are varieties of methodologies that can be used to conduct a PHA, including but not limited to:\nChecklist, What if?, What if?/Checklist, hazard and operability study (HAZOP), and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA).  PHA methods are qualitative in nature.  The selection of a methodology to use depends on a number of factors, including the complexity of the process, the length of time a process has been in operation and if a PHA has been conducted on the process before, and if the process is unique, or industrially common.  Other methods such as layer of protection analysis (LOPA) or fault tree analysis (FTA) may be used after a PHA if the PHA team could not reach a risk decision for a given scenario.\nIn the United States, the use of PHAs is mandated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in its process safety management regulation for the identification of risks involved in the design, operation, and modification of processes that handle highly hazardous chemicals.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Process Specification Language (PSL) is a set of logic terms used to describe processes. The logic terms are specified in an ontology that provides a formal description of the components and their relationships that make up a process. The ontology was developed at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), and has been approved as an international standard in the document ISO 18629.\nThe Process Specification Language can be used for the representation of manufacturing, engineering and business processes, including production scheduling, process planning, workflow management, business process reengineering, simulation, process realization, process modelling, and project management. In the manufacturing domain, PSL's objective is to serve as a common representation for integrating several process-related applications throughout the manufacturing process life cycle.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Product classification or product taxonomy is a type of economic taxonomy which organizes products for a variety of purposes. However, not only products can be referred to in a standardized way but also sales practices in form of the \u201cIncoterms\u201d and industries can be classified into categories.Some standard product classifications include:\n\nCPA \u2014 Classification of Products by Activity, a product nomenclature that was used in the European Economic Community and now in use in the EU, a European version of the CPC\nCPA 1996\nCPA 2002\nCPA 2008\nCPA 2.1\nCPC \u2014 Central Product Classification, a United Nations standard classification for products\nETIM, the ETIM Technical Information Model\nGlobal Classification and Harmonized Schedule Numbers for customs classification\nHS \u2014 Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System\nSITC \u2014 Standard International Trade Classification\nTrade in Services\nUNSPSC, the United Nations Standard Products and Services Code\nIEC Common Data Dictionary (IEC CDD), a product classification and product description based on international standards and defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission\neCl@ss, a global and ISO/IEC-conform system for classification and description of products and services, maintained by the non-governmental eCl@ss e.V. association", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A Product fit analysis (PFA) is a form of requirements analysis of the gap between an IT product's functionality and required functions.  It is a document which consists of all the business requirements which are mapped to the product or application.\nRequirements are specifically mentioned and the application is designed accordingly.\nA PFA document is designed covering all the functionality required by the business and how it is addressed in the application.\nIt covers all the data inputs, data processing and data outputs.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A production order is an order issued within a company to produce a specific quantity of material within a certain timeframe. A production order may be issued pursuant to a sales order, and its issuance triggers a number of events. If components in the bill of materials are in stock, reservations are generated for those items; if they are not in stock, then requisition orders may be generated. Requisition orders may also be generated for production that occurs externally to the firm. Planned costs for the order are also generated and capacity requirements are generated for the work centers. It is mostly used in trading.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Productionisation (Commonwealth English) or productionization (American English) is the process of turning a prototype of a design into a version that can be more easily mass-produced. It is mostly a necessary step in the development of any product, since it is rare that the initial design is free from flaws or construction methods which make it difficult or more expensive to manufacture.\nPrototypes are very often constructed by hand, or with more limited tooling. This is done to save costs where the design may not even be subsequently approved for manufacture. Once the go-ahead for a production run is given, the much more costly production tooling can be ordered. At this stage, the design itself may need to be reworked or altered to streamline production. The goal is to reduce costs as much as possible at the assembly stage, since costs will be multiplied by the number of units produced. For example, a prototype might be assembled using nuts and bolts, but in production such fasteners might be replaced by captive nuts or threaded holes built into the parts, making assembly much faster, easier and therefore cheaper.\nSometimes limited runs of a design might be manufactured without full productionisation.\nOther examples of productionisation include:\n\nplastic mouldings instead of hand-constructed parts\nbuilt-in fasteners\nsnap-together or machine welded parts instead of using fasteners\ncustom integrated circuits instead of discrete electronic components\ncustomised IT solutions released into a live environment.Productionisation is a term that is increasingly prevalent in Software Development. One reason for this is the popularity of agile type development methods, which often focus on building a prototype solution to develop and refine the product to the business requirements. Prior to putting the system into production, the developers need to ensure the system is robust enough for the target environment with regard to aspects such as error handling, stability, usability, scalability and performance. This process of making the prototype \u2018production or enterprise grade\u2019 is often referred to as \u2018Productionisation\u2019.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Professional Basketball Club LLC is an investment group headed by Clay Bennett that owns the National Basketball Association (NBA)'s Oklahoma City Thunder franchise (formerly the Seattle SuperSonics) and the Thunder's NBA G League affiliate Oklahoma City Blue. The group also owned the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA)'s Seattle Storm franchise from 2006 to 2008. The PBC then sold the Storm to local Seattle owners, before moving the SuperSonics to Oklahoma City.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Progressive discipline is a system of discipline where the penalties increase upon repeat occurrences. \nThis term is often used in an employment or human resources context where rather than terminating employees for first or minor infractions, there is a system of escalating responses intended to correct the negative behavior rather than to punish the employee.\nIn an employment context, the concept of just cause is usually at the root of progressive discipline practices.  Just cause is a principle in collective bargaining contracts that forces employers to prove their grievances against employees. \n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A project bank account is a means of paying sub-contractors in a construction project directly from the funds made available by the construction client instead of from the earnings or funds of the prime contractor. The UK Government promotes the use of project bank accounts (PBAs) in major construction projects.\n\nUK Government guidance describes a PBA as \"a ring-fenced bank account from which payments are made directly and simultaneously to a lead contractor and members of the supply chain. Through faster payments, those lower down the supply chain benefit from that cash-flow\".John M. Stevens, Director of Dodd Group, an electrical and mechanical services sub-contractor, reflects that \"without doubt this has to be the way forward for our industry if the current payment culture is to be eradicated\". PBAs help eliminate the excuses for late or reduced payment, the burdens on overhead costs and the programme delays as a result of disputes and resultant insolvencies, which often result in small and medium sized enterprises being hardest hit.A UK Government briefing document published in 2012 identified the Crossrail project, the Highways Agency and the Ministry of Defence as users of the PBA approach to payments. Barclays Bank and the Bank of Scotland were identified as financial institutions supporting use of PBAs. The Joint Contracts Tribunal (JCT) provides documentation to support the use of a PBA involving the client, prime contractor and sub-contractors. Crossrail refers to its use of PBAs as a feature of its \"legacy learning\" for future projects whose partners want to implement the process.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Project identification is a process in the initiating phase of project life cycle for identifying a need, problem, or opportunity. \nOnce identified, a project is initially documented objectively defining what was identified. This identification can be the result of a organization's strategic planning, of a company's normal operations, as the response to an unexpected event, or to a need.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A project network diagram is a graph that displays the order in which a project\u2019s activities are to be completed. Derived from the work breakdown structure, the terminal elements of a project are organized sequentially based on the relationship among them. It is typically drawn from left to right to reflect project chronology.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In project planning, a slippage is the act of missing a deadline. It can be an arbitrary milestone put in place to help track progress.\nTo avoid slippage, one must plan their projects (especially research) carefully to avoid delays in schedule. Using Gantt charts and timeline diagrams can help.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Project sponsorship is the ownership of projects on behalf of the client organization.There are two main differences between project sponsorship and project management. Firstly project sponsorship includes the identification and definition of the project whereas project management is concerned with delivering a project that is already defined, if only quite loosely. \nSecondly the project sponsor is responsible for the project\u2019s business case and should not hesitate to recommend cancellation of the project if the business case no longer justifies the project.\nProject sponsors can encourage separation of decision making responsibilities between project manager and project sponsor, accountability for the realisation of project benefits, oversight of the project management function and can carry out senior stakeholder management.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Japan is the third country in the world in production of paper (2011 figures). The leading Japanese company in the field (2015) is Oji Paper, with three other Japanese companies \u2013 Sumitomo Forestry, Nippon Paper Group, and Unicharm \u2013 also in the world top 20.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Purchase-to-pay, often abbreviated to P2P and also called req to check/cheque, refers to the business processes that cover activities of requesting (requisitioning), purchasing, receiving, paying for and accounting for goods and services.  Most organisations have a formal process and specialist staff to control this activity so that spending is not wasteful or fraudulent.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Purchasing is the formal process of buying goods and services. The purchasing process can vary from one organization to another, but there are some common key elements.\nThe process usually starts with a demand or requirements \u2013 this could be for a physical part (inventory) or a service.  A requisition is generated, which details the requirements (in some cases providing a requirements specification) which actions the procurement department. A request for proposal (RFP) or request for quotation (RFQ) is then raised. Suppliers send their quotations in response to the RFQ, and a review is undertaken where the  best offer (typically based on price, availability and quality) is given the purchase order.\nPurchase orders (PO) can be of various types, including:\n\nstandard - a one time buy\nplanned - an agreement on a specific item at an approximate date\nblanket - an agreement on specific terms and conditions: date and quantity and amount are not specified.Purchase orders are normally accompanied by terms and conditions which form the contractual agreement of the transaction. The supplier then delivers the products or service and the customer records the delivery (in some cases this goes through a goods inspection process).  An invoice is sent by the supplier which is cross-checked with the purchase order and documents specifying which goods have been received.  The payment is then made and transferred to the supplier.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Pushkin Industries is an American publisher of podcasts and audiobooks. It was co-founded in 2018 by Malcolm Gladwell and Jacob Weisberg. As of 2021, it hosts over 25 podcasts.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A prospect is an organization or potential client who resembles a seller's ideal customer profile (ICP), but has not yet expressed interest in their products or services; accordingly a qualified lead is an organization or potential client which has expressed interest in the products or services of the seller.\nThere is much debate in the sales profession as to what constitutes an actual \"qualified\" prospect. Most sales professionals apply their own unique set of criteria in order to determine whether a prospect is actually \"qualified.\"\nIn general terms, sales professionals need to know a set of discrete data in order to determine whether or not the \"prospect\" will become qualified. These variables may include: business needs, authorization to transact business (financial or operational), money or budget and an \"economic buyer\" or in other words, who would benefit the most (or lose the most) if the good or service were to be acquired (or not acquired).\nThe oldest and most widely used qualification criteria is BANT (Budget, Authority, Need, Timing). Developed by IBM in the 1950s, this method has stuck because it is easy to remember and provided an easy way to teach new salespeople how to sell.\nAnother subject in the buying process is usually referred to as either an \"influencer\" or a \"saboteur\", someone who, although not the financial or operational authority, exercises a significant level of internal control or leverage in the buying process.\nSalespeople encounter a multitude of objections in their attempts to connect with and qualify prospects. These objections are a chance to explain the value of the product or service to try to qualify the prospect and close the sale. Sales prospecting is the process to reach out to a potential customer. It is the first part of a sales process. After this step, the lead qualification, follow-up and sales activity start.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the private sector, a quarterly finance report is a financial report that covers three months of the year, which is required by numbers of stock exchanges around the world to provide information to investors on the state of a company. \"Private sector financial reports emphasize the ultimate impact of transactions for a given period\"  (McKinney, 2004, p. 475).\nIn the public sector, quarterly reporting is meant to highlight a government's revenues and expenditures for a quarter of the fiscal year as it is defined for that entity (in the United States, the fiscal year is different for the federal government than it is for other levels of government). According to McKinney, \"governments stress how transactions will affect near-term financing...[and] decisions are related to annual or biannual appropriations, emphasizing balances and transactions related to near-term government financing - the operating budget.\"   (2004, p. 475).\nFor the American context, see Form 10-Q.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Regular way is a finance term describing a trade that is settled through the regular settlement cycle for that particular investment. The settlement cycle starts the day the trade is made and ends when it is paid for. The length is two days for foreign exchange markets and three days for corporate debt.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A representative office is an office established by a company or a legal entity to conduct marketing and other non-transactional operations, generally in a foreign country where a branch office or subsidiary is not warranted. Representative offices are generally easier to establish than a branch or subsidiary, as they are not used for actual \"business\" (e.g. sales) and therefore there is less incentive for them to be regulated.They have been used extensively by foreign investors in emerging markets such as China, India and Vietnam although they do have restrictions through not being able to invoice locally for goods or services. Consequently, Representative Offices tend to be utilized by foreign investors in fields such as sourcing of products, quality control, and general liaison activities between the Head Office and the Representative Offices overseas. A representative office is known in France as a bureau de liaison.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In a manufacturing environment, a request for waiver (RFW) is a request for authorization to accept an item which, during manufacture or after inspection, is found to depart from specified requirements, but nevertheless is considered suitable for use as is or after repair by an approved method.\nIn ECSS standard a RFW is defined as \"unplanned  departure\", as opposite to Request for Deviation (RFD) which is defined as \"planned departure\", being \"departure\" defined as the \"inability of a product to  meet one of its functional performance or technical requirements\". In both cases, no changes are applied to engineering documentation.\nIn accordance with MIL-HDBK-61A, the term \"waiver\" is no longer used, because the processing rules for a RFW are identical to those for a deviation, and the terms deviation and waiver were often confused.A deviation from the contractual performance requirements or approved drawings should be submitted as a RFD. An RFD is a specific written authorization to depart from a particular requirement of an item's approved configuration documentation for a specific number of units or period of time. A deviation does not change configuration documentation.Deviations are requested by contractors prior to manufacture, during manufacture, or after an item has been submitted for Customer inspection and acceptance. To be tendered for delivery or to be installed in an item to be tendered for delivery, deviant items must be suitable for use.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Reuters Digital Vision Program (RDVP) was an academic program.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Ripmax Limited is a British supplier of radio-controlled models and related components, based in Enfield, Middlesex.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "RiseUp Summit is an annual entrepreneurship and innovation event that takes place in Downtown Cairo, Egypt. It has been described as \"one of the largest gatherings of entrepreneurs in the region\". It started in 2013 to bring the MENA region's entrepreneurship ecosystem together. The summit is a three-day, entrepreneurship marathon. The first RiseUp Summit occurred in 2013 and is now in its fifth year.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Risk transformation is about how to mitigate risk and in parallel develop competitive advantages. The goals of risk transformation are first to combat risk and secondly to differentiate and create solutions for the benefits of clients/users. Risk may include financial risk, security/safety-related risks, uncertainty, and risk through action or lack of action.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Risk-based auditing is a style of auditing which focuses upon the analysis and management of risk.\nIn the UK, the 1999 Turnbull Report on corporate governance required directors to provide a statement to shareholders of the significant risks to the business.  This then encouraged the audit activity of studying these risks rather than just checking compliance with existing controls.Standards for risk management have included the COSO guidelines and the first international standard, AS/NZS 4360.  The latter is now the basis for a family of international standards for risk management \u2014 ISO 31000.\nA traditional audit would focus upon the transactions which would make up financial statements such as the balance sheet.  A risk-based approach will seek to identify risks with the greatest potential impact.  Strategic risk analysis will then include political and social risks such as the potential effect of legislation and demographic change.An experiment suggested that managers might respond to risk-based auditing by transferring activity to accounts which are ostensibly low risk.  Auditors would need to anticipate such attempts to game the process. It has been suggested in research the tone of an annual report reflects factors that auditors consider in assessing audit risk.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Gemma Romany\u00e0 i Valls (29 September 1945 \u2013 5 March 2018), was a Spanish Catalan businesswoman and graphic arts patron. Married with Miquel Pujol i Palol, she was originally from Capellades, Anoia, and since 1973 she directed the printing press Romany\u00e0 Valls SA, based in Capellades and the La Torre de Claramunt.\nSince 1988, she has sponsored some chamber concerts presented, in a careful program, under the generic title of Capellades Paper of Music and international course of music of Cambra (Concurs Paper de M\u00fasica de Capellades i Curs Internacional de M\u00fasica de Cambra), an annual contest for the promotion of young interpreters. Therefore, in 1998, she received one of the Premis D'Actuaci\u00f3 Civic of the Llu\u00eds Meowa Foundation. She was also a promoter and disseminator in Capellades of Eurocongr\u00e9s 2000.\nShe collaborated in the edition of the albums recorded by the orchestra Ensemble XXI and also gave to these her study for the recording of them. So in the course 2010-11 was invited to honor the concert of presentation of the CD summer postcards that was part of the program of five concerts celebrated by Ensemble XXI on the occasion of its tenth anniversary.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Royal warrants of appointment (Spanish: Proveedores de la Real Casa) have been issued for centuries to those who supplied goods or services to the King of Spain. The warrant enables the company to advertise the royal approval of distinction with the display of the royal coat of arms, thus lending prestige to the company.\nThe warrant is typically advertised on company hoardings, letter-heads and products by displaying the arms as appropriate. Underneath the emblem will usually appear the phrase \"Proveedor de la Real Casa\", which translates as \"Purveyor of the Royal House\".", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Russian Accounting Standards (RAS; Russian: \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0442\u044b \u0431\u0443\u0445\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0451\u0442\u0430, \u0420\u0421\u0411\u0423), also called Russian Accounting Principles (RAP) or Russian GAAP, refer to the body of regulatory documents concerning financial accounting and reporting standards in the Russian Federation.For historical reasons, the Russian Accounting Standards framework has been determined by the state, rather by professional bodies. The primary users of RAS are state and tax authorities, rather than management or third parties. RAS financial statements must include balance sheet, income statement, statement of changes in equity, cash flow statement and explanatory notes. Under RAS, a specific layout is mandatory for the balance sheet and other statements.The Russian government has been striving to harmonize Russian Accounting Standards with IFRS since 1998. The Law No. 208-FZ introduced IFRS into Russian legislation in 2010. Since 2012, IFRS have increasingly been adopted in Russia, and they are mandatory for consolidated financial statements, while standalone financial statements must be prepared using RAS. IFRS statements are also required for domestic public companies. IFRS are generally deemed more relevant to the needs of investors.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Safety statement is the name given to the document that outlines how a company manages their health and safety in the Republic of Ireland, based upon the Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Act, 2005. The requirement to have a written safety statement is outlined in Section 20 of the above Act, although it was also a requirement in the original (but now revoked) Act of 1989. The document is primarily based on the risk assessment of workplace hazards.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Vikramjit Singh Sahney is an Indian entrepreneur, educationist and social worker. Sahney has been conferred with the honour of Padma Shri by the President of India Smt. Pratibha Patil and International Peace Award by President of Mauritius Anerood Jugnauth at New Delhi. He is also going to be a Rajya Sabha member from Punjab. Aam Aadmi Party has selected him for his contributions social works.He is the international president of the World Punjabi Organisation, which aims at fostering social, economic and cultural bondage and is functional in 22 countries.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Salary inversion refers to situations in which the starting salaries for new recruits to an organization increase faster than those for existing employees. It typically happens in areas where the demand for suitably qualified professionals exceeds the supply of such professionals in the market. For example, the information technology (IT) industry in recent years has experienced this phenomenon. Salary inversion is also common amongst university faculty in certain fields in which the global demand for qualified academics is increasing rapidly. Salary inversion occurs in this situation when universities lack the resources to raise existing professors' salaries while continuing to hire new faculty.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The term sample grade, in commodities exchange, refers to the lowest quality of a commodity, too low to be acceptable for delivery in satisfaction of futures contracts.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Melisa Mbile S\u00e1nchez N\u00e2wara (born c.\u20091994), is an Equatorial Guinean businesswoman, entrepreneur and corporate executive, who is the chief executive officer of La Capacidad, a clothing line that she founded and owns. Her business also mentors young people to acquire the work ethic, develop customer relationship skills and learn prompt service delivery in addition to gaining self confidence.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Scali, McCabe, Sloves was an American advertising agency founded in 1967 by Sam Scali, Ed McCabe, Marvin Sloves, Alan Pesky, and Len Hultgren.\nTheir ads for Perdue Farms (\"It takes a tough man to make a tender chicken\") made Frank Perdue a household name and were named in the top 100 ad campaigns by Advertising Age. Their ads for Volvo were named one of the top 100 campaigns of the 20th century by Advertising Age. Other campaigns were for Maxell Tape, Pioneer Electronics, and Hebrew National hot dogs.\nThe agency was acquired by Lowe Worldwide in 1993.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Schedule Network Analysis is a strategy that is commonly used in project management.  The strategy consists of visualising the different project tasks and making connections between them in the project management plan.For making a final schedule, a schedule network analysis is finished utilizing a draft schedule. Numerous strategies may be utilized to make the final schedule, for example: \n\nDefining critical and non-critical tasks using critical path method\nAscertaining and analyze possible events that can take place in the future using scenario analysis\nShortening the schedule using a schedule compression\nConsidering activity interdependence and resource constraints using critical chain project management\nOverlooking resource allocation using resource leveling", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In project management, scope statements can take many forms depending on the type of project being implemented and the nature of the organization. The scope statement details the project deliverables and describes the major objectives. The objectives should include measurable success criteria for the project.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The scorched-earth defense is a form of risk arbitrage and anti-takeover strategy. \nWhen a target firm implements this provision, it will make an effort to make itself unattractive to the hostile bidder. For example, a company may agree to liquidate or destroy all valuable assets, also called crown jewels, or schedule debt repayment to be due immediately following a hostile takeover. In some cases, a scorched-earth defense may develop into an extreme anti-takeover defense called a poison pill.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Seattle Architecture Foundation is a non-profit, 501(c)(3) organization. The foundation is located in Seattle, Washington, and is governed by a Board of Directors, with programs funded by donors and implemented by volunteers. SAF offers youth programming, annual exhibits, special events, and walking tours of downtown Seattle and surrounding neighborhoods.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the electronics industry, a second source is a company that is licensed to manufacture and sell components originally designed by another company (the first source).It is common for engineers and purchasers to avoid components that are only available from a single source, to avoid the risk that a problem with the supplier would prevent a popular and profitable product from being manufactured. For simple components such as resistors and transistors, this is not usually an issue, but for complex integrated circuits, vendors often react by licensing one or more other companies to manufacture and sell the same parts as second sources. While the details of such licenses are usually confidential, they often involve cross-licensing, so that each company also obtains the right to manufacture and sell parts designed by the other.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Second-tier sourcing is a procurement policy used by many Fortune 500 corporations. Second-tier sourcing is a practice of rewarding those suppliers that achieve or attempt to achieve the minority-owned business (MBE) spending goals of their customer.\nThe program was started by Chrysler Corporation in 1993 and now extends throughout the Fortune 500.  In 2005, Toyota set a goal of 10% for their suppliers and holds an annual matchmaking event to help their suppliers achieve those goals.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A secretarial pool or typing pool is a group of secretaries working at a company available to assist any executive without a permanently assigned secretary. These groups have been reduced or eliminated where executives have been assigned responsibility for writing their own letters and other secretarial work.\nAfter the widespread adoption of the typewriter but before the photocopier and personal computer, pools of typists were needed by large companies to produce documents from handwritten manuscripts, re-type documents that had been edited, type documents from audio recordings, or to type copies of documents.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Selskap med begrenset ansvar, with short form BA, is a Norwegian term for a corporation comparable to a limited liability company. Meaning literally Company with limited liability, it is a type of corporate structure used in Norway for limited companies based on a co-operative structure.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Selskap med delt ansvar or DA (company with divided liability), is a type of company in Norway that does not have limited liability. The company will have two or more participants, who hold a given percentile ownership of the company. A DA is not based around stocks, like the aksjeselskap (AS), and there is no mutual liability, like in the ansvarlig selskap (ANS). Instead each participant is directly liable for its relative ownership in the company.\nThere is no need for a minimum initial equity in the company or for auditing if there are no more than 5 company participants or the revenues do not exceed 5 million NOK. The company is required to have neither a board of directors nor a managing director. If there is no managing director, any of the participants may sign for the company.\nA disadvantage is that in case of bankruptcy, the owner will be held liable for a share of the debt.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Shakespeare Company is a subsidiary of Pure Fishing which manufactures fishing equipment. It was founded by William Shakespeare, Jr. in Kalamazoo, Michigan in 1897. It was moved to Columbia, South Carolina in 1970.In June 2005, approximately 438,000 of their children's fishing kits were recalled after being found to contain lead paint.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Shared Check Authorization Network (SCAN) is a comprehensive database of bad check writers in the United States. The database is used by retailers in order to reduce the number of bad checks received. The database keeps track of those who have written outstanding bad checks to any retailer using the system, and retailers can determine, based on these records, whether or not to accept a check from a particular accountholder.\nRetailers using the SCAN system have at least one scanner in the store, and often one at every register, that is used to scan checks that are written. The scanner reads the account number and compares it with the database of checking account numbers for which bad checks have been written to any participating retailer and not repaid. If the account number matches one in the system, the retailer will be notified, and will not likely accept the check.\nSCAN also operates a collection service on bad checks that are written.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A short swing rule restricts officers and insiders of a company from making short-term profits at the expense of the firm. It is part of United States federal securities law, and is a prophylactic measure intended to guard against so-called insider trading. The rule mandates that if an officer, director, or any shareholder holding more than 10% of outstanding shares of a publicly traded company makes a profit on a transaction with respect to the company's stock during a given six-month period, that officer, director, or shareholder must pay the difference back to the company. Note that the profit calculated is the maximum considering each pair of sales and purchases, a larger trade could be paired with trades up to six month prior as well as up to six months later and the correct calculation is a linear programming problem\nAs stated by a federal circuit court of appeals: In order to achieve its goals [of curbing the evils of insider trading], Congress chose a relatively arbitrary rule capable of easy administration. The objective standard of Section 16(b) imposes strict liability upon substantially all transactions occurring within the statutory time period, regardless of the intent of the insider or the existence of actual speculation. This approach maximized the ability of the rule to eradicate speculative abuses by reducing difficulties in proof. Such arbitrary and sweeping coverage was deemed necessary to insure the optimum prophylactic effect.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Silent commerce is the execution of business transactions between electronic devices. It happens without assistance and in some cases even without awareness of the human owners of those devices.\nAnother name for electronic commerce where automated financial exchanges are transacted between two or more machines without human intervention.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Silicon Mountain, also known as the \"Silicon Flatirons\" is a nickname given to the tech hub in the Denver, Colorado metropolitan area and Colorado Springs, Colorado metropolitan area. The name is analogous to Silicon Valley, but refers to the Rocky Mountains beyond the skyline.  Denver startups raised $401 million in 2015, and Boulder startups raised $183 million in 2015.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Simon Carter Ltd. Is a British fashion design company specialising in men's accessories and menswear, founded in London in 1985 by its eponymous director.\nWhilst training as an immunologist in the early 1980s Simon Carter became inspired by the vibrant culture of London's King's Road. He had a vintage brooch copied in pewter and, after some time going from premises to premises in the King's Road sold the item to the jeweller's Cobra & Bellamy.In 1995, Simon Carter was noted for creating the so-called 'Aspirin cufflink', which features a small headache pill sized screwtop container. The design saw Simon Carter dubbed \"The King of Cufflinks\" by Brighton-based Absolute magazine.In 2013 Simon Carter Ltd. was awarded Drapers 'Menswear Brand Of the Year'.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Skill mix is the combination or grouping of different categories of workers that is employed in any field of work. In the context of health care provision it can be applied to broad (e.g. national) macro level planning or micro level in the context of local service delivery.In the context of health care provision, it can refer to:\n\na combination of skills available at a specific time;\na mix of posts in a given facility;\na mix of employees in a post;\na combination of activities that comprises each role;\ndifferences across occupational groups such as nurses and physicians or between various sectors of the health system; or\na mix within an occupational group such as between different types of nursing providers with different level of training and different wage rates.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A small cap company is a company whose market capitalization (shares x value of each share) is small, under $1 billion.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Social Boston Sports (SBS) was created in January 2007 by four professionals, Justin Obey, Brian Shaw, John Sharry, and Frank Knippenberg. SBS is an organization that provides a way for young professionals to become involved in events, parties, and coed recreational sports and activities throughout Boston.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Social decision making is a concept that involves business decisions with a key aspect of social and organizational psychology. Decision making is the act of evaluating different ideas or alternatives and ultimately choosing the alternative that will most likely get you to your goal (Kahneman). Different social environments can affect somebody\u2019s decision making. Decision making is important in simple day-to-day activities and is also needed in many professions. Studying and knowing what can affect someone\u2019s decision making and knowing what affects you and your decision making is the first step to preventing it from affecting you. Understanding social decision making has made a lot of progress in recent years and today, some schools provide a social decision making program that helps alleviate the stress that may be affecting decision making. \nYears of studying social psychology and social neuroscience have recorded that when you first interact with someone different \u201cprocesses\u201d occur. These include impression formation (impression of someone\u2019s character based on available information on their traits/behaviors), spontaneous trait formation (forming impressions of people based on their behavior), and mental state inference. These processes would not be occurring without help from different parts of the brain. Some of the brain regions that are involved are \u201cmedial prefrontal cortex, superior temporal sulcus, temporal parietal junction, and precuneus\u201d (Harris). These processes can affect decision making since \u201cmental state inferences occur spontaneously and automatically.\u201d With social decision making it is taking both the process of decision making and the social aspect of other people and putting those two together. The decision making process can include learning both sides of the decision, the value to both sides, and the feedback process. In a social decision making situation on top of the factors of decision making you have the added stress of another person or people and their mental state. It is natural for people to be paying more attention to what impression they are making on the person they are communicating with and with this it becomes harder to tell, in some cases, the true nature of the person. A person is more apt to change their traits or personality if they want to make a different impression. \u201cBecause things like traits, which are essential to thinking about people, are invisible features of a person and are often inferred, it is harder to verify that a person is trustworthy than it is to verify that a computer, for example, is trustworthy\u201d (Harris). Human interaction and decision making alone are both complex processes that tend to be overlooked as simple, but studying the two you can see they are in fact not simple at all and deserve to be looked at more.\nHumans are strongly motivated to always predict and explain others behaviors (Harris). Social decision making is made difficult because of the uncertainty of the other person\u2019s behavior. Humans believe they are good at predicting other people, but it is also easy for that person to act differently or create their own actions for that time being. To help form an accurate representation of someone, social feedback is a good option. Feedback is part of the process of decision making and it \u201callows people to infer something about another person as well as receive information about the impression they have formed\u201d (Harris). Feedback is beneficial to both parties. Feedback also creates some level of trust based on both taking information and receiving information on what other people think. Being labeled as trustworthy has the same effect on the brain as some type of monetary reward (Harris). Having trust is important in social decision making, as it affects existing interactions as well as new interactions that may occur. \nAccording to youth.org, there is a program designed for students moving from elementary school to middle school. The purpose is to alleviate stress that seems to be heightened during this age group. The focus of the program is to focus on the students themselves and how they feel as well as the feelings of others, especially in high-stress situations. Starting to think of their goals and barriers that may get in the way of their goals is also a main priority in the program. Overcoming these issues confidently with a plan is the ultimate goal of this course, but recognizing that even the best of solutions may not lead to the resolution that was planned. Teaching these skills young will teach students at a young age how to approach situations confidently instead of backing down and most likely benefit them their whole lives into their profession. The social-problem solving skills that the course focused on included interpersonal sensitivity, means-end thinking, and planning and anticipation. Having more programs like this would make students more prepared in social decision making and any social situation necessarily in the future. The study done with students on youth.org handled stress and stress-induced situations much better than students who had not been in the decision making program. \nSocial decision making is becoming more recognized now than previously because of the awareness towards mental health and stress. Social decision making involves a lot of different processes coming together at once which can easily cause stress on maybe individuals. Knowing the steps to keep focus in high-stress social situations is the first step to mastering social decision making. Dealing with social decision making appropriately is a good skill to have especially for your profession when in almost all professions decision making is used. Humans are powerful, diverse, complex and very different from one another so knowing how to approach social situations with all different types of people will help to successfully make decisions in tough social situations.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 par actions simplifi\u00e9e (SAS; English: simplified joint-stock company) is a French type of business entity. It is the first hybrid entity enacted under French law and based on common law principles rather than civil. It is similar to a limited liability company under United States law, as the Delaware LLC was the model used by the French government. The SAS is also similar to the limited company in British law, and most other hybrids, though the hybrid in civil-law countries is quite different because there is also a hybrid of common law principles applied.\nA soci\u00e9t\u00e9 par actions simplifi\u00e9e has its annual statements audited by an independent body and published. The head of a soci\u00e9t\u00e9 par actions simplifi\u00e9e is its pr\u00e9sident.  However, unlike the soci\u00e9t\u00e9 anonyme, it does not have a board.  The pr\u00e9sident is also responsible for the operation of the company.  The company may also have a directeur g\u00e9n\u00e9ral (managing director), who has the same authority as the pr\u00e9sident with respect to third parties. The pr\u00e9sident can be either a physical person or a corporation, if there is only one shareholder. An SAS with only one shareholder is known as a soci\u00e9t\u00e9 par actions simplifi\u00e9e unipersonnelle (SASU).\nThe soci\u00e9t\u00e9 par actions simplifi\u00e9e form of organisation is useful for companies that are wholly owned subsidiaries of another company, often a publicly traded corporation, since they do not need a complex capital equity structure. An example of this is European aerospace giant Airbus, which is an SAS wholly owned by Airbus Group.  It is also useful for companies held by families or small, close-knit groups of families. For example, the Louis Dreyfus Group, a trading conglomerate, is held in this manner by members of the Louis-Dreyfus family.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "S\u014ddanyaku (\u76f8\u8ac7\u5f79, lit. \"official advisor\") is a title given to senior members of Japanese companies and non-profit organizations. A sodanyaku is often a former president or chairman of the organization who has relinquished day-to-day control of the organization but continues to offer advice to its full-time managers. An advisor may be, but is not always, a director of the organization. Similar titles include chief consultant (\u6700\u9ad8\u9867\u554f, saik\u014d komon) and advisor emeritus (\u540d\u8a89\u76f8\u8ac7\u5f79, meiyo s\u014ddanyaku).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In advertising, a soft sell is an advertisement or campaign that uses a more subtle, casual, or friendly sales message. This approach is the opposite of a hard sell.\nTheorists have examined the value of repetition for soft sell versus hard sell messages, in order to determine their relative efficacy. Frank Kardes and others have concluded that a soft sell, with an implied conclusion rather than an overt hard sell, can often be more persuasive. Soft sell is also less likely to be irritating to consumers.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In a hierarchal business organization, especially in a matrix management structure, the relationship between a worker and their direct supervisor or leader can be classified as solid-line reporting (also called direct reporting) or dotted-line reporting (also called indirect reporting). The use of \"solid-line\" versus \"dotted-line\" is based on the visual representation of the organizational structure in an organizational chart.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Spare Change Payments was an online payments company specifically designed for conducting micro-payments inside games and applications on Facebook and other social networking sites. It is now owned by Visa, Inc.\nThe company was the first to offer a micro-payment solution for social networking application developers shortly after Facebook opened its Facebook Platform. It operated a virtual goods monetization platform that allowed users to deposit funds into a central Spare Change account that they could then spend across multiple games and applications on the social network, and was a precursor to Facebook Credits.The company pioneered and evangelized the move for app developers away from advertising based monetization models toward micro-payment models and the sale of virtual goods. In March 2009, Spare Change was reported to be processing $30M of payments across 700 applications on Facebook, MySpace and Bebo and to have over 1M wallet accounts.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A speaking fee is a payment awarded to an individual for speaking at a public event. \nMotivational speakers, businesspersons, facilitators, and celebrities are able to garner significant earnings in speaking fees or honoraria. In 2013, $10,000 was considered a lower limit for speakers brokered by speakers bureaus, $40,000 a regular fee for well-known authors, and famous politicians were reported to charge about $100,000 and more.In contrast, speakers in academic conferences and similar events rarely get significant speaking fees or any at all. Sometimes speakers will even pay for attending and presenting at a conference, although it is fairly common that they are rewarded with free attendance. Researchers and academics consider conference presentations an honour and necessary for their careers, rather than a service. Scientists who become popular authors or otherwise famous are an exception, and can earn similar sums as celebrities. Prudence must be taken with speaker fees for government officials or employees or to scientific searchers as it may be considered as a bribery.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In the United Kingdom, a Special register body is an organisation whose name appeared in the special register maintained under section 84 of the Industrial Relations Act 1971 immediately before 16 September 1974, and which is a company registered under the Companies Act 1985 or is incorporated by charter or letters patent.\nSpecial register bodies benefit from exceptions in, and adaptation of, certain types of trade union and financial legislation (for example: the democratic requirement for trade unions to elect the Chairman and Secretary of their principal executive committee).", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Spoonflower is an on-demand, digital printing company that prints custom fabric, wallpaper, and home decor.It was founded in May 2008 by Stephen Fraser and Gart Davis, both formerly of Lulu.com. In January 2020 Michael Jones, formerly of ChannelAdvisor and eBay, became CEO. \nIt was headquartered in Mebane, North Carolina, USA until 2010. Its current headquarters are in Durham, North Carolina, USA and Neuk\u00f6lln, Berlin, Germany. The largest investor in the company is Guidepost Growth Equity of Boston. Other investors include Allison Polish, the former company president.\nIn August 2012, the Spoonflower community numbered over 600,000 individuals who use their own fabric to make curtains, quilts, clothes, bags, furniture, dolls, pillows, framed artwork, costumes, banners and much, much more. The Spoonflower Marketplace currently offers the largest collection of independent fabric designers in the world.Spoonflower's digital textile printers are large-format inkjet printers specially modified to run fabric. Unlike conventional textile manufacturing, digital printing entails very little waste of fabric, ink, water or electricity. Spoonflower prints using eco-friendly, water-based inks on natural and synthetic fiber textiles. No additional chemicals are used in the printing or preparation process.All Spoonflower fabric gets printed in Durham, North Carolina and Berlin, Neuk\u00f6lln.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Staffing models are related sets of reports, charts and graphs that are used to precisely measure work activity, determine how many labor hours are needed,  analyze how employee time is spent and calculate costs. Staffing models are used in the healthcare industry and use predictive analytics methods for forecasting.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A stapled security  is a type of financial instrument. It consists of two or more securities that are contractually bound to form a single salable unit; they cannot be bought or sold separately.  Stapled securities have especially been used in Australia; stapling is relatively uncommon in the rest of the world.The two parts of the salable unit are usually (a) a share in a company and (b) a unit in a trust related to the company. For example, a company that manages a trust may have units of the trust attached (stapled) to the shares of the company.  The company may be responsible for managing the fund and development opportunities, and may charge the trust a fee.  The trust, in turn, is the legal owner of the property assets. \nFor example, a unit of shares in a company can be bound to unit of an investment trust and they must be purchased and sold together. The investment trust will own the assets and the company will manage the assets.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Stark and Fulton  was an engineering company in Glasgow, Scotland. Little is known about the company except that it built some of the first steam locomotives for the Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway and the Midland Counties Railway around 1840. For about four months, D B Stark was a loco superintendent of the former line.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Start-Up Chile is a seed accelerator created by the Chilean Government based in Santiago, Chile. It provides equity free investment for qualified startups.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Statement on Auditing Standards (SAS) No. 55: Consideration of Internal Control in a Financial Statement Audit, commonly abbreviated as SAS 55, is an auditing statement issued by the Auditing Standards Board of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) in April 1988. It requires the auditor to obtain an understanding of an entity\u2019s internal control sufficient to plan any audit on such entity.  Identifying and evaluating relevant controls is an important step in the user auditor\u2019s overall audit approach.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Stock mix is the combination of products a company sells or manufactures. The stock mix is determined by the demand for certain products and the profitability of those products.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Stout Risius Ross, LLC. (Stout) is a global investment bank and advisory firm specializing in corporate finance, valuation, financial disputes, and investigations. The firm is headquartered in Chicago.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Strategy visualization is any kind of (semi-artistic) infographics for visualization of a business strategy.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Streetcar Railway Post Office (RPO) routes operated in several major USA cities between the 1890s and 1920s.  The final route was in Baltimore, Maryland.  The Mobile Post Office Society, Affiliate 64 of the American Philatelic Society, has published monographs detailing the operational history of each route.\nThese were cars that had interior fixtures similar to railway-route RPOs.  One or two clerks worked in the Streetcar RPO to sort mail for post office stations and branches along the route, as well as connecting RPOs that served the city.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Sun Tzu: War on Business (literally: \"Master Sun \u2014 War on Business\") was a Singaporean reality television series broadcast by Channel NewsAsia and distributed by BBC Worldwide. In the show presenter James Sun traveled around the world helping entrepreneurs and their businesses to achieve their goals using the principles of The Art of War. The series premiered in March 2010 and last aired in 2011.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Supermercados Super Selectos is a Salvadoran supermarket chain that is owned by Grupo Calleja and founded by Daniel Calleja (whose grandson, Carlos, is the current Vice-President of Grupo Calleja). The company includes Supermercados De Todo and Selectos Market. Supermercados Super Selectos operates 80 stores in 14 Salvadoran departments.The company is not related to Puerto Rico's Supermercados Selectos.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A Supplier Code of Conduct is a statement of the behaviours which an organisation expects of its suppliers and their staff. It may extend to the supply chain and may include commitments on how the organisation will work with its suppliers to build trust and ensure compliance.The UK Government's Supplier Code of Conduct, sponsored by the Government Commercial Function, was introduced to reflect the government's reliance on its suppliers for the delivery of many important public services and to develop \"a bond of trust between government, suppliers and the public\" operating over an underlying contractual relationship. The code calls for a commitment to respectful treatment and professional and ethical behaviour along with safe, sustainable and fair business practices.Other examples include:\n\nABN Amro, Supplier Code of Conduct, published 2019\nBalfour Beatty, Our Code of Conduct: Working with our subcontractors, suppliers and partners to do the right thing, published 2018\nFinancial Conduct Authority (UK), Supplier Code of Conduct, published 2019.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Sweatworking is business networking while taking physical exercise and so working up a sweat.  This way of working originated in the USA and started to be promoted in London in 2012, where gyms offered facilities and sessions of this kind.Journalist Lucy Kellaway tried sweatworking with the chairman of Wiggle, Andy Bond, who had experience of similar activity at Asda, playing five-a-side football with Archie Norman.  While there was little opportunity to talk during their spinning session at Fitness First, they agreed that the shared experience of suffering was effective in establishing a bond.Golf is a traditional sporting activity which is often used for business networking but women have felt especially excluded from this.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "System sales is a business term used in the franchising industry. Franchisors provide supplies, marketing and administration services to franchisees in return for a part of the franchisees' revenues. Some franchisors also operate some outlets directly. System sales represents the total sales of all outlets that use a brand, or that use all the franchised brands owned by one franchisor. It is always higher than the franchisor's revenue for accounting purposes. \nFor example, say an average \"Fast Eats\" restaurant has annual revenue of US$1 million. Fast Eats Inc operates 1,000 Fast Eats restaurants directly and franchises another 3,000 outlets, taking a 20% cut of sales. Fast Eats Inc's reported revenue is $1.6 billion (1,000 \u00d7 $1million from direct operations and 20% \u00d7 3,000 \u00d7 $1 million from franchised outlets). But Fast Eats' system revenue is $4 billion (4,000 \u00d7 $1 million).\nSystem sales provides a useful way of assessing the growth of a franchised brand. A franchise operator can easily increase its reported revenue by taking more outlets under direct management, but that may not be the best option for the profitability of the business, and the increase in accounting revenue it generates may give a misleading impression of the rate of growth of the underlying business, if system sales are not taken into account.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "SZSE 100 Index are indice of Shenzhen Stock Exchange. It consists of SZSE 100 Price Index (SZSE: 399330) and SZSE 100 Return Index (SZSE: 399004), using the same constituents but different methodology.\nDespite it was intended as the blue-chip index of Shenzhen Stock Exchange, comparing to counterpart SSE 50 Index, it had a smaller total free-float adjusted market capitalization of the constituents as well as smaller average free-float adjusted market capitalization per constituent. They have difference composition in constituents. As of 30 December 2016, 23.54% of the constituents of SZSE 100 Index were financial services companies (including bank and insurance), 21.49% were from consumer discretionary industry and 20.54% were from information technology industry.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "SZSE 200 Index are indice of Shenzhen Stock Exchange. It consists of SZSE 200 Price Index (SZSE: 399009) and SZSE 200 Return Index (SZSE: 399679), using the same constituents but different methodology.\nIt was a sub-index of SZSE 300 Index, which consists of all constituents of SZSE 300 that was not included in SZSE 100 Index.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "SZSE 300 Price Index (SZSE: 399007) and its sub-indexes SZSE 100 Price Index and SZSE 200 Price Index were the stock market indices of Shenzhen Stock Exchange, representing top 300 companies by free float adjusted market capitalization. The sub-indices represented top 100 companies and next 200 (the 101st to 300th) companies, respectively. SZSE 300 Index itself is a sub-index of SZSE Component Index, SZSE 1000 Index and SZSE Composite Index.\nThe index series also had a counterpart which calculated in different methodology, as SZSE 300 Return Index (SZSE: 399344), SZSE 100 Return Index and SZSE 200 Return Index.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The SZSE Component Index is an index of 500 stocks that are traded at the Shenzhen Stock Exchange (SZSE). It is the main stock market index of SZSE.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The concept of T-shaped skills, or T-shaped persons is a metaphor used in job recruitment to describe the abilities of persons in the workforce. The vertical bar on the letter T represents the depth of related skills and expertise in a single field, whereas the horizontal bar is the ability to collaborate across disciplines with experts in other areas and to apply knowledge in areas of expertise other than one's own.\nThe earliest popular reference is by David Guest in 1991. Tim Brown, CEO of the IDEO design consultancy, endorsed this approach to r\u00e9sum\u00e9 assessment as a method to build interdisciplinary work teams for creative processes.  Earlier references can be found; in the 1980s the term \"T-shaped man\" was used internally by McKinsey & Company for recruiting and developing consultants and partners, both male and female.\nThe term T-shaped skills is also common in the agile software development world and refers to the need for cross-skilled developers and testers in an agile team, e.g. a scrum team.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Takahashi method is a technique deploying extremely simple and distilled visual slides for presentations. It is similar to the Lessig method, created by Harvard professor and former presidential candidate Lawrence Lessig.\nIt is named for its inventor, Masayoshi Takahashi. Unlike a typical presentation, no pictures and no charts are used. Only a few words are printed on each slide\u2014often only one or two short words, using very large characters. To make up for this, a presenter will use many more slides than in a traditional presentation, each slide being shown for a much shorter duration.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Technographic segmentation for marketing management is a market research analysis tool used to identify and profile the characteristics and behaviors of consumers through the process of market segmentation. Traditionally market researchers focused on various demographic, psychographic, and lifestyle schemes to categorize and describe homogeneous clusters of consumers that comprise possible target markets.\nWith the advent of personal computers and home video in the late 1980s and the explosion in Internet use, personal digital assistants, BlackBerries, video games, cell phones, etc. in the 1990s, information and communication technologies have emerged as a central focus and defining force in a wide range of occupations and lifestyles. Accordingly, market researchers realized the need for a segmentation scheme based on the role that technology plays in consumers' lives.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Technology Centre of New Jersey is a  science park in North Brunswick Township, New Jersey, United States, established by the New Jersey Economic Development Authority as a high technology business incubator. It can accommodate individual research and laboratory facilities up to 60,000 square feet (5,600 m2), complete with clean rooms and wet labs.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The telescopic observations strategic framework \u2013 a strategic planning tool designed to enhance intelligence gathering and improve marketing planning.\nThe telescopic observations strategic framework or TOSF (Panagiotou and van Wijnen, 2005) presents an original and radical alternative to SWOT analysis. According to the authors, its integrative design overcomes some of the weaknesses of other available techniques whilst utilising the strengths of SWOT and PEST analyses.\nThe framework aims to provide a more focused solution to the complex requirements of environmental analysis, intelligence gathering and decision-making, and has been used in various organisational settings since 1999.\nThe telescopic observations system can be best described as a dynamic programme of continuous situational monitoring, intelligence gathering, organisational learning, and performance monitoring to inform decision making and direct the strategy formulation and re-formulation process.\nFocus on strategic direction\nAt its core, the programme is based on the step-by-step completion of two comprehensive matrices, each with two stages of completion.\nStep 1 \u2013 Situational analysis to determine the current situation\nStep 2 \u2013 Evaluation of the findings\nStep 3 \u2013 Strategy formulation and implementation of SMART strategies\nStep 4 \u2013 Monitoring and control", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The ten-year occupational employment projection is a projection produced by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics' Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections.  The occupational employment projections, along with other information about occupations, are published in the Occupational Outlook Handbook and the National Employment Matrix. \nThe 10-year projections cover economic growth, employment by industry and occupation, and labor force. They are widely used in career guidance, in planning education and training programs, and in studying long-range employment trends. These projections, which are updated every two years, are part of a nearly 60-year tradition of providing information on occupations to those who are entering the job market, changing careers, or making further education and training choices.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A Tender board is a committee or institution involved in the Government procurement procedure. It formulates requirements for the intended purchase of goods or services, compiles these formulations in a tender document, and hands these documents out to interested suppliers, usually for a fee. After the closing date for bids, the tender board evaluates the proposals received and decides on the awarding of the tender.\nPublic sector organizations are usually legally obliged to release tenders for works and services. Regulations vary on whether or not to necessarily award the tender to the lowest bidder, or to award it at all.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A third-party inspection agency (TPIA or TPI) is a business organization, complying with the ISO 17020 standards. Third-party inspection or \"Category A\" is the most stringent of the 3 categories of inspection organization that the standard specifies. Such organizations are third-party inspection agencies that must not be involved in any activities other than inspection and testing. Based on this requirement, the third-party inspection agency must not be involved in design, procurement, fabrication, construction, or installation. All companies and parties such as buyers, sellers, engineering companies, plant owners must have access to these agencies and use their services. Confidentiality, independence, impartiality, and integrity are important conditions for being a third-party Inspection agency.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Time spent listening (TSL) is one of the measurements surveyed by Nielsen Audio in determining ratings for radio stations in the United States. It is the equivalent of Average\nTime Exposed (ATE), Daily or Weekly.\nTSL is defined as the amount of time the average listener surveyed spent listening to each radio station at one time, before changing the station or turning it off. Alternately, it is an estimate of how long the average panelist (listener) was exposed to a particular station or stations for a specific time period.\nTSL trends are used in conjunction with AQH Share (\"AQH\") to evaluate listenership to a station. In some radio formats, a station with low AQH (number of listeners) but high TSL is considered more attractive to advertisers than a high AQH / low TSL station, because the station's listeners are more likely to stick with the station through commercial breaks and hear the paid advertisements.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "TL 9000 is a quality management system standard designed by the QuEST Forum in 1998.  It was created to focus on supply chain directives throughout the international telecommunications industry, including the USA.  As with IATF 16949 for the automotive industry and AS9100 for the aerospace industry, TL 9000 specializes the generic ISO 9001 standard to meet the needs of one industrial sector, which for TL 9000 is the information and communications technology (ICT) sector\u2014extending from service providers through ICT equipment manufacturers through the suppliers and contractors and subcontractors that provide electronic components, software components and services to those ICT equipment manufacturers.\nTL 9000 is defined by two documents:\n\nTL 9000 Requirements Handbook, whose current release 6.2 includes the full text of ISO 9001:2015\nTL 9000 Measurements Handbook, whose most recent release was 5.7Reports on defect tracking and other measurements at various levels of granularity are accumulated by TL 9000 compliant facilities of certified organizations by the University of Texas at Dallas, which is the official TL 9000 administrator.  These reports are provided at no additional charge to TL 9000 member companies and for an additional fee to TL 9000 Liaison members and non-members.  Generally, these measurement data permit a service provider to compare the defect rates among various equipment manufacturers and against each other.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Total Intelligence Solutions, LLC, (TIS) is a risk management and consulting company headquartered in Arlington, Virginia.  The company delivers threat and vulnerability assessments, data acquisition capabilities, physical and information security services, training, and high-level consulting to Fortune 500 companies, and to U.S. and foreign governments.\nTIS owned and operated the Terrorism Research Center, Incorporated (TRC) from 2007 to 2010. The TRC delivered training and research support relating to counterterrorism and asymmetric warfare/conflict to the private sector, and U.S. and foreign government customers.\nTIS was owned by The Prince Group, a private company led by Erik Prince. Erik Prince also owned numerous other investment and business interests to include Academi (formerly known as Blackwater). Cofer Black was formerly the chairman of TIS.  The TIS website now forwards to a site operated by OODA Group LLC.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The total revenue share is the percentage of direct cost associated with revenue. Direct cost consists of both product cost and marketing cost. It is a ratio of costs required to fulfill an order. The remainder is considered gross margin.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Trade journalism reports on the movements and developments of the business world by way of articles or analysis. Trade journalism also refers to industry-specific news, such as exclusive focus on commodities (e.g. oil, gas and metals) or sectors (finance, travel, food). Due to its business nature, trade journalism is often expected to process and interpret a substantial amount of market commentary.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The term Trade Mart can be a generic English reference to any sizable commercial establishment. Well known individual Trade Marts include:\n\nInternational Trade Mart\nDallas Trade Mart\nBrussels Trade Mart\nTrade Mart of North Carolina (acquired by WilcoHess in 2005)", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Treasury services is a function of an investment bank which provides transaction, investment, and information services for chief financial officers or treasurers.  Treasury services  concentrates and invests client money, and provides trade finance and logistics solutions as well as safeguards, values, clears and services securities and portfolios for investors and broker-dealers. Treasury Services is a transaction intensive and system intensive business. This is a source of risk free fee income for the bank.\nThe key offerings under Treasury Services include:\n\nAccounts Receivable service: Helping the client with products and solutions for receiving/collecting money for business deals/sales/service provided from its business partners, clients and large set of retail customers, more quickly and effectively. Example outstanding bills and invoices.\nAccounts Payable services: Helping the client with products and solutions for making payments to its business partners, clients and retail customers.\nLiquidity Management services: Helping the CFO of a company to manage short term assets and liabilities and have the optimum amount of working capital.e.g. moving funds between different global accounts held by the client and investing excess cash to earn income, cash forecasting tools etc.\nReporting Services: Under this the service provider helps the client consolidate its receivables and payable positions across the countries of operation, across various currencies and reports a net payable / receivable position in each currency. This is very useful in making business decisions on FX and capital management. Rather than purchasing the required currency in small bits and pieces across the globe, the treasury can negotiate better rates for a consolidated open position.\nTrade Finance Services: Helping the client trade across borders and ensure the delivery and timely collection of payments e.g., letters of credit, document collection services.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Trend analysis is the widespread practice of collecting information and attempting to spot a pattern. In some fields of study, the term has more formally defined meanings.Although trend analysis is often used to predict future events, it could be used to estimate uncertain events in the past, such as how many ancient kings probably ruled between two dates, based on data such as the average years which other known kings reigned.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The term trigger agreement refers to a tactic utilized by the Service Employees International Union (SEIU) during their Justice for Janitors campaign. If employers agree not to interfere with the SEIU's organizing efforts, then the SEIU promises not to commence bargaining efforts until a majority of the industry market has recognized the employee union and minimal demands. Employers are protected from organizing efforts that could result in increased industry competition and are instead, triggered to respond to more moderate demands as an industry.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In economics, a trough is a low turning point or a local minimum of a business cycle.  The time evolution of many economics variables exhibits a wave-like behavior with local maxima (peaks) followed by local minima (troughs).  A business cycle may be defined as the period between two consecutive peaks.The period of the business cycle in which real GDP is increasing is called the expansion, in which the real GDP moves from the trough towards the peak.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A trunk show is an event in which vendors present merchandise directly to store personnel or customers at a retail location or another venue such as a hotel room.  In many cases it allows store personnel to preview and/or purchase merchandise before it is made available to the public. Typically, clients view the merchandise, place orders, and then wait for the vendor to manufacture and deliver the goods.  If the merchandise has a designer, the vendor may choose to have the designer present at the event to add to the customers' experience.  Prototypes, samples, remnants and leftover items from runway shows are also sometimes offered at trunk shows.  Trunk shows may be open to the general public and advertised in the mass media or may be confined to special customers or those on a mailing list.\nThe term is derived from the common practice of merchandise being transported to these events in trunks.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Tullett Brown Limited was a land banking and carbon credit fraud that was wound-up by the British Official Receiver in March 2012. After the company was wound-up, the fraud continued through associated company Foxstone Carr Ltd.Tullett Brown had been named \"Commodities Broker of the Year in Western Europe\" in World News Media's World Finance Awards.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Tumbhi (Meaning in English: \"You too\") is a leading online community for artists and art lovers. Tumbhi provides a platform to discover, nurture and leverage talent.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "UCCEL Corp, previously called University Computing Company (\"UCC\"), was a data processing service bureau on the campus of Southern Methodist University in Dallas, Texas. It was founded by the Wyly brothers (Sam and Charles, Jr.) in 1963. The name change in the mid-1980s was brought about by Gregory Liemandt, placed as CEO by the majority stockholder, a Swiss citizen named Walter Haefner through Careal Holding AG of Zurich.Uccel's \"big-ticket item\" claim to fame was software called UCC-1/TMS (Tape Management System), an IBM mainframe product for managing the tape library in an OS/MVS operating system environment.  In 1980, they developed their second \"big hitter\" and most profitable product, UCC-7 (job scheduler).  The UCC-1, UCC-7, UCC-11 (batch job rerun/restart add-on) suite led the market for tape management and job scheduling.\nIn 1986, UCCEL Corporation purchased Cambridge Systems Group, Inc., which marketed for SKK, Inc. and their market-leading ACF2 mainframe security product.  In June 1987, Uccel was unexpectedly bought out by its archrival, Computer Associates, which aggressively sold directly competing products CA-Dynam/TLMS (tape management), CA-Scheduler and batch job scheduling products originally from Capex Corporation (flagship products \"Optimizer\" and \"TLMS\")  and Value Software, plus CA-Top Secret (security / mainframe discretionary access control).\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Unissued stock is stock that has been authorized in a company's charter, but has never been sold. It differs from Treasury stock (in the UK, Treasury shares, as treasury stock means something else), in that treasury stock has been issued, and bought back by the company, whereas unissued stock has never been issued.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Unwins was a Kent-based chain of 381 off-licences selling alcoholic beverages, with outlets focused on London and the South East.  Unwins was founded in 1843, and went insolvent on 19 December 2005.  200 of the former Unwin stores were subsequently sold to rival Thresher Group.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "UTC Aerospace Systems (UTAS) was one of the world\u2019s largest suppliers of aerospace and defense products, headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina, United States. The company was formed in August 2012 when parent United Technologies Corporation merged their existing subsidiary Hamilton Sundstrand with the newly-acquired Goodrich Corporation. In 2018, UTC acquired Rockwell Collins which was merged to form Collins Aerospace.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "v-Business is the sale of real or virtual products from a virtual world. v-Business or virtual business is a term was first mentioned in \"E-Commerce and V-Business: Business Models for Global Success\" by Stuart Barnes, Brian Hunt, et al. (ISBN 978-0750645324). IBM strategic outlook projects a large percentage business transactions and business processing will be conducted in or enabled by virtual world technology.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In a supply chain, a vendor, or a seller, is an enterprise that contributes goods or services. Generally, a supply chain vendor manufactures inventory/stock items and sells them to the next link in the chain. Today, these terms refer to a supplier of any goods or service.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A Vendor on Premises (VOP) is defined as on site coordination of a customer's temporary help services through an exclusive, long-term general contractor relationship with a temporary help company. The designated VOP may enter subcontracting relationships with other temporary help suppliers, or relationships may be specified by the customer.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Vertical restraints are competition restrictions in agreements between firms or individuals at different levels of the production and distribution process. Vertical restraints are to be distinguished from so-called \"horizontal restraints\", which are found in agreements between horizontal competitors. Vertical restraints can take numerous forms, ranging from a requirement that dealers accept returns of a manufacturer's product, to resale price maintenance agreements setting the minimum or maximum price that dealers can charge for the manufacturer's product.  \nSo-called \"intrabrand restraints\" such as resale price maintenance govern products made by a particular manufacturer, while \"interbrand restraints\" regulate a dealer's or manufacturer's relationship with its trading partner's rivals (e.g., \"English clauses\").  Quintessential examples of interbrand restraints include tying contracts, whereby a purchaser agrees to purchase a second product as a condition of obtaining a so-called \"tying\" product, and exclusive dealing agreements, whereby a dealer agrees not to purchase products from suppliers that are rivals of the manufacturer.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Volvo Deal was a plan for industrial cooperation between Norway and Sweden whereby Norway would get 40% of the shares of the Volvo car manufacturing concern, while Volvo would get control over oil resources on the Norwegian continental shelf. Out of the three unprospected North Sea areas that Sweden was offered in exchange only one turned out to have gas, and none of them had oil. The plan was rejected in January 1979 by Volvo's shareholders, who believed that Volvo was being sold too cheaply and that the Norwegian oil industry was not worth so much. Parts of the Norwegian Storting (parliament) were also skeptical. This was an important moment in Norwegian and Swedish economic history. Norway's oil resources later gave rise to significant wealth, some of which was spent while some was saved in the country's sovereign wealth fund. In 2018, the fund reached US$1 trillion. Meanwhile, Volvo was bought by the Chinese company Geely in 2010.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Walter Schoel Engineering Co. located in Birmingham, Alabama, has offered consulting civil engineering, hydrologic and environmental consulting, and land surveying services, since its founding by Herman Schoel in 1888. The company is a member of the Alabama Engineering Hall of Fame.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Western Bridge and Construction Company, located in Omaha, Nebraska, was one of the foremost bridge engineering and manufacturing companies in the Midwestern United States. Several of their bridges are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Their headquarters were located in the Bee Building in Downtown Omaha.A number of its bridges are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.\n\nThere are two Western bridges in Garden County, Nebraska, including the Lisco State Aid Bridge near Lisco, Nebraska and Lewellen State Aid Bridge in Lewellen, Nebraska. The Lewellen and Lisco bridges are the only remaining intact examples of state aid pony trusses in Nebraska, and the Lisco Bridge is significant as one of the last remaining structures from the state aid bridge program.Works include:\n\nFair Oaks Bridge, Fair Oaks, California\nKlondike Bridge, Larchwood, Iowa\nElkhorn River Bridge, Antelope County, Nebraska\nKingpost truss Bridge, Royal, Nebraska\nVerdigris Creek Bridge, Royal, Nebraska\nGross State Aid Bridge, Verdigre, NebraskaBridge, 6.8 mi. NE of Royal Royal, NE (Western Bridge & Construction Co.), formerly NRHP-listed\nENP Bridge over Green River, Cty. Rd. CN23-145 Daniel, WY (Western Bridge & Const. Co.), NRHP-listed\nGross State Aid Bridge, Co. Hwy. over Verdigris Cr., 3.5 mi. N, .2 mi. W of Verdigre Verdigre, NE (Western Bridge & Construction Co.\nHospital Bridge, Upper Main St. over Downie River, Downieville, California (Western Bridge & Construction Co.), NRHP-listed\nKlondike Bridge, 180th St. over Big Sioux River, in Lyon County, Iowa and Lincoln County, South Dakota near Larchwood, IA (Western Bridge and Construction Co.), NRHP-listed\nNeligh Mill (Boundary Increase), Irregular Tracks in Block 22, Original Town, Neligh and the N1/2 of the SE1/4 of Section 20, T25N, R6W Neligh, NE (Western Bridge And Construction Co.), NRHP-listed\nNeligh Mill Bridge, Elm St. over the Elkhorn R., Neligh, NE (Western Bridge & Construction Co.), NRHP-listed\nOnion Creek Bridge, Over Onion Creek, S of Coffeyville Coffeyville, KS (Western Bridge Co.), NRHP-listed\nPalisades Bridge, 25495 485th Ave. Garretson, SD (Western Bridge & Construction Co.), NRHP-listed\nPennsylvania Avenue Rock Creek Bridge, Pennsylvania Ave. over Rock Creek Independence, KS (Western Bridge Co.), NRHP-listed\nSouth Dakota Department of Transportation Bridge No. 50-193-086, Local Rd. over Big Sioux R. (Sverdrup Township) Midway, SD (Western Bridge and Construction Co.), NRHP-listed\nSouth Dakota Dept. of Transportation Bridge No. 16-570-054, Local rd. over Oak Cr. McLaughlin, SD (Western Bridge & Construction Co.), NRHP-listed\nSouth Dakota Dept. of Transportation Bridge No. 64-061-199, Local rd. over Brule Cr., Elk Point, SD (Western Bridge and Construction Co.), NRHP-listed\nVerdigris Creek Bridge, Twp. Rd. over Verdigris Cr., 1.9 mi. NE of Royal Royal, NE (Western Bridge & Construction Co., NRHP-listed", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Whitfield & King was an architectural partnership of Henry Davis Whitfield and Beverly Sedgwick King (1876\u20131935).  A number of the firm's works are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.Whitfield was brother-in-law of Andrew Carnegie; his sister married Carnegie, and this helped the firm get work.\nWorks include:\n\nCarnegie Library, Moscow Ave. between Troy Ave. and Third St. Hickman, KY (Whitfield & King), NRHP-listed\nCarnegie Library of Barnesville, Library St. Barnesville, GA. Part of Thomaston Street Historic District. (Whitfield & King), NRHP-listed\nEaton Hall, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts\nEngineers' Club Building, 30-32 W. 40th St. New York, NY (Whitfield & King), NRHP-listed\nJennings Carnegie Public Library, 303 Cary Ave. Jennings, LA (Whitfield & King), NRHP-listed\nThirty-sixth Street Branch Library, 347 E. 36th St. Minneapolis, MN (Whitfield, Henry D.), NRHP-listed\nU.S. Post Office and Office Building, Kinoole and Waianuenue Sts. Hilo, HI (Whitfield, Henry O.), NRHP-listed\nAnne Wallace Branch-Carnegie Library of Atlanta, 535 Luckie St. NW Atlanta, GA (Whitfield and King), NRHP-listed\nSouth Branch, Cleveland Library.\nOld Virginia (Carnegie) Public Library in Virginia, MN. The building opened in 1907 but was replaced just five years later after the original building became far too small for the needs of the community. The original Carnegie building was used by the Canadian Northern and Duluth, Winnipeg, and Pacific railroads, the YWCA, the Red Cross, and a wine house before being demolished in 1953 to make room for a municipal power plant expansion.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "In marketing, the whole product concept is an adaptation of the total product concept developed by Ted Levitt, a professor at Harvard Business School. In his book entitled \u201cThe Marketing Imagination\u201d Levitt drew attention to the fact that consumers purchase more than the core product itself. Rather, they purchase the core product combined with complimentary attributes, the majority of which are intangible.The total product was Levitt\u2019s vision of how intangible elements could be added to a physical product, transforming it into an offering that was often more valuable than the physical attributes alone.\nFollowing the insights provided by Ted Levitt, Regis McKenna renamed the total product concept, calling it the \"whole product\" which he defined as a generic or core product, augmented by everything that is needed for the customer to have a compelling reason to buy.The total product concept was also refined by Tom Peters. In a 1986 publication entitled \"The Eye of the Beholder\", Peters proposed an extension to Levitt\u2019s total product concept that describes the discrepancy between insider and customer perceptions in three different types of industries.Another framework was suggested by Warren Schirtzinger called The Low Risk Recipe. Schirtzinger organizes intangible product attributes into three groups that surround the core innovation, and act to lower the end user's perception of risk and encourage the adoption of a new innovation;End User Harmony - \"product attributes that allow customers to continue using existing systems and methods and minimize change while allowing the exploration and testing of a new innovation\"\nCategory Cooperation - \"product attributes that reflect the supplier's credibility and commitment to a market category mostly through adherence to industry standards, complimentary products and intellectual property\"\nSafety in Numbers - \"systems that support product adoption by acting as external safeguards through the establishment of end-user communities and an independent, long-term support infrastructure\"\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Wicked Weasel Pty. Ltd. is an Australian manufacturer of swimwear and lingerie for women. It is especially known for its microkinis. The company was founded in 1994 by Peter Gifford, formerly the bass player for Midnight Oil, and named after his girlfriend's nickname. Initially, the company's products were trial-marketed to Melbourne area strippers.\nThe first Wicked Weasel retail store was opened in Cairns in 1995, but it moved to Byron Bay the following year, where the company headquarters had remained until moving to Mullumbimby in 2020. Additional stores at Bondi and in Melbourne have been opened a number of times with inconsistent success. Wicked Weasel launched www.wickedweasel.com in mid-1999, making it the first Australian swimwear maker to sell online. By 2003, it was the largest Australian retailer of clothing via the internet. As of 2007, the website received over 100,000 unique visitors per day. Wicked Weasel had 45\u201350 employees as of 2011.As part of a contest, Wicked Weasel also publishes online pictures of women who wear their products.\nWicked Weasel products are no longer produced in Australia. The company ceased Australian manufacturing after the relocation to Mullumbimby in 2020.\n\n", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "William Watkins Ltd one of the first tugboat owning companies in the world, was founded by John Rogers Watkins in 1833.Already during the companies' early years their paddle tugboats, often sail-assisted, were seen in ports all over the world.The most well known of the tows that William Watkins undertook was that of Cleopatra's Needle, from Ferrol, Spain to London by the paddle tug Anglia in 1878.Between 1833 and 1918 Watkins had vessels taken up for Government service in both the Crimean War and WWI, and again during WW2 many of Watkins tugs were requisitioned by the Government.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "The Wisconsin Valley Improvement Company is a private company chartered by Section 182.70 of the Wisconsin Statutes. The company is responsible for organizing the flow from most of the upper Wisconsin River tributaries, and this flow affects the economy and ecosystem of the entire river. Its member companies are the owners and operators of dams along the Wisconsin River, such as paper manufacturers and utility companies with hydroelectric facilities on that river. The company is located in Wausau, Wisconsin. They include:\n\nNewPage\nDomtar\nPackaging Corporation of America\nWisconsin River Power Company\nAlliant Energy\nWausau Paper\nExpera Specialty Solutions\nWisconsin Public Service CorporationAccording to its charter, the company is to maintain\n\nnearly a uniform flow of water as practicable in the Wisconsin and Tomahawk rivers by storing in reservoirs surplus water for discharge when the water supply is low to improve the usefulness of the rivers for all public purposes and to reduce flood damage.\n\nThe reservoirs it operates\n\nshall be located north of township 37 north in or along the Wisconsin River, and in or along any tributary of the Wisconsin River that discharges into the river at any point north of the south line of township 23 north.\n\nThe company was founded by an act of the Wisconsin State Legislature in 1907, as an outgrowth of several previous attempts to organize cooperative use of the water resources in the upper Wisconsin River basin.\nThe company owns and maintains 21 reservoirs on the Wisconsin River and its tributaries. Sixteen of these reservoirs are natural lake reservoirs, and five are artificial reservoirs. Of the five artificial reservoirs, one is on the Wisconsin River: Rainbow Flowage. The other four are on the Willow River, Tomahawk River, Spirit River, and Big Eau Pleine River, all of which are western tributaries of the Wisconsin.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "A work rule is a negotiated stipulation in a labor contract that limits the conditions under which management may direct the performance of labor.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "z. b. V. (also z.b.V., ZBV, ZbV, and zbV) is an abbreviation for the German phrase zur besonderen Verwendung, or alternatively the synonymous phrase zur besonderen Verf\u00fcgung.", "label": "Business"}, {"sentence": "Inclusive Democracy (ID) is a project that aims for direct democracy; economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy; self-management (democracy in the socio-economic realm); and ecological democracy.\nThe theoretical project of Inclusive Democracy\u2014as distinguished from the political project on which the ID movement is based\u2014emerged from the work of Greek-born political philosopher, economist, activist and former academic Takis Fotopoulos, in the book Towards An Inclusive Democracy, and was further developed by him and other writers in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy, an electronic journal published by the International Network for Inclusive Democracy. In other words, the theoretical project of ID is a project emerging in Political Philosophy about social change (see e.g. Marxism, Social Ecology project, the autonomy project, the Inclusive Democracy project, etc.). On the other hand, the political project of ID (as any political project for social emancipation) is a project emerging in the History of social struggle (e.g. along socialist movement, autonomist movement, classical (direct) democracy movement, etc.).\nAccording to Arran Gare, Towards an Inclusive Democracy \"offers a powerful new interpretation of the history and destructive dynamics of the market and provides an inspiring new vision of the future in place of both neo-liberalism and existing forms of socialism\". David Freeman argues that Fotopoulos' approach in that book \"is not openly anarchism, yet anarchism seems the formal category within which he works, given his commitment to direct democracy, municipalism and abolition of state, money and market economy\".", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Indicative planning is a form of economic planning implemented by a state in an effort to solve the problem of imperfect information in market economies by coordination of private and public investment through forecasts and output targets. The resulting plans aim to supply economically valuable information as a public good that the market by itself cannot disseminate, or where forward markets are nonexistent. However, indicative planning takes only endogenous market uncertainty into account, plans the economy accordingly, and does not look into exogenous uncertainty like technology, foreign trade, etc. Indicative plans serve to complement and enhance the market, as opposed to replace the market mechanism, hence they are adopted in market-based and mixed economies and were most widely practiced in France and Japan before the 1980s. When utilizing indicative planning, the state employs \"influence, subsidies, grants, and taxes [to affect the economy], but does not compel\". Indicative planning is contrasted with directive or mandatory planning, where a state (or other economic unit) sets quotas and mandatory output requirements. Planning by inducement is often referred to as indicative planning.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Although information has been bought and sold since ancient times, the idea of an information marketplace is relatively recent. The nature of such markets is still evolving, which complicates development of  sustainable business models.  However, certain attributes of information markets are beginning to be understood, such as diminished participation costs, opportunities for customization, shifting customer relations, and a need for order.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The intention economy is an approach to viewing markets and economies focusing on buyers as a scarce commodity. Customers' intention to buy drives the production of goods to meet their specific needs. It is also the title of Doc Searls book: The Intention Economy: When Customers Take Charge published in May, 2012.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "International political economy (IPE) or Global political economy (GPE) is the study interactions between the economy on a global level and political and economic actors, systems and institutions. More precisely, IPE/GPE focuses on global economic governance, through studies of macroeconomic phenomena such as globalization, international trade, the monetary and financial system, international inequality, and development, and how these are shaped by, amongst others, international organizations, multinational corporations, and sovereign states.The substantive issue areas of IPE are frequently divided into the four broad subject areas of 1. international trade, 2. the international monetary and financial system, 3. multinational corporations, and 4. economic development and inequality. A central assumption of IPE theory is that these international economic phenomena do not exist in any meaningful sense separate from the actors who regulate and control them. Alongside  formal economic theories of international economics, trade, and finance, which are widely utilised within the discipline, IPE thus stresses the study of institutions, politics, and power relations in understanding the global economy.International political economy is a major subdiscipline of international relations where it emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, prompted by the growth of international economic institutions such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, alongside economic turmoils such as the fall of the gold standard, 1973 oil crisis, and 1970s recession.  IPE/GPE is also a major field of study within history, especially economic history, where scholars study the historical dynamics of the international political economy. Similar to the historical study of political economy, it is a broad field of inquiry which seeks to place economic life in context, and pay attention to questions of social relations, and power across time.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The term Jim Crow economy applies to a specific set of economic conditions in the United States during the period when the Jim Crow laws were in effect to force racial segregation; however, it should also be taken as an attempt to disentangle the economic ramifications from the politico-legal ramifications of \"separate but equal\" de jure segregation, to consider how the economic impacts might have persisted beyond the politico-legal ramifications.\nIt includes the intentional effects of the laws themselves, effects that were not explicitly written into laws, and effects that continued after the laws had been repealed.  Some of these impacts continue into the present.  The primary differences of the Jim Crow economy, compared to a situation like apartheid, revolve around the alleged equality of access, especially in regard to land ownership and entry into the competitive labor market; however, those two categories often relate to ancillary effects in all other aspects of life.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Labor market segmentation is the division of the labor market according to a principle such as occupation, geography and industry.One type of segmentation is to define groups \"with little or no crossover capability\", such that members of one segment cannot easily join another segment. This can result in different segments, for example men and women, receiving different wages for the same work. 19th-century Irish political economist John Elliott Cairnes referred to this phenomenon as that of \"noncompeting groups\".\nA related concept is that of a dual labour market (DLM), that splits the aggregate labor market between a primary sector and a secondary sector.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Lange model (or Lange\u2013Lerner theorem) is a neoclassical economic model for a hypothetical socialist economy based on public ownership of the means of production and a trial-and-error approach to determining output targets and achieving economic equilibrium and Pareto efficiency. In this model, the state owns non-labor factors of production, and markets allocate final goods and consumer goods. The Lange model states that if all production is performed by a public body such as the state, and there is a functioning price mechanism, this economy will be Pareto-efficient, like a hypothetical market economy under perfect competition. Unlike models of capitalism, the Lange model is based on direct allocation, by directing enterprise managers to set price equal to marginal cost in order to achieve Pareto efficiency. By contrast, in a capitalist economy, private owners seek to maximize profits, while competitive pressures are relied on to indirectly lower the price, this discourages production with high marginal cost and encourages economies of scale.\nThis model was first proposed by Oskar R. Lange in 1936 during the socialist calculation debate, and was expanded by economists like H. D. Dickinson and Abba P. Lerner. Although Lange and Lerner called it \"market socialism\", the Lange model is a form of centrally planned economy where a central planning board allocates investment and capital goods, while markets allocate labor and consumer goods. The planning board simulates a market in capital goods by a trial-and-error process first elaborated by Vilfredo Pareto and L\u00e9on Walras.  The Lange Model is in practice  type of centrally planned economy and not type of market socialism.\nThe Lange model has never been implemented anywhere, not even in Oskar Lange's home country, Poland, where Soviet-type economic planning was imposed after World War II, precluding experimentation with Lange-style economy. Some parallels might be drawn with the New Economic Mechanism or so-called Goulash Communism in Hungary under K\u00e1d\u00e1r, although this was not a pure Lange-model system.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A loan closet is a program that allows people to borrow durable medical equipment and home medical equipment at no cost or at low cost.  The loan closet may be offered through an organization, an individual, or some other entity, often a non-profit organization. Because medical equipment is expensive and often needed for only a short time, loan closets help people receive equipment that they may not otherwise be able to afford.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Manorialism, also known as the manor system or manorial system, was the method of land ownership (or \"tenure\") in parts of Europe, notably France and later England, during the Middle Ages. Its defining features included a large, sometimes fortified manor house in which the lord of the manor and his dependents lived and administered a rural estate, and a population of labourers who worked the surrounding land to support themselves and the lord. These labourers fulfilled their obligations with labour time or in-kind produce at first, and later by cash payment as commercial activity increased. Manorialism is sometimes included as part of the feudal system.\nManorialism originated in the Roman villa system of the Late Roman Empire, and was widely practiced in medieval western Europe and parts of central Europe. An essential element of feudal society, manorialism was slowly replaced by the advent of a money-based market economy and new forms of agrarian contract.\nIn examining the origins of the monastic cloister, Walter Horn found that \"as a manorial entity the Carolingian monastery ... differed little from the fabric of a feudal estate, save that the corporate community of men for whose sustenance this organisation was maintained consisted of monks who served God in chant and spent much of their time in reading and writing.\"Manorialism faded away slowly and piecemeal, along with its most vivid feature in the landscape, the open field system. It outlasted serfdom in the sense that it continued with freehold labourers. As an economic system, it outlasted feudalism, according to Andrew Jones, because \"it could maintain a warrior, but it could equally well maintain a capitalist landlord. It could be self-sufficient, yield produce for the market, or it could yield a money rent.\" The last feudal dues in France were abolished at the French Revolution. In parts of eastern Germany, the Rittergut manors of Junkers remained until World War II.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A market economy is an economic system in which the decisions regarding investment, production and distribution to the consumers are guided by the price signals created by the forces of supply and demand, where all suppliers and consumers are unimpeded by price controls or restrictions on contract freedom. The major characteristic of a market economy is the existence of factor markets that play a dominant role in the allocation of capital and the factors of production.Market economies range from minimally regulated free-market and laissez-faire systems where state activity is restricted to providing public goods and services and safeguarding private ownership, to interventionist forms where the government plays an active role in serving special interests and promoting social welfare. State intervention can happen at the production, distribution, trade and consumption areas in the economy. The distribution of basic need services and goods like health care may be entirely regulated by an egalitarian public health care policy, while at the same time having the production provided by private enterprise, effectively eliminating the forces of supply and demand. These economies are not market economies and display market failure of a market economy for basic needs and anti-competitive practices with respect to individual private customers.\nState-directed or dirigist economies are those where the state plays a directive role in guiding the overall development of the market through industrial policies or indicative planning\u2014which guides yet does not substitute the market for economic planning\u2014a form sometimes referred to as a mixed economy.Market economies are contrasted with planned economies where investment and production decisions are embodied in an integrated economy-wide economic plan. In a centrally planned economy, economic planning is the principal allocation mechanism between firms rather than markets, with the economy's means of production being owned and operated by a single organizational body.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A market system (or market ecosystem) is any systematic  process enabling many market players to offer and demand: helping buyers and sellers interact and make deals.  It is not just the price mechanism but the entire system of regulation, qualification, credentials, reputations and clearing that surrounds that mechanism and makes it operate in a social context. Some authors use the term \"market system\" to refer to specifically to the free market system. This article focuses on the more general sense of the term according to which there are a variety of different market systems.\nMarket systems are different from voting systems. A market system relies on buyers and sellers being constantly involved and unequally enabled; in a voting system, candidates seek the support of voters on a less regular basis. In addition (a) buyers make decisions on their own behalves, whereas voters make decisions for collectives, (b) voters are usually fully aware of their participation in social decision-making, whereas buyers are often unaware of the secondary repercussions of their acts, (c) responsibility for making purchasing decisions is concentrated on the individual buyer, whereas responsibility for making collective decisions is divided, (d) different buying decisions at the same time are made under conditions of scarcity --- the selection of one thing precludes the selection of another, whereas different voting decisions are not --- one can vote for a president and a judge in the same election without one vote precluding the other, and (e) under ordinary conditions, a buyer is choosing to buy an actual good and is therefore never overruled in his choice, whereas it is the nature of voting that the voter is choosing among potential alternatives and may be overruled by other voters. However, the interactions between market and voting systems are an important aspect of political economy, and some argue they are hard to differentiate; for example, systems like cumulative voting and runoff voting involve a degree of market-like bargaining and trade-off, rather than simple statements of choice.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Material balances are a method of economic planning where material supplies are accounted for in natural units (as opposed to using monetary accounting) and used to balance the supply of available inputs with targeted outputs. Material balancing involves taking a survey of the available inputs and raw materials in an economy and then using a balance sheet to balance the inputs with output targets specified by industry to achieve a balance between supply and demand. This balance is used to formulate a plan for resource allocation and investment in a national economy.The method of material balances is contrasted with the method of input-output planning developed by Wassily Leontief.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A mixed economy is variously defined as an economic system blending elements of a market economy with elements of a planned economy, markets with state interventionism, or private enterprise with public enterprise. Common to all mixed economies is a combination of free-market principles and principles of socialism. While there is no single definition of a mixed economy, one definition is about a mixture of markets with state interventionism, referring specifically to a capitalist market economy with strong regulatory oversight and extensive interventions into markets. Another is that of active collaboration of capitalist and socialist visions. Yet another definition is apolitical in nature, strictly referring to an economy containing a mixture of private enterprise with public enterprise. Alternatively, a mixed economy can refer to a reformist transitionary phase to a socialist economy that allows a substantial role for private enterprise and contracting within a dominant economic framework of public ownership. This can extend to a Soviet-type planned economy that has been reformed to incorporate a greater role for markets in the allocation of factors of production.The idea behind a mixed economy, as advocated by John Maynard Keynes and some others, was not to abandon capitalism, but to retain a predominance of private ownership and control of the means of production, with profit-seeking enterprise and the accumulation of capital as its fundamental driving force. The difference from a laissez-faire capitalist system is that markets are subject to varying degrees of regulatory control and governments wield indirect macroeconomic influence through fiscal and monetary policies with a view to counteracting capitalism's history of boom/bust cycles, unemployment and income disparities. In this framework, varying degrees of public utilities and essential services are provided by the government, with state activity often limited to providing public goods and universal civic requirements, including education, healthcare, physical infrastructure and management of public lands. This contrasts with laissez-faire capitalism, where state activity is limited to maintaining order and security, providing public goods and services, and providing the legal framework for the protection of property rights and enforcement of contracts.About Western European economic models as championed by conservatives (Christian democrats), liberals (social liberals), and socialists (social democrats - social democracy was a combination of socialism and liberal democracy at first) as part of the post-war consensus, a mixed economy is a form of capitalism where most industries are privately owned, with only a small number of public utilities and essential services under public ownership, usually 15\u201320%. In the post-war era, Western European social democracy became associated with this economic model. As an economic ideal, mixed economies are supported by people of various political persuasions, typically centre-left and centre-right such as Christian democrats or social democrats. The contemporary capitalist welfare state has been described as a type of mixed economy in the sense of state interventionism, as opposed to a mixture of planning and markets, since economic planning was never a feature or key component of the welfare state.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Natural economy - is a type of economy in which money is not used in the transfer of resources among people. It is a system of allocating resources through direct bartering, entitlement by law, or sharing out according to traditional custom. In the more complex forms of natural economy, some goods may act as a referent for fair bartering, but generally currency plays only a small role in allocating resources. As a corollary, the majority of goods produced in a system of natural economy are not produced for the purpose of exchanging them, but for direct consumption by the producers (subsistence). As such, natural economies tend to be self-contained, where all the goods consumed are produced domestically.The term has often been used in opposition to other forms of economy, most notably capitalism. Rosa Luxemburg believed that the destruction of the natural economy was a necessary condition for the development of capitalism. Karl Marx described the Inca Empire as a natural economy because it was both isolated and based around exchange rather than profit.Other writers have used a more relative sense of natural economy. Belgian economic historian Henri Pirenne noted that medieval Europe has often been described as a natural economy despite the existence of money, since money played a much less significant role than in earlier or later periods.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Neo-feudalism or new feudalism is a theorized contemporary rebirth of policies of governance, economy, and public life, reminiscent of those which were present in many feudal societies. Such aspects include, but are not limited to: Unequal rights and legal protections for common people and for nobility, dominance of societies by small and powerful elite groups of society, and relations of lordship and serfdom between the elite and the people. Often the former are rich and the latter poor.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The network economy is the emerging economic order within the information society.  The name stems from a key attribute - products and services are created and value is added through social networks operating on large or global scales.  This is in sharp contrast to industrial-era economies, in which ownership of physical or intellectual property stems from its development by a single enterprise.  Business models for capturing ownership rights for value embedded in products and services created by social networks are being explored.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A moneyless economy or non-monetary economy is a system for the allocation of goods and services as well as for the assignment of work without payment of money. The simplest example is the family household, which can be a system of obligations nevertheless.\nMoneyless economies are studied in econometry, in particular, game theory and mechanism design. See the section on microeconomics below.\nWhen embedded in a monetary economy, a non-monetary economy represents work such as household labor, care giving, civic activity or even friends doing something for each other that does not have a monetary value but remains a vitally important part of the economy. While labor that results in monetary compensation is more highly valued than unpaid labor, nearly half of American productive work goes on outside of the market economy and is not represented in production measures such as the GDP.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A non-property system is the name of an economic system appearing in the futuristic fictional books and short stories by Iain Banks called the Culture series, in which there is no concept of property. No individual or group is given superior rights to control any particular resource. The system is maintained by agreement within the society to encourage normative behaviors governing resource creation and distribution, conflict resolution, and support and protection of the elderly, infirm, and children. Within this system, there is no incentive to own resources aside from personal possessions because owning resources would serve no social function and cannot be sold for money in a market.\nThe non-property system, while being incompatible with capitalism which is dependent on the idea of property to function, is unlike socialist and communist systems, where there is group ownership by state entities or cooperative enterprises. It is also different from a barter system, where property rights are central to the idea behind barter and exchange. Under the non-property system, there is no property at all; this is most similar to anarchism without adjectives, since property can only be maintained in systems where a hierarchy of power still remains (the very disparity between the owner of something and someone who doesn't own that something is itself a hierarchical relationship).\nWithin the division of economic systems from hands-on (coordinated and state controlled) to hands-off (autonomous enterprises), this system has characteristics that appear on both ends of the spectrum. Without property, the ideal of individual freedom is paramount, but coupled with traditions of compassion. The Non-property system also has the distinct characteristic of complete autonomy of society members to form voluntary groups and determine what gets produced.\nAn 'open-source heuristic' mechanism for a non-property system has been proposed to allow logistical production proposals with abundance as the goal. New AI technology with the omniverse can determine feasibility based on current resource dynamics; including volunteers. It can even make suggestions for obtaining the sufficient data for further evaluation.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Nordic model comprises the economic and social policies as well as typical cultural practices common to the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden). This includes a comprehensive welfare state and multi-level collective bargaining based on the economic foundations of social corporatism, with a high percentage of the workforce unionized and a sizable percentage of the population employed by the public sector (roughly 30% of the work force in areas such as healthcare, education, and government). Although it was developed in the 1930s under the leadership of social democrats, the Nordic model began to gain attention after World War II.The three Scandinavian countries are constitutional monarchies, while Finland and Iceland have been republics since the 20th century. As of 2021, the Nordic countries are described as being highly democratic and all have a unicameral form of governance and use proportional representation in their electoral systems. Although there are significant differences among the Nordic countries, they all have some common traits. These include support for a universalist welfare state aimed specifically at enhancing individual autonomy and promoting social mobility, a corporatist system involving a tripartite arrangement where representatives of labour and employers negotiate wages, labour market policy is mediated by the government, and a commitment to private ownership within a market-based mixed economy, with Norway being a partial exception due to a large number of state-owned enterprises and state ownership in publicly listed firms. As of 2020, all of the Nordic countries rank highly on the inequality-adjusted HDI and the Global Peace Index as well as being ranked in the top 10 on the World Happiness Report.Over the last few decades, the traditionally Nordic model has transformed in some ways, including increased deregulation and expanding privatization of public services. However, the Nordic model is still distinguished from other models by the strong emphasis on public services and social investment.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "In feudal law, nulle terre sans seigneur (French for \"no land without (a) lord\", pronounced [nyl t\u025b\u0281 s\u0251\u0303 s\u025b\u0272\u0153\u0281]) is the principle that one provides services to the sovereign (usually serving in his army) for the right to receive land from the sovereign.  Originally a maxim of feudal law, it applies in modern form to paying rates or land tax for land of former feudal or feudal-like origin such as land with modern fee simple title, as opposed to land with allodial or udal title.In the original French the expression means \"No land without a lord\" though the legal sense might be more akin to \"no property without a liege\" since it was at the basis of the link between the infeodated or feal and his liege, in the feudal system.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The One village one product movement (\u4e00\u6751\u4e00\u54c1\u904b\u52d5, Isson Ippin Und\u014d, OVOP) is a Japanese regional development program. It began in \u014cita Prefecture in 1979 when the then-governor Morihiko Hiramatsu advocated the program. Implementation started in 1980. Communities selectively produce goods with high added value. One village produces one competitive and staple product as a business to gain sales revenue to improve the standard of living for the residents of that village. Among them are shiitake, kabosu, greenhouse mikan, beef, aji, and barley sh\u014dch\u016b. Over 300 products have been selected.\nPrime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra of Thailand initiated a similar program, One Tambon One Product.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Open manufacturing, also known as open production, maker manufacturing, and with the slogan \"Design Global, Manufacture Local\" is a new model of socioeconomic production in which physical objects are produced in an open, collaborative and distributed manner  and based on open design and open source principles.\nOpen manufacturing combines the following elements of a production process: new open production tools and methods (such as 3D printers), new value-based movements (such as the maker movement), new institutions and networks for manufacturing and production (such as FabLabs), and open source methods, software and protocols. Open manufacturing may also include digital modeling and fabrication and computer numeric control (CNC) of the machines used for production through open source software and open source hardware.\nThe philosophy of open manufacturing is close to the open-source movement, but aims at the development of physical products rather than software.  The term is linked to the notion of democratizing technology as embodied in the maker culture, the DIY ethic, the open source appropriate technology movement, the Fablab-network  and other rooms for grassroot innovation such as hackerspaces.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Pancasila economics (Indonesian: Ekonomi Pancasila), also known as \"Indonesian populist economics\" (Indonesian: Ekonomi kerakyatan Indonesia) is an economic system which aims to reflect the five principles of Pancasila. The term \"Pancasila economy\" first appeared in an article by Emil Salim in 1967. Mubyarto is one of the staunchest of the Pancasila economic theorists.\nIn essence, a Pancasila economy is a system that tries to avoid pendulum-like swings from one extreme (a free market economy, known in Indonesia as free fight liberalism) to the other (state socialism, especially of the Soviet kind). In simple terms, a \"Pancasila economy\" can be described as a market economic system with government control or a controlled market economy. A Pancasila economy can be considered an example of a mixed economy or a third way economic system.A Pancasila economy is seen as a counterbalance to a neoclassical approach promoting individualism and free markets that is adapted the values of Indonesian society, including religious values, culture, customs and norms.The concept of Pancasila economics was first conceived in the early days of the New Order as part of the regime's De-Sukarnoization and \"cleansing of Communist, 30 September Movement and PKI remnants from Pancasila\" which was aimed for what the regime claim as a \"return into a pure, consequential Pancasila\".", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Participatory economics, often abbreviated Parecon, is an economic system based on participatory decision making as the primary economic mechanism for allocation in society. In the system, the say in decision-making is proportional to the impact on a person or group of people. Participatory economics is a form of socialist decentralized planned economy involving the common ownership of the means of production. It is a proposed alternative to contemporary capitalism and centralized planning. This economic model is primarily associated with political theorist Michael Albert and economist Robin Hahnel, who describes participatory economics as an anarchist economic vision.The underlying values that parecon seeks to implement are equity, solidarity, diversity, workers' self-management, efficiency (defined as accomplishing goals without wasting valued assets) and sustainability. The institutions of parecon include workers' and consumers' councils utilising self-managerial methods for decision-making, balanced job complexes, remuneration based on individual effort, and wide participatory planning.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The particuliere landerijen or particuliere landen (Dutch for 'private domains'; singular particuliere landerij or particuliere land), also called tanah partikelir in Indonesian, were landed domains in a feudal system of land tenure used in parts of the Java). Dutch jurists described these domains as \u2018sovereign\u2019 and of comparable legal status to indirectly-ruled Vorstenlanden [princely states] in the Indies subject to the Dutch Crown. The lord of such a domain was called a Landheer [Dutch for 'landlord'], and by law possessed landsheerlijke rechten or hak-hak ketuanan [seigniorial jurisdiction] over the inhabitants of his domain \u2014 jurisdiction exercised elsewhere by the central government.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Party-state capitalism (Chinese: \u9ee8\u570b\u8cc7\u672c\u4e3b\u7fa9), or Kuomintang-state capitalism (Chinese: \u570b\u6c11\u9ee8\u570b\u8cc7\u672c\u4e3b\u7fa9), is a term used by some economists and sociologists to describe the economy of Taiwan under the authoritarian military government of the Kuomintang (KMT). The term is not used by the Kuomintang itself; it was coined by Taiwanese economists such as Chen Shih-meng and Cyrus Chu, in their research report Deconstructing the KMT-State Capitalism (\u89e3\u69cb\u9ee8\u570b\u8cc7\u672c\u4e3b\u7fa9).", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Pay what you want (or PWYW, also referred to as value-for-value model) is a pricing strategy where buyers pay their desired amount for a given commodity. This amount can sometimes include zero. A minimum (floor) price may be set, and/or a suggested price may be indicated as guidance for the buyer. The buyer can select an amount higher or lower than the standard price for the commodity.  Many common PWYW models set the price prior to a purchase (ex ante), but some defer price-setting until after the experience of consumption (ex post) (similar to tipping).  PWYW is a buyer-centered form of participatory pricing, also referred to as co-pricing (as an aspect of the co-creation of value).\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A planned economy is a type of economic system where investment, production and the allocation of capital goods takes place according to economy-wide economic plans and production plans. A planned economy may use centralized, decentralized, participatory or Soviet-type forms of economic planning. The level of centralization or decentralization in decision-making and participation depends on the specific type of planning mechanism employed.Socialist states based on the Soviet model have used central planning, although a minority such as the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia have adopted some degree of market socialism. Market abolitionist socialism replaces factor markets with direct calculation as the means to coordinate the activities of the various socially-owned economic enterprises that make up the economy. More recent approaches to socialist planning and allocation have come from some economists and computer scientists proposing planning mechanisms based on advances in computer science and information technology.Planned economies contrast with unplanned economies, specifically market economies, where autonomous firms operating in markets make decisions about production, distribution, pricing and investment. Market economies that use indicative planning are variously referred to as planned market economies, mixed economies and mixed market economies. A command economy follows an administrative-command system and uses Soviet-type economic planning which was characteristic of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc before most of these countries converted to market economies. This highlights the central role of hierarchical administration and public ownership of production in guiding the allocation of resources in these economic systems.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Planned liberalism is an economic policy followed in Cameroon since the 1960s that aims to merge the best concepts of capitalism and socialism.\nIn 1965, Cameroon changed from its previous economic philosophy, African socialism, under the guidance of its first president, Ahmadou Ahidjo. Under planned liberalism, the state began regulating and managing natural resources and guiding foreign investment into specific economic sectors or geographic areas. In the process, the government has partnered with foreign firms to set up various parastatal enterprises. Meanwhile, it has encouraged private enterprise and investment and the operation of market forces.Critics claim that planned liberalism has failed due to widespread corruption, overwhelming government bureaucracy, and ill-advised government backing of certain foreign investors. These faults became evident during the economic crisis of the mid-1980s. Cameroon under Paul Biya has since increasingly turned to privatisation of state-owned industries to stimulate its economy.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A plantation economy is an economy based on agricultural mass production, usually of a few commodity crops, grown on large farms worked by laborers or slaves. The properties are called plantations. Plantation economies rely on the export of cash crops as a source of income. Prominent crops included cotton, rubber, sugar cane, tobacco, figs, rice, kapok, sisal, and species in the genus Indigofera, used to produce indigo dye.\nThe longer a crop's harvest period, the more efficient plantations become. Economies of scale are also achieved when the distance to market is long. Plantation crops usually need processing immediately after harvesting. Sugarcane, tea, sisal, and palm oil are most suited to plantations, while coconuts, rubber, and cotton are suitable to a lesser extent.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The platform economy is economic and social activity facilitated by platforms. Such platforms are typically online sales or technology frameworks. By far the most common type are \"transaction platforms\", also known as \"digital matchmakers\". Examples of transaction platforms include Amazon, Airbnb, Uber, and Baidu. A second type is the \"innovation platform\", which provides a common technology framework upon which others can build, such as the many independent developers who work on Microsoft's platform.\nForerunners to contemporary digital economic platforms can be found throughout history, especially in the second half of the 20th century. Yet it was only in the year 2000 that the \"platform\" metaphor started to be widely used to describe digital matchmakers and innovation platforms. Especially after the financial crises of 2008, companies operating with the new \"platform business model\" have swiftly come to control an increasing share of the world's overall economic activity, sometimes by disrupting traditional business. Examples include the decline of BlackBerry and Nokia due to competition from platform companies, the closing down of Blockbuster due to competition from the Netflix platform, or the many other brick and mortar retailers that have closed in part due to competition from Amazon and other online retailers. In 2013, platform expert Marshall Van Alstyne observed that three of the top five companies in the world used the platform business model. However, traditional businesses need not always be harmed by platforms; they can even benefit by creating their own or making use of existing third-party platforms. According to a 2016 survey by Accenture \"81% of executives say platform-based business models will be core to their growth strategy within three years.\" In the year 2000 there were only a handful of large firms that could be described as platform companies. As of 2016, there were over 170 platform companies valued at US$1 billion or more. The creation and usage of digital platforms is also increasing in the government and NGO sectors.\nThe rise of platforms has been met by a mixed response from commentators. Many have been enthusiastic, arguing that platforms can improve productivity, reduce costs, reduce inefficiencies in existing markets, help create entirely new markets, provide flexibility and accessibility for workers, and be especially helpful for less developed countries. Arguments against platforms include that they may worsen technological unemployment, that they contribute to the replacement of traditional jobs with precarious forms of employment that have much less labour protection, that they can worsen declining tax revenues, and that excessive use of platforms can be psychologically damaging and corrosive to communities. Since the early 2010s, the platform economy has been the subject of many reviews by academic groups and NGOs, by national governments and by transnational organisations like the EU. Early reviews were generally against the imposition of heavy regulation for the platform economy. Since 2016, and especially in 2017, some jurisdictions began to take a more interventionist approach. Platform workers often work irregular and long hours, putting them at risk of cardiovascular diseases.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Many markets are structured as platform ecosystems, they can be open or closed platforms, where a stable core (such as a smartphone operating system or a music streaming service) mediates the relationship between a wide range of complements (like apps, games or songs) and prospective end-users.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Political economy is the study of how economic and political (e.g. law, institutions, government) systems are linked. Political economy studies macroeconomic phenomena such as growth, distribution, inequality, and trade, and how these phenomena are shaped by institutions, laws, and political behaviour. Originating in the 16th century, it is the precursor to the modern discipline of economics. Political economy in its modern form is considered an interdisciplinary field, drawing on theory from both political science and modern economics.Political economy originated within 16th century western moral philosophy, with theoretical works exploring the administration of states' wealth; \"political\" signifying the Greek word polity and \"economy\" signifying the Greek word \u03bf\u1f30\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b1; household management. The earliest works of political economy are usually attributed to the British scholars Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo, although they were preceded by the work of the French physiocrats, such as Fran\u00e7ois Quesnay (1694\u20131774) and Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727\u20131781).In the late 19th century, the term \"economics\" gradually began to replace the term \"political economy\" with the rise of mathematical modeling coinciding with the publication of an influential textbook by Alfred Marshall in 1890. Earlier, William Stanley Jevons, a proponent of mathematical methods applied to the subject, advocated economics for brevity and with the hope of the term becoming \"the recognised name of a science\". Citation measurement metrics from Google Ngram Viewer indicate that use of the term \"economics\" began to overshadow \"political economy\" around roughly 1910, becoming the preferred term for the discipline by 1920. Today, the term \"economics\" usually refers to the narrow study of the economy absent other political and social considerations while the term \"political economy\" represents a distinct and competing approach.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Post-capitalism is a state in which the economic systems of the world can no longer be described as forms of capitalism. Various individuals and political ideologies have speculated on what would define such a world. According to some classical Marxist and some social evolutionary theories, post-capitalist societies may come about as a result of spontaneous evolution as capitalism becomes obsolete. Others propose models to intentionally replace capitalism. The most notable among them are socialism, anarchism, and degrowth.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Post-Fordism is the dominant system of economic production, consumption, and associated socio-economic phenomena in most industrialized countries since the late 20th century. It is contrasted with Fordism, the system formulated in Henry Ford's automotive factories, in which workers work on a production line, performing specialized tasks repetitively, and organized through Taylorist scientific management. Definitions of the nature and scope of post-Fordism vary considerably and are a matter of debate among scholars. Changes in the nature of the workforce include the growth of labor processes and workflows relying on information and communication technologies and digital labor.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A post-industrial economy is a period of growth within an industrialized economy or nation in which the relative importance of manufacturing reduces and that of services, information, and research grows.Such economies are often marked by a declining manufacturing sector, resulting in de-industrialization, and a large service sector as well as an increase in the amount of information technology, often leading to an \"information age\"; information, knowledge, and creativity are the new raw materials of such an economy. The industry aspect of a post-industrial economy is sent into less developed nations which manufacture what is needed at lower costs through outsourcing. This occurrence is typical of nations that industrialized in the past such as the United Kingdom (first industrialised nation), most of Western Europe and the United States.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A potlatch is a gift-giving feast practiced by Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of Canada and the United States, among whom it is traditionally the primary governmental institution, legislative body, and economic system. This includes the Heiltsuk, Haida, Nuxalk, Tlingit, Makah, Tsimshian, Nuu-chah-nulth, Kwakwaka'wakw, and Coast Salish cultures. Potlatches are also a common feature of the peoples of the Interior and of the Subarctic adjoining the Northwest Coast, although mostly without the elaborate ritual and gift-giving economy of the coastal peoples (see Athabaskan potlatch).\nA potlatch involves giving away or destroying wealth or valuable items in order to demonstrate a leader's wealth and power. Potlatches are also focused on the reaffirmation of family, clan, and international connections, and the human connection with the supernatural world. Potlatch also serves as a strict resource management regime, where coastal peoples discuss, negotiate, and affirm rights to and uses of specific territories and resources. Potlatches often involve music, dancing, singing, storytelling, making speeches, and often joking and games. The honouring of the supernatural and the recitation of oral histories are a central part of many potlatches.\nFrom 1885 to 1951, the Government of Canada criminalized potlatches. However, the practice persisted underground despite the risk of government reprisals including mandatory jail sentences of at least two months; the practice has also been studied by many anthropologists.  Since the practice was decriminalized in 1951, the potlatch has re-emerged in some communities. In many it is still the bedrock of Indigenous governance, as in the Haida Nation, which has rooted its democracy in potlatch law.The word comes from the Chinook Jargon, meaning \"to give away\" or \"a gift\"; originally from the Nuu-chah-nulth word pa\u026ca\u02d1\u010d, to make a ceremonial gift in a potlatch.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "In economics, a price system is a system through which the valuations of any forms of property (tangible or intangible) are determined. All societies use price systems in the allocation and exchange of resources as a consequence of scarcity. Even in a barter system with no money, price systems are still utilized in the determination of exchange ratios (relative valuations) between the properties being exchanged.\nA price system may be either a regulated price system (such as a fixed price system) where prices are administered by an authority, or it may be a free price system (such as a market system) where prices are left to float \"freely\" as determined by supply and demand without the intervention of an authority. A mixed price system involves a combination of both regulated and free price systems.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Production for use is a phrase referring to the principle of economic organization and production taken as a defining criterion for a socialist economy. It is held in contrast to production for profit. This criterion is used to distinguish communism from capitalism, and is one of the fundamental defining characteristics of communism.This principle is broad and can refer to an array of different configurations that vary based on the underlying theory of economics employed. In its classic definition, production for use implied an economic system whereby the law of value and law of accumulation no longer directed economic activity, whereby a direct measure of utility and value is used in place of the abstractions of the price system, money, and capital. Alternative conceptions of socialism that do not use the profit systemm such as the Lange model, use instead a price system and monetary calculation.The main socialist critique of the capitalist profit is that the accumulation of capital (\"making money\") becomes increasingly detached from the process of producing economic value, leading to waste, inefficiency, and social problems. Essentially, it is a distortion of proper accounting, based on the assertion of the law of value instead of the \"real\" costs of production, objectively determined outside of social relations.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Proprietism is an economic system composed of a vast network of sole-proprietorships.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "State ownership, also called government ownership and public ownership, is the ownership of an industry, asset, or enterprise by the state or a public body representing a community, as opposed to an individual or private party. Public ownership specifically refers to industries selling goods and services to consumers and differs from public goods and government services financed out of a government's general budget. Public ownership can take place at the national, regional, local, or municipal levels of government; or can refer to non-governmental public ownership vested in autonomous public enterprises. Public ownership is one of the three major forms of property ownership, differentiated from private, collective/cooperative, and common ownership.In market-based economies, state-owned assets are often managed and operated as joint-stock corporations with a government owning all or a controlling stake of the company's shares. This form is often referred to as a state-owned enterprise. A state-owned enterprise might variously operate as a not-for-profit corporation, as it may not be required to generate a profit; as a commercial enterprise in competitive sectors; or as a natural monopoly. Governments may also use the profitable entities they own to support the general budget. The creation of a state-owned enterprise from other forms of public property is called corporatization.\nIn Soviet-type economies, state property was the dominant form of industry as property. The state held a monopoly on land and natural resources, and enterprises operated under the legal framework of a nominally planned economy, and thus according to different criteria than enterprises in market and mixed economies.\nNationalization is a process of transferring private or municipal assets to a central government or state entity. Municipalization is the process of transferring private or state assets to a municipal government.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Real-time economy (not to be confused with real economy) is an environment where all the transactions between business entities are in digital format, increasingly automatically generated, and completed in real-time (as they occur) without store and forward processing, both from business and IT-processing perspectives. For enterprises, public sector, and citizens this means, for example, that (purchase) orders, order confirmations, invoices, and payments flow from system to system without delays. This makes it possible to move towards electronic archiving, electronic book-keeping, and automated accounting.Real-time economy can be described as an economic system from which the time-consuming intermediate steps between sales and reporting are eliminated. All the elements of business transaction, like sales, invoicing, accounting, tax payment and business reporting, will take place automatically, in a digital environment and in real time.For example, the real-time enterprise can be considered as a giant spreadsheet of sorts, in which new information, such as an order, is automatically processed and percolates through a firm's computer systems and those of its suppliers. The core objective of the real-time economy is the reduction of latency between and within processes. Latency reduction will reduce capital occupancy costs by occupying assets (physical and labor) for less time. It aims at promoting new technologies that enable a more real-time economy, processes, and services.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A regulated market (RM) or coordinated market is an idealized system where the government or other organizations oversee the market, control the forces of supply and demand, and to some extent regulate the market actions. This can include tasks such as determining who is allowed to enter the market and/or what prices may be charged. The majority of financial markets such as stock exchanges are regulated, whereas over-the-counter markets are usually not at all or only moderately regulated.One of the reasons for regulation can be the importance of the regulated activity - meaning the harm suffered should the industry fail would be so fatal that regulators (governments, legislators) cannot afford the risk. This includes fields like banking or financial services. Secondly, it is common for some markets to be regulated under the claim that they are natural monopolies, or that a monopoly would very likely appear should there be no regulation. It is crucial to prevent misuse of monopoly power, as this can lead to delivery of poor services with very high prices. This includes for example the telecommunications, water, gas, or electricity supply. Often, regulated markets are established during the partial privatisation of government controlled utility assets.\nA variety of forms of regulations exist in a regulated market. These include controls, oversights, anti-discrimination, environmental protection, taxation, and labor laws.In a regulated market, the government regulatory agency may legislate regulations that privilege special interests, known as regulatory capture.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "In current political-science and international-relations theory, a rentier state is a state which derives all or a substantial portion of its national revenues from the rent paid by foreign individuals, concerns or governments.The academic use of the term rentier states and rentier states theories (RST) became well known after the works of Hazem El Beblawi and Giacomo Luciani on the development of oil rich countries in the Persian Gulf. They show that rentier states receive income without an increase in the productivity of the domestic economy or political development of the state, that is the ability to tax citizens. The unequal distribution of external income in rentier states has thus a negative effect on political liberalism and economic development. With virtually no taxes citizens are less demanding and politically engaged and the income from rents negates the need for economic development.Rentier state theories have now become a dominant frame of reference for studies of resource-dependent countries in the Gulf and wider Middle East and North African region, but are also used to analyse other forms of rentierism.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Sabbath economics is an economic system championed by Christian theologian Ched Myers. The model is an application of the economic aspects of the Biblical Sabbath to modern socioeconomics. In the introduction of his book introducing this model, Myers states that \"God's people are instructed to dismantle, on a regular basis, the fundamental patterns and structures of stratified wealth and power, so that there is 'enough for everyone.' \" This statement contains two of the core principles of Myer's socioeconomic vision:\n\nThe focus on voluntary redistribution of wealth\nA foundation of abundance as opposed to scarcity in other modern economic models.The Biblical concepts from which Sabbath economics draws are:\nSabbath day, particularly during the journey through the wilderness as described in Exodus 15-17\nSabbath year, described in Exodus 23,  where the land was not cultivated, and Israelite slaves were released every seventh year\nYear of Jubilee every 50th year, when all debts were cancelled and all property returned to the original ownersOthers have since sought to explore the ideas of a Sabbath economy in practical ways. Sabbath economics and related concepts of jubilee economics have also received attention from the liberation theology community, and other Christian thinkers who focus on social justice, gender equality and other humanitarian issues.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Secular liberalism is a form of liberalism in which secularist principles and values, and sometimes non-religious ethics, are especially emphasised. It supports the separation of religion and state. Moreover, secular liberals are usually advocates of liberal democracy and the open society as models for organising stable and peaceful societies.\nSecular liberalism stands at the other end of the political spectrum from religious authoritarianism, as seen in theocratic states and illiberal democracies. It is often associated with stances in favour of social equality and political freedom.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Socialist self-management or Self-governing socialism was a form of workers' self-management used as a social and economic model formulated by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. It was instituted by law in 1950 and lasted in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia until 1990, just prior to its breakup in 1992.The main goal was to move the managing of companies into the hands of workers and to separate the management from the state and it was further solidified by law in the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution. It was also meant to demonstrate the viability of a third way between the capitalist United States and the socialist Soviet Union.Based on market-based allocation, social ownership of the means of production and self-management within firms, this system substituted Yugoslavia's Soviet-type central planning.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "\"Shortage economy\" (Polish: gospodarka niedoboru, Hungarian: hi\u00e1nygazdas\u00e1g) is a term coined by Hungarian economist J\u00e1nos Kornai, who used this term to criticize the old centrally-planned economies of the communist states of the Eastern Bloc.\nIn his article Economics of Shortage (1980), Kornai argued that the chronic shortages seen throughout Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1970s (and which continued during the 1980s) were not the consequences of planners' errors, but rather systemic flaws. A shortage of a certain item does not necessarily mean that the item is not being produced; rather, it means that the amount of the good demanded exceeds the amount supplied at a given price (see supply and demand). This may be caused by a government-enforced low price which encourages consumers to demand a higher amount than is supplied. However, Kornai concentrated on the role of reduced supply and argued that this was the underlying cause of Eastern European shortages during the 1980s.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A social welfare model is a system of social welfare provision and its accompanying value system. It usually involves social policies that affect the welfare of a country's citizens within the framework of a market or mixed economy.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Socialism (/'so\u028a\u0283\u0259l\u026asm/) is a left-wing to far-left economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the economic, political and social theories and movements associated with the implementation of such systems. Social ownership can be public, collective, or cooperative. While no single definition encapsulates the many types of socialism, social ownership is the one common element. Different types of socialism vary based on the role of markets and planning in resource allocation, on the structure of management in organizations, and from below or from above approaches, with some socialists favouring a party, state, or technocratic-driven approach. Socialists disagree on whether government, particularly existing government, is the correct vehicle for change.Socialist systems are divided into non-market and market forms. Non-market socialism substitutes factor markets and often money with integrated economic planning and engineering or technical criteria based on calculation performed in-kind, thereby producing a different economic mechanism that functions according to different economic laws and dynamics than those of capitalism. A non-market socialist system seeks to eliminate the perceived inefficiencies, irrationalities, unpredictability, and crises that socialists traditionally associate with capital accumulation and the profit system in capitalism. By contrast, market socialism retains the use of monetary prices, factor markets and in some cases the profit motive, with respect to the operation of socially owned enterprises and the allocation of capital goods between them. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend. Anarchism and libertarian socialism oppose the use of the state as a means to establish socialism, favouring decentralisation above all, whether to establish non-market socialism or market socialism.Socialist politics has been both internationalist and nationalist; organised through political parties and opposed to party politics; at times overlapping with trade unions and at other times independent and critical of them, and present in both industrialised and developing nations. Social democracy originated within the socialist movement, supporting economic and social interventions to promote social justice. While retaining socialism as a long-term goal, since the post-war period it has come to embrace a Keynesian mixed economy within a predominantly developed capitalist market economy and liberal democratic polity that expands state intervention to include income redistribution, regulation, and a welfare state. Economic democracy proposes a sort of market socialism, with more democratic control of companies, currencies, investments and natural resources.The socialist political movement includes a set of political philosophies that originated in the revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 18th century and out of concern for the social problems that were associated with capitalism. By the late 19th century, after the work of Karl Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels, socialism had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy for a post-capitalist system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production. By the early 1920s, communism and social democracy had become the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, with socialism itself becoming the most influential secular movement of the 20th century. Socialist parties and ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence on all continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world. Today, many socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements such as feminism, environmentalism and progressivism.While the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally socialist state led to socialism's widespread association with the Soviet economic model, several scholars posit that in practice, the model functioned as a form of state capitalism. Several academics, political commentators, and scholars have distinguished between authoritarian socialist and democratic socialist states, with the first representing the Eastern Bloc and the latter representing Western Bloc countries which have been democratically governed by socialist parties such as Britain, France, Sweden, and Western countries in general, among others. However, following the end of the Cold War, many of these countries have moved away from socialism as a neoliberal consensus replaced the social democratic consensus in the advanced capitalist world.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The socialist mode of production, sometimes referred to as the communist mode of production, or simply (Marxian) socialism or communism as Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels used the terms communism and socialism interchangeably, is a specific historical phase of economic development and its corresponding set of social relations that emerge from capitalism in the schema of historical materialism within Marxist theory. The Marxist definition of socialism is that of production for use-value (i.e. direct satisfaction of human needs, or economic demands), therefore the law of value no longer directs economic activity. Marxist production for use is coordinated through conscious economic planning. According to Marx, distribution of products is based on the principle of \"to each according to his needs\", however soviet models have often distributed products based on the principle of \"to each according to his contribution\". The social relations of socialism are characterized by the proletariat effectively controlling the means of production, either through cooperative enterprises or by public ownership or private artisanal tools and self-management. Surplus value goes to the working class and hence society as a whole.The Marxian conception of socialism stands in contrast to other early conceptions of socialism, most notably early forms of market socialism based on classical economics such as mutualism and Ricardian socialism. Unlike the Marxian conception, these conceptions of socialism retained commodity exchange (markets) for labour and the means of production seeking to perfect the market process. The Marxist idea of socialism was also heavily opposed to utopian socialism. Although Marx and Engels wrote very little on socialism and neglected to provide any details on how it might be organized, numerous social scientists and neoclassical economists have used Marx's theory as a basis for developing their own models of socialist economic systems. The Marxist view of socialism served as a point of reference during the socialist calculation debate.\nMarx himself did not use the term socialism to refer to this development. Instead, Marx called it a communist society that has not yet reached its higher-stage. The term socialism was popularized during the Russian Revolution by Vladimir Lenin. This view is consistent with and helped to inform early concepts of socialism in which the law of value no longer directs economic activity. Monetary relations in the form of exchange-value, profit, interest and wage labour would not operate and apply to Marxist socialism.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The socialist-oriented market economy (Vietnamese: Kinh t\u1ebf th\u1ecb tr\u01b0\u1eddng theo \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u01b0\u1edbng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a) is the official title given to the current economic system in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. It is described as a multi-sectoral market economy where the state sector plays the decisive role in directing economic development, with the eventual long-term goal of developing socialism.The socialist-oriented market economy is a product of the \u0110\u1ed5i M\u1edbi economic reforms which led to the replacement of the centrally planned economy with a market-based mixed economy based on the predominance of state-owned industry. These reforms were undertaken to allow Vietnam to integrate with the global market economy. The term \"socialist-oriented\" is used to highlight the fact that Vietnam has not yet achieved socialism and is in the process of building the basis for a future socialist system. The economic model is similar to the socialist market economy employed in the People's Republic of China.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Social ownership is the appropriation of the surplus product, produced by the means of production, to society as a whole. It is the defining characteristic of a socialist economic system. It can take the form of community ownership, state ownership, common ownership, employee ownership, cooperative ownership, and citizen ownership of equity. Traditionally, social ownership implied that capital and factor markets would cease to exist under the assumption that market exchanges within the production process would be made redundant if capital goods were owned and integrated by a single entity or network of entities representing society; but the articulation of models of market socialism where factor markets are utilized for allocating capital goods between socially owned enterprises broadened the definition to include autonomous entities within a market economy. Social ownership of the means of production is the common defining characteristic of all the various forms of socialism.The two major forms of social ownership are society-wide public ownership and cooperative ownership. The distinction between these two forms lies in the distribution of the surplus product. With society-wide public ownership, the surplus is distributed to all members of the public through a social dividend whereas with co-operative ownership the economic surplus of an enterprise is controlled by all the worker-members of that specific enterprise.The goal of social ownership is to eliminate the distinction between the class of private owners who are the recipients of passive property income and workers who are the recipients of labor income (wages, salaries and commissions), so that the surplus product (or economic profits in the case of market socialism) belong either to society as a whole or to the members of a given enterprise. Social ownership would enable productivity gains from labor automation to progressively reduce the average length of the working day instead of creating job insecurity and unemployment. Reduction of necessary work time is central to the Marxist concept of human freedom and overcoming alienation, a concept widely shared by Marxist and non-Marxist socialists alike.Socialization as a process is the restructuring the economic framework, organizational structure and institutions of an economy on a socialist basis. The comprehensive notion of socialization and the public ownership form of social ownership implies an end to the operation of the laws of capitalism, capital accumulation and the use of money and financial valuation in the production process, along with a restructuring of workplace-level organization.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "State capitalism is an economic system in which the state undertakes business and commercial (i.e. for-profit) economic activity and where the means of production are nationalized as state-owned enterprises (including the processes of capital accumulation, centralized management and wage labor). The definition can also include the state dominance of corporatized government agencies (agencies organized along business-management practices) or of public companies such as publicly listed corporations in which the state has controlling shares.Marxist literature defines state capitalism as a social system combining capitalism with ownership or control by a state. By this definition, a state capitalist country is one where the government controls the economy and essentially acts like a single huge corporation, extracting surplus value from the workforce in order to invest it in further production. This designation applies regardless of the political aims of the state, even if the state is nominally socialist. Some scholars argue that the economy of the Soviet Union and of the Eastern Bloc countries modeled after it, including Maoist China, were state capitalist systems, and some western commentators believe that the current economies of China and Singapore also constitute a form of state capitalism.State capitalism is used by various authors in reference to a private capitalist economy controlled by a state, i.e. a private economy that is subject to economic planning and interventionism. It has also been used to describe the controlled economies of the Great Powers during World War I. Alternatively, state capitalism may refer to an economic system where the means of production are privately owned, but the state has considerable control over the allocation of credit and investment. This was the case of Western European countries during the post-war consensus and of France during the period of dirigisme after World War II. Other examples include Singapore under Lee Kuan Yew and Turkey under Recep Tayyip Erdo\u011fan, as well as military dictatorships during the Cold War and fascist regimes such as Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.State capitalism has also come to be used (sometimes interchangeably with state monopoly capitalism) to describe a system where the state intervenes in the economy to protect and advance the interests of large-scale businesses. Noam Chomsky, a libertarian socialist, applies the term 'state capitalism' to the economy of the United States, where large enterprises that are deemed \"too big to fail\" receive publicly funded government bailouts that mitigate the firms' assumption of risk and undermine market laws, and where private production is largely funded by the state at public expense, but private owners reap the profits. This practice is held in contrast with the ideals of both socialism and laissez-faire capitalism.There are various theories and critiques of state capitalism, some of which existed before the October Revolution. The common themes among them identify that the workers do not meaningfully control the means of production and that capitalist social relations and production for profit still occur within state capitalism, fundamentally retaining the capitalist mode of production. In Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (1880), Friedrich Engels argued that state ownership does not do away with capitalism by itself, but rather would be the final stage of capitalism, consisting of ownership and management of large-scale production and communication by the bourgeois state. He argued that the tools for ending capitalism are found in state capitalism. In Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), Lenin claimed that World War I had transformed laissez-faire capitalism into the monopolist state capitalism.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "In political science, statism is the doctrine that the political authority of the state is legitimate to some degree. This may include economic and social policy, especially in regard to taxation and the means of production.While in use since the 1850s, the term statism gained significant usage in American political discourse throughout the 1930s and 1940s. Opposition to statism is termed anti-statism or anarchism. The latter is characterized by a complete rejection of all hierarchical rulership.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A steady-state economy is an economy made up of a constant stock of physical wealth (capital) and a constant population size. In effect, such an economy does not grow in the course of time.:\u200a366\u2013369\u200a :\u200a545\u200a The term usually refers to the national economy of a particular country, but it is also applicable to the economic system of a city, a region, or the entire world. Early in the history of economic thought, classical economist Adam Smith of the 18th century developed the concept of a stationary state of an economy: Smith believed that any national economy in the world would sooner or later settle in a final state of stationarity.:\u200a78\u200aSince the 1970s, the concept of a steady-state economy has been associated mainly with the work of leading ecological economist Herman Daly.:\u200a303\u200a :\u200a32f\u200a :\u200a85\u200a As Daly's concept of a steady-state includes the ecological analysis of natural resource flows through the economy, his concept differs from the original classical concept of a stationary state. One other difference is that Daly recommends immediate political action to establish the steady-state economy by imposing permanent government restrictions on all resource use, whereas economists of the classical period believed that the final stationary state of any economy would evolve by itself without any government intervention.:\u200a295f\u200a:\u200a55f\u200aThe world's mounting ecological problems have brought about a widening interest in the concept of a steady-state economy. Critics of the steady-state economy usually object to it by arguing that resource decoupling, technological development, and the operation of market mechanisms are capable of overcoming resource scarcity, pollution, or population overshoot. Proponents of the steady-state economy, on the other hand, maintain that these objections remain insubstantial and mistaken \u2014 and that the need for a steady-state economy is becoming more compelling every day.:\u200a148\u2013155\u200aA steady-state economy is not to be confused with economic stagnation: Whereas a steady-state economy is established as the result of deliberate political action, economic stagnation is the unexpected and unwelcome failure of a growth economy. An ideological contrast to the steady-state economy is formed by the concept of a post-scarcity economy.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence (the provision of food, clothing, shelter) rather than to the market. Henceforth, \"subsistence\" is understood as supporting oneself at a minimum level. Often, the subsistence economy is moneyless and relies on natural resources to provide for basic needs through hunting, gathering, and agriculture. In a subsistence economy, economic surplus is minimal and only used to trade for basic goods, and there is no industrialization.\nIn hunting and gathering societies, resources are often if not typically underused.In human history, before the first cities, all humans lived in a subsistence economy.  As urbanization, civilization, and division of labor spread, various societies moved to other economic systems at various times.  Some remain relatively unchanged, ranging from uncontacted peoples, to marginalized areas of developing countries, to some cultures that choose to retain a traditional economy.\nCapital can be generally defined as assets invested with the expectation that their value will increase, usually because there is the expectation of profit, rent, interest, royalties, capital gain or some other kind of return. However, this type of economy cannot usually become wealthy by virtue of the system, and instead requires further investments to stimulate economic growth. In other words, a subsistence economy only possesses enough goods to be used by a particular nation to maintain its existence and provides little to no surplus for other investments.It is common for a surplus capital to be invested in social capital such as feasting.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "In finance and economics, systematic risk (in economics often called aggregate risk or undiversifiable risk) is vulnerability to events which affect aggregate outcomes such as broad market returns, total economy-wide resource holdings, or aggregate income. In many contexts, events like earthquakes, epidemics and major weather catastrophes pose aggregate risks that affect not only the distribution but also the total amount of resources. That is why it is also known as contingent risk, unplanned risk or risk events. If every possible outcome of a stochastic economic process is characterized by the same aggregate result (but potentially different distributional outcomes), the process then has no aggregate risk.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Systematic trading (also known as mechanical trading) is a way of defining trade goals, risk controls and rules that can make investment and trading decisions in a methodical way.Systematic trading includes both manual trading of systems, and full or partial automation using computers. Although technical systematic systems are more common, there are also systems using fundamental data such as those in equity long:short hedge funds and GTAA funds. Systematic trading includes both high frequency trading (HFT, sometimes called algorithmic trading) and slower types of investment such as systematic trend following. It also includes passive index tracking.\nThe opposite of systematic trading is discretionary trading. The disadvantage of discretionary trading is that it may be influenced by emotions, isn't easily back tested, and has less rigorous risk control.Systematic trading is related to quantitative trading. Quantitative trading includes all trading that use quantitative techniques; most quantitative trading involves using techniques to value market assets like derivatives but the trading decision may be systematic or discretionary.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "In finance, systemic risk is the risk of collapse of an entire financial system or entire market, as opposed to the risk associated with any one individual entity, group or component of a system, that can be contained therein without harming the entire system. It can be defined as \"financial system instability, potentially catastrophic, caused or exacerbated by idiosyncratic events or conditions in financial intermediaries\". It refers to the risks imposed by interlinkages and interdependencies in a system or market, where the failure of a single entity or cluster of entities can cause a cascading failure, which could potentially bankrupt or bring down the entire system or market. It is also sometimes erroneously referred to as \"systematic risk\".", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "\"To each according to his contribution\" is a principle of distribution considered to be one of the defining features of socialism. It refers to an arrangement whereby individual compensation is representative of one's contribution to the social product (total output of the economy) in terms of effort, labor and productivity. This is in contrast to the method of distribution and compensation in capitalism, an economic and political system in which property owners can receive income by virtue of ownership irrespective of their contribution to the social product.The concept formed the basic definition of socialism for its pre-Marxist proponents, including Ricardian socialists, classical economists, collectivist anarchists and individualist anarchists, as well as for Marx, who contrasted it with \"to each according to his need\" as the corresponding principle of completed communism.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A traditional economic system is based on customs, history and time-honored beliefs. A traditional economy is an economic system in which traditions, customs, and beliefs help shape the goods and  services the economy produces, as well as the rule and manner of their distribution. Countries that use this type of economic system are often rural and farm-based. Also known  as a subsistence economy, a traditional economy is defined by bartering and trading. A little surplus is produced and if any excess goods are made, they are typically given to a ruling authority or landowner.\nA pure traditional economy has had no changes in how it operates (there are few of these today). Examples of these traditional economies include those of the Inuit or those of the tea plantations in South India.  Traditional economies are popularly conceived of as \"primitive\" or \"undeveloped\" economic systems, having tools or techniques seen as outdated. As with the notion of contemporary primitiveness and with modernity itself, the view that traditional economies are backward is not shared by scholars in economics and anthropology.Two current examples of a traditional or custom based economy are Bhutan and Haiti (Haiti is not a traditional economy according to CIA Factbook ).\nTraditional economies may be based on custom and tradition,  with economic decisions based on customs or beliefs of the community, family, clan, or tribe.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A transition economy or transitional economy is an economy which is changing from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. Transition economies undergo a set of structural transformations intended to develop market-based institutions. These include economic liberalization, where prices are set by market forces rather than by a central planning organization. In addition to this trade barriers are removed, there is a push to privatize state-owned enterprises and resources, state and collectively run enterprises are restructured as businesses, and a financial sector is created to facilitate macroeconomic stabilization and the movement of private capital. The process has been applied in China, the former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc countries of Europe and some Third world countries, and detailed work has been undertaken on its economic and social effects.\nThe transition process is usually characterized by the changing and creating of institutions, particularly private enterprises; changes in the role of the state, thereby, the creation of fundamentally different governmental institutions and the promotion of private-owned enterprises, markets and independent financial institutions. In essence, one transition mode is the functional restructuring of state institutions from being a provider of growth to an enabler, with the private sector its engine. Another transition mode is change the way that economy grows and practice mode. The relationships between these two transition modes are micro and macro, partial and whole. The truly transition economics should include both the micro transition and macro transition. Due to the different initial conditions during the emerging process of the transition from planned economics to market economics, countries uses different transition model. Countries like P.R.China and Vietnam adopted a gradual transition mode, however Russia and some other East-European countries, such as the former Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia, used a more aggressive and quicker paced model of transition.The term \"transition period\" is also used to describe the process of transition from capitalism to the first stage of socialism, preceding the establishment of fully developed socialism (aka communism).", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "An unplanned economy is an economy where economic decisions regarding production, investment and resource allocation are not linked together through conscious economic planning. This may refer to subsistence-level economies, systems of barter or to more complex arrangements such as market economies, and hypothetical systems such as self-managed, distributed and network economies. Note that there may be a significant amount of planning within firms in market and mixed-market economies.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The vertical archipelago is a term coined by sociologist and anthropologist John Victor Murra under the influence of economist Karl Polanyi to describe the native Andean agricultural economic model of accessing and distributing resources. While some cultures developed market economies the predominant models were systems of barter and shared labor. These reached their greatest development under the Inca Empire.\nScholars have  identified four distinct ecozones, at different elevations.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A virtual economy (or sometimes synthetic economy) is an emergent economy existing in a virtual world, usually exchanging virtual goods in the context of an online game, particularly in massively multiplayer online games (MMOs). People enter these virtual economies for recreation and entertainment rather than necessity, which means that virtual economies lack the aspects of a real economy that are not considered to be \"fun\" (for instance, avatars in a virtual economy often do not need to buy food in order to survive, and usually do not have any biological needs at all). However, some people do interact with virtual economies for \"real\" economic benefit.\nDespite primarily dealing with in-game currencies, this term also encompasses the selling of virtual currency for real money, in what is sometimes called \"open centralised marketplaces\".", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Welfare capitalism is capitalism that includes social welfare policies and/or the practice of businesses providing welfare services to their employees. Welfare capitalism in this second sense, or industrial paternalism, was centered on industries that employed skilled labor and peaked in the mid-20th century.\nToday, welfare capitalism is most often associated with the models of capitalism found in Central Mainland and Northern Europe, such as the Nordic model, social market economy and Rhine capitalism. In some cases welfare capitalism exists within a mixed economy, but welfare states can and do exist independently of policies common to mixed economies such as state interventionism and extensive regulation.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Workers' self-management, also referred to as labor management and organizational self-management, is a form of organizational management based on self-directed work processes on the part of an organization's workforce. Self-management is a defining characteristic of socialism, with proposals for self-management having appeared many times throughout the history of the socialist movement, advocated variously by democratic, libertarian and market socialists as well as anarchists and communists.There are many variations of self-management. In some variants, all the worker-members manage the enterprise directly through assemblies while in other forms workers exercise management functions indirectly through the election of specialist managers. Self-management may include worker supervision and oversight of an organization by elected bodies, the election of specialized managers, or self-directed management without any specialized managers as such. The goals of self-management are to improve performance by granting workers greater autonomy in their day-to-day operations, boosting morale, reducing alienation and eliminating exploitation when paired with employee ownership.An enterprise that is self-managed is referred to as a labour-managed firm. Self-management refers to control rights within a productive organization, being distinct from the questions of ownership and what economic system the organization operates under. Self-management of an organization may coincide with employee ownership of that organization, but self-management can also exist in the context of organizations under public ownership and to a limited extent within private companies in the form of co-determination and worker representation on the board of directors.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A world-system is a socioeconomic system, under systems theory, that encompasses part or all of the globe, detailing the aggregate structural result of the sum of the interactions between polities. World-systems are usually larger than single states, but do not have to be global. The Westphalian System is the preeminent world-system operating in the contemporary world, denoting the system of sovereign states and nation-states produced by the Westphalian Treaties in 1648. Several world-systems can coexist, provided that they have little or no interaction with one another. Where such interactions becomes significant, separate world-systems merge into a new, larger world-system. Through the process of globalization, the modern world has reached the state of one dominant world-system, but in human history there have been periods where separate world-systems existed simultaneously, according to Janet Abu-Lughod. The most well-known version of the world-system approach has been developed by Immanuel Wallerstein. A world-system is a crucial element of the world-system theory, a multidisciplinary, macro-scale approach to world history and social change.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "World-systems theory (also known as world-systems analysis or the world-systems perspective) is a multidisciplinary approach to world history and social change which emphasizes the world-system (and not nation states) as the primary (but not exclusive) unit of social analysis.\"World-system\" refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries, and the periphery countries. Core countries focus on higher-skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials. This constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries. Nonetheless, the system has dynamic characteristics, in part as a result of revolutions in transport technology, and individual states can gain or lose their core (semi-periphery, periphery) status over time. This structure is unified by the division of labour. It is a world-economy rooted in a capitalist economy. For a time, certain countries become the world hegemon; during the last few centuries, as the world-system has extended geographically and intensified economically, this status has passed from the Netherlands, to the United Kingdom and (most recently) to the United States.Components of the world-systems analysis are longue dur\u00e9e by Fernand Braudel, \"development of underdevelopment\" by Gunder Frank, and the single-society assumption. Longue dur\u00e9e is the concept of the gradual change through the day-to-day activities by which social systems are continually reproduced. \"Development of underdevelopment\" described that the economic processes in the periphery are the opposite of the development in the core. Poorer countries are impoverished to enable a few countries to get richer. Lastly, the single-society assumption opposes the multiple-society assumption and includes looking at the world as a whole.World-systems theory has been examined by many political theorists and sociologists to explain the reasons for the rise and fall of states, income inequality, social unrest, and imperialism.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Trade involves the transfer of goods and services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Economists refer to a system or network that allows trade as a market.\nAn early form of trade, the gift economy, saw the exchange of goods and services without an explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards. A gift economy involves trading things without the use of money. Modern traders generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and letter of credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade.  Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade, while trade involving more than two traders is called multilateral trade.\nIn one modern view, trade exists due to specialization and the division of labor, a predominant form of economic activity in which individuals and groups concentrate on a small aspect of production, but use their output in trades for other products and needs. Trade exists between regions because different regions may have a comparative advantage (perceived or real) in the production of some trade-able commodity\u2014including production of natural resources scarce or limited elsewhere. For example: different regions' sizes may encourage mass production. In such circumstances, trade at market prices between locations can benefit both locations. Different types of traders may specialize in trading different kinds of goods; for example, the spice trade and grain trade have both historically been important in the development of a global, international economy.\nRetail trade consists of the sale of goods or merchandise from a very fixed location (such as a department store, boutique or kiosk), online or by mail, in small or individual lots for direct consumption or use by the purchaser. Wholesale trade is traffic in goods that are sold as merchandise to retailers, or to industrial, commercial, institutional, or other professional business users, or to other wholesalers and related subordinated services.\nHistorically, openness to free trade substantially increased in some areas from 1815 to the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Trade openness increased again during the 1920s, but collapsed (in particular in Europe and North America) during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Trade openness increased substantially again from the 1950s onwards (albeit with a slowdown during the oil crisis of the 1970s). Economists and economic historians contend that current levels of trade openness are the highest they have ever been.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The archaeology of trade and exchange is a sub-discipline of archaeology that identifies how material goods and ideas moved across human populations. The terms \u201ctrade\u201d and \u201cexchange\u201d have slightly different connotations: trade focuses on the long-distance circulation of material goods; exchange considers the transfer of persons and ideas.One part of archaeology considers pre-modern societies. Markets, currency, craft production, ownership and concepts such as buying and selling had different meanings in those societies. Earlier economies were strongly defined by religious, ethnic and geographic constraints. Exchange could be used to strengthen social bonds instead of creating wealth. The archaeology of trade therefore includes the transfer of ideas and social practices in addition to the exchange of physical goods.\nThe archaeology of trade and exchange considers how trade influenced social development and power structures.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Border trade, in general, refers to the flow of goods and services across the border between different jurisdictions. In this sense, border trade is a part of the normal trade that flows through the ordinary export/import legal and logistical frameworks of nations and smaller jurisdictions. However border trade specifically refers to the increase in trade in areas where crossing borders is relatively easy and where products are significantly less expensive on one side of the border than the other \u2013  often because of significant variations in taxation levels on goods. Common items involved in border trade include alcohol, tobacco, medication, recreational drugs, automobiles, automotive fuel, groceries, furniture and clothing.\nAs well as border trade across land or sea borders, air travel with a low-cost carrier can be worthwhile for an international trip for the same purpose, although baggage restrictions can limit the effective savings to those for small high-value goods.\nWhere border trade is done for tax evasion, it forms part of the underground economy of both jurisdictions.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Business acumen, also known as business savviness, business sense and business understanding, is keenness and quickness in understanding and dealing with a business situation (risks and opportunities) in a manner that is likely to lead to a good outcome. Additionally, business acumen has emerged as a vehicle for improving financial performance and leadership development. Consequently, several different types of strategies have developed around improving business acumen.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Commerce is the exchange of goods and services, especially on a large scale (between cities, countries or between parts of a country). More specifically, commerce includes all activities related to the distribution of goods and services from the producers to the consumers on a large scale. Commerce not only includes trade, which is the actual transaction, exchange or transfer of goods and services, but also the auxiliary services and means which facilitate such trade. These auxiliary services include transportation, communication, warehousing, insurance, banking, advertising, packaging, etc. In other words, commerce encompasses a wide array of political, logistical, legal, regulatory, social, and economic aspects of trade on a large scale. From a marketing perspective, commerce creates time and place utility by making goods and services available to the customers at the right place and at the right time by changing their location or placement.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Within a capitalist economic system, commodification is the transformation of things such as goods, services, ideas, nature, personal information, people or animals into objects of trade or commodities. A commodity at its most basic, according to Arjun Appadurai, is \"anything intended for exchange,\" or any object of economic value.Commodification is often criticized on the grounds that some things ought not to be treated as commodities\u2014for example, water, education, data, information, knowledge, human life, and animal life. However, capitalism requires consistent growth of the market to survive, which makes commodification of new objects necessary for the continuation of the capitalist economy.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A commodity market is a market that trades in the primary economic sector rather than manufactured products, such as cocoa, fruit and sugar. Hard commodities are mined, such as gold and oil. Futures contracts are the oldest way of investing in commodities. Commodity markets can include physical trading and derivatives trading using spot prices, forwards, futures, and options on futures. Farmers have used a simple form of derivative trading in the commodity market for centuries for price risk management.A financial derivative is a financial instrument whose value is derived from a commodity termed an underlier. Derivatives are either exchange-traded or over-the-counter (OTC). An increasing number of derivatives are traded via clearing houses some with central counterparty clearing, which provide clearing and settlement services on a futures exchange, as well as off-exchange in the OTC market.Derivatives such as futures contracts, Swaps (1970s-), Exchange-traded Commodities (ETC) (2003-), forward contracts have become the primary trading instruments in commodity markets. Futures are traded on regulated commodities exchanges. Over-the-counter (OTC) contracts are \"privately negotiated bilateral contracts entered into between the contracting parties directly\".Exchange-traded funds (ETFs) began to feature commodities in 2003. Gold ETFs are based on \"electronic gold\" that does not entail the ownership of physical bullion, with its added costs of insurance and storage in repositories such as the London bullion market. According to the World Gold Council, ETFs allow investors to be exposed to the gold market without the risk of price volatility associated with gold as a physical commodity.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Trading companies are businesses working with different kinds of products which are sold for consumer, business, or government purposes. Trading companies buy a specialized range of products, maintain a stock or a shop, and deliver products to customers.\nDifferent kinds of practical conditions make for many kinds of business. Usually two kinds of businesses are defined in trading.\nImporters or wholesalers maintain a stock and deliver products to shops or large end customers. They work in a large geographical area, while their customers, the shops, work in smaller areas and often in just a small neighborhood.\nToday \"trading company\" mainly refers to global B2B traders, highly specialized in one goods category and with a strong logistic organization. Changes in practical conditions such as faster distribution, computing and modern marketing have led to changes in their business models.\nThe Winding-up and Restructuring Act, an act of the Parliament of Canada, uses the following definition:\n\n\"trading company\" means any company, except a railway or telegraph company, carrying on business similar to that carried on by apothecaries, auctioneers, bankers, brokers, brickmakers, builders, carpenters, carriers, cattle or sheep salesmen, coach proprietors, dyers, fullers, keepers of inns, taverns, hotels, saloons or coffee houses, lime burners, livery stable keepers, market gardeners, millers, miners, packers, printers, quarrymen, sharebrokers, ship-owners, shipwrights, stockbrokers, stock-jobbers, victuallers, warehousemen, wharfingers, persons using the trade of merchandise by way of bargaining, exchange, bartering, commission, consignment or otherwise, in gross or by retail, or by persons who, either for themselves, or as agents or factors for others, seek their living by buying and selling or buying and letting for hire goods or commodities, or by the manufacture, workmanship or the conversion of goods or commodities or trees;\n\nJapan has a special class of \"general trading companies\" (sogo shosha), large and highly diversified businesses that trade in a wide range of goods and services.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Countertrade means exchanging goods or services which are paid for, in whole or part, with other goods or services, rather than with money. A monetary valuation can however be used in countertrade for accounting purposes. In dealings between sovereign states, the term bilateral trade is used.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "For most economies in the world, their leading export and import trading partner in terms of value is either the European Union or China, and to a certain  degree, the United States and Russia. Other countries like Brazil, India, South Africa and South Korea are emerging as significant markets or source countries in different parts of the world.\nIndividually for each European Union member trade with all other European Union members collectively is greater than any other trading partner.  Both the European Union and the United States have China as their largest origin of imports.  China's own largest source of imports is European Union.  In other parts of the world the European Union or the United States is the largest trading partner, however other leading trading countries may be the most prominent in certain countries.  Brazil, Russia and South Africa are becoming increasingly dominant in their respective regional areas.Some isolated countries depend on a larger neighbour to be their largest trading partner \u2013 Venezuela is one of Cuba's key export markets, while doubly-landlocked Uzbekistan exports chiefly to Tajikistan and Afghanistan, its singly-landlocked neighbours.\nThe largest import and export merchandise trade partners for most countries of the world are listed below.  Details for the European Union, Hong Kong and Macau are also included.  In most cases the data relates to 2016 rankings.  Data was extracted from the World Trade Organization's Trade Profile Database.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Trading diasporas is a term coined by Philip D. Curtin to mean: \u201ccommunities of merchants living among aliens in associated networks\u201d.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Distribution (or place) is one of the four elements of the marketing mix. Distribution is the process of making a product or service available for the consumer or business user who needs it. This can be done directly by the producer or service provider or using indirect channels with distributors or intermediaries. The other three elements of the marketing mix are product, pricing, and promotion.\nDecisions about distribution need to be taken in line with a company's overall strategic vision and mission. Developing a coherent distribution plan is a central component of strategic planning. At the strategic level, there are three broad approaches to distribution, namely mass, selective and exclusive distribution. The number and type of intermediaries selected largely depend on the strategic approach. The overall distribution channel should add value to the consumer.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Domestic trade, different from international trade, is the exchange of domestic goods within the boundaries of a country. This may be sub-divided into two categories, wholesale and retail. Wholesale trade is concerned with buying goods from manufacturers or dealers or producers in large quantities and selling them in smaller quantities to others who may be retailers or even consumers. Wholesale trade is undertaken by wholesale merchants or wholesale commission agents.\nRetail trade is concerned with the sale of goods in small quantities to consumers. This type of trade is taken care of by retailers. In actual practice, however,manufacturers and wholesalers may also undertake retail distribution of goods to bypass the intermediary retailer, by which they earn higher profits.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "An entrep\u00f4t (English: ; French: [\u0251\u0303t\u0281\u0259po]) or transshipment port is a port, city, or trading post where merchandise may be imported, stored, or traded, usually to be exported again. Such cities often sprang up and such ports and trading posts often developed into commercial cities due to the growth and expansion of long-distance trade.  These places played a critical role in trade during the days of wind-powered shipping. In modern times customs areas have largely made entrep\u00f4ts obsolete, but the term is still used to refer to duty-free ports with a high volume of re-export trade. Entrep\u00f4t also means 'warehouse' in modern French, and is derived from the Latin roots inter 'between' + positum 'position', literally 'that which is placed between.'Entrep\u00f4ts had an important role in the early modern period, when mercantile shipping flourished between Europe and its colonial empires in the Americas and Asia. For example, spice trade to Europe, which necessitated long trade routes, led to a much higher market price than the original buying price. Traders often did not want to travel the whole route, and thus used the entrep\u00f4ts on the way to sell their goods. This could conceivably lead to more attractive profits for those who were suited to traveling the entire route. The 17th-century Amsterdam Entrep\u00f4t is an excellent early-modern example.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "James Finlay & Co was formed in 1750 and under the leadership of Kirkman Finlay became one of Scotland's leading cotton manufacturers and merchants. In the 1860s the firm came under the control of John Muir and diversified into Indian tea plantations. The cotton business was eventually closed and, after an unsuccessful period of diversification, Finlay concentrated on its core interests of tea and other agricultural produce. In 2000, the firm was acquired by John Swire & Son.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Off-price is a trading format based on discount pricing. Off-price retailers are independent of manufacturers and buy large volumes of branded goods directly from them. The off-price retail model relies on the purchase of over-produced, or excess, branded goods at a lower price, thus being able to sell to consumers at a discount compared to other stores which purchased an initial run. Among the largest retailers of this type are TJX Companies and Ross Stores. The model is more common in countries that import fashion-oriented or household goods, as the discount role in producer countries is usually filled by factory outlets or small-scale open-air marketplaces.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A part exchange or part exchange deal is a type of contract.  In a part exchange, instead of one party to the contract paying money and the other party supplying goods/services, both parties supply goods/services, the first party supplying part money and part goods/services.\nWhether a part exchange is a sale or a barter is a fine point of law.  It depends from whether a monetary value is assigned to the non-money goods supplied.  Several cases at law clarify this.  In the case of Flynn v Mackin and Mahon an old car was supplied in part exchange for a new car, along with \u00a3250.  This was held to be a barter, because no monetary value was affixed to the old car.  However, in Aldridge v Johnson a similar transaction was held to be a sale, because a monetary value was assigned to the item being exchanged (23 bullocks, valued at \u00a3192), and cash then used to make up the difference to the price of the item being purchased (100 quarters of barley, valued at \u00a3215).  If the contract had been structured as \"23 bullocks and \u00a323 for 100 quarters of barley\" then it could have qualified as barter.  It is the affixture of the monetary value of \u00a3192 to the bullocks and \u00a3215 to the barley that made it a sale.  Indeed, it is not necessary even for the contracting parties themselves to assign a monetary value to the goods for a part exchange deal to be held to be a sale.  In Bull v Parker, the court itself assigned a value (\u00a34) for new riding equipment, sold for some old riding equipment and \u00a32.  If goods/services have obvious monetary values, then a part exchange deal can be held to be a sale.It was held in Aldridge v Johnson that there were in fact two separate contracts, both of sale, rather than a single contract of barter.  And this is one way that part exchange deals are viewed.  Indeed, this is how they are always viewed in the United Kingdom for V.A.T. purposes.  A supply of an old car in part exchange for a new one, at a car dealership, is two separate sales, and must be recorded by the dealer as such in account books, for V.A.T. purposes.  Technically, the customer is making a \"supply\" for the discount given, providing the old car for an amount equal to the monetary discount, and the dealer is also making a \"supply\" for the full price, providing the new car for its full sale price.Car dealerships are one business sector where part exchange deals are common.  They are less common in other sectors.  In the housing sector, for example, only a few businesses will make part exchange deals.  One such is Barratt Homes, where the part exchange deal, with buyers being offered discounts for part exchange of their old houses, has in fact been an integral part of the company's business model.  There is another accounting nicety for the house builder in such deals, relating to when, exactly, to take the profit on the deal.  House prices change over time, and it is possible that the housebuilder may not be able to eventually sell the old, exchanged, property for the same or more than the value that it was originally exchanged for.  There are two extreme views on how to render accounts for such deals, and most accounting practices fall somewhere in the spectrum in between.  The one extreme has the profit on the deal taken straightaway that the new house is sold, on the presumption that the old house will sell for its exchange value.  The other extreme has the profit on the deal not taken at all until the entire deal has completed, including the sale onwards of the old house received in exchange.  The major accounting considerations are making provisions at year's end for part exchange stock that remains unsold, and for the predicted marketing costs of selling it.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The status of permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) is a legal designation in the United States for free trade with a foreign nation. The designation was changed from most favored nation (MFN) to normal trade relations by Section 5003 of the Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998. Permanent was added to normal trade relations some time later.\nIn international trade, MFN status (or treatment) is awarded by one nation to another. It means that the receiving nation will be granted all trade advantages, such as low tariffs, that any other nation also receives. Thus, a nation with MFN status will not be discriminated against and will not be treated worse than any other nation with MFN status.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Purchasing power parity (PPP) is the measurement of prices in different countries that uses the prices of specific goods to compare the absolute purchasing power of the countries' currencies, and, to some extent, their people's living standards. In many cases, PPP produces an inflation rate equal to the price of the basket of goods at one location divided by the price of the basket of goods at a different location. The PPP inflation and exchange rate may differ from the market exchange rate because of tariffs, and other transaction costs.\nThe Purchasing Power Parity indicator can be used to compare economies regarding their GDP, labour productivity and actual individual consumption, and in some cases to analyse price convergence and to compare the cost of living between places.\nThe calculation of the PPP, according to the OECD, is made through a basket of goods that contains a \"final product list [that] covers around 3,000 consumer goods and services, 30 occupations in government, 200 types of equipment goods and about 15 construction projects\".", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Trading in the Safavid era was carried out in the form of exchanging goods with goods and exchanging goods with cash (coins of Safavid or foreign silver).Major merchants had their own agents travelling to different areas. Some merchants were doing business in distant countries such as Sweden or China.<n\u2019s International Trade in the Safavid Era]</ref> Merchants were highly valued for the government supporting them. Iran\u2019s domestic trade was in the hands of Iranian Muslim merchants.One of the main export products was silk. Armenian, English and Dutch merchants competed in exporting raw Iranian silk.  Other than silk and textiles, leather, camel and sheep wool, Chinese model dishes, gold and silver artifacts, rugs and precious stones were also exported. In return, they brought from the other side textiles, cups, mirrors and window glass, fancy metal items, luggage and writing paper. The goods for export to Russia included: raw silk, silk textiles, polyenes, swords, arcs, arrows, pearls, saddles and a variety of paints and dried fruits. Russian merchants were operating in northern cities, as well as Isfahan and Qazvin. From Russia to Iran, they brought all kinds of fur, raw leather, mahogany, linen, printed cotton, copper, iron, Metal and glassware, paper, Fur clothing, honey, wax Sugar, fish, caviar and firearms. Exports of Iran to Turkey included tobacco, rough and silk textiles, caning Types of utensils, rugs, steel, iron, diamonds, straw and articles made of wood.India imported from Iran horses, tobacco, all kinds of dried fruit, jam, Pickles, Flower and Fruit Extract, Types of Crocheting and chinaware. In return goods imported from India included, silk textiles, cotton fabrics, metal goods.  Indian merchants worked in most Iranian cities.  Many of them were money changers and usurers.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Silent trade, also called silent barter, dumb barter (\"dumb\" here used in its old meaning of \"mute\"), or depot trade, is a method by which traders who cannot speak each other's language can trade without talking. Group A would leave trade goods in a prominent position and signal, by gong, fire, or drum for example, that they had left goods. Group B would then arrive at the spot, examine the goods and deposit their trade goods or money that they wanted to exchange and withdraw. Group A would then return and either accept the trade by taking the goods from Group B or withdraw again leaving Group B to add to or change out items to create an equal value. The trade ends when Group A accepts Group B's offer and removes the offered goods leaving Group B to remove the original goods.\nThis system was used in many parts of ancient Africa. Silent trading was mainly used during the period 500 to 1500. The practice was also well established between tribes in Africa in their trade with India. Cosmas Indicopleustes describes this practiced in Azania, where officials from Axum traded for gold with beef. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal recorded this practice when he occupied Ceuta in 1415.\nIn West Africa gold mined south of the Sahel was traded for salt mined in the desert. The salt from the desert was needed by the people of Sahel to flavor and preserve their food and the gold had obvious value, especially in trading with the European people. Because of this trade, cities grew and flourished and parts of West Africa became commercial centers. West Africa produced large amounts of gold until about 1500 AD. The communication in this gold-for-salt was carried out using drums.Silent trade might be used because of an inability to speak the other traders' language, or to protect the secrets of where the valuable gold and salt came from.\nSilent bartering has been used since ancient times, such as the ancient Ghana Empire. The Ghanaian salt traders would leave pounds of salt by the Niger river and the gold traders would leave a fair amount of gold in turn.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Space trade is interplanetary or interstellar trade. Plans and ideas on how trade functions have been published by Futurists and pundits since the 1960s, though science fiction writers have been envisioning such trade for several more decades.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Nigerian-German Chamber of Commerce, formerly known as Nigerian-German Business Association was created in 1986 to foster bilateral trade between Nigeria and Germany. The Nigerian-German Business Association (NGBA) creates a bilateral relationship between the countries and aims at strengthening their business opportunities through adequate networking, investment promotion and trade.Nigeria is Germany's biggest trading partner in the West African sub-region.Companies who are members of the NGBA have access to the AHK, part of the German Chambers of Commerce, in 120 locations and 80 countries across five continents.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Tradability is the property of a good or service that can be sold in another location distant from where it was produced. A good that is not tradable is called non-tradable. Different goods have differing levels of tradability: the higher the cost of transportation and the shorter the shelf life, the less tradable a good is.  Prepared food, for example, is not generally considered a tradable good; it will be sold in the city in which it is produced and does not directly compete with other cities' prepared foods. Some non-commodities and services such as haircuts and massages are also obviously non-tradable. However, in recent years even pure services such as education can be regarded as tradable due to advancements in information and communications technology.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Troaking was the barter between the natives of Greenland and whalers from ports in Scotland. \nFrom the signing of the Treaty of Kiel in 1814 until the occupation of Denmark by Nazi Germany in 1940, Greenland was a protected and very isolated society. The Danish government, which governed Greenland as its colony, had been convinced that this society would face exploitation from the outside world or even extinction if the country was opened up, and thus it maintained a strict monopoly of Greenland's economy barring any trading or fishing within a certain distance of the Greenlandic coast. It did not, however, prohibit the sale of small articles not used in their trade, thus creating a loophole that enabled the practice of troaking, a barter between the natives and the Scottish whalers.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The United Kingdom\u2013United States Free Trade Agreement (UKUSFTA) is a proposed free trade agreement between the United Kingdom and the United States. It was under negotiation as of 2020.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Wealth is the abundance of valuable financial assets or physical possessions which can be converted into a form that can be used for transactions. This includes the core meaning as held in the originating Old English word weal, which is from an Indo-European word stem. The modern concept of wealth is of significance in all areas of economics, and clearly so for growth economics and development economics, yet the meaning of wealth is context-dependent. An individual possessing a substantial net worth is known as wealthy. Net worth is defined as the current value of one's assets less liabilities (excluding the principal in trust accounts).At the most general level, economists may define wealth as \"the total of anything of value\" that captures both the subjective nature of the idea and the idea that it is not a fixed or static concept. Various definitions and concepts of wealth have been asserted by various individuals and in different contexts. Defining wealth can be a normative process with various ethical implications, since often wealth maximization is seen as a goal or is thought to be a normative principle of its own. A community, region or country that possesses an abundance of such possessions or resources to the benefit of the common good is known as wealthy.\nThe United Nations definition of inclusive wealth is a monetary measure which includes the sum of natural, human, and physical assets. Natural capital includes land, forests, energy resources, and minerals.  Human capital is the population's education and skills. Physical (or \"manufactured\") capital includes such things as machinery, buildings, and infrastructure.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The doctrine of the absolute poverty of Christ was a teaching associated with the Franciscan order of friars, particularly prominent between 1210 and 1323. The key tenet of the doctrine of absolute poverty was that Christ and the apostles had no property, whether individually or shared. Debate about this came to a head in what is known as the theoretical poverty controversy in 1322\u201323. Pope John XXII declared this doctrine heretical in November 1323 via the papal bull Cum inter nonnullos, but debate on the subject continued for some years after; indeed, John's own final statement on the subject came in 1329 in his Quia vir reprobus. Key aspects of the debate included: the origins of property (or 'dominion') and whether use of material objects implied ownership; whether property existed before the Fall of Man; whether Christ while on earth had dominion over temporal things; the detailed and technical status of Christ's well attested poverty; and the apostles' use of material goods.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Adolf Hitler, Chancellor of Nazi Germany and at the center of World War II in Europe, earned millions of Reichsmarks (\u211b\u2133) throughout his political career, mainly through sales of his book Mein Kampf (\"My Struggle\") and his combined Chancellor's and President's salaries. After coming to power, Hitler moved to make himself tax-exempt.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Apostolic poverty is a Christian doctrine professed in the thirteenth century by the newly formed religious orders, known as the mendicant orders, in direct response to calls for reform in the Roman Catholic Church. In this, these orders attempted to live their lives without ownership of lands or accumulation of money, following the precepts given to the seventy disciples in the Gospel of Luke (10:1-24), and succeeding to varying degrees. The ascetic Pope Paschal II's solution of the Investiture Controversy in his radical Concordat of 1111 with the Emperor, repudiated by the cardinals, was that the ecclesiastics of Germany should surrender to the imperial crown their fiefs and secular offices. Paschal proved to be the last of the Gregorianist popes.\nThe provocative doctrine was a challenge to the wealth of the church and the concerns about ensuing corruption it brought: rejected by the hierarchy of the Church, it found sympathetic audiences among the disaffected poor of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries.The doctrine of apostolic poverty was condemned as heresy in 1323, but it continued to be a source of debate.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Financial independence is the status of having enough income or wealth sufficient to pay one's living expenses for the rest of one's life without having to be employed or dependent on others. Income earned without having to work a job is commonly referred to as passive income.There are many strategies to achieve financial independence, each with their own benefits and drawbacks. Someone who wishes to achieve financial independence can find it helpful to have a financial plan and budget, so that they have a clear view of their current incomes and expenses, and can identify and choose appropriate strategies to move towards their financial goals. A financial plan addresses every aspect of a person's finances.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "First class (also known as a suite) is a travel class on some passenger airliners intended to be more luxurious than business class, premium economy, and economy class. Originally all planes offered only one class of service (often equivalent to the modern business or economy class), with a second class appearing first in 1955, when TWA introduced two different types of service on its Super Constellations.\nOn a passenger jetliner, first class usually refers to a limited number (rarely more than 10) of seats or cabins toward the front of the aircraft which have more space, comfort, service, and privacy. In general, first class is the highest class offered, although some airlines have either branded their new products as above first class or offering business class as the highest class. Propeller airliners often had first class in the rear, away from the noise of the engine and propeller, while first class on jet aircraft is normally positioned near the front of the aircraft, often in front of the business class section or on the upper deck of wide-body aircraft such as the Boeing 747 and Airbus A380.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The hedonic treadmill, also known as hedonic adaptation, is the observed tendency of humans to quickly return to a relatively stable level of happiness despite major positive or negative events or life changes.\nAccording to this theory, as a person makes more money, expectations and desires rise in tandem, which results in no permanent gain in happiness. Philip Brickman and Donald T. Campbell coined the term in their essay \"Hedonic Relativism and Planning the Good Society\" (1971). The hedonic treadmill viewpoint suggests that wealth does not increase the level of happiness.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Inclusive wealth is the aggregate value of all capital assets in a given region, including human capital, social capital, public capital, and natural capital. Maximizing inclusive wealth is often a goal of sustainable development. The Inclusive Wealth Index is a metric for inclusive wealth within countries: unlike gross domestic product (GDP), the Inclusive Wealth Index \"provides a tool for countries to measure whether they are developing in a way that allows future generations to meet their own needs\".The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) published reports in 2012, 2014, and 2018 on inclusive wealth. The 2018 \"Inclusive Wealth Report\" found that, of 140 countries analyzed, inclusive wealth increased by 44% from 1990 to 2014, implying an average annual growth rate of 1.8%. On a per capita basis, 89 of 140 countries had increased inclusive wealth per capita. 96 of 140 countries had increased inclusive wealth per capita when adjusted. Roughly 40% of analyzed countries had stagnant or declining inclusive wealth, sometimes despite increasing GDP. Many countries showed a decline in natural capital during this period, fueling an increase in human capital.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Nouveau riche (French: [nuvo \u0281i\u0283]; French for 'new rich') is a term used, usually in a derogatory way, to describe those whose wealth has been acquired within their own generation, rather than by familial inheritance. The equivalent English term is the \"new rich\" or \"new money\" (in contrast with \"old money\"; French: vieux riche [vj\u00f8 \u0281i\u0283]). Sociologically, nouveau riche refers to the person who previously had belonged to a lower social class and economic stratum (rank) within that class; and that the new money, which constitutes their wealth, allowed upward social mobility and provided the means for conspicuous consumption, the buying of goods and services that signal membership in an upper class. As a pejorative term, nouveau riche affects distinctions of type, the given stratum within a social class; hence, among the rich people of a social class, nouveau riche describes the vulgarity and ostentation of the newly rich person who lacks the worldly experience and the system of values of \"old money\", of inherited wealth, such as the patriciate, the nobility, and the gentry.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Paper wealth means wealth as measured by monetary value, as reflected in price of assets \u2013 how much money one's assets could be sold for. Paper wealth is contrasted with real wealth, which refers to one's actual physical assets.\nFor example, if one owns a house and its assessed value increases (relative to the general price level, i.e., assuming no inflation) then one's paper wealth has increased \u2013 the asset has increased in value, meaning it could in principle be sold in exchange for a larger quantity of money, but one's real wealth is unchanged \u2013 the real asset is still the same house. It is said that one has \"gotten richer on paper,\" meaning \"as an accounting matter\": numbers on a balance sheet have changed, but the physical world has not.\nThe term \"paper wealth\" is frequently used in popular discussions of wealth, and in some critiques of capitalism, finance, and certain economic theories, but is little-used in mainstream economics, which instead generally identifies wealth with paper wealth. The term \"paper wealth\" has some pejorative connotations, suggesting \"only on paper (but not in reality)\", but can also be used neutrally to mean \"(simply) as an accounting matter\". Related distinctions are sometimes drawn between real assets and financial assets, or between tangible assets and intangible assets, the latter particularly in accounting, as detailed below.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Prosperity theology (sometimes referred to as the prosperity gospel, the health and wealth gospel, the gospel of success, or seed faith) is a religious belief among some Protestant Christians that financial blessing and physical well-being are always the will of God for them, and that faith, positive speech, and donations to religious causes will increase one's material wealth. Material and especially financial success is seen as a sign of divine favor.\nProsperity theology has been criticized by leaders from various Christian denominations, including within some Pentecostal and charismatic movements, who maintain that it is irresponsible, promotes idolatry, and is contrary to the Bible. Secular as well as some Christian observers have also criticized prosperity theology as exploitative of the poor. The practices of some preachers have attracted scandal and some have been charged with financial fraud.\nProsperity theology views the Bible as a contract between God and humans: if humans have faith in God, he will deliver security and prosperity. The doctrine emphasizes the importance of personal empowerment, proposing that it is God's will for his people to be blessed. The atonement (reconciliation with God) is interpreted to include the alleviation of sickness and poverty, which are viewed as curses to be broken by faith. This is believed to be achieved through donations of money, visualization, and positive confession.\nIt was during the Healing Revivals of the 1950s that prosperity theology first came to prominence in the United States, although commentators have linked the origins of its theology to the New Thought movement which began in the 19th century. The prosperity teaching later figured prominently in the Word of Faith movement and 1980s televangelism. In the 1990s and 2000s, it was adopted by influential leaders in the Pentecostal movement and charismatic movement in the United States and has spread throughout the world. Prominent leaders in the development of prosperity theology include Benny Hinn, E. W. Kenyon, Oral Roberts, A. A. Allen, Robert Tilton, T. L. Osborn, Joel Osteen, Creflo Dollar, Kenneth Copeland, Reverend Ike, and Kenneth Hagin.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Setthi (Pali, se\u1e6d\u1e6dhi, Brahmi script: \ud804\udc32\ud804\udc42\ud804\udc22\ud804\udc46\ud804\udc23\ud804\udc3a) is a Pali word, often used in Buddhist scriptures and inscriptions, meaning a \"foreman of a guild, treasurer, banker, 'City man', wealthy merchant\" or \"millionaire\".Anathapindika, the main patron of the Buddha, was often referred to as Anathapindika-setthi, meaning Anathapindika, the wealthy one or the millionaire.The setthi Bhutapala, from Vaijayanti, one of the main patrons of the Karla Caves, left an inscription among the sculpted decorations on the veranda of the Chaitya, mentioning his completion of the cave. The completion of the cave mentioned by Bhutapala may refer to the ornate sculptures of the veranda, during the final phase of decoration.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A wealth tax (also called a capital tax or equity tax) is a tax on an entity's holdings of assets. This includes the total value of personal assets, including cash, bank deposits, real estate, assets in insurance and pension plans, ownership of unincorporated businesses, financial securities, and personal trusts (a one-off levy on wealth is a capital levy). Typically, liabilities (primarily mortgages and other loans) are deducted from an individual's wealth, hence it is sometimes called a net wealth tax.\nOf 36 OECD countries, five had a personal wealth tax in 2017 (in 1990 there were 12 countries). One of its goals is to reduce the accumulation of wealth by individuals.Critics note that a wealth tax can have the unintended consequence of wealthy entrepreneurs and businesspeople leaving the country and moving their wealth to a more tax friendly nation. It can also serve as a disincentive for entrepreneurs that wish to create wealth in the nation that implements this tax.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Wealth Tax Commission in the United Kingdom is a group of experts studying the desirability and feasibility of a wealth tax. The three Commissioners, Arun Advani, Emma Chamberlain and Andy Summers, cooperated with a large network of academics, policymakers and tax practitioners to produce an extensive evidence base on the wealth tax. The Commissioners\u2019 final report which draws on the findings of the input papers was released in December 2020, recommending that, if the government wants to raise more tax revenue, the introduction of a one-off wealth tax (capital levy) should be preferred to increasing other taxes.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "True Wealth: How and Why Millions of Americans are Creating a Time-Rich, Ecologically Light, Small-Scale, High-Satisfaction Economy is a 2010 book by Juliet Schor that argues for a redefinition of wealth based on allocation of free time, making things for oneself, environmentally-aware consumption, and stronger social connections.\nIt was originally published as Plenitude: The New Economics of True Wealth and retitled for its paperback edition.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The wealth effect is the change in spending that accompanies a change in perceived wealth.\nUsually the wealth effect is positive: spending changes in the same direction as perceived wealth.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "28D is the term used to refer to the 28 December 2017 press conference of the Central Bank of Argentina together with the Treasury in which they changed their inflation target. This event is the beginning of the loss of confidence that sparked the beginning of the 2018 Argentine monetary crisis.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "2022 Henan banks protests are series of demonstrations against four regional lenders of Henan province over alleged financial corruption. Over the course of the previous two months, depositors have held multiple protests in the city of Zhengzhou, which serves as the capital of the province of Henan.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Agequake: Riding the Demographic Rollercoaster Shaking Business, Finance and our World  is a book written by Paul Wallace and published in 1999, that investigates what possible ramifications are likely as a significant and unprecedented portion of the human population age. The book argues that rising longevity and lower fertility is causing a seismic shift in the profile of populations worldwide, and will be a fundamental force to that will shake business and finance, along with lifestyles and attitudes. Wallace suggests the old bogey of overpopulation is being replaced by a population \"implosion\".\nThrough using dependency ratios (the ratio of non-working dependents to the working population) will lead to a point where workers will be burdened with the fiscal and practical responsibilities of supporting a ballooning population of aged retirees.  Society and economy will be affected as the proportion of youth declines - typically the most entrepreneurial, creating and risk taking segment of society.  Along with the liquidation of baby boomer assets to pay for their retirements, this is likely to halt economic growth in the future, and  economic stagnation may be a more likely prospect.  Housing prices will plummet, and the world may experience the greatest bear market in history.\nInternationally the relationship between youthful and aggressive developing world and the rich older Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries (where elderly women will become an influential constituency) will change.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The aluminium price-fixing conspiracy was a confirmed effort by Goldman Sachs Group Inc, JPMorgan Chase & Co, Glencore Xstrata and their warehouse companies to inflate the price of aluminium by creating artificial supply shortages at their warehouses between 2010 and 2013. On July 20, 2013, The New York Times published an article outlining the scheme which subsequently brought about the attention of the United States Justice Department. The New York Times went on to estimate that the actions of the accused cost American consumers almost $5 billion during its duration.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Appraisal Subordination Entitlement Reduction (ASER) or collateral valuation adjustments (CVA) are commercial mortgage-backed security (CMBS) structuring innovations designed to improve overall transaction credit quality.  Appraisal Reductions were created in response to rating agency concerns that, without such an adjustment, cash flow from mortgages likely to default would be paid to the first-loss class.  The rationale behind appraisal reductions is to support proactively the credit rating of senior CMBS tranches by reducing cash-flow payments to the subordinate tranches.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Association for the Study of the Cuban Economy (ASCE) is a professional association for the study of the Cuban economy. The association was incorporated on 3 August 1990 by Cuban American economists interested in the post-Cold War prospects for Cuba.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The automotive industry is one of the most important industries in the Czech Republic. It produces more than 20% of production volume, directly employs more than 120,000 people and at full capacity, produces more than 1.3 million passenger cars per year, which is a new car every 23 seconds (as of 2017). In total, industry accounts for 35% of the Czech economy. It also plays a very significant role in Czech exports. In January 2010, machinery and transport equipment accounted for 54.3% of exports.  In 2016, 1,351,124 motor vehicles were produced in the Czech Republic, which was 8.2% more year-on-year.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The base effect relates to inflation in the corresponding period of the previous year, if the inflation rate was too low in the corresponding period of the previous year, even a smaller rise in the Price Index will arithmetically give a high rate of inflation now. On the other hand, if the price index had risen at a high rate in the corresponding period of the previous year and recorded high inflation rate, a similar absolute increase in the price index now will show a lower inflation rate now.\nAn example of the base effect:\nThe Price Index is 100, 150, and 200 in each of three consecutive periods, called 1, 2, and 3, respectively.  The increase of 50 from period 1 to period 2 gives a percentage increase of 50%, but the increase from period 2 to period 3, despite being the same as the previous increase in absolute terms, gives a percentage increase of only 33.33%.  This is due to the relatively large difference in the bases on which the percentages are calculated (100 vs 150).", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "When the actual benefits of a venture are less than the projected or estimated benefits, the result is known as a benefit shortfall. \nIf, for instance, a company is launching a new product or service and projected sales are 40 million dollars per year, whereas actual annual sales turn out to be only 30 million dollars, then the benefit shortfall is said to be 25 percent. Sometimes the terms \"demand shortfall\" or \"revenue shortfall\" are used instead of benefit shortfall.\nPublic and private enterprises alike fall victim to benefit shortfalls. Prudent planning of new ventures will include the risk of benefit shortfalls in risk assessment and risk management.\nThe discipline of benefits realisation management seeks to identify any benefits shortfall as early as possible in a project or programmes delivery in order to allow corrective action to be taken, costs to be controlled and benefits realised.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Brazilian disease is a phrase in economics to describe the situation in which the Brazilian real has strengthened (trading at around R$1.95 to the US dollar) on high prices for commodities such as soybeans, making Brazilian exports of manufactured goods uncompetitive in foreign markets. The term was coined to compare the economic situation facing Brazilian exports in the late 2000s to Dutch disease, an older term referring to similar conditions faced in the Netherlands in the 1960s and 1970s due to  massive  natural gas exports. The term \"Brazilian disease\" has not been widely used in economic literature or the news media.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A cascading discontinuity set is a term related to Wild Cards and applied in foresight and risk management areas.  It attempts to define a series of smaller, seemingly disconnected events that merge over time leading to a Wild Card-like result.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The China Center for Economic Research (CCER) is an economics think tank in Peking University, China. It was opened in August 1994, and is directed by Justin Yifu Lin.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The purpose of co-operative education and co-operative studies, according to the ICA's Statement on the Co-operative Identity, is that Co-operative societies \"provide education and training for their members, elected representatives, managers, and employees so they can contribute effectively to the development of their co-operatives. They inform the general public \u2013 particularly young people and opinion leaders \u2013 about the nature and benefits of co-operation.\" As such, it forms the fifth Rochdale Principle. Subfields of this include Co-operative economics, and the History of the cooperative movement. \nIn December 2011 a special edition of the Journal of Co-operative Studies was given over to the subject of co-operative learning. Edited by Maureen Breeze, the edition contains 14 articles written by theorists and practitioners of co-operative learning. Contributors include Alan Wilkins (Co-operative Learning: a contextual framework), Nigel Rayment (Co-operative Learning: values into practice), Wendy Jolliffe (Co-operative learning: making it work in the classroom) and Nick Matthews (Teaching About Co-operatives in a UK University Business School).", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "COCIR is the European Coordination Committee of the Radiological, Electromedical and Healthcare IT Industry. It is a non-profit trade association, which was founded in 1959, and represents the medical technology industry in Europe. Since 2006 COCIR headquarters are located in Brussels. In 2007, Heinrich von Wulfen became its chairman and succeeded Frank Anton. COCIR is a member of the European Medical Devices Industry Group (EMIG).", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Collateral valuation adjustment (ColVA) or appraisal subordination entitlement reduction (ASER) are commercial mortgage-backed security structuring innovations designed to improve overall transaction credit quality. Collateral valuation adjustments were created in response to rating agency concerns that, without such an adjustment,  cash flow from mortgage loans likely to default would be paid to the first-loss class. The rationale behind appraisal reductions is to support proactively the credit rating of senior CMBS tranches by reducing cash-flow payments to the subordinate tranches.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Cost competitiveness of fuel sources is a measure of whether or not particular fuel sources are  cost competitive in the energy market, and is a primary factor in determining if a fuel source will be utilized. If a fuel source can be produced and sold lower than the price crude oil is being traded at, including taxes, then it is considered to be a cost competitive fuel source.\"Lazard\u2019s levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is the most commonly used metric for comparing cost competitiveness of fuel sources\", according to the Lone Star Fuels Alliance.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Economic corridors are integrated networks of infrastructure within a geographical area designed to stimulate economic development. They connect different economic agents in particular geographic area. Corridors may be developed within a country or between countries. Corridors exist in Asia, Africa, and other areas.\nEconomic corridors often feature integrated infrastructure, such as highways, railroads and ports, and may link cities or countries. Corridors may be created to link manufacturing hubs, areas with high supply and demand, and manufacturers of value-added goods. When implemented, economic corridors are often one of a package of different measures including infrastructure development, visa and transport agreements, and standardisation. Consideration of social needs, such as housing, is often considered.The Asian Development Bank coined the term in 1998.In practice the term \"Economic Corridors\" has most often been used to connote road highways (e.g. East-West Economic Corridor and Southern Economic Corridor of the Greater Mekong Subregion program (GMS)). The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor is also anchored on transport connectivity though it also includes several power plants. More recent work has emphasized the need for a clear link of the linear infrastructure (like roads) to broader, spatial economic activities. A corridor exemplifying this is the ABEC (Almaty-Bishkek Economic Corridor).https://www.almaty-bishkek.org/", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "An economic moat, often attributed to investor Warren Buffett, is a term used to describe a company\u2019s competitive advantage. Like a moat protects a castle, certain advantages help protect companies from their competitors.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The economy of San Marino is a developed free-market economy focused around industries such as tourism, banking and the manufacture of ceramics, clothing, fabrics, furniture, paints, spirits, tiles, and wine. Taken together, the manufacturing and financial sector make up more than half of the national GDP. The primary sector contribution to the GDP of the country is marginal, with the main agricultural products being wine and cheeses. In addition, San Marino sells collectible postage stamps to philatelists.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The European Medical Devices Industry Group (EMIG) is a non-profit trade association, and represents the medical devices industry in Europe as defined by the European Union Medical Devices Directives (93/42/EEC). Karen Howes is the current chair person of EMIG.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Export Price Index (EPI) tracks changes in the price which firms and countries receive for products they export.\nIncreases in the EPI are typically due to strong foreign demand or higher internal costs within the exporter\u2019s country.\nGenerally, only increases caused by strong foreign demand are beneficial. However, the overall effect of such increases is debatable.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Federation of Enterprises in Belgium (Dutch: Verbond van Belgische Ondernemingen, VBO, French: F\u00e9d\u00e9ration des Entreprises de Belgique, FEB) is the only Belgian non-profit organization representing companies in all three regions of Belgium. Its members, the different Belgian sectorial employers' organizations, represent companies in key industrial and service sectors. All in all, it represents more than 30,000 businesses, of which 25,000 are small or medium-sized enterprises. Since May 2012, Pieter Timmermans is CEO of the Federation of Belgian Enterprises, and since March 2017, Bernard Gilliot of Tractebel is the President.\nThe VBO/FEB aims to help create jobs for the future and ensure that these jobs complement each other, especially in the service, industrial and construction sectors. In terms of jobs, the VBO/FEB represents approximately 1.5 million workers in the private sector.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Female economic activity is a common measure of gender equality in an economy.  It is one of the numbers used by the UNDP in the calculation of the Human Development Index, but the numbers themselves are gathered by the International Labour Organization.  It is a measure of women over the age of fifteen who are working or able to work as a percent of males.  It is one of less accurate statistics gathered and is highly variable with regions and year to year within individual countries.\nIn general female economic activity is lowest in the Middle East and South Asia and highest in developed nations and sub-Saharan Africa. Even though, in Middle East and North Africa women at the age of 30 have more access to health and educational providers than their mothers, they still play a minor role in public, economic and political activities.In the United States, women's involvement in the economy has shifted from the 1890s to the 1970s.  Women used to work in what were called \"pink collar\" jobs, such as teachers, librarians, and secretaries, but now have careers involving investment like lawyers, doctors, and corporate workers.  Compared to men who have always been at a constant high level of employment rates, women are now increasing their numbers in the economy. However, the growth rate is not equal for different regions, e.g. Middle East and North Africa, South and Southeast Asia still cannot compare with other regions and show the lowest rates.Abbreviated as FEAR, it is a proportion of female population aged fifteen years and above who furnish or are   available to furnish, the supply of labor for production of goods and services in accordance with System of National Accounts (SNA).", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A flight-to-liquidity is a financial market phenomenon occurring when investors sell what they perceive to be less liquid or higher risk investments, and purchase more liquid investments instead, such as US Treasuries. Usually, flight-to-liquidity quickly results in panic leading to a crisis.\nFor example, after the Russian government defaulted on its government bonds (GKOs) in 1998 many investors sold European and Japanese government bonds and purchased on-the-run US Treasuries instead. \n(The most recently issued treasuries, known as \u201con-the-run\u201d, have larger trading volumes, that is more liquidity, than treasury issues that have been superseded, known as \u201coff-the run\u201d.)\nThis widened the spread between off-the-run and on-the-run US Treasuries, which ultimately led to the 1998 collapse of the Long-Term Capital Management hedge fund.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Folk economics is the intuitive economics of untrained people. It is derived from the evolutionary basis for human cognition. According to proponents of the field such as Paul Rubin, in the evolutionary environment of our forebears life was mostly static; there was almost no economic growth or innovation. Moreover, there was relatively little specialization (except by age and gender) and the economy was simple. It is proposed that our brains evolved to understand this sort of economy, which may cause a mismatch with more recent market economies based on international trade, complex hierarchies, and industrialization.  \nOne of the most important implications of this model is that humans have evolved to be zero-sum thinkers. That is, when faced with an economic issue our natural tendency is to view it in zero-sum terms, which means one party must lose something for the other to benefit. This leads to fallacies such as the belief that trade is never mutually beneficial, and the dislike of international trade and immigration. It has been suggested that zero-sum thinking is one of the most relevant sources of inefficient economic policies.\nThe field arose recently from the work of psychologists and economists inspired by evolutionary theory, but speculations on the nature of human economic reasoning go back at least as far as Adam Smith, who suggested that \"The instinct to barter and exchange one thing for another is common to all men, and to be found in no other race of animals. No dog exchanges bones with another. This is why human needs are met\". \nMore recently, psychologists such as Steven Pinker suggested that the persecution of middlemen professionals throughout history may be partly explained by the fact that the human mind evolved in an ancestral environment in which the production and trade of goods was not mediated, which leads people to presume that tradesmen and other middleman professionals are exploiters. The economist and Nobel laureate Friedrich Hayek was also interested in the cognitive underpinnings of human economic thinking, and wrote extensively on how people have systematically false beliefs which diverge from accepted economic theories.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "In economics the generalized-Ozaki cost is a general description of cost described by Shuichi Nakamura.For output y, at date t and a vector of m input prices p, the generalized-Ozaki cost, c, is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        c\n        (\n        p\n        ,\n        y\n        ,\n        t\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \u2211\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n        \n          b\n          \n            i\n            i\n          \n        \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              y\n              \n                \n                  b\n                  \n                    y\n                    i\n                  \n                \n              \n            \n            \n              e\n              \n                \n                  b\n                  \n                    t\n                    i\n                  \n                \n                t\n              \n            \n            \n              p\n              \n                i\n              \n            \n            +\n            \n              \u2211\n              \n                j\n                \n                :\n                \n                j\n                \u2260\n                i\n              \n            \n            \n              b\n              \n                i\n                j\n              \n            \n            \n              \n                \n                  p\n                  \n                    i\n                  \n                \n                \n                  p\n                  \n                    j\n                  \n                \n              \n            \n            \n              y\n              \n                \n                  b\n                  \n                    y\n                  \n                \n              \n            \n            \n              e\n              \n                \n                  b\n                  \n                    t\n                  \n                \n                t\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c(p,y,t)=\\sum _{i}b_{ii}\\left(y^{b_{yi}}e^{b_{ti}t}p_{i}+\\sum _{j\\,:\\,j\\neq i}b_{ij}{\\sqrt {p_{i}p_{j}}}y^{b_{y}}e^{b_{t}t}\\right).}", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A Goldilocks economy is an economy that is not too hot or cold, in other words sustains moderate economic growth, and that has low inflation, which allows a market-friendly monetary policy. The name comes from the children's story Goldilocks and The Three Bears.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Government-House analogy refers to rhetoric in political economic discourse that compares the finances of a federal government to those of a household. The analogy has frequently been made in debates about government debt, with critics of government debt arguing that greater government debt is equivalent to a household taking on more debt.The analogy has been characterized by economists as misleading and false, as the functions and constraints of governments and households are vastly dissimilar. Differences include that governments can print money, interest rates on government borrowing may be cheaper than individual borrowing, governments can increase their budgets through taxation, governments have indefinite planning horizons, national debt may be held primarily domestically (the equivalent of household members owing each other), governments typically have greater collateral for borrowing, and contractions in government spending can cause or prolong economic crises and increase the debt of the government. For governments, the main risks of overspending may revolve around inflation rather than the size of the debt per se.\nAccording to economist and Nobel laureate William Vickrey,This fallacy seems to stem from a false analogy to borrowing by individuals. Current reality is almost the exact opposite. Deficits add to the net disposable income of individuals, to the extent that government disbursements that constitute income to recipients exceed that abstracted from disposable income in taxes, fees, and other charges. This added purchasing power, when spent, provides markets for private production, inducing producers to invest in additional plant capacity, which will form part of the real heritage left to the future. This is in addition to whatever public investment takes place in infrastructure, education, research, and the like. Larger deficits, sufficient to recycle savings out of a growing gross domestic product (GDP) in excess of what can be recycled by profit-seeking private investment, are not an economic sin but an economic necessity. Deficits in excess of a gap growing as a result of the maximum feasible growth in real output might indeed cause problems, but we are nowhere near that level. Even the analogy itself is faulty. If General Motors, AT&T, and individual households had been required to balance their budgets in the manner being applied to the Federal government, there would be no corporate bonds, no mortgages, no bank loans, and many fewer automobiles, telephones, and houses.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Hahn's problem (or Hahn's question) refers to the theoretical challenge of building general equilibrium models where money does not enter preferences, yet has a positive equilibrium value. Money, since it is intrinsically worthless and is not demanded for its own sake, may not be made to enter the utility function and be present like any other good. The problem is named after the British economist Frank Hahn, who outlined it in his critique of Don Patinkin's placing money inside the utility function.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Hamiltonian economic program was the set of measures that were proposed by American Founding Father and first Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in four notable reports and implemented by the US Congress during George Washington's first term. They outlined a coherent program of national mercantilism government-assisted economic development.\n\nFirst Report on Public Credit \u2013 pertaining to the assumption of federal and state debts and finance of the United States government (1790). Hamilton included his plan to tax distilled spirits among other domestic goods to boost revenue. He thought that a tax on spirits would be the least objectionable way to make money, as it could be philosophically equated to a pigovian or sin tax. However, his new tax set off the Whiskey Rebellion which highlighted separation in social classes as rural Pennsylvania farmers fought against the government. Eventually, the tax was repealed, but the incident greatly emphasized the government's willingness and ability to suppress violent resistance to its laws.\nSecond Report on Public Credit \u2013 pertaining to the establishment of a national bank (1790)\nReport on Manufactures \u2013 pertaining to the policies to be followed to encourage manufacturing and industry in the United States (1791)\nReport on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit - pertaining to how to deal with the system of public credit after Hamilton's resignation, including complete extinguishment of the public debt (1795)", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "India International Bullion Exchange (IIBX) is India's first bullion exchange, launched on 29 July 2022 in Gujarat.The bullion exchange is seeking to make it easier for small bullion dealers and jewellers to trade.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "An import quota is a type of trade restriction that sets a physical limit on the quantity of a good that can be imported into a country in a given period of time.Quotas, like other trade restrictions, are typically used to benefit the producers of a good in that economy.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Income deficit is the difference between a single person or family's income and its poverty threshold or poverty line, when the former is exceeded by the latter. Data on the income deficits of various members of a population allow for the construction of one type of measurement of income inequality in that population. Individuals or families that fall below the line are considered to be in poverty whereas families that fall above are not. The income deficit is one of two measures that are used to determine a person or family's income distance from the poverty threshold, the other being a ratio rather than a difference.\nThe net income deficit consists largely of income payments and receipts on capital, as well as cross-border labour income (compensation of employees). Given the relatively small level of net cross-border labor income payments, there are two key drivers of the net income deficit: the level of net foreign liabilities being financed and the yield on those liabilities.https://treasury.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-03/round6.pdf\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Indonesia Investment Authority (INA) is sovereign wealth fund of Indonesia. The INA was founded by Indonesian Government in 2021 to strengthen the country's economy by diversifying into new asset classes. INA was launched in February, 2021, with a target of managing $24.5 billion of assets. Unlike sovereign wealth funds of other countries (which manage excess oil revenues or foreign exchange reserves), the INA seeks foreign funds as co-investors to finance the country's economic development.INA had received commitments of up to $10 billion prior to its launch, from global companies and agencies, such as the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation and Japan Bank for International Cooperation, and some foreign pension funds. The Indonesian government will support the fund with $5 billion in cash and other assets. The United Arab Emirates has announced a plan to invest $10 billion in INA", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Prize in Game Theory and Computer Science in Honour of Ehud Kalai is an award given by the Game Theory Society. The prize is awarded for outstanding articles at the interface of game theory and computer science. Following the eligibility rules of the G\u00f6del Prize, preference is given to authors who are 45 years old or younger at the time of the award. It was established in 2008 by a donation from Yoav Shoham in honor of the Ehud Kalai's contributions in bridging these two fields.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Land reform in Zambia refers to the process of land reform in Zambia.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Low carbon leakage refers to the phenomenon of a country or a region losing its low carbon industries to another country or region. The underlying low carbon leakage trend can also be identified by looking into clean energy patent distribution around the World. The threat of low carbon leakage to the European Union has been repeatedly expressed by a number of European Politicians such as climate Commissioner Connie Hedegaard, UK Energy Secretary Edward Davey and others.The low carbon leakage increases its relevance for the industrial competitiveness as the low carbon economy grows and has reached in 2013 $4 trillion and continues to grow at 4% per year. Not taking relevant part in this growth opportunity is also considered as low carbon leakage.In October 2014 E&Y published a report \"European Low Carbon Industries. A Health Check.\" specifically examining the state of the European low carbon sectors. The report lists a wide variety of cases in which \"low carbon leakage\" occurs or could occur.\nLow carbon leakage could lead to a significant loss of competitiveness for Europe. According to former German federal minister Trittin: \u201cIn reality there is no carbon leakage. The danger of low carbon leakage is much more real.\" I typical example is the solar panel manufacturing that has developed rapidly in China and shrunk in Europe.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Market abuse may arise in circumstances where financial market investors have been unreasonably disadvantaged, directly or indirectly, by others who:\nhave used information which is not publicly available (insider dealing)\nhave distorted the price-setting mechanism of financial instruments\nhave disseminated false or misleading informationMarket Abuse is split into two different aspects (under EU definitions):\nInsider dealing: where a person who has information not available to other investors (for example, a director with knowledge of a takeover bid) makes use of that information for personal gain\nMarket manipulation: where a person knowingly gives out false or misleading information (for instance, about a company's financial circumstances) in order to influence the price of a share for personal gainIn 2013/2014, the EU updated its legislation on market abuse, and harmonised criminal sanctions. In the 2015 Danish European Union opt-out referendum, the Danish population rejected adoption of the 2014 market abuse directive (2014/57/EU) and much other legislation.\nIn the UK, the market abuse directive (MAD) was implemented in 2003 to reduce market abuse. It applied to any financial instrument admitted to trading on a regulated market or in respect of which a request for admission to trading had been made. MAD was subsequently replaced by the Market Abuse Regulation (MAR) in 2016.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A market run or run on the market occurs when consumers increase purchasing of a particular product because they fear a shortage. As a market run progresses, it generates its own momentum: as more people demand the item, the supply line becomes unable to keep up. This causes a local shortage, which in turn encourages further hoarding.\nExamples include a run on the gasoline market following hurricane Katrina in 2005, an ammunition shortage following President Obama's election in 2008, and a run on toilet paper following a Johnny Carson joke on The Tonight Show in 1973.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The McCrone Agreement (A Teaching Profession for the 21st Century: Agreement reached following recommendations made in the McCrone Report) is an agreement about Scottish teachers' pay and conditions. The agreement, under the Labour-Liberal Democrat coalition government in 2001, followed an independent committee of inquiry which reviewed teachers' pay and conditions, chaired by Professor Gavin McCrone.\nOne of the key aims of the agreement was to ensure that teachers' working weeks would be limited to 35 hours though there is evidence that this has not been achieved.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The means of labor (also called instruments of labor)  is a concept in Marxist political economy that refers to \"all those things with the aid of which man acts upon the subject of his labor, and transforms it.\" (Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., 1957) Means of labor include tools, machinery, buildings and land used for production, and infrastructure such as roads, telecommunications networks, and so forth. Labor, itself, defines \"work, especially hard physical work.\"The means of labor are one of three basic factors of production (Marx, 1967, p. 174), along with human labor and the subject of labor (the material worked on).The means of labor and the subject of labor compromise the means of production of society.In some formulations, the means of labor and human labor (including the activity itself as well as the laborer's skills and knowledge used in production) comprise the productive forces of society (e.g., Sheptulin, 1978). Other formulations define productive forces more narrowly as the union of instruments of production and the laborers who wield them (e.g., Institute of Economics, 1957), thereby excluding invested capital.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Mexican Weekend marked the beginning of the Latin American debt crisis. In August 1982, Mexican Secretary of Finance Jes\u00fas Silva Herzog Flores flew to Washington, D.C., to declare Mexico's foreign debt unmanageable, and announce that his country was in danger of defaulting.\nThis crisis had long lasting impact over the entire Latin American countries which is also known as \"Latin American debt crisis\". The United States and other neighboring developed countries such as, Canada came up with the assistance plane for Mexico with the co-ordination of financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund, World Bank etc. During this period major economic reforms were undertaken, with liberalisation and privatisation replacing the earlier model of state led growth.\nAs a fallout of neo-liberal economic policies, foreign investors started investing heavily and over $90 billion flowed into the country during 1990-93.  But within a short span of time this plan failed totally and Mexico failed one more time to get itself out of this crisis.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Economy (Portuguese: Minist\u00e9rio da Economia) is a Portuguese government ministry.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The United States Census Bureau's Monthly Full Report on Manufacturers' Shipments, Inventories, and Orders, more commonly called the Factory Orders report, totals the dollar volume of new orders, shipments, unfilled orders, and inventories reported by domestic manufacturers.Figures within the Factory Orders report are reported in the billions of dollars and also in a percent change from the previous month. Generally the Factory Orders report is not as widely watched as other economic indicators. The Advance Release on Durable Goods, which usually precedes the Factory Orders report by one week, garners more attention, given that the durable goods report includes orders for capital goods, a proxy for equipment investment.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "National economy (Turkish: Mill\u00ee \u0130ktisat) is the economic plan envisioned by Ziya G\u00f6kalp and carried out by successive Ottoman and Turkish governments, which involved the systematic dispossession of native Christian bourgeoisie (which primarily occurred as a result of the Armenian genocide and expulsion of Greeks) and their replacement by Muslim Turks, in addition to large-scale confiscation and redistribution of Christian-owned property. T\u00fcrk Yurdu announced 1915 as the starting year of the national economy.  To Ernst Ludwig, Talaat Pasha mentioned that the loss of the Armenian workforce would damage the economy for a short while, but that Turks would step in their positions and replace the Armenians soon.Before the revolution, the Committee of Union and Progress held extremist views of the economy, for example advocating for boycotts against Armenian goods and shutting down the Public Debt Administration. Post revolutionary success gave way to a pragmatic economic policy. Other than encouragement of domestic production projects, the CUP largely followed a liberal economic policy to Mehmed Cavid's designs, resulting in a large increase in foreign investment between 1908 and 1913 despite the volatility of the Ottoman Empire's international standing.However following the radicalization of the CUP post-Balkan Wars, the committee switched back to extremist rhetoric in the economy, advocating for Muslim Turkish domination of the economy at the expense of non-Muslim and non-domestic business. National Economy, \"Mill\u00ee \u0130ktisat\", was a combination of corporatism, protectionism, and statist economic policies. This became a formal platform of CUP policy in their 1916 Congress, whose goal was to create an indigenous Turkish-Muslim bourgeoisie and middle class. For the CUP, the way to kick start capitalism for the Turks was to seize capital from the well endowed Christians for themselves. To this end, pseudo-Marxist rhetoric was used against Armenian enterprise such as there being a \"class struggle\" and disproportionate ownership by Armenians of wealth that had to be shared with Muslims at all costs. Import substitution industrialization and property confiscation centralized of economic capital in the hands of \"loyal\" ethnic groups, which deepened political support for the CUP. When it came to foreign trade, previously well established liberal policy gave way to protectionism: tariffs were increased in 1914 from 8 to 11%, by 1915 they reached 30%.The policies associated with National Economy were essential for the CUP's T\u00fcrk Yurdu project that carried over to the later Republican People's Party regime, and created a fertile ground for the Republic of Turkey's industrialization post independence war.Confiscation of Christian-owned property continued until the late twentieth century.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "An Official Committee of Equity Security Holders is a group of shareholders (usually the seven largest held positions) formed to represent a larger group of shareholders' interests in a company's bankruptcy proceedings.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Online Labour Index (OLI) is an economic indicator measuring the activity of the global online gig-economy. It was created and is administered by the researchers Otto K\u00e4ssi, Vili Lehdonvirta, and Fabian Stephany, at the Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford.The OLI monitors the demand and supply of work from the world's leading online gig-work internet platforms. The index has become an international reference for the measurement of the online freelance economy.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Oslo Commitments were five international-scope goals agreed upon on May 12, 2010, by the Government of Norway and the UNDP, at a meeting in Geneva, Switzerland.\nThe Commitments were concluded with less than five years to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The conference brought together government representatives, international organizations, and civil society organizations to accelerate global efforts against armed violence. While reaffirming the Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development, the participants agreed to the following commitments:\n\nTo support, where appropriate, the inclusion of armed violence reduction and prevention in the Outcome Document of the High Level Plenary Meeting on the MDGs and in subsequent MDG achievement strategies through 2015;\nTo measure and monitor the incidence and impact of armed violence at national and sub-national levels in a transparent way, and develop a set of targets and indicators to assess progress in efforts to achieve measurable reductions in armed violence;\nTo recognise the rights of victims of armed violence in a non-discriminatory manner, including provision for their adequate care and rehabilitation, as well as their social and economic inclusion, in accordance with national laws and applicable international obligations;\nTo enhance the potential of development to reduce and prevent armed violence by integrating armed violence prevention and reduction strategies into international, regional, national and sub-national development plans, programmes and assistance strategies;\nTo strengthen international cooperation and assistance, including South-South cooperation, to develop national and sub-national capacities for armed violence prevention and reduction and achievement of the MDGs.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Overcapitalisation or Overcapitalization, refers to an economic phenomenon whereby the valuation/price of an asset is superior to its \u2018real\u2019 value, however difficult to define, therefore putting a strain on attempts to obtain a reasonable return on investment. This is especially the case when capital goods are at stake which are necessary to engage in the production of goods or delivery of services (e.g. agricultural holdings, industrial plants, etc.). It is less the case with those contemporary financial instruments that are valued not for their returns, but for their potential earnings upon resale. Overcapitalisation is closely related (in causes and consequences) to assets inflation. As the financialisation of the economy has led to the monetisation (also called \u2018securitisation\u2019) of many non-financial assets, such as real estate, infrastructure, etc., overcapitalisation has become rife, with deleterious consequences at the level of firms (struggling to achieve an unrealistically high level of profitability), households (struggling to pay their inflated mortgage), and individuals (whose equity holding, and hence borrowing and repayment potential, may be vastly over-valued).\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Pakistan has been a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) since 1950. Due to the unpredictable nature of its economy and its dependence on imports, the IMF has provided loans to Pakistan on twenty-two occasions, with its most recent being in 2019.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Paris Bourse crash of 1882 was a stock market crash in France, and was the worst crisis in the French economy in the nineteenth century. The crash was triggered by the collapse of l'Union G\u00e9n\u00e9rale in January.  Around a quarter of the brokers on the bourse were on the brink of collapse.  The closure of the exchange was prevented by a loan from the Banque de France which enabled sufficient liquidity to support settlement.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The political trilemma of the world economy is a concept created by economist Dani Rodrik to capture the trade-offs that governments faced in their responses to globalization. The trilemma holds that \"democracy, national sovereignty and global economic integration are mutually incompatible: we can combine any two of the three, but never have all three simultaneously and in full.\" According to Rodrik, states embraced globalization and national autonomy in the late 19th century, but sacrificed democratic decision-making. In the post-World War II period, states sacrificed globalization while embracing democracy at home and national autonomy. The trilemma suggests that the backlash against globalization in the last few decades is rooted in a desire to reclaim democracy and national autonomy, even if it undermines economic integration. Rodrik first presented the trilemma in a 2000 paper.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A preorder economy is a type of proposed future economy where the exact demand for goods is known ahead of time, before any material production takes place. It has been discussed within the framework of ecological economics.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "In economics and finance, rational herding is a situation in which market participants react to information about the behavior of other market agents or participants rather than the behavior of the market, and the fundamental transactions.An account cited that rational herding is an unintended consequence of the string of Federal Reserve interventions that mandated greater transparency of others' trade activities starting in 2007. Due to crisis environment and uncertainty in the market fundamentals, investors started to use the Federal Reserve's information found in its policy pronouncements.Rational herding in financial markets can take place because some investors believe others to be better informed than themselves, and follow them, disregarding their own information or market fundamentals. This is based on the idea that if information is costly for an uninformed actor, his ignorance is rational and that, if he cannot afford the information, there is a potential benefit of following another player who can pay for such information.Reliance on rational herding can be a source of instability in financial markets. There are also scholars who note that rational herding is still based on anecdotal observations and that there is lack of empirical evidence due to the way the so-called \"herding literature\" focuses on the price or investment patterns, information that is readily available.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Save Italy is the name of the economic recovery plan Italian Prime Minister Mario Monti. The package of fiscal adjustments is worth \u20ac30 billion ($40 billion) over three years,  and includes tax increases, pension cuts, stronger protection against tax evasion, and an increase in the retirement age. The reform package is meant to reduce debt, balance the budget and increase investor confidence.Monti, a technocrat who replaced Silvio Berlusconi as  Prime Minister, said the plan was necessary to prevent the economy of Italy from becoming like Greece.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Scottish government economy directorates were a set of directorates within the Scottish government, the executive arm of the devolved government of Scotland.  The directorates were headed by Dr Andrew Goudie, who also acted as the chief economic adviser to the Scottish government (Goudie retired in 2011 and joined Strathclyde University). The directorates were responsible for transport, sustainable development and planning. In 2010, the transport directorate merged with Transport Scotland, an Executive Agency of the Scottish Government and accountable to Scottish Ministers.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "In corporate finance, a scrip issue, also known as capitalisation issue or bonus issue, is the process of creating new shares which are given free of charge to existing shareholders. It is a form of secondary issue where a company's cash reserves are converted into new shares and given to existing shareholders, or an issue of additional shares to shareholders in proportion to the shares already held. A scrip issue is usually done when a company does not have sufficient liquidity to pay a cash dividend. \nA company declaring a scrip dividend gives the shareholders the option to either receive the dividend in cash or to receive additional shares.  This is different than a bonus issue as shareholders do not have a choice with a bonus issue event. Scrip dividends are in some ways similar to DRIPs as they give the shareholders the option to receive the dividend in cash or stock. Unlike DRIPs, however, Scrip dividends are exempt from stamp duty and not subject to brokerage / dealing fees, because they are considered a stock issue by the company and not a reinvestment by the shareholder.The issue is calculated relative to existing holdings. This means that, for example, one new 'scrip' share may be issued for every ten shares currently owned.  The company issuing the scrip shares has now expanded the number of shares in existence, but not increased the value of the company. This means that the relative value of each pre-existing share has been reduced slightly.\nThe investor has the right to sell the new scrip shares in the market. However, the investor must still report the cash value of the scrip dividend on his tax return like a normal cash dividend. This differs from a stock dividend in the United States, where the investor does not pay any tax on receipt of the shares and then only capital gains taxes on the stock dividend until the shares are sold.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A seasonal industry is activity within an economic sector in which the majority of operations take place during only part of the year, usually within a period of half a year or less.In some cases, as with agriculture, this limitation may relate to climate or other forces of nature. In others, the seasonality may relate to annual variations in human activity (for example, tourism, restaurants, some forms of manufacturing).\nSeasonal industries often feature large swings in labor force size, and in many cases, precipitate mass migrations of workers.\nIn those countries that provide them, unemployment benefits may be affected by a worker's seasonal status. That is, in certain cases, a seasonal worker may not be considered \"unemployed\" during the off-season for the sake of benefits or aggregated statistics, despite being functionally inactive.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The sliding wage scale consists in increasing the wages as the prices rise in order to maintain the purchasing power of the workers even if there is inflation.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Southern Economic Corridor (Abrv: SEC; Thai: \u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e1e\u0e31\u0e12\u0e19\u0e32\u0e1e\u0e37\u0e49\u0e19\u0e17\u0e35\u0e48\u0e23\u0e30\u0e40\u0e1a\u0e35\u0e22\u0e07\u0e40\u0e28\u0e23\u0e29\u0e10\u0e01\u0e34\u0e08\u0e20\u0e32\u0e04\u0e43\u0e15\u0e49\u0e2d\u0e22\u0e48\u0e32\u0e07\u0e22\u0e31\u0e48\u0e07\u0e22\u0e37\u0e19) is a proposed special economic zone on the upper south of Thailand. It consists of four provinces, including Chumphon, Ranong, Surat Thani and Nakhon Si Thammarat. The project is planned to link up the Andaman Sea (SEC) with the Gulf of Thailand (EEC) by land, air, and water.The SEC's dimension of development consists of 4 components:\n\nWestern Gateway (Thai: \u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e1e\u0e31\u0e12\u0e19\u0e32\u0e1b\u0e23\u0e30\u0e15\u0e39\u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e04\u0e49\u0e32\u0e1d\u0e31\u0e48\u0e07\u0e15\u0e30\u0e27\u0e31\u0e19\u0e15\u0e01)\nRoyal Coast and Andaman Route (Thai: \u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e1e\u0e31\u0e12\u0e19\u0e32\u0e1b\u0e23\u0e30\u0e15\u0e39\u0e2a\u0e39\u0e48\u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e17\u0e48\u0e2d\u0e07\u0e40\u0e17\u0e35\u0e48\u0e22\u0e27\u0e2d\u0e48\u0e32\u0e27\u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\u0e41\u0e25\u0e30\u0e2d\u0e31\u0e19\u0e14\u0e32\u0e21\u0e31\u0e19)\nBio-Based and Processed Agricultural Products (Thai: \u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e1e\u0e31\u0e12\u0e19\u0e32\u0e2d\u0e38\u0e15\u0e2a\u0e32\u0e2b\u0e01\u0e23\u0e23\u0e21\u0e10\u0e32\u0e19\u0e0a\u0e35\u0e27\u0e20\u0e32\u0e1e\u0e41\u0e25\u0e30\u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e41\u0e1b\u0e23\u0e23\u0e39\u0e1b\u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e40\u0e01\u0e29\u0e15\u0e23\u0e21\u0e39\u0e25\u0e04\u0e48\u0e32\u0e2a\u0e39\u0e07)\nGreen, Culture, Smart and Livable Cities (Thai: \u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e2d\u0e19\u0e38\u0e23\u0e31\u0e01\u0e29\u0e4c\u0e17\u0e23\u0e31\u0e1e\u0e22\u0e32\u0e01\u0e23\u0e18\u0e23\u0e23\u0e21\u0e0a\u0e32\u0e15\u0e34 \u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e2a\u0e48\u0e07\u0e40\u0e2a\u0e23\u0e34\u0e21\u0e27\u0e31\u0e12\u0e19\u0e18\u0e23\u0e23\u0e21 \u0e41\u0e25\u0e30\u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e1e\u0e31\u0e12\u0e19\u0e32\u0e40\u0e21\u0e37\u0e2d\u0e07\u0e19\u0e48\u0e32\u0e2d\u0e22\u0e39\u0e48)", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Space-based economy is economic activity in outer space, including asteroid mining, space manufacturing, space trade, construction performed in space such as the building of space stations, space burial, and space advertising.\nSpace-based industrial efforts are presently in their infancy. Most such concepts would require a considerable long-term human presence in space and relatively low-cost access to space. The majority of proposals would also require technological or engineering developments in areas such as robotics, solar energy, and life support systems.\nSome analysts have argued for creating an International Bank, to support deep space exploration.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Spatial inequality  is the unequal amounts of qualities or resources and services depending on the area or location, such as medical or welfare. Some communities have a greater range of resources and services than those living far away or who do not associate with those communities, making it almost impossible to change this cycle. The space within the different locations is the clustering of various groups of people who share similar socioeconomic statuses.\nSpatial inequality is caused by many things, such as religion, culture, race, and the economies of agglomeration. Areas of people in poverty will remain that way until various  resources and services are introduced. Resources are things such as fresh drinking water. Services include educational institutions and hospitals/other health services.\nIn the geographical space, various regions (area, district, province, states) showing different levels of socioeconomic development is called spatial inequality in regional development.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Stone industry refers to the part of the primary sector of the economy, similar to the mining industry, but concerned with excavations of stones, in particular granite, marble, slate and sandstone. Other products of the industry include crushed stone and dimension stone.\nStone industry is one of the oldest in the world. Creation of stone tools (microliths industry) in the region of South Africa has been dated to about 60,000\u201370,000 years ago. Granite and marble mining existing as far back as ancient Egypt. Crushed stone was used extensively by the first great road building civilizations, such as ancient Greece and ancient Rome.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Subject of labor, or object of labor, is a concept in Marxist political economy that refers to \"everything to which man's labor is applied\". The subject of labor may be materials provided directly by nature like timber or coal, or materials that have been modified by labor. In the latter case, the subject of labor (e.g., yarn in a textile mill or semi-conductor chips in a computer assembly factory) are called \"raw materials\". This usage of the term \"raw materials\" is given in, for instance, in Capital, Part III.The \u201csubject of labor\u201d is one of three basic factors of the production process, along with \"human labor\" and the \"means of labor\" (tools and infrastructure used to transform the subject of labor).\nThe subject of labor and the means of labor comprise the means of production of society.\"Subject of labor\" is sometimes called \"object of labor\". In both cases, the term refers to what is being worked on.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Taxes in Poland are levied by both the central and local governments. Tax revenue in Poland is 33.9% of the country's GDP in 2017. The most important revenue sources include the income tax, Social Security, corporate tax and the value added tax, which are all applied on the national level.\nIncome earned is generally subject to a progressive income tax, which applies to all who are in the workforce. For the year 2014, two different tax rates on income apply", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "A tiger economy is the economy of a country which undergoes rapid economic growth, usually accompanied by an increase in the standard of living. The term was originally used for the Four Asian Tigers (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore) as tigers are important in Asian symbolism, which also inspired the Tiger Cub Economies (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam and the Philippines). The Asian Tigers also inspired other economies later on; the Anatolian Tigers (certain cities in Turkey) in the 1980s, the Gulf Tiger (Dubai) in the 1990s, the Celtic Tiger (Republic of Ireland) in 1995\u20132000, the Baltic tigers (Baltic states) in 2000\u20132007, and the Tatra Tiger (Slovakia) in 2002\u20132007.In the 1960s, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Myanmar were considered as the \"Tiger of Asia\" Economies as all three countries were experiencing high growth. Internal issues however led to the economies of all three countries to falter. Israel's rapid economic growth in the 1990s, and again in the 2000s and 2010s following a brief recession, earned it a reputation as a tiger economy, and one newspaper dubbed it the \"Hebrew tiger.\" Bangladesh has been described as an emerging \"Asian tiger\" in recent years due to its high economic growth and industrialization which bear many similarities to the way the Four Asian Tigers industrialized between the 1960s and 1990s.Yet another tiger economy is that of Armenia. Because of the remarkable, often two-digit economic growth that Armenia showed until the 2007-08 financial crisis, it emerged as the Caucasian Tiger. During this period, sustained economic growth allowed for economic stability, moderate fiscal deficits and external debt, as well as declining poverty rates.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "In investments, uncompensated risk is the level of additional risk for which no additional returns are generated and when taking systematic withdrawals make the probability of failure unacceptably high. Uncompensated risk is reduced by diversifying investment.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Uttara Export Processing Zone (UEPZ) (Bengali: \u0989\u09a4\u09cd\u09a4\u09b0\u09be \u09b0\u09aa\u09cd\u09a4\u09be\u09a8\u09bf \u09aa\u09cd\u09b0\u0995\u09cd\u09b0\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u0995\u09b0\u09a3 \u0985\u099e\u09cd\u099a\u09b2), also known as Uttara EPZ or Nilphamari EPZ, is the seventh of the eight export processing zone in Bangladesh located at Nilphamari.   It's the only export processing zone of Rangpur division/ north Bengal. It was established in September 2001on about 213,66 acres of lands in Sangloshi area in Nilphamari town.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Village cooperatives are cooperatives in rural areas that are engaged in the provision of community needs with agricultural activities. Village cooperatives may also be defined as an umbrella organization of social and economic character and as a forum for the development of rural economic activities organized by the community and for the community itself.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "The Vlaams Economisch Verbond (VEV) is a Flemish employers' organization and lobbying group. \nThe main objectives of the organization were the development of the Flemish economy and to improve the status of Flemish as a business language in Flanders. It is an important partner of the Flemish government on business in Flanders, and also participates in the Socio-economic Council of Flanders.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Voluntary exchange is the act of buyers and sellers freely and willingly engaging in market transactions.Voluntary exchange is a fundamental assumption in classical economics and neoclassical economics which forms the basis of contemporary mainstream economics. That is, when neoclassical economists theorize about the world, they assume voluntary exchange is taking place. Building on this assumption, neoclassical economics goes on to conclude a variety of important results such as that market activity is efficient, that free trade has net positive effects and that markets in which economic agents participate voluntarily make them better off. Notably, neoclassical economists\u2014baseding the assumption of voluntary exchange\u2014deny the Marxist definition of the exploitation of labour as a possibility within neoclassically defined capitalism. Marxian economics, one of the major alternatives to neoclassical economics, contends that the exploitation of labor is both possible with voluntary exchange and a definitional condition of the capitalist mode of production, among other modes of production.According to Dr Marianne Johnson, there is no theoretical basis for arguing that partially or completely voluntary exchange is preferable to other arrangements such as government mandates. Voluntary exchange is sometimes at the root of arguments about the morality of markets. Market proponents often invoke what they believe is the morality as well as the supposed efficiency of voluntary exchange to argue against government mandates, including many forms of taxation. The morality of markets, even those rarely adhering to true voluntary exchange, are nonetheless in dispute.\n\n", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "Waithood (a portmanteau of \"wait\" and \"adulthood\") is a period of stagnation in the lives of young unemployed college graduates in various industrializing and developing nations or regions, primarily in the Middle East, North Africa (MENA) and India, where their expertise is still not widely needed or applicable. \"Waithood\" is described as \"a kind of prolonged adolescence\", and \"the bewildering time in which large proportions of youth spend their best years waiting\". It is a phase in which the difficulties youth face in each of these interrelated spheres of life result in a debilitating state of helplessness and dependency. One commentator argues that waithood can be best understood by examining outcomes and linkages across five different sectors: education, employment, housing, credit, and marriage.The neologism was coined in 2007 by political scientist Diane Singerman.Waithood is applicable only to college educated people who are not compelled to settle in blue collar jobs due to support from family elders or resources. Due to the lack of any potential employment, waithood is also tangentially related to rising rate of belated parenthood in various developing countries, with younger people choosing or being forced to delay starting their own families, which was uncommon in the modern industrialized countries when they were developing.", "label": "Economy"}, {"sentence": "EN 14214 is a standard published by the European Committee for Standardization that describes the requirements and test methods for FAME - the most common type of biodiesel.\nThe technical definition of biodiesel is a fuel suitable for use in compression ignition (diesel) engines that is made of fatty acid monoalkyl esters derived from biologically produced oils or fats including vegetable oils, animal fats and microalgal oils. When biodiesel is produced from these types of oil using methanol fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) are produced. Biodiesel fuels can also be produced using other alcohols, for example using ethanol to produce fatty acid ethyl esters, however these types of biodiesel are not covered by EN 14214 which applies only to methyl esters i.e. biodiesel produced using methanol.\nThis European Standard exists in three official versions - English, French, German. The current version of the standard was published in November 2008 and supersedes EN 14214:2003.\nDifferences exist between the national versions of the EN 14214 standard. These differences relate to cold weather requirements and are detailed in the national annex of each standard.\nIt is broadly based on the earlier German standard DIN 51606. The ASTM and EN standards both recommend very similar methods for the GC based analyses.\nBlends are designated as \"B\" followed by a number indicating the percentage biodiesel. For example: B100 is pure biodiesel.  B99 is 99% biodiesel, 1% petrodiesel.  B20 is 20% biodiesel and 80% fossil diesel.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Energy and environmental engineering is a branch of energy engineering which seeks to efficiently use energy and to maintain the environment. Energy engineers require knowledge across many disciplines. Careers include work in the built environment, renewable and traditional energy industries.In this area, solar radiation is important and must be understood. Solar radiation affects the Earth's weather and daylight available. This affects not only the Earth's environment but also the smaller internal environments which we create.Energy engineering requires at least an understanding of mechanics, thermodynamics, mathematics, materials, stoichiometry, electrical machines, manufacturing processes and energy systems.\nEnvironmental engineering can be branched into two main areas: internal environments and outdoor environments.\nInternal environments may consist of housing or offices or other commercial properties. In this area, the environmental engineering sometimes stands for the designing of building services to condition the internal environment to a comfortable state or the removal of excess pollutants such as carbon dioxide or other harmful substances.External environments may be water courses, air, land or seas, and may require new strategies for harnessing energy or the creation of treatment facilities for polluting technologies.\nThis broad degree area covers many areas but is mainly mechanically and electrically biased. It seeks to explore cleaner, more efficient ways of using fossil fuels, while investigating and developing systems using renewable and sustainable resources, such as solar, wind and wave energy.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In a typical power distribution grid, electric transformer power loss typically contributes to about 40-50% of the total transmission and distribution loss. Energy efficient transformers are therefore an important means to reduce transmission and distribution loss. With the improvement of electrical steel (silicon steel) properties, the losses of a transformer in 2010 can be half that of a similar transformer in the 1970s. With new magnetic materials, it is possible to achieve even higher efficiency. The amorphous metal transformer is a modern example.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In chemical separation processes, an Energy separating agent (ESA) is the heat or shaft work added to facilitate the separation of two chemical species. It is contrasted with a mass separating agent, which is any chemical species added to the reaction that facilitates the reaction. ESAs are used in many common separation procedures.\nSome important examples of procedures utilizing ESAs are vaporization (heat added), distillation (heat added), crystallization (heat evolved), and stripping (heat added).", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "For mine construction, an engine shaft is a mine shaft used for the purpose of pumping, irrespective of the prime mover.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Engineering and the Mind's Eye (1992) is a book by Eugene S. Ferguson, an engineer and historian of science and technology.  It was published by MIT Press.  In it, Ferguson discusses the importance of the mind's eye for the practicing engineer, including spatial visualization and visual thinking.\nA major argument of the book is summarized as follows in the preface:\nSince World War II, the dominant trend in engineering has been away from knowledge that cannot be expressed as mathematical relationships. The art of engineering has been pushed aside in favor of the \"engineering sciences,\" which are higher in status and easier to teach. The underlying argument of this book is that an engineering education that ignores its rich heritage of nonverbal learning will produce graduates who are dangerously ignorant of the myriad subtle ways in which the real world differs from the mathematical world their professors teach them.\nThe book comprises 7 chapters and two additional sections on notes about the text and its figures.  The chapters are:\n\nThe Nature of Engineering Design\nThe Mind's Eye\nOrigins of Modern Engineering\nThe Tools of Visualization\nThe Development and Dissemination of Engineering Knowledge\nThe Making of an Engineer\nThe Gap between Promise and Performance.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "An engineering bill of materials (EBOM) is a type of bill of materials (BOM) reflecting the product as designed by engineering, referred to as the \"as-designed\" bill of materials. \nThe EBOM is not related to modular BOM or configurable BOM (CBOM) concepts, as modular and configurable BOMs are used to reflect selection of items to create saleable end-products.\nThe EBOM concept aligns to sales BOMs (as sold), service BOMs (as changed based on changes due to field service).\nThis BOM includes all substitute and alternate part numbers, and includes parts that are contained in drawing notes.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Engineering cybernetics also known as technical cybernetics or cybernetic engineering, is the branch of cybernetics concerned with applications in engineering, in fields such as control engineering and robotics.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "EngineeringUK is an independent, not-for-profit organisation. Its stated purpose is to promote the contribution that engineers, and engineering and technology, make to society. Based in the United Kingdom, EngineeringUK intends to inspire people at all levels to pursue careers in engineering and technology.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "See entrainment for other types.In engineering, entrainment is the entrapment of one substance by another substance. For example:\n\nThe entrapment of liquid droplets or solid particulates in a flowing gas, as with smoke.\nThe entrapment of gas bubbles or solid particulates in a flowing liquid, as with aeration.\nGiven two mutually insoluble liquids, the emulsion of droplets of one liquid into the other liquid, as with margarine.\nGiven two gases, the entrapment of one gas into the other gas.\n\"Air entrainment\" - The intentional entrapment of air bubbles into concrete.\nEntrainment defect in metallurgy, as a result of folded pockets of oxide inside the melt.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "An equivalent dumping coefficient is a mathematical coefficient used in the calculation of the energy dispersed when a structure moves. As a civil engineering term, it defines the percent of a cycle of oscillation that is absorbed (converted to heat by friction) for the structure or sub-structure under analysis. Usually it is assumed that the equivalent dumping coefficient is linear, which is to say invariant compare to oscillatory amplitude. Modern seismic studies have shown this not to be a satisfactory assumption for larger civic structures, and have developed sophisticated amplitude and frequency based functions for equivalent dumping coefficient.\nWhen a building moves, the materials it is made from absorb a fraction of the kinetic energy (this is especially true of concrete) due primarily to friction and to viscous or elastomeric resistance which convert motion or kinetic energy to heat.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "An ERF damper or electrorheological fluid damper, is a type of quick-response active non-linear damper used in high-sensitivity vibration control.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Erosion corrosion is a degradation of material surface due to mechanical action, often by impinging liquid, abrasion by a slurry, particles suspended in fast flowing liquid or gas, bubbles or droplets, cavitation, etc. The mechanism can be described as follows:\n\nmechanical erosion of the material, or protective (or passive) oxide layer on its surface,\nenhanced corrosion of the material, if the corrosion rate of the material depends on the thickness of the oxide layer.The mechanism of erosion corrosion, the materials affected by it, and the conditions when it occurs are generally different from that of flow-accelerated corrosion, although the last one is sometimes classified as a sub-type of erosion corrosion.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Ethylenediamine pyrocatechol (EDP), also known as ethylenediamine-pyrocatechol-water (EPW), is an anisotropic etchant solution for silicon. A typical formulation consists of ethylenediamine, pyrocatechol, pyrazine and water.  It is carcinogenic and very corrosive. It is mainly used in research labs, and is not used in mainstream semiconductor fabrication processes.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Etteh Aro and Partners Consulting Engineers is a civil engineering consultancy, headquartered in Ibadan, the capital of Oyo State southwestern Nigeria. The firm was established on 29 April 1970 by the late Lawrence Oluwawemimo Arokodare in partnership with Engr. Ikpong Ikpong Etteh.\nIn early 1970's, the firm awarded scholarships to 51 engineers in Nigeria to obtained masters and doctorate degree in engineering. It also sponsored the engineering training of over 400 Nigerians.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The European Conference on Computer Vision (ECCV) is a biennial research conference with the proceedings published by Springer Science+Business Media. Similar to ICCV in scope and quality, it is held those years which ICCV is not. It is considered to be one of the top conferences in computer vision, alongside CVPR and ICCV,\nwith an 'A' rating from the Australian Ranking of ICT Conferences and an 'A1' rating from the Brazilian ministry of education. The acceptance rate for ECCV 2010 was 24.4% for posters and 3.3% for oral presentations.Like other top computer vision conferences, ECCV has tutorial talks, technical sessions, and poster sessions. The conference is usually spread over five to six days with the main technical program occupying three days in the middle, and tutorial and workshops, focused on specific topics, being held in the beginning and at the end.\nThe ECCV presents the Koenderink Prize annually to recognize fundamental contributions in computer vision.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "An event tree is an inductive analytical diagram in which an event is analyzed using Boolean logic to examine a chronological series of subsequent events or consequences. For example, event tree analysis is a major component of nuclear reactor safety engineering.An event tree displays sequence progression, sequence end states and sequence-specific dependencies across time.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Fanavid is a Brazilian glass manufacturer based in Guarulhos, S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil.  Fanavid specializes in all types of auto glass.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Frequency difference of arrival (FDOA) or differential Doppler (DD), is a technique analogous to TDOA for estimating the location of a radio emitter based on observations from other points. (It can also be used for estimating one's own position based on observations of multiple emitters). TDOA and FDOA are sometimes used together to improve location accuracy and the resulting estimates are somewhat independent.  By combining TDOA and FDOA measurements, instantaneous geolocation can be performed in two dimensions.\nIt differs from TDOA in that the FDOA observation points must be in relative motion with respect to each other and the emitter.  This relative motion results in different doppler shifts observations of the emitter at each location in general. The relative motion can be achieved by using airborne observations in aircraft, for example.  The emitter location can then be estimated with knowledge of the observation points' location and vector velocities and the observed relative doppler shifts between pairs of locations.\nA disadvantage of FDOA is that large amounts of data must be moved between observation points or to a central location to do the cross-correlation that is necessary to estimate the doppler shift.\nThe accuracy of the location estimate is related to the bandwidth of the emitter's signal, the signal-to-noise ratio at each observation point, and the geometry and vector velocities of the emitter and the observation points.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A fender pier is a structure built or attached to protect another structure from damage, such as by ship collision.\nThe structure in the river around the swing span is a fender pier.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, in particular numerical analysis, the FETI method (finite element tearing and interconnect) is an iterative substructuring method for solving systems of linear equations from the finite element method for the solution of elliptic partial differential equations, in particular in computational mechanics In each iteration, FETI requires the solution of a Neumann problem in each substructure and the solution of a coarse problem. The simplest version of FETI with no preconditioner (or only a diagonal preconditioner) in the substructure is scalable with the number of substructures but the condition number grows polynomially with the number of elements per substructure. FETI with a (more expensive) preconditioner consisting of the solution of a Dirichlet problem in each substructure is scalable with the number of substructures and its condition number grows only polylogarithmically with the number of elements per substructure. The coarse space in FETI consists of the nullspace on each substructure.\nApart from FETI Dual-Primal (FETI-DP, see below), several extensions have been developed to solve particular physical problems, as FETI Helmholtz (FETI-H), FETI for quasi-incompressible problems, and FETI Contact (FETI-C).", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Fiberglass molding is a process in which fiberglass reinforced resin plastics are formed into useful shapes.The process usually involves first making a mold and then using the mold to make the fiberglass component.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Fiberglass reinforced plastic grating (also known as FRP grating, glass reinforced plastic grating or fiberglass grating) is a composite material manufactured by combining a matrix of resin and fiberglass. Fiberglass grating does not corrode like steel grating and is therefore used in corrosive environments to reduce maintenance costs. It is used in a variety of applications including walkways and overhead platforms. FRP grating is a structural product that can be weight-bearing between spans.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A filling carousel is intended for filling large quantities of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinders. It consists of a frame with running wheels, rails, a central column for LPG and air,  and a driving unit the carousel frame around the central column. The speed of the carousel can be adapted to the various filling times and capacities. The dimension of the carousel is important to consider for the future filling capacity. The carousel frame chosen can be equipped with a number of filling scales, selected for the present demand and possible future demands. Filling carousels can be provided with equipment for automatic introduction and automatic filling scales with ejection of cylinders.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Filling factor, \n  \n    \n      \n         \n        F\n        ,\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle ~F,~}\n   is a quantity measuring the efficiency of absorption of pump in the core of a double-clad fiber.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) is a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of fire-driven fluid flow. The computer program solves numerically a large eddy simulation form of the Navier\u2013Stokes equations appropriate for low-speed, thermally-driven flow, with an emphasis on smoke and heat transport from fires, to describe the evolution of fire.\nFDS is free software developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) of the United States Department of Commerce, in cooperation with VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. Smokeview is the companion visualization program that can be used to display the output of FDS.\nThe first version of FDS was publicly released in February 2000. To date, about half of the applications of the model have been for design of smoke handling systems and sprinkler/detector activation studies. The other half consist of residential and industrial fire reconstructions. Throughout its development, FDS has been aimed at solving practical fire problems in fire protection engineering, while at the same time providing a tool to study fundamental fire dynamics and combustion.\nThe Wildland-Urban Fire Dynamics Simulator (WFDS) is an extension developed by the US Forest Service that is integrated into FDS and allows it to be used for wildfire modeling. It models vegetative fuel either by explicitly defining the volume of the vegetation or, for surface fuels such as grass, by assuming uniform fuel at the air-ground boundary.FDS is a Fortran program that reads input parameters from a text file, computes a numerical solution to the governing equations, and writes user-specified output data to files. Smokeview is a companion program that reads FDS output files and produces animations on the computer screen. Smokeview has a simple menu-driven interface, while FDS does not. However, there are various third-party programs that have been developed to generate the text file containing the input parameters needed by FDS.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The first-order reliability method, (FORM), is a semi-probabilistic reliability analysis method devised to evaluate the reliability of a system. The accuracy of the method can be improved by averaging over many samples, which is known as Line Sampling.The method is also known as the Hasofer-Lind Reliability Index, developed by Professor Michael Hasofer and Professor Neil Lind in 1974. The index has been recognized as an important step towards the development of contemporary methods to effectively and accurately estimate structural safety.The analysis method depends on a \"Most Probable Point\" on the limit state", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Fire polishing, also known as flame polishing, is a method of polishing a material, usually glass or thermoplastics, by exposing it to a flame or heat. When the surface of the material briefly melts, surface tension smooths the surface. Operator skill is critical with this method. When done properly, flame plastic polishing produces the clearest finish, especially when polishing acrylic. This method is most applicable to flat external surfaces. Flame polishing is frequently used in acrylic plastic fabrication because of its high speed compared to abrasive methods. In this application, an oxyhydrogen torch is typically used, one reason being that the flame chemistry is unlikely to contaminate the plastic.\nFlame polishing is essential to creation of the glass pipettes used for the patch clamp technique of voltage clamping.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Float voltage is the voltage at which a battery is maintained after being fully charged to maintain that capacity by compensating for self-discharge of the battery. The voltage could be held constant for the entire duration of the cell's operation (such as in an automotive battery) or could be held for a particular phase of charging by the charger. The appropriate float voltage varies significantly with the chemistry and construction of the battery, and ambient temperature.With the appropriate voltage for the battery type and with proper temperature compensation, a float charger may be kept connected indefinitely without damaging the battery.\nHowever, it should be understood that the concept of a float voltage does not apply equally to all battery chemistries.  For instance, lithium ion cells have to be float charged with extra care because if they are float charged at just a little over optimum voltage, which is generally the full output voltage of the lithium cell, the chemical system within the cell will be damaged to some extent.  Some lithium ion variants are less tolerant than others, but generally overheating, which shortens cell life is likely, and fire and explosion possible other outcomes. It is important to make certain that the battery cell involved can be safely float charged, and that in the absence of protection from a battery management system, that the charger circuit goes into float charge status when full charge is achieved.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Flood control channels are large and empty basins which let water flow in and out (except during flooding) or dry channels that run below the street levels of some larger cities, so that if and when a flood occurs, the water will run into these channels, and eventually drain into a river or other body of water. Flood channels are sometimes built on the former courses of waterways as a way to reduce flooding.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A floodway is a flood plain crossing for a road, built at or close to the natural ground level. It is similar to a causeway, but crosses a shallow depression that is subject to flooding, rather than a waterway or tidal water.They are designed to be submerged under water, but withstand such conditions. Typically floodways are used when the flood frequency or time span is minimal, traffic volumes are low, and the cost of a bridge is uneconomic \u2013 in most cases, in rural areas.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Flow control is a major rapidly-evolving field of fluid dynamics. It implies a small change of a configuration serving an ideally large engineering benefit, like drag reduction, lift increase, mixing enhancement or noise reduction. This change may be accomplished by passive or active devices.\nPassive devices, like turbulators or roughness elements, are steady and require no energy by definition. Active control requires actuators that may be driven in a time-dependent manner and require energy. Examples are valves and plasma actuators. The actuation command may be pre-determined (open-loop control) or be dependent on sensors monitoring the flow state (closed-loop control).", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A flow splitter, in hydraulic engineering, is any device designed to break up the flow of water or nappe over a dam wall or weir.  Flow splitters are used to reduce the likelihood of nappe vibration that might cause the failure of a dam wall by aerating the water flow. They are also used to restrict large flows of stormwater, in situations where a stormwater management device is designed only to treat small storms.Another use for a flow splitter is to again break up the nappe so as to allow fish, such as salmon to swim upstream and over small weirs.\nSplit flow weirs are also used in drinking water and wastewater treatment plants (sewage treatment or industrial wastewater treatment) to proportion flows to different outlets in a junction box.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In materials science the flow stress, typically denoted as Yf (or \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03c3\n          \n            f\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{\\text{f}}}\n  ), is defined as the instantaneous value of stress required to continue plastically deforming a material - to keep it flowing. It is most commonly, though not exclusively, used in reference to metals. On a stress-strain curve, the flow stress can be found anywhere within the plastic regime; more explicitly, a flow stress can be found for any value of strain between and including yield point (\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03c3\n          \n            y\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{\\text{y}}}\n  ) and excluding fracture (\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03c3\n          \n            F\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{\\text{F}}}\n  ):  \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03c3\n          \n            y\n          \n        \n        \u2264\n        \n          Y\n          \n            f\n          \n        \n        <\n        \n          \u03c3\n          \n            F\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{\\text{y}}\\leq Y_{\\text{f}}<\\sigma _{\\text{F}}}\n  .\nThe flow stress changes as deformation proceeds and usually increases as strain accumulates due to work hardening, although the flow stress could decrease due to any recovery process. In continuum mechanics, the flow stress for a given material will vary with changes in temperature, \n  \n    \n      \n        T\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle T}\n  , strain, \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon }\n  , and strain-rate, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \u03b5\n              \u02d9\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\dot {\\varepsilon }}}\n  ; therefore it can be written as some function of those properties:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          Y\n          \n            f\n          \n        \n        =\n        f\n        (\n        \u03b5\n        ,\n        \n          \n            \n              \u03b5\n              \u02d9\n            \n          \n        \n        ,\n        T\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Y_{\\text{f}}=f(\\varepsilon ,{\\dot {\\varepsilon }},T)}\n  The exact equation to represent flow stress depends on the particular material and plasticity model being used. Hollomon's equation is commonly used to represent the behavior seen in a stress-strain plot during work hardening:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          Y\n          \n            f\n          \n        \n        =\n        K\n        \n          \u03b5\n          \n            p\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Y_{\\text{f}}=K\\varepsilon _{\\text{p}}^{\\text{n}}}\n  Where \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          Y\n          \n            f\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Y_{\\text{f}}}\n   is flow stress, \n\n  \n    \n      \n        K\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle K}\n   is a strength coefficient, \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03b5\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon _{\\text{p}}}\n   is the plastic strain, and \n\n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n   is the strain hardening exponent. Note that this is an empirical relation and does not model the relation at other temperatures or strain-rates (though the behavior may be similar).\nGenerally, raising the temperature of an alloy above 0.5 Tm results in the plastic deformation mechanisms being controlled by strain-rate sensitivity, whereas at room temperature metals are generally strain-dependent. Other models may also include the effects of strain gradients. Independent of test conditions, the flow stress is also affected by: chemical composition, purity, crystal structure, phase constitution, microstructure, grain size, and prior strain.The flow stress is an important parameter in the fatigue failure of ductile materials.  Fatigue failure is caused by crack propagation in materials under a varying load, typically a cyclically varying load.  The rate of crack propagation is inversely proportional to the flow stress of the material.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A flushing hydrant is a hydrant that is used for flushing a water line of silt, rust, debris, or stagnant water. Many water utilities use standard fire hydrants for flushing their lines. Specialized flushing hydrants are often smaller and less expensive than a fire hydrant to reduce cost where fire fighting use is not needed or practical. Flushing hydrants typically only have one outlet, in contrast to fire hydrants, which normally have two or three. Flushing hydrants are commonly installed at the end of dead-end water lines.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The foot-pound force (symbol: ft\u22c5lbf,   ft\u22c5lbf, or ft\u22c5lb ) is a unit of work or energy in the engineering and gravitational systems in United States customary and imperial units of measure. It is the energy transferred upon applying a force of one pound-force (lbf) through a linear displacement of one foot.  The corresponding SI unit is the joule.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A force gauge (also called a force meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure forces. Applications exist in research and development, laboratory, quality, production and field environment. There are two kinds of force gauges today: mechanical and digital force gauges. Force Gauges usually measure pressure in stress increments and other dependent human factors.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Some of example of forming processes are:\n\nForging\nExtrusion\n Rolling\nSheet metal working\nRotary swaging\nThread rolling\nExplosive forming\nElectromagnetic forming\nPlastic extrusion\nDie_forming_(plastics)#Process\nFood_extrusion#Process", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Foundation integrity testing is the non-destructive testing of piled foundations. It was first used in the late 1960s, and has been developed over time by many companies. Three organizations supply a majority of the test equipment in use: CEBTP (Centre Exp\u00e9rimental de Recherches et d'Etudes du B\u00e2timent et des Travaux Publics) in Europe; Integrity Testing in Asia and Australia: and by GRL in the USA.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The frequency domain decomposition (FDD) is an output-only system identification technique popular in civil engineering, in particular in structural health monitoring.  As an output-only algorithm, it is useful when the input data is unknown.  FDD is a modal analysis technique which generates a system realization using the frequency response given (multi-)output data.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Donald Cole Freshwater (21 April 1924 \u2013 2 August 2004), known as Don Freshwater,  was a British professor of chemical engineering.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A friction motor is a simple mechanism to propel toy cars, trucks, trains, action figures and similar toys. The motor consists of a large flywheel which is connected to the drive wheels of the toy via a very low gear ratio, so that the flywheel revolves faster. The flywheel's axis is perpendicular to the direction in which the toy faces and moves. When the toy is pushed forward, the drive wheels engage the flywheel. Pushing the vehicle forward repeatedly spins this flywheel up to speed. When let go, the flywheel drives the vehicle forward. The flywheel stores the kinetic energy of the initial acceleration and propels the toy after it is released.As the flywheel, unlike the spring of a pullback motor, is continuously rotating and not held, the motor may be \"pumped up\" by pushing the car repeatedly forward. The cars also typically work in forward and reverse. Some used a zip cord pulled from the vehicle body to accelerate the flywheel directly. Another system was the Turbo Tower of Power (TTP) in which air expelled from a hand-operated pump pushed turbine blades on the flywheel's rim.\nThese toys were especially popular in the 1960s to 1980s though they continue to be available today.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Friction surfacing is a process derived from friction welding where a coating material is applied to a substrate. A rod composed of the coating material (called a mechtrode) is rotated under pressure, generating a plasticised layer in the rod at the interface with the substrate. By moving a substrate across the face of the rotating rod a plasticised layer is deposited, typically between 0.2\u20132.5 millimetres (0.0079\u20130.0984 in) thick with steels on steels, depending on mechtrode diameter and coating material. The process can be used with various metals, including aluminium on to aluminium.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Joseph Frizell (13 March 1832 \u2013 4 May 1910) was an American engineer. He is notable for having independently derived the fundamental equations to describe the velocity of a shock wave (Water hammer equations) in 1898, and for his book Water-Power published in 1901. Water-power was the first practical book on hydraulics in the USA. This was a major milestone in propagation of  engineering knowledge in USA, as Schutze wrote \u2033As an hydraulic engineer, Frizell was prominent, and his book, Waterpower, filled a definitive need in the technology of that day.\u2033 Nevertheless, Frizell's description of the Water hammer was criticized by American contemporaries and his contribution to the field is under-recognised.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A frontal solver, conceived by Bruce Irons, is an approach to solving sparse linear systems which is used extensively in finite element analysis. It is a variant of Gauss elimination that automatically avoids a large number of operations involving zero terms.A frontal solver builds a LU or Cholesky decomposition of a sparse matrix given as the assembly of element matrices by assembling the matrix and eliminating equations only on a subset of elements at a time. This subset is called the front and it is essentially the transition region between the part of the system already finished and the part not touched yet. The whole sparse matrix is never created explicitly. Only parts of the matrix are assembled as they enter the front. Processing the front involves dense matrix operations, which use the CPU efficiently. In a typical implementation, only the front is in memory, while the factors in the decomposition are written into files. The element matrices are read from files or created as needed and discarded.\nA multifrontal solver of Duff and Reid is an improvement of the frontal solver that uses several independent fronts at the same time. The fronts can be worked on by different processors, which enables parallel computing.\nSee for a monograph exposition.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Fun with Radio is a book by Gilbert Davey first published in 1957 by Edmund Ward Ltd (London). At a time when radio receivers were still very expensive, and portable radios still a rarity (transistors were just being introduced), the book introduced many youngsters, mainly boys, to radio construction, and in some cases a career in radio or electronics. Radio construction was, in the early years of broadcasting, a very popular hobby among boys. By the time he published 'Fun with Radio', Davey already had a huge following among readers of the Boy's Own Paper, where he was said to be the most popular contributor on practical subjects among its readers, and in that same year he presented a series on BBC Television's Studio 'E' which reportedly brought him 26,000 letters within a few days of the first broadcast Gilbert Davey had a career as an insurance official, and was an amateur in the field of radio, but his enthusiasm and straightforward writing with clear detailed diagrams inspired many youngsters.Six editions of the book were published, the final one in 1978.  Davey also wrote Fun with Short Wave Radio, Fun with Transistors, Fun with Hi-Fi, and Fun with Silicon Chips in Modern Radio (1981).", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Genivar Inc. was a Canadian engineering consulting firm. As of January 1, 2014, it became WSP Global. Its head office remains located at 1600 Ren\u00e9 L\u00e9vesque Boulevard West in Montreal, Quebec.\nOn August 29, 2011, Genivar Inc. and Montreal-based architectural firm Arcop announced a strategic alliance.On June 7, 2012, Genivar Inc. announced that it made a friendly takeover cash offer of C$442 million (\u00a3278 million) for WSP Group PLC. The offer is backed by WSP's board of directors as well as investors holding 37% of the company's shares. The deal closed on August 1, 2012.In 2013, the company announced it will be changing its name to WSP Global, reflecting a $442-million purchase of the British-based WSP Group PLC. The rebrand followed a reorganisation to a holding structure that enabled the company to separate its regional operations into distinct subsidiaries.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections included (GMNIA), is a structural analysis method designed to verify the strength capacity of a structure, which accounts for both plasticity and buckling failure modes.GMNIA is currently considered the most sophisticated and perspectively the most accurate method of a numerical buckling strength verification.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Glass Packaging Institute (GPI) is the North American trade association for the glass container industry, headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. Through GPI, glass container manufacturers advocate job preservation and industry standards, and promote sound energy, environmental, and recycling policies.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Glava AS is a Norwegian industrial company with headquarters in Askim. The name is a portmanteau of the Norwegian word glassvatt, meaning glass wool. Glass wool used as insulation material is the company's main product. Production takes place at the company's production facilities in Askim and Stj\u00f8rdal. Glava employs around 500 people, and in 2007 had a revenue just short of NOK 1,500 million.The company's history goes back to 1935, when industrialist Jens Bull was offered licensed production in Norway of glass wool, originally a German invention. The company was originally called \"Glassvatt\". During the post-war reconstruction of Norway, Glava grew dramatically, as the need for insulation of buildings became clear. The product is today made on a licence from the French company Saint-Gobain. It is produced from borosilicate glass, which is heated to around 1,400 \u00b0C before being stretched into fibres.In 1959, the company was responsible for the so-called \"ice block expedition\", later called \"the world's greatest publicity stunt\". The expedition consisted in bringing a three-ton block of ice from Mo i Rana by the Arctic Circle, to Libreville by the Equator, without using any form of refrigeration.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Glazing, which derives from the Middle English for 'glass', is a part of a wall or window, made of glass. Glazing also describes the work done by a professional \"glazier\". Glazing is also less commonly used to describe the insertion of ophthalmic lenses into an eyeglass frame.Common types of glazing that are used in architectural applications include clear and tinted float glass, tempered glass, and laminated glass as well as a variety of coated glasses, all of which can be glazed singly or as double, or even triple, glazing units. Ordinary clear glass has a slight green tinge but special colorless glasses are offered by several manufacturers.Glazing can be mounted on the surface of a window sash or door stile, usually made of wood, aluminium or PVC. The glass is fixed into a rabbet (rebate) in the frame in a number of ways including triangular glazing points, putty, etc.  Toughened and laminated glass can be glazed by bolting panes directly to a metal framework by bolts passing through drilled holes. \nGlazing is commonly used in low temperature solar thermal collectors because it helps retain the collected heat.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Global Powder Metallurgy Database (GPMD) is an online searchable database that has been developed as the result of a joint project between leading regional powder metallurgy (PM) trade associations, the EPMA and its sister organisations in Japan (JPMA) and North America (MPIF).\nThis database was created in response to a worldwide recognition that the absence of a readily accessible source of design data was acting as a significant impediment to the wider application of PM products. \nPrimarily aimed at designers and engineers in the industries using PM products, it is designed to provide verified physical, mechanical and fatigue data for a range of commercially available PM materials.\nThis culminated in the initial launch of the database at the PM World Congress in Vienna in October 2004. The content of the database, at this launch, was restricted to data on low alloy ferrous and stainless steel PM structural part grades and bronze and iron-based PM bearing grades.\nHowever, enhancement and extension of content and searching capability has been an ongoing process ever since. In January 2007, the content was expanded with the addition of data on non-ferrous PM structural part grades, followed, in March 2007, by the introduction of a new section covering data on Metal Injection Moulding (MIM) materials.\nThe latest extension to capability involves making full SN Fatigue Curve \"pages\" (comprising SN curves and details of individual test points) accessible to searchers. The initial content comprises over 130 SN Curve pages, covering a range of Fe-Cu-C grades and based on published information that has been analysed and collated by the group led by Professor Paul Beiss at the Technical University of Aachen. The collated SN curves cover a range of material processing conditions and density levels and a range of fatigue testing conditions (fatigue loading mode, mean stress level and notch factor).\nIn assembling the GPMD content, a broad range of mechanical, fatigue and physical property data has been collected from the associations\u2019 memberships and rigorously evaluated by regional accreditation committees. However, the database's primary targets are designers and material specifiers in end-user industries who may have no prior knowledge of PM. Therefore, the bulk of the search structure has been designed to take such a searcher to the point where they can decide that they ought to contact a PM parts manufacturer to discuss a potential application in more detail.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The grain boundary diffusion coefficient is the diffusion coefficient of a diffusant along a grain boundary in a polycrystalline solid.  It is a physical constant denoted \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          D\n          \n            b\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D_{b}}\n  , and it is important in understanding how grain boundaries affect atomic diffusivity. Grain boundary diffusion is a commonly observed route for solute migration in polycrystalline materials. It dominates the effective diffusion rate at lower temperatures in metals and metal alloys. Take the apparent self-diffusion coefficient for single-crystal and polycrystal silver, for example. At high temperatures, the coefficient  \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          D\n          \n            b\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D_{b}}\n   is the same in both types of samples. However, at temperatures below 700 \u00b0C, the values of \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          D\n          \n            b\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D_{b}}\n   with polycrystal silver consistently lie above the values of \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          D\n          \n            b\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D_{b}}\n   with a single crystal.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A gravity-based structure (GBS) is a support structure held in place by gravity, most notably offshore oil platforms. These structures are often constructed in fjords due to their protected area and sufficient depth.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Great Kite (Italian: il Grande Nibbio) was a wooden machine designed by Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo realized it between the end of  the 15th Century and the beginning of the 16th Century. Drawings of parts and components of this machine can be found in the Codex on the flight of birds, which however lacks the overall description of the machine itself. Some drawings within the same codex suggest that it was created in similarity with flapping flight. However, this was hardly possible to perform given the available technologies, thus Leonardo developed a machine for mainly a gliding flight. The machine is named after the animal from which Leonardo took inspiration to realize the flying machine, the Kite.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Ground conductivity refers to the electrical conductivity of the subsurface of the earth. In the International System of Units (SI) it is measured in millisiemens per meter (mS/m).", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In telecommunication, ground constants are the electrical parameters of earth: electrical conductivity, \u03c3, electrical permittivity, \u03b5, and magnetic permeability, \u03bc.\nThe values of these parameters vary with the local chemical composition and density of the Earth. For a propagating electromagnetic wave, such as a surface wave propagating along the surface of the Earth, these parameters vary with frequency and direction. \n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A guardian valve is a valve used in marine steam turbine propulsion plants to prevent steam from leaking into the astern turbine while the vessel is operating in the ahead mode. It is normally installed between the astern throttle valve and the astern elements of the low pressure (LP) turbine. Typically only the LP turbine of a steam ship's propulsion plant has reversing blade elements. Steam leaking in such a manner would result in a loss of efficiency and possibly overheat and damage the turbine blades.The guardian valve must be opened prior to any maneuvering situation, in order to permit the astern turbine to be used to bring the vessel to a rapid stop or to back down.\nAny similar arrangement of a stop valve used to protect leaking past a throttling valve could also be referred to as a guardian valve.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Guidance, navigation and control (abbreviated GNC,  GN&C, or G&C and within the context of NASA operations, often pronounced 'Gintsee' or (IPA) \u02a4\u026ansi\u02d0) is a branch of engineering dealing with the design of systems to control the movement of vehicles,  especially, automobiles, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. In many cases these functions can be performed by trained humans. However, because of the speed of, for example, a rocket's dynamics, human reaction time is too slow to control this movement. Therefore, systems\u2014now almost exclusively digital electronic\u2014are used for such control. Even in cases where humans can perform these functions, it is often the case that GNC systems provide benefits such as alleviating operator work load, smoothing turbulence, fuel savings, etc.  In addition, sophisticated applications of GNC enable automatic or remote control.\n\nGuidance refers to the determination of the desired path of travel (the \"trajectory\") from the vehicle's current location to a designated target, as well as desired changes in velocity, rotation and acceleration for following that path.\nNavigation refers to the determination, at a given time, of the vehicle's location and velocity (the \"state vector\") as well as its attitude.\nControl refers to the manipulation of the forces, by way of steering controls, thrusters, etc., needed to execute guidance commands while maintaining vehicle stability.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The guided-rotor compressor (GRC) is a positive-displacement rotary gas compressor. The compression volume is defined by the trochoidally rotating rotor mounted on an eccentric drive shaft with a typical 80 to 85% adiabatic efficiency.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A guideline tensioner is a hydropneumatic device used on an offshore drilling rig that keeps a positive pulling force on the guidelines from the platform to a template on the seabed.The guidelines act as a guidance for equipment and tools that must be lowered to the template. If there was no tensioner and the platform moved, the guidelines would become slack and could be broken. For this reason a number of guideline tensioners are mounted between the platform and riser. Each of these guideline tensioners consists of a hydraulic cylinder with sheaves at both sides. The cylinder is connected to one or more high pressure gas bottles via a medium separator. A wire rope is rigged in the cylinder; one end is connected to the fixed part of the tensioner, the other end to the template.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "HARMST is an acronym for high aspect ratio microstructure technology, which describes fabrication technologies,\nused to create high-aspect-ratio microstructures with heights between tens of micrometers up to a centimeter, and aspect ratios greater than 10:1.  Examples include the LIGA fabrication process, advanced silicon etch, and deep reactive ion etching.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Hart's inversors are two planar mechanisms that provide a perfect straight line motion using only rotary joints.  They were invented and published by Harry Hart in 1874\u20135.Hart's first inversor, also known as Hart's W-frame, is based on an antiparallelogram. The addition of fixed points and a driving arm make it a 6-bar linkage.  It can be used to convert rotary motion to a perfect straight line by fixing a point on one short link and driving a point on another link in a circular arc.Hart's second inversor, also known as Hart's A-frame, is less flexible in its dimensions, but has the useful property that the motion perpendicularly bisects the fixed base points.  It is shaped like a capital A \u2013 a stacked trapezium and triangle.  It is also a 6-bar linkage.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Col. Dewitt Clinton Haskin (circa 1824 \u2013 July 17, 1900) was an American engineer who developed the initial methods for construction of the first tunnels under the Hudson River between New Jersey and Manhattan.\nIn the late 1860s Haskin gained experience in California on the construction of the California Pacific Railroad.For the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad project, he founded the Hudson Tunnel Company in 1873, and began construction in 1874 by digging a shaft in Jersey City, New Jersey. He had patented a compressed air method for reducing cave-ins, but in 1880, 20 workers were killed in a blowout. Another blowout in 1881 and a gradual loss of funding halted the project in 1887. After a British firm worked on the project from 1889-1891, lawyer William Gibbs McAdoo completed the project in 1908. (See Uptown Hudson Tubes.)\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Hayes similitude principle enabled aerodynamicists to take the results of one series of tests or calculations and apply them to the design of an entire family of similar configurations where neither tests nor detailed calculations are available.The similitude principle was developed by Wallace D. Hayes, a pioneer in hypersonic flow, which is considered to begin at about five times the speed of sound, or Mach 5, and is described in his classic book Hypersonic Flow Theory co-written with Ronald Probstein and first published in 1959.\nThe behavior of the physical processes in actual problems is affected by so many physical quantities that a complete mathematical description thereof is usually very difficult and sometimes practically impossible due to the complicated nature of the phenomena. We know from experience that if two systems are geometrically similar there usually exists some kind of similarity under certain conditions, such as kinematic similarity, dynamic similarity, thermal similarity, and similarity  of concentration distribution, and that if similarity conditions are satisfied we can greatly reduce the number of independent variables required to describe the behavior of the process. In this way, we can systematically understand. describe, and even predict the behavior of physical processes in real problems in a relatively simple manner. This principle is known as principle of similitude. Dimensional analysis is a method of deducing logical groupings of the variables, through which we can describe similarity criteria of the processes.\nPhysical quantities such as length [L], mass [M], time [T],  and temperature are dimensional quantities and the magnitude of each quantity can be described by multiples of the unit of each dimension namely m, kg, s, and K, respectively. Through experience, we can select a certain number of fundamental dimensions, such as those mentioned above, and express all other dimensional quantities in terms of products of powers of these fundamental dimensions. Furthermore, in describing the behavior of physical processes, we know that there is an implicit principle that we cannot add or subtract physical quantities of different dimensions. This means that the equations governing physical processes must be dimensionally consistent and each term of the equation must have the same dimensions. This principle is known as the principle of dimensional homogeneity.\n(courtesy: Book: Mass transfer : from fundamentals to modern industrial applications, Publisher: Weinheim : WILEY-VCH, 2006.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) is a generic term given to activities that utilize data collection and analysis techniques to help ensure availability, reliability and safety of vehicles. Activities similar to, or sometimes used interchangeably with, HUMS include condition-based maintenance (CBM) and operational data recording (ODR). This term HUMS is often used in reference to airborne craft and in particular rotor-craft \u2013 the term is cited as being introduced by the offshore oil industry after a commercial Chinook crashed in the North Sea, killing all but one passenger and one crew member in 1986.HUMS technology and regulation continues to be developed.HUMS are now used not only for safety but for a number of other reasons including \n\nMaintenance: reduced mission aborts, fewer instances of aircraft on ground (AOG), simplified logistics for fleet deployment\nCost: \u201cmaintain as you fly\u201d maintenance flights are not required. Performing repairs when the damage is minor increases the aircraft mean time before failure (MTBF) and decreases the mean time to repair (MTTR)\nOperational: improved flight safety, mission reliability and effectiveness\nPerformance: improved aircraft performance and reduced fuel consumptionRecent advances in the technology include predictive algorithms providing Remaining Useful Life estimates of components and automated wireless data transfer from the aircraft via WiFi or Cellular.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The heat loss due to linear thermal bridging (\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          H\n          \n            T\n            B\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle H_{TB}}\n  ) is a physical quantity used when calculating the energy performance of buildings.  It appears in both United Kingdom and Irish methodologies.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A heating plant, also called a physical plant, or steam plant, generates thermal energy in the form of steam for use in district heating applications. Unlike combined heat and power installations which produce thermal energy as a by-product of electricity generation, heating plants are dedicated to generating heat for use in various processes.\nHeating plants are commonly used at hospital or university campuses, military bases, office tower complexes, and public housing complexes. The plant will generate steam which is distributed to each building where it is used to make domestic hot water for human consumption, heating hot water in the case of hydronic heating systems, air conditioning through the use of absorption refrigeration units, air heating in HVAC units, humidification, industrial laundry systems, or sterilization at hospitals. The steam may be sold to each customer and billed through the use of a steam flow meter. \nThey feature boilers, either water tube or fire tube, which generate steam for various uses and demands. The plant also hosts all of the boiler auxiliaries such as water treatment equipment, air handling, fuel handling, controls, instrument air, and various other plant systems which support the production of steam. \nThe heating plant can use different fuels: \n\nNatural gas\nHeating oil\nBiomass\nCoal\nRefuse\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Heated hoses are hoses used for transporting liquids or molten materials where  integral heat is needed for temperature control.  Heated hoses are used  in bonding technology, filling and dosing systems, medical technology, chemical, pharmaceutical and food industry, extruder applications, and research & development. The heated hoses are used wherever a liquid, viscous or melted medium has to be transported from one place to another, e.g. chocolate, jelly or hotmelt. In most applications, the temperature of the medium needs to remain constant at a specified value irrespective of variations in ambient temperature.  Several constructions are available.Heated hoses are suitable for environments from -40\u00b0C to 80\u00b0C and can be used in explosion-proof zones 1/21 and 2/22, if required.A heated hose consists of a flexible hose, through which the media is pumped. This hose determines the resistance against temperature and chemicals. A heating element is wrapped on the hose and then it is covered with insulation material. Possible insulation materials are Polyamid, steel wire or silicone. The heating element contains a heat sensor. Fittings and fixtures can vary with the application.\nHeated hose are generally specified by required inside diameter, working pressure, operating conditions, voltage, temperature sensor  and hose fitting.\nHeated hoses are now available for use around the home and farm. Commonly used on farms to get water to livestock in northern climates during the winter.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Heatwork is the combined effect of temperature and time. It is important to several industries:\n\nCeramics\nGlass and metal annealing\nMetal heat treatingPyrometric devices can be used to gauge heat work as they deform or contract due to heatwork to produce temperature equivalents. Within tolerances, firing can be undertaken at lower temperatures for a longer period to achieve comparable results. When the amount of heatwork of two firings is the same, the pieces may look identical, but there may be differences not visible, such as mechanical strength and microstructure. Heatwork is taught in material science courses, but is not a precise measurement or a valid scientific concept.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEEE Heinrich Hertz Medal was a science award presented by the IEEE for outstanding achievements in the field of electromagnetic waves. The medal was named in honour of German physicist Heinrich Hertz, and was first proposed in 1986 by IEEE Region 8 (Germany) as a centennial recognition of Hertz's work on electromagnetic radiation theory from 1886 to 1891. The medal was first awarded in 1988, and was presented annually until 2001. It was officially discontinued in November 2009.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Heroic Age of American Invention is a science book for children by L. Sprague de Camp, published by Doubleday in 1961. It was reprinted in 1993 by Barnes & Noble under the alternate title The Heroes of American Invention. The book has been translated in Portuguese.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A hoop gun is a gun production technique that uses multiple layers of tubes to form a built-up gun. The innermost tube has one or more extra tubes wrapped around the main tube. These outer tubes are preheated before they are slid into position. As the outer tubes cool they naturally contract. This pre-stresses the main tube so it can withstand greater internal pressures.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Hot Interconnects is an IEEE sponsored international symposium on High Performance Interconnects held every year starting 1993. The symposium intends to bring together the architects and designers of high performance interconnects, software and systems together on platform to discuss the latest trends in the area.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Human Factor: Revolutionizing the Way People Live with Technology (ISBN 0-415-97064-4) is a book by Kim Vicente that Routledge published in 2004. Vicente asserts (as cited in the Optimize article listed in the \"References\" section) technology in such constructs as hospitals, airplanes, and nuclear power plants have significant room for improvement.  Some of the specific industrial accidents Vicente analyzes are the Walkerton Tragedy and  the Chernobyl Disaster.  Also, for medical error, he details many fatal vincristine dosage errors.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Human Factors in Engineering and Design is an engineering textbook, currently in its seventh edition. The book, first published in 1957, is considered a classic in human factors and ergonomics, and one of the best-established texts in the field. It is frequently taught in upper-level and graduate courses in the U.S., and is relied on by practicing human factors and ergonomics professionals.The text is divided into six sections: Introduction; Information Input; Human Output and Control; Work Space and Arrangement; Environment; and Human Factors: Selected Topics.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Hydride vapour phase epitaxy (HVPE) is an epitaxial growth technique often employed to produce semiconductors such as GaN, GaAs, InP and their related compounds, in which hydrogen chloride is reacted at elevated temperature with the group-III metals to produce gaseous metal chlorides, which then react with ammonia to produce the group-III nitrides. Carrier gasses commonly used include ammonia, hydrogen and various chlorides.\nHVPE technology can significantly reduce the cost of production compared to the most common method of vapor deposition of organometallic compounds (MOCVD). Cost reduction is achieved by significantly reducing the consumption of NH3, cheaper source materials than in MOCVD, reducing the capital equipment costs, due to the high growth rate.\nDeveloped in the 1960s, it was the first epitaxial method used for the fabrication of single GaN crystals.\nHydride Vapour Phase Epitaxy (HVPE) is the only III-V and III-N semiconductor crystal growth process working close to equilibrium. That means that the condensation reactions exhibit fast kinetics: one observes immediate reactivity to an increase of the vapour phase supersaturation towards condensation. This property is due to the use of chloride vapour precursors GaCl and InCl, of which dechlorination frequency is high enough so that there is no kinetic delay. A wide range of growth rates, from 1 to 100 microns per hour, can then be set as a function of the vapour phase supersaturation. Another HVPE feature is that growth is governed by surface kinetics: adsorption of gaseous precursors, decomposition of ad-species, desorption of decomposition products, surface diffusion towards kink sites. This property is of benefit when it comes to selective growth on patterned substrates for the synthesis of objects and structures exhibiting a 3D morphology. The morphology is only dependent on the intrinsic growth anisotropy of crystals. By setting experimental growth parameters of temperature and composition of the vapour phase, one can control this anisotropy, which can be very high as growth rates can be varied by an order of magnitude. Therefore, we can shape structures with various novel aspect ratios. The accurate control of growth morphology was used for the making of GaN quasi-substrates, arrays of GaAs and GaN structures on the micrometer and submicrometer scales, GaAs tips for local spin injection. Fast dechlorination property is also used for the VLS growth of GaAs and GaN nanowires with exceptional length.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Hydrogen darkening is a physical degradation of the optical properties of glass. Free hydrogen atoms are able to bind to the SiO2 silica glass compound forming hydroxyl (OH)\u2014a chemical compound that interferes with the passage of light through the glass.\nThe problem is particularly relevant to fiber optic cables\u2014particularly in oil and gas wells where fiber optic cables are used for distributed temperature sensing (DTS). Hydrogen can be present due to the cracking of hydrocarbons in the well.  The darkening of the fiber can distort the DTS reading and possibly render the DTS system inoperable due to the optical loss budget being exceeded.\nTo prevent this, coatings such as carbon are applied to the fiber, and hydrogen capturing gels are used to buffer the fiber, and other proprietary techniques may be used to prevent hydrogen atoms from reaching the glass fiber via the cable sheath.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In modern English usage, the informal term idiot-proof or  foolproof describes designs that cannot be misused either inherently, or by use of defensive design principles. The implication is that the design is usable even by someone of low intelligence who would not use it properly.\nThe term \"foolproof\" originates in 1902. The term \"idiot-proof\" became popular in the 1970s. It may have been invented as a stronger-sounding version of foolproof, as the force of foolproof had declined due to frequent usage. Perhaps for the same reason, \"foolproof\" is now a formal term, whereas \"idiot-proof\" remains informal.\nSeveral Murphy's law adages claim that idiot-proof systems cannot be made, for example \"Nothing is foolproof to a sufficiently talented fool\" and \"If you make something idiot-proof, someone will just make a better idiot.\" Along those lines, Douglas Adams wrote in Mostly Harmless, \"a common mistake that people make when trying to design something completely foolproof is to underestimate the ingenuity of complete fools\".", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "IEC 60068 is an international standard for the environmental testing of electrotechnical products that is published by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).\nIEC 60068 is a collection of methods for environmental testing of electronic equipment and products to assess their ability to perform under environmental conditions including extreme cold and dry heat.  IEC 60068 offers appropriate severities and prescribes various environmental conditions for measurements and tests. \nIEC 60068 has three parts:\n\nIEC 60068-1: General and guidance\nIEC 60068-2: Tests\nIEC 60068-3: Supporting documentation and guidance", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "IEC 60228 is the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)'s international standard on conductors of insulated cables. As of 2020 the current version is Third Edition 2004-11\nAmong other things, it defines a set of standard wire cross-sectional areas:\n\nIn engineering applications, it is often most convenient to describe a wire in terms of its cross-section area, rather than its diameter, because the cross section is directly proportional to its strength and weight, and inversely proportional to its resistance. The cross-sectional area is also related to the maximum current that a wire can carry safely.\nThis document is one considered fundamental in that it does not contain reference to any other standard.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "IEC 60929 is an international standard created by the International Electrotechnical Commission and covers electronic ballasts used in AC supplies with voltages up to 1000 V and with operating frequencies at 50 Hz or 60 Hz. The actual operating frequency may deviate from the specified supply frequency. The standard essentially covers the same material as IEC 60921, but it is considerably more complex due to the high frequency aspect of electronic ballasts. Appendix E of the standard defines the DALI, which specifies how ballasts are controlled.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "IEC/EN 62061, \u201dSafety of machinery: Functional safety of electrical, electronic and programmable electronic control systems\u201d, is the machinery specific implementation of  IEC/EN 61508. It provides requirements that are applicable to the system level design of all types of machinery safety-related electrical control systems and also for the design of non-complex subsystems or devices.\nThe risk assessment results in a risk reduction strategy which in turn, identifies the need for safety-related control functions. These functions must be documented and must include:\n\nFunctional requirements specification\nSafety integrity requirements specificationThe functional requirements include details like frequency of operation, required response time, operating modes, duty cycles, operating environment, and fault reaction functions. The safety integrity requirements are expressed in levels called safety integrity level (SIL). Depending on the complexity of the system, some or all of the elements in Table 14 must be considered to determine whether the system design meets the required SIL.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "IEC 62264 is an international standard for enterprise-control system integration. This standard is based upon ANSI/ISA-95.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "IEC Technical Committee 57 is one of the technical committees of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). TC 57 is responsible for development of standards for information exchange for power systems and other related systems including Energy Management Systems, SCADA, distribution automation & teleprotection.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEEE Biometrics Council is one of seven councils of the IEEE.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEEE Council on Electronic Design Automation, also called IEEE CEDA, or Council on EDA, or just CEDA, is an organizational unit of the IEEE.  It was started since many of the member societies have a common interest in electronic design automation, or EDA.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEEE Donald G. Fink Prize Paper Award was established in 1979 by the board of directors of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in honor of Donald G. Fink. He was a past president of the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE), and the first general manager and executive director of the IEEE. Recipients of this award received a certificate and an honorarium. The award was presented annually since 1981 and discontinued in 2016.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEEE John von Neumann Medal was established by the IEEE Board of Directors in 1990 and may be presented annually \"for outstanding  achievements in computer-related science and technology.\" The achievements may be theoretical, technological, or entrepreneurial, and need not have been made immediately prior to the date of the award.\nThe medal is named after John von Neumann.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering is a journal published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.  The journal's editor in chief is Associate Professor Mandar Chitre, of the National University of Singapore.\nAccording to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 3.554.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In 2002, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) added a new award to its already existing program of awards. Each year, one or more nominees are honored with a medal in the name of Jun-ichi Nishizawa, considered to be the father of Japanese microelectronics. Nishizawa was professor, director of two research institutes and the 17th president at Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan, and contributed important innovations in the fields of optical communications and semiconductor devices, such as laser and PIN diodes and static induction thyristors for electric power applications.\nThis medal is awarded by the IEEE on a yearly basis to nominees in the fields of materials science and device technologies.\nSponsor of this award is the Federation of Electric Power Companies, Japan.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEEE Registration Authority is the administrative body that is responsible for registering and administering organizationally unique identifiers (OUI) and other types of identifiers which are used in the computer and electronics industries (Individual Address Blocks (IAB), Manufacturer IDs, Standard Group MAC Addresses, Unique Registration Numbers (URN), EtherType values, etc.)\nThe IEEE Registration Authority was formed in 1986 in response to a need for this service that was recognized by the P802 (LAN/MAN) standards group. The IEEE Registration Authority is currently recognized by ISO/IEC as the authorized registration authority to provide the service of globally assigning, administering, and registering OUIs.\n\nNote: The term 'Registration' as used in this context is \"the assignment of unambiguous names to objects in a way which makes the assignment available to interested parties\".", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEEE Reynold B. Johnson Information Storage Systems Award is  a Technical Field Award of the IEEE given each year to an individual, multiple recipients, or team up to three in number that has made outstanding contributions to information storage systems. The award is named in honor of Reynold B. Johnson.The award was established in 1991. The award includes a bronze medal, certificate, and honorarium. It was last awarded in 2015.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEEE Richard Harold Kaufmann Award is a Technical Field Award of the IEEE that was established by the IEEE Board of Directors in 1986.  This award is presented for outstanding contributions in industrial systems engineering.\nThe award may be presented to an individual, or team of up to three people.\nRecipients of this award receive a bronze medal, certificate, and honorarium", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Illustrated Science and Invention Encyclopedia was an encyclopedia of books originally published in parts in the United Kingdom under the title How It Works, by Marshall Cavendish Limited, and republished in the United States in 1974 by H.S. Stuttman Publishers in Westport, Connecticut, in 21 volumes (OCLC 3643238). It was supplanted by their The New Illustrated Science and Invention Encyclopedia: How It Works, a 28 volume set edited by Donald Clarke and Mark Dartford, published in 1987 (ISBN 9780874754506) (OCLC 1333004714), and then republished in 28 volumes from 1989 to 1993 (ISBN 9780874754506),(OCLC 28822057). A 2003 edition numbered 20 volumes, and was well reviewed.The encyclopedia was also published under the title \"Science Horizons Year Books\" and in a one-volume edition.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Impinging mixers combine and disperse resins within each other, and are often used in reaction injection molding (RIM).  Mixing occurs as two high velocity streams collide in a mixing chamber.  High velocity results in a turbulent rather than a laminar flow.\nImpingement mixing is most effective when it occurs at the center of the mixing chamber. Thermosetting plastics cure by a chemical reaction between two resins.  The resins must be mixed immediately before they are injected into a mold.  The mixing can be done by impingement mixing, where two streams to collide at high velocity in a mixing chamber.  As soon as the mixing chamber is full, a piston immediately pushes the mixed resin into the mold, leaving very little mixed resin curing outside the mold.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The indentation size effect (ISE) is the observation that hardness tends to increase as the indent size decreases at small scales. When an indent (any small mark, but usually made with a special tool) is created during material testing, the hardness of the material is not constant. At the small scale, materials will actually be harder than at the macro-scale. For the conventional indentation size effect, the smaller the indentation, the larger the difference in hardness. The effect has been seen through nanoindentation and microindentation measurements at varying depths. Dislocations increase material hardness by increasing flow stress through dislocation blocking mechanisms.  Materials contain statistically stored dislocations (SSD) which are created by homogeneous strain and are dependent upon the material and processing conditions. Geometrically necessary dislocations (GND) on the other hand are formed, in addition to the dislocations statistically present, to maintain continuity within the material. \nThese additional geometrically necessary dislocations (GND) further increase the flow stress in the material and therefore the measured hardness. Theory suggests that plastic flow is impacted by both strain and the size of the strain gradient experienced in the material. Smaller indents have higher strain gradients relative to the size of the plastic zone and therefore have a higher measured hardness in some materials.\n\nFor practical purposes this effect means that hardness in the low micro and nano regimes cannot be directly compared if measured using different loads. However, the benefit of this effect is that it can be used to measure the effects of strain gradients on plasticity. Several new plasticity models have been developed using data from indentation size effect studies, which can be applied to high strain gradient situations such as thin films.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "InHour is a unit of reactivity of a nuclear reactor.  It stands for the inverse of an hour.  It is equal to the inverse of the period in hours.  One InHour is the amount of reactivity needed to increase the reaction from critical to where the power will increase by a factor of e in one hour.The unit is abbreviated  ih or inhr, and is usually measured with a reactimeter.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Institute for Micro Process Engineering IMVT (from the German name  Institut f\u00fcr Mikroverfahrenstechnik) is an institute within the Karlsruhe Research Center (Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe) in Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany. Its main field of activity is micro process engineering, the science of conducting chemical and/or physical processes in confines with typical dimensions below 1 mm.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEICE - Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers (Japanese: \u96fb\u5b50\u60c5\u5831\u901a\u4fe1\u5b66\u4f1a) is a Japanese institute specializing in the areas of electronic, information and communication engineering and associated fields. Its headquarters are located in Tokyo, Japan. It is a membership organization with the purpose of advancing the field of electronics, information and communications and support activities of its members.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The 1103 is a dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) integrated circuit (IC) developed and fabricated by Intel. Introduced in October 1970, the 1103 was the first commercially available DRAM IC; and due to its small physical size and low price relative to magnetic-core memory, it replaced the latter in many applications.  When it was introduced in 1970, initial production yields were poor, and it was not until the fifth stepping of the production masks that it became available in large quantities during 1971.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "ICASSP, the International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, is an annual flagship conference organized of IEEE Signal Processing Society. All papers included in its proceedings have been indexed by Ei Compendex.\nThe first ICASSP was held in 1976 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania based on the success of a conference in Massachusetts four years earlier that had focused specifically on speech signals.As ranked by Google Scholar's h-index metric in 2016, ICASSP has  the highest h-index of any conference in Signal Processing field.\nAlso, It is considered a high level conference in signal processing and, for example, obtained an 'A1' rating from the Brazilian ministry of education based on its H-index.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The International Conference on Computer-Aided Design (ICCAD) is a yearly conference about electronic design automation. From the start in 1980 until 2014 the conference was held in San Jose, California. It is sponsored by the IEEE Circuits and Systems Society, Computer-Aided Design Technical Committee (CANDE), the IEEE Council on Electronic Design Automation (CEDA), and SIGDA, and in cooperation with the IEEE Electron Devices Society and the IEEE Solid State Circuits Society.\nUnlike the Design Automation Conference, Design Automation and Test in Europe (DATE), and Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference (ASP-DAC), ICCAD is primarily a technical conference, with only a small trade show component.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The International Conference on Microreaction Technology (IMRET) is a scientific conference series\nin the field of micro process engineering and the science of microreactors.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The International Conference on Web Services or ICWS denotes an international forum for researchers and industry practitioners focused on Web services. Since 2018 there are two ICWS events, one is sponsored by Services Society and Springer, and the other is sponsored by the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE ICWS). The IEEE ICWS event has an 'A' rating in the Conference Portal - Core and an 'A' rating in the Excellence in Research for Australia.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) is a building code created by the International Code Council in 2000. It is a model code adopted by many states and municipal governments in the United States for the establishment of minimum design and construction requirements for energy efficiency.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The International Symposium on Physical Design, or ISPD is a yearly conference on the topic of electronic design automation, concentrating on algorithms for the physical design of integrated circuits.  It is typically held in April of each year, in a city in the western United States.  It is sponsored by the SIGDA of the Association for Computing Machinery and the IEEE Council on Electronic Design Automation (CEDA).\nISPD is purely a technical conference with no associated trade show.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Ion plating (IP) is a physical vapor deposition (PVD) process that is sometimes called ion assisted deposition (IAD) or ion vapor deposition (IVD) and is a version of vacuum deposition. Ion plating uses concurrent or periodic bombardment of the substrate, and deposits film by atomic-sized energetic particles. Bombardment prior to deposition is used to sputter clean the substrate surface. During deposition the bombardment is used to modify and control the properties of the depositing film. It is important that the bombardment be continuous between the cleaning and the deposition portions of the process to maintain an atomically clean interface.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Iranian Earthquake Engineering Association (IEEA) is an organization established in 1993 under the auspices of the Iranian Scientific Associations commissions. It seeks to promote, expand, and improve Iranian research, training, and education in the fields of earthquake engineering and seismology. The IEEA's membership comprises more than 900 researchers, practicing professionals, educators, government officials, and building code regulators.\nThe IEEA's main activity in the last few years has concentrated on the training of engineers in the retrofitting of structures, publishing the newsletter, and giving monthly lectures.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "An iron founder (also iron-founder or ironfounder) in its more general sense is a worker in molten ferrous metal, generally working within an iron foundry. However, the term 'iron founder' is usually reserved for the owner or manager of an iron foundry, a person also known in Victorian England as a 'master'. Workers in a foundry are generically described as 'foundrymen'; however, the various craftsmen working in foundries, such as moulders and pattern makers, are often referred to by their specific trades.Historically the appellation \"founder\" was given to the supervisor of a blast furnace, and persons who made castings in iron or other heavy metal. The term is also often applied to the company or works in which an iron foundry operates.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Iron powder has several uses; for example production of magnetic alloys and certain types of steels.Iron powder is formed as a whole from several other iron particles. The particle sizes vary anywhere from 20-200 \u03bcm. The iron properties differ depending on the production method and history of a specific iron powder. There are three types of iron powder classifications: reduced iron powder, atomized powder, and electrolytic iron powder. Each type is used in various applications depending on their properties. There is very little difference in the visual appearances of reduced iron powder and atomized iron powder.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "ISIRI 13139 is a standard published by the Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran (ISIRI) in 2011 based on Directive 2009/61/EC. It defines \"Installation of lighting and light-signalling devices on wheeled agricultural and forestry tractors\".", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "ISO 17800 is an international standard for the Facility Smart Grid Information Model (FSGIM), which is currently under development. ISO 17800 is one of the International Organization for Standardization's group of standards for building environment design, and is the responsibility of ISO Technical Committee 205 (TC205).", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "ISO/IEC 4909 is a 2006 international standard produced by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for Identification cards \u2014 Financial transaction cards \u2014 Magnetic stripe data content for track 3. It was reviewed in 2018. The original ISO 4909 standard appeared in 1987. It is one of a number of international bank card standards. The standard is used for credit cards.The standard has been adopted in many countries, including (for example)\nDenmark,Germany,India,Netherlands,New Zealand,Norway,United Kingdom,\netc.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "ISO/IEC 5218 Information technology \u2014 Codes for the representation of human sexes is an international standard that defines a representation of human sexes through a language-neutral single-digit code. It can be used in information systems such as database applications.The four codes specified in ISO/IEC 5218 are:\n\n0 = Not known;\n1 = Male;\n2 = Female;\n9 = Not applicable.The standard specifies that its use may be referred to by the designator \"SEX\".\nThe standard explicitly states that no significance is to be placed on the encoding of male as 1 and female as 2; the encoding merely reflects existing practice in the countries that initiated this standard. The standard also explains that it \"meets the requirements of most applications that need to code human sexes. It does not provide codes for sexes that may be required in specific medical and scientific applications or in applications that need to code sex information other than for human beings.\"\nISO/IEC 5218 was created by ISO's Data Management and Interchange Technical Committee, proposed in November 1976, and updated in July 2004.  The standard is currently maintained by \nthe ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee (ISO/IEC JTC 1) subcommittee on Data management and interchange (ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 32).\nThis standard is used in several national identification numbers. For example, the first digit of the French INSEE number and the first digit of the Republic of China National Identification Card (Chinese: \u4e2d\u83ef\u6c11\u570b\u570b\u6c11\u8eab\u5206\u8b49) are based on ISO/IEC 5218 values.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "ISO/IEC 6523 Information technology \u2013 Structure for the identification of organizations and organization parts is an international standard that defines a structure for uniquely identifying organizations and parts thereof in computer data interchange and specifies the registration procedure to obtain an International Code Designator (ICD) value for an identification scheme.\nThe standard consists of two parts:\nPart 1: Identification of organization identification schemes defines a structure for the identification of organizations and parts thereof. The components of this structure are the following:\n\nan International Code Designator (ICD) value, which uniquely identifies the authority which issued the code to the organization, up to 4 digits\nan organization identifier, up to a maximum of 35 characters\nan (optional) organization part identifier (OPI), up to a maximum of 35 characters (An organization part can be any kind of entity within an organization.)\nan (optional) OPI source indicator, 1 digit, specifying who attributed the OPIPart 2: Registration of organization identification schemes defines the registration procedure for ICD values. This includes:\n\nthe requirements on the registration authority for ICD values.\nthe specific procedures for the allocation and deletion of ICD values\nthe contents of the register/list of the registered identification schemesFarance Inc. serves as the Registration Authority for ISO/IEC 6523 on behalf of ISO/IEC.\nFurther information concerning ISO/IEC 6523 and on how to obtain an ICD value can be found here. The page includes also details to contact the Registration Authority and a link to obtain a list of allocated ICD values.\nISO/IEC 6523 forms the basis of OSI naming under ISO/IEC 8348. It also forms the 1.3 object identifier (OID) tree.\nThe most widespread standard  compliant with ISO 6523 norm is the identifier called \"Global Location Number\" (GLN), developed by GS1 company members. In B2B exchanges, it is widely used by companies to identify locations or functions within a location (for example : a factory, the accounting department of a company, an administration, a warehouse, a delivery address, ...). It has become a key to exchange business messages (orders, invoices, ...) using UN/EDIFACT specifications.\nThe ebCore Party Id Type Technical Specification was issued by the Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS). It was elaborated by the OASIS ebXML Core Technical Committee and it specifies a Uniform Resource Name (URN) namespace for organization identifiers. It bases upon ISO/IEC 6523, ISO 9735 and ISO 20022.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "ISO/IEC 21827 (SSE-CMM \u2013 ISO/IEC 21827) is an International Standard based on the Systems Security Engineering Capability Maturity Model (SSE-CMM) developed by the International Systems Security Engineering Association (ISSEA). \nISO/IEC 21827 specifies the Systems Security Engineering - Capability Maturity Model, which describes the characteristics essential to the success of an organization's security engineering process, and is applicable to all security engineering organizations including government, commercial, and academic. ISO/IEC 21827 does not prescribe a particular process or sequence, but captures practices generally observed in industry. The model is a standard metric for security engineering practices covering the following:\n\nProject lifecycles, including development, operation, maintenance, and decommissioning activities\nEntire organizations, including management, organizational, and engineering activities\nConcurrent interactions with other disciplines, such as system software and hardware, human factors, test engineering; system management, operation, and maintenance\nInteractions with other organizations, including acquisition, system management, certification, accreditation, and evaluation.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "ISO/IEC 24727 (Identification cards \u2013 Integrated circuit card programming interfaces) is the first international standard to address the need for creation of a layered framework to support interoperability of smart cards providing identification, authentication, and (digital) signature services.\nThe standard is split into six parts:\n\nISO/IEC 24727-1:2014 Part 1: Architecture\nISO/IEC 24727-2:2008 Part 2: Generic card interface\nISO/IEC 24727-3:2008 Part 3: Application interface\nISO/IEC 24727-4:2008 Part 4: Application programming interface (API) administration\nISO/IEC 24727-5:2011 Part 5: Testing procedures\nISO/IEC 24727-6:2010 Part 6: Registration authority procedures for the authentication protocols for interoperability", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "ISO/IEC 24744 Software Engineering \u2014 Metamodel for Development Methodologies is  an ISO/IEC standard for software engineering metamodelling for development methodologies. It defines a metamodel from which development methodologies (software, but not only) can be instantiated.\nIn other words, ISO/IEC 24744 provides an agreed-upon set of words (a vocabulary), plus their corresponding meanings (their semantics), that can be used to describe methodologies used to develop software, hardware and other similar products.\nFrom a technical viewpoint, ISO/IEC 24744 is based on the principles of method engineering and departs from the strict modelling paradigm sponsored by the Object Management Group, using instead an extension of the object-oriented approach that incorporates powertype patterns and clabjects.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "ISO/PAS 28007:2012 was developed as an initiative by the maritime industry and based on a request by the International Maritime Organization to provide guidelines for ISO 28000-certified companies deploying Privately Contracted Armed Security Personnel (PCASP) on board ships.It was specifically developed for organisations operating in the Piracy High Risk Area in the Indian Ocean, usually providing security transits from the Suez Canal to Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. However, many of the certified or soon to be certified Private Maritime Security Companies equally apply the practices to their operations in other parts of the world. It was developed via an abbreviated ISO process and will have to be reviewed before it becomes a full-fledged ISO Standard.ISO/PAS 28007 is part of a wider range of initiatives to regulate the private security industry which have been developed in recent years. However, it does not adopt the International Code of Conduct principles, which were developed for land-based private security operations rather than for the maritime environment.\nThe United Kingdom Accreditation Service (\"UKAS\") is the only national accreditation body that accredits auditing companies to certify to the standard. As of May 2015, three certification bodies were actively certifying according to ISO/PAS 28007: LRQA, MSS Global and RTI Forensics.\nIn an op-ed criticizing the UK Governments laws for prosecuting individuals who enlist to fight in foreign wars George Monbiot described a loophole that allowed UK citizens to fight in foreign wars, for money, not ideology.  Monbiot cited the qualifications for individuals to seek employment as Maritime Security operatives as legalizing \"naval mercenaries\".", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Isothermal transformation diagrams (also known as time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams) are plots of temperature versus time (usually on a logarithmic scale). They are generated from percentage transformation-vs  time measurements, and are useful for understanding the transformations of an alloy steel at elevated temperatures.  \nAn isothermal transformation diagram is only valid for one specific composition of material, and only if the temperature is held constant during the transformation, and strictly with rapid cooling to that temperature.  Though usually used to represent transformation kinetics for steels, they also can be used to describe the kinetics of crystallization in ceramic or other materials. Time-temperature-precipitation diagrams and time-temperature-embrittlement diagrams have also been used to represent kinetic changes in steels.\nIsothermal transformation (IT) diagram or the C-curve is associated with mechanical properties, microconstituents/microstructures, and heat treatments in carbon steels. Diffusional transformations like austenite transforming to a cementite and ferrite mixture can be explained using the sigmoidal curve; for example the beginning of pearlitic transformation is represented by the pearlite start (Ps) curve. This transformation is complete at Pf curve. Nucleation requires an incubation time. The rate of nucleation increases and the rate of microconstituent growth decreases as the temperature decreases from the liquidus temperature reaching a maximum at the bay or nose of the curve. Thereafter, the decrease in diffusion rate  due to low temperature offsets the effect of increased driving force due to greater difference in free energy. As a result of the transformation, the microconstituents, pearlite and bainite, form; pearlite forms at higher temperatures and bainite at lower.\n\nAustenite is slightly undercooled when quenched below Eutectoid temperature. When given more time, stable microconstituents can form: ferrite and cementite. Coarse pearlite is produced when atoms diffuse rapidly after phases that form pearlite nucleate. This transformation is complete at the pearlite finish time (Pf).\nHowever, greater undercooling by rapid quenching results in formation of martensite or bainite instead of pearlite. This is possible provided the cooling rate is such that the cooling curve intersects the martensite start temperature or the bainite start curve before intersecting the Ps curve. The martensite transformation being a diffusionless shear transformation is represented by a straight line to signify the martensite start temperature.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Iterative Receiver Design is a 2007 engineering book by Henk Wymeersch published  by Cambridge University Press. The book provides a framework for developing iterative algorithms for digital receivers, exploiting the power of factor graphs.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Jackson Meadows Dam (National ID # CA00254) is a dam in Nevada County, California.\nThe earthen dam was constructed in 1965 for flood control and irrigation water storage, with a height of 195 feet and a length of 1530 feet at its crest.  It impounds the Middle Fork of the Yuba River as one of the ten facilities of the Nevada Irrigation District. The dam is part of the Yuba-Bear Hydroelectric Project.\nThe reservoir it creates, Jackson Meadows Reservoir, has a surface area of 1.5 square miles and normal capacity of 52,500 acre-feet.  The site is surrounded by Tahoe National Forest.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Joseph-Martin Cabirol (28 March 1799 \u2013 15 December 1874) was a French inventor who patented a new model of standard diving dress in Paris in 1855, based on Augustus Siebe's designs. \nCabirol was born in Narbonne on March 28, 1799. He was the son of Jean Guillaume Cabirol, a trader, and Marie Lescot. On April 1st, 1829 in Bordeaux, he married Anne Caroline Roy\u00e8re, the daughter of a pension master in B\u00e9ziers. He died 168 Marsal street in Paris, 9th district, on December 15, 1874 at the age of 75. \nCabirol's suit was made out of rubberized canvas. The helmet, for the first time, included a hand-controlled exhaust valve that the diver used to evacuate his exhaled air. The valve included a one-way valve which stops water from entering the helmet. Until 1855 diving helmets were equipped with only three circular windows (front, left and right sides). Cabirol's helmet introduced a fourth window, in the upper front part of the helmet, which gave the diver an upward view. Having been presented to the Exposition Universelle in Paris, Cabirol's diving dress won the silver medal. The original diving dress and helmet are now preserved at the Conservatoire National des Arts et M\u00e9tiers in Paris.His gravestone has a carving of a goat on it, as 'cabirol' is Occitanian for \"goat\".", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "For aircraft fuel flow meters, K-factor refers to the number of pulses expected for every one volumetric unit of fluid passing through a given flow meter, and is usually encountered when dealing with pulse signals. Pressure and temperature sensors providing pulses can be used to determine mass flow, with division of the pulses by the K-factor, or multiplication with the inverse of the K-factor providing factored totalization, and rate indication. Furthermore, by dividing the pulse rate by the K-Factor, the volumetric throughput per unit time of the rate of flow can be determined.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In fire protection engineering, the K-factor formula is used to calculate the discharge rate from a nozzle. Spray Nozzles can be fire sprinklers or water mist nozzles, hose reel nozzles, water monitors and deluge fire system nozzles.\nK-Factors calculated in Metric units;\nThe flow rate of a nozzle is given by \n  \n    \n      \n        q\n        =\n        K\n        \n          \n            p\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle q=K{\\sqrt {p}}}\n  , where q is the flow rate in litres per minute ( l/min ), p is the pressure at the nozzle in Bar and K is the K-factor is given in units of \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        l\n        \n          /\n        \n        m\n        i\n        n\n        )\n        \n          /\n        \n        \n          \n            bar\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (l/min)/{\\sqrt {\\text{bar}}}}\n  .\nK-Factors have also been calculated and published in US units of PSI and GPM. Within the United States, only US measurements (PSI, and US-Gallons per minute) are used. \nCare should be exercised not to intermix K-factors from Metric and Imperial/US units as the resulting factors are not equivalent or interchangeable.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Kamov Ka-90 is a projected high-speed helicopter built by Kamov, a model of which was displayed at the HeliRussia 2008 trade show in April 2008. The concept is a hybrid design, flying like a helicopter for takeoff and landing and an aeroplane in cruise flight. The company's general designer Sergei Mikheyev said that the project was started in 1985. Although not developed at that time, it was under consideration in 2008.In December 2017, Oleg Zheltov, the head of the Kamov Design Bureau confirmed that the work on the Ka-90 is underway and that the current stage of development includes research on design models and in wind tunnels.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Kampsax A/S was a Danish engineering firm. Kampsax was established November 1, 1917 by Per Kampmann, Otto Kierulff and J\u00f8rgen Saxild. In 2002 it was bought by COWI A/S. Kampsax was world renowned for geographic information systems, mapping and road construction.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Kauri-butanol value (\"Kb value\") is an international, standardized measure of solvent power for a hydrocarbon solvent, and is governed by an ASTM standardized test, ASTM D1133. The result of this test is a scaleless index, usually referred to as the \"Kb value\". A higher Kb value means the solvent is more aggressive or active in the ability to dissolve certain materials. Mild solvents have low scores in the tens and twenties; powerful solvents like chlorinated solvents and naphthenic aromatic solvents (i.e. \"High Sol 10\", \"High Sol 15\") have ratings that are in the low hundreds.\nIn terms of the test itself, the kauri-butanol value (Kb) of a chemical shows the maximum amount of the hydrocarbon that can be added to a solution of kauri resin (a thick, gum-like material) in butanol (butyl alcohol) without causing cloudiness. Since kauri resin is readily soluble in butyl alcohol but not in most hydrocarbon solvents, the resin solution will tolerate only a certain amount of dilution. \"Stronger\" solvents such as benzene can be added in a greater amount (and thus have a higher Kb value) than \"weaker\" solvents like mineral spirits.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Kawabata evaluation system (KES) is used to measure the mechanical properties of fabrics. The system was developed by a team led by Professor Kawabata in the department of polymer chemistry, Kyoto University Japan.\nKES is composed of four different machines on which a total of six tests can be performed:\nTensile & shear tester \u2013 tensile, shear\nPure bending tester \u2013 pure bending\nCompression tester \u2013 compression\nSurface tester \u2013 surface friction and roughnessThe evaluation can include measurement of the transient heat transfer properties associated with the sensation of coolness generated when fabrics contact the skin during wear. The KES not only predicts human response but understands the perception of softness.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A knife switch is a type of switch used to control the flow of electricity in a circuit.  It is composed of a hinge which allows a metal lever, or knife, to be lifted from or inserted into a slot or jaw. The hinge and jaw are both fixed to an insulated base, and the knife has an insulated handle to grip at one end. Current flows through the switch when the knife is pushed into the jaw.\nKnife switches can take several forms, including single throw, in which the \"knife\" engages with only a single slot, and double throw, in which the knife hinge is placed between two slots and can engage with either one. Also, multiple knives may be attached to a single handle and can be used to activate more than one circuit simultaneously.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A knuckleboom crane is a kind of standard crane whose boom articulates at the 'knuckle' near the middle, letting it fold back like a finger. This provides a compact size for storage and manoeuvring.\n\nKnuckleboom cranes have become very common on offshore vessels as less of the deck space is blocked by the crane. Disadvantages of this crane type are the higher power demand and increased maintenance requirement due to the increased number of moving parts.\nKnuckleboom crane arms are much lighter than boom truck cranes, and they are designed to allow for more payloads to be carried on the back of the truck that it is mounted on. The majority of them are mounted behind the cab and leave the entire bed of the truck empty.\n\nThe cranes come with different types of control systems, such as: stand up, control from the ground, seat control, or radio remote control. The radio remote systems now can start the crane as well as run the crane. Currently, they come equipped with a computer readout system that immediately gives readouts from the system if the crane is overloaded or not.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In petroleum engineering, Lak wettability index, developed by Abouzar Mirzaei-Paiaman is a quantitative indicator to measure wettability of rocks from relative permeability data. This index is based on a combination of Craig's first rule. and modified Craig's second rule \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          I\n          \n            \n              L\n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              A\n              (\n              0.3\n              \u2212\n              \n                k\n                \n                  \n                    r\n                    w\n                    ,\n                    S\n                    o\n                    r\n                  \n                \n              \n              )\n            \n            \n               \n              0.3\n            \n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          \n            \n              B\n              (\n              0.5\n              \u2212\n              \n                k\n                \n                  \n                    r\n                    w\n                    ,\n                    S\n                    o\n                    r\n                  \n                \n              \n              )\n            \n            \n               \n              0.5\n            \n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          \n            \n              C\n              S\n              \u2212\n              R\n              C\n              S\n            \n            \n               \n              1\n              \u2212\n              S\n              o\n              r\n              \u2212\n              S\n              w\n              c\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle I_{\\mathit {L}}={\\frac {A(0.3-k_{\\mathit {rw,Sor}})}{\\ 0.3}}+{\\frac {B(0.5-k_{\\mathit {rw,Sor}})}{\\ 0.5}}+{\\frac {CS-RCS}{\\ 1-Sor-Swc}}}\n  where \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          I\n          \n            \n              L\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle I_{\\mathit {L}}}\n   : Lak wettability index (index values near -1 and 1 represent strongly oil-wet and strongly water-wet rocks, respectively)\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          k\n          \n            \n              r\n              w\n              ,\n              S\n              o\n              r\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k_{\\mathit {rw,Sor}}}\n   : Water relative permeability measured at residual oil saturation\n\n  \n    \n      \n        C\n        S\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle CS}\n   : Water saturation at the intersection point of water and oil relative permeability curves (fraction)\n\n  \n    \n      \n        S\n        o\n        r\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Sor}\n   : Residual oil saturation (in fraction)\n\n  \n    \n      \n        S\n        w\n        c\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Swc}\n   : Irreducible water saturation (in fraction)\n\n  \n    \n      \n        R\n        C\n        S\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle RCS}\n   : Reference crossover saturation (in fraction) defined as:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        R\n        C\n        S\n        =\n        0.5\n        +\n        \n          \n            \n              S\n              w\n              c\n              \u2212\n              S\n              o\n              r\n            \n            \n               \n              2\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle RCS=0.5+{\\frac {Swc-Sor}{\\ 2}}}\n  and \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        B\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle B}\n   are two constant coefficients defined as:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        =\n        0.5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A=0.5}\n     and    \n  \n    \n      \n        B\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle B=0}\n        if \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          k\n          \n            \n              r\n              w\n              ,\n              S\n              o\n              r\n            \n          \n        \n        <\n        0.3\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k_{\\mathit {rw,Sor}}<0.3}\n  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A=0}\n     and    \n  \n    \n      \n        B\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle B=0}\n        if \n  \n    \n      \n        0.3\n        <=\n        \n          k\n          \n            \n              r\n              w\n              ,\n              S\n              o\n              r\n            \n          \n        \n        <=\n        0.5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 0.3<=k_{\\mathit {rw,Sor}}<=0.5}\n  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A=0}\n     and    \n  \n    \n      \n        B\n        =\n        0.5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle B=0.5}\n      if \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          k\n          \n            \n              r\n              w\n              ,\n              S\n              o\n              r\n            \n          \n        \n        >\n        0.5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k_{\\mathit {rw,Sor}}>0.5}\n  To use the above formula, relative permeability is defined as the effective permeability divided by the oil permeability measured at irreducible water saturation.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A  Larner\u2013Johnson valve is a mechanism used in dams and water pumping to control the flow of water through large pipes.  The valve is suited to handling high velocity flow with minimal turbulence, even when partially open, and the actuating force can be provided by the water flow it is controlling.  It was manufactured in the early 20th century by the Larner-Johnson Company in the US. The valves are still manufactured in the United Kingdom by Blackhall Engineering Ltd. These valves have been constructed in sizes up to 21 feet (6.4 m) diameter and controlling a hydraulic head of 1,000 feet (300 m).In 2009, Blackhall Engineering supplied four 60\" bore Larner\u2013Johnson valves to New York City Department of Environmental Protection for the Ashokan Reservoir in upstate New York. Each valve is capable of passing a flow rate of 19 cubic metres/second, which is the equivalent of 19 tons of water per second. The valves control the flow of water out of the Ashokan Reservoir into the Catskill Aqueduct down to New York City.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The laser printing of single nanoparticles is a method of applying optical forces that direct single nanoparticles to targeted substrate regions. Van der Waals interactions cause attachment of the single nanoparticles to the substrate areas. This has been accomplished with gold and silicon nanoparticles.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "As an element of architecture, a laylight is a glazed panel usually set flush with the ceiling for the purpose of admitting natural or artificial light. Laylights typically utilize stained glass or lenses in their glazing. A laylight differs from a glazed (or closed) skylight in that a skylight functions as a roof window or aperture, while a laylight is flush with the ceiling of an interior space. When paired with a roof lantern or skylight on a sloped roof, a laylight functions as an interior light diffuser. Before the advent of electric lighting, laylights allowed transmission of light between floors in larger buildings, and were not always paired with skylights.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In the manufacture of float glass, a lehr oven is a long kiln with an end-to-end temperature gradient, which is used for annealing newly made glass objects that are transported through the temperature gradient either on rollers or on a conveyor belt. The annealing renders glass into a stronger material with fewer internal stresses, and with a lower probability of breaking.The rapid cooling of molten glass results in an uneven temperature distribution throughout the material. This temperature differential results in mechanical stresses throughout the molten glass, which may be sufficient to cause the material to crack as it cools to ambient temperature or to make it susceptible to cracking during later use, either spontaneously or due to mechanical or thermal shock. To prevent such material weaknesses, objects made from molten glass are annealed by gradual cooling in a lehr oven, from the annealing point, a temperature just below the solidification temperature of the glass. In the process of annealing glass, the temperature is first equalised by holding or \"soaking\" the glass at the annealing point for a period of time that depends on the maximum thickness of the glass. The glass is then slowly cooled at a rate that depends upon the maximum thickness of the glass, ranging from tens of degrees Celsius per hour (for thin slabs of glass) to fractions of a degree Celsius per hour (for thick slabs of glass).", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A Licensed Engineering Technologist (LET) is a class of licensee within Professional Engineers Ontario.LET is a class of limited license authorized under the Professional Engineers Act of Ontario, which allows a holder to practice, and take responsible for the practice of engineering within a limited scope of work. A limited license may be provided in the case that a person has\u2014through at least 13 years of specialised experience\u2014become competent at a certain area of professional engineering. They may only practice within the scope of their license.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A limber hole is a drain hole through a frame or other structural member of a boat designed to prevent water from accumulating against one side of the frame, and allowing it to drain toward the bilge.  \nLimber holes are common in the bilges of wooden boats.  The term may be extended to cover drain holes in floors. Limber holes are created in between bulkheads so that one compartment does not fill with water.  The limber holes allow water to drain into the lowest part of the bilge so that it can be pumped out by a single bilge pump (or more usually, one electric and one manual pump).\nThe term is also commonly applied to the holes in mid-20th century submarine upperworks, which allow drainage from the superstructure.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In electrical engineering, a limit switch is a switch operated by the motion of a machine part or the presence of an object. A limit switch can be used for controlling machinery as part of a control system, as a safety interlock, or as a counter enumerating objects passing a point.Limit switches are used in a variety of applications and environments because of their ruggedness, ease of installation, and reliability of operation. They can determine the presence, passing, positioning, and end of travel of an object. They were first used to define the limit of travel of an object, hence the name \"limit switch\".\n\nStandardized limit switches are industrial control components manufactured with a variety of operator types, including lever, roller plunger, and whisker type. Limit switches may be directly mechanically operated by the motion of the operating lever. A reed switch may be used to indicate proximity of a magnet mounted on some moving part. Proximity switches operate by the disturbance of an electromagnetic field, by capacitance, or by sensing a magnetic field.\nRarely, a final operating device such as a lamp or solenoid valve is directly controlled by the contacts of an industrial limit switch, but more typically the limit switch is wired through a control relay, a motor contactor control circuit, or as an input to a programmable logic controller.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Limiting pressure velocity is a tribological term relating to the maximum temperature and compression that an assembly with rubbing surfaces can bear without failing. Pressure-limiting valves are a type of pressure control valve. They safeguard the system against excessive system pressure or limit the operation pressure.\nPre-load valves, also called sequence valves are a type of pressure control valve. They generate a largely constant pressure drop between the inlet and outlet on the valve. In the opposite direction the flow can pass freely. In the normal position the valve has minor leakage.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In mechanical engineering, limits and fits are a set of rules regarding the dimensions and tolerances of mating machined parts if they are to achieve the desired ease of assembly, and security after assembly - sliding fit, interference fit, rotating fit, non-sliding fit, loose fit, etc.\nTolerances are typically specified in thousandths of an inch or hundredths of a millimetre.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In the field of biomechanics, the lines of non-extension are notional lines running across the human body along which body movement causes neither stretching or contraction. Discovered by Arthur Iberall in work beginning in the 1940s, as part of research into space suit design, they have been further developed by Dava Newman in the development of the Space Activity Suit.They were originally mapped by Iberall by drawing a series of circles over a portion of the body and then watching their deformations as the wearer walked around or performed various tasks. The circles deform into ellipses as the skin stretches over the moving musculature, and these deformations were recorded. After a huge number of such measurements the data is then examined to find all of the possible deformations of the circles, and more importantly, the non-moving points on them where the original circle and the deformed ellipse intersect (at four points per circle). By mapping these points over the entire body, a series of lines are produced.\nThese lines may then be used to direct the placement of tension elements in a spacesuit to enable constant suit pressure regardless of the motion of the body.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Materials testing is used to assess product quality, functionality, safety, reliability and toxicity of both materials and electronic devices. Some applications of materials testing include defect detection, failure analysis, material development, basic materials science research, and the verification of material properties for application trials. This is a list of organizations and companies that publish materials testing standards or offer materials testing laboratory services.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Load-pull is the colloquial term applied to the process of systematically varying the impedance presented to a device under test (DUT), most often a transistor, to assess its performance and the associated conditions to deliver that performance in a network. While load-pull itself implies impedance variation at the load port, impedance can also be varied at any of the ports of the DUT, most often at the source.\nLoad-pull is required when superposition is no longer applicable, which occurs under large-signal operating conditions that make linear approximations unusable. The term load-pull derives from classical oscillator characterization whereupon variation of the load impedance pulls the oscillation center frequency away from nominal. Source-pull is also used for noise characterization, which, although linear, requires multiple impedances to be presented at the source to enable simultaneous solution of an over-determined system that yields the four noise parameters.\nLoad-pull is the most common method globally for RF and MW power amplifier (PA) design, transistor characterization, semiconductor process development, and ruggedness analysis. A central theme of load-pull is management of nonlinearity versus analysis of nonlinearity, the latter being the domain of advanced mathematics that often yields little physical insight to nonlinear phenomena and suffers from an inability to accurately render actual behavior embedded in a network with significant parasitic and distributed effects. With automated load-pull, it is possible to fully optimize and design a final stage for GSM applications in less than a day, thereby providing a dramatic reduction in design cycle-time while assuring the best possible performance trade-off has been achieved.\nWhile there are in theory no physical limits on the frequency of which load-pull can be performed, most load-pull systems are based on passive distributed networks using either the slab transmission line in its TEM mode or the rectangular waveguide in its TE01 mode. Lumped tuners can be made for HF and VHF frequencies, whereas active load-pull is ideal for on-wafer mm-wave environments, where substantial loss between the tuner and DUT reference-plane limits maximum VSWR.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Load-loss factor (also loss load factor,  LLF, or simply loss factor) is a dimensionless ratio between average and peak values of load loss (loss of electric power between the generator and the consumer in electricity distribution). Since the losses in the wires are proportional to the square of the current (and thus the square of the power), the LLF can be calculated by measuring the square of delivered power over a short interval of time (typically half an hour), calculating an average of these values over a long period (a year), and dividing by the square of the peak power exhibited during the same long period:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          L\n          L\n          F\n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                \u2211\n                \n                  i\n                  =\n                  1\n                \n                \n                  N\n                  I\n                \n              \n              \n                \n                  L\n                  o\n                  a\n                  d\n                \n                \n                  i\n                \n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            \n              N\n              I\n              \u2217\n              \n                \n                  L\n                  o\n                  a\n                  d\n                \n                \n                  p\n                  e\n                  a\n                  k\n                \n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {LLF}={\\frac {\\sum _{i=1}^{NI}{Load}_{i}^{2}}{NI*{Load}_{peak}^{2}}}}\n  , where\n  \n    \n      \n        N\n        I\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle NI}\n   is the total number of short intervals (there are 8760 hours or 17,520 half-hours in a year);\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            L\n            o\n            a\n            d\n          \n          \n            i\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {Load}_{i}}\n   is the load experienced during the short interval \n  \n    \n      \n        i\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle i}\n  ;\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            L\n            o\n            a\n            d\n          \n          \n            p\n            e\n            a\n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {Load}_{peak}}\n   is the peak load  within the long interval (typically a year).The LLF value naturally depends on the load profile. For electricity utilities, numbers about 0.2-0.3 are typical (cf. 0.22 for Toronto Hydro, 0.33 for New Zealand). Multiple empirical formulae exist that relate the loss factor to the load factor (Dickert et al. in 2009 listed nine).\nSimilarly, the ratio between the average and the peak current is called form coefficient k or peak responsibility factor k, its typical value is between 0.2 to 0.8 for distribution networks and 0.8 to 0.95 for transmission networks. Coefficient k describes the losses as an additional load carried by the system, and is named loss equivalent load factor in Japan.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In materials science, a Lomer\u2013Cottrell junction is a particular configuration of dislocations.\nWhen two perfect dislocations encounter along a slip plane, each perfect dislocation can split into two Shockley partial dislocations: a leading dislocation and a trailing dislocation. When the two leading Shockley partials combine, they form a separate dislocation with a burgers vector that is not in the slip plane. This is the Lomer\u2013Cottrell dislocation. It is sessile and immobile in the slip plane, acting as a barrier against other dislocations in the plane. The trailing dislocations pile up behind the Lomer\u2013Cottrell dislocation, and an ever greater force is required to push additional dislocations into the pile-up.\nex. FCC lattice along {111} slip planes\n\n             |leading| |trailing|\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            a\n            2\n          \n        \n        [\n        \n          0 1 1\n        \n        ]\n        \u2192\n        \n          \n            a\n            6\n          \n        \n        [\n        \n          1 1 2\n        \n        ]\n        +\n        \n          \n            a\n            6\n          \n        \n        [\n        \n          -1 2 1\n        \n        ]\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {a}{2}}[{\\text{0 1 1}}]\\rightarrow {\\frac {a}{6}}[{\\text{1 1 2}}]+{\\frac {a}{6}}[{\\text{-1 2 1}}]}\n  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            a\n            2\n          \n        \n        [\n        \n          1 0 -1\n        \n        ]\n        \u2192\n        \n          \n            a\n            6\n          \n        \n        [\n        \n          1 1 -2\n        \n        ]\n        +\n        \n          \n            a\n            6\n          \n        \n        [\n        \n          2 -1 -1\n        \n        ]\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {a}{2}}[{\\text{1 0 -1}}]\\rightarrow {\\frac {a}{6}}[{\\text{1 1 -2}}]+{\\frac {a}{6}}[{\\text{2 -1 -1}}]}\n  Combination of leading dislocations:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            a\n            6\n          \n        \n        [\n        \n          1 1 2\n        \n        ]\n        +\n        \n          \n            a\n            6\n          \n        \n        [\n        \n          1 1 -2\n        \n        ]\n        \u2192\n        \n          \n            a\n            3\n          \n        \n        [\n        \n          1 1 0\n        \n        ]\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {a}{6}}[{\\text{1 1 2}}]+{\\frac {a}{6}}[{\\text{1 1 -2}}]\\rightarrow {\\frac {a}{3}}[{\\text{1 1 0}}]}\n  The resulting dislocation is along the crystal face, which is not a slip plane in FCC at room temperature.\nLomer\u2013Cottrell dislocation", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Loop performance in control engineering indicates the performance of control loops, such as a regulatory PID loop. Performance refers to the accuracy of a control system's ability to track (output) the desired signals to regulate the plant process variables in the most beneficial and optimised way, without delay or overshoot.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Love and Sex with Robots by David Levy, first published in 2007, is a book about the future development of sex robots: robots that will have sex with humans. Levy claims that this practice will be routine by 2050.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "L\u00fcders bands, also known as slip bands or stretcher-strain marks, are localized bands of plastic deformation in metals experiencing tensile stresses, common to low-carbon steels and certain Al-Mg alloys. First reported by Guillaume Piobert, and later by W. L\u00fcders, the mechanism that stimulates their appearance is known as dynamic strain aging, or the inhibition of dislocation motion by interstitial atoms (in steels, typically carbon and nitrogen), around which \"atmospheres\" or \"zones\" naturally congregate.\n\nAs internal stresses tend to be highest at the shoulders of tensile test specimens, band formation is favored in those areas. However, the formation of L\u00fcders bands depends primarily on the microscopic (i.e. average grain size and crystal structure, if applicable) and macroscopic geometries of the material. For example, a tensile-tested steel bar with a square cross-section tends to develop comparatively more bands than would a bar of identical composition having a circular cross-section.The formation of a L\u00fcders band is preceded by a yield point and a drop in the flow stress. Then the band appears as a localized event of a single band between plastically deformed and undeformed material that moves with the constant cross head velocity. The L\u00fcders Band usually starts at one end of the specimen and propagates toward the other end. The visible front on the material usually makes a well-defined angle typically 50\u201355\u00b0 from the specimen axis as it moves down the sample. During the propagation of the band the nominal stress\u2013strain curve is flat. After the band has passed through the material the deformation proceeds uniformly with positive strain hardening. Sometimes L\u00fcders band transition into the Portevin\u2013Le Chatelier effect while changing the temperature or strain rate, this implies these are related phenomena  L\u00fcders bands are known as a strain softening instability.If a sample is stretched beyond the range of the L\u00fcder strain once, no L\u00fcder strain occurs any more when the sample is deformed again, since the dislocations have already torn themselves away from the interstitial atoms. For this reason, deep drawing sheets are often cold rolled in advance to prevent the formation of stretcher-strain marks during the actual deep drawing process. The formation of L\u00fcder bands can occur again with a deformation over time, since the interstitial atoms accumulate by diffusing processes called precipitation hardening (or aging).\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Lugs are the loops (or protuberances) that exist on both arms of a hinge, featuring a hole for the axis of the hinge.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Luoyang Glass Company Limited or Luoyang Glass (SEHK: 1108, SSE: 600876) is a state-owned enterprise in Luoyang, Henan, China, which is involved with the production and sales of float sheet and flat glass and reprocessing of automobile glass.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Machine drawn cylinder sheet was the first mechanical method for \"drawing\" window glass. Cylinders of glass 40 feet (12 m) high are drawn vertically from a circular tank.  The glass is then annealed and cut into 7 to 10 foot (2 to 3 m) cylinders. These are cut lengthways, reheated, and flattened.\nThis process was invented in the USA in 1903.  This type of glass was manufactured in the early 20th century (it was manufactured in the United Kingdom by Pilkingtons from 1910 to 1933).\nOther historical methods for making window glass included broad sheet, blown plate, crown glass, polished plate and cylinder blown sheet. These methods of manufacture lasted at least until the end of the 19th century.  The early 20th century marks the move away from hand-blown to machine manufactured glass such as rolled plate, flat drawn sheet, single and twin ground polished plate and float glass.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Machine That Changed the World is a 1990 book about automobile production, written by James P. Womack, Daniel T. Jones, and Daniel Roos. \nThis book made the term lean production known worldwide. A revised edition was published in 2007.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Magnussen model is a popular method for computing reaction rates as a function of both mean concentrations and turbulence levels (Magnussen and Hjertager). Originally developed for combustion, it can also be used for liquid reactions by tuning some of its parameters. The model consists of rates calculated by two primary means. An Arrhenius, or kinetic rate, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          R\n          \n            K\n            _\n            \n              i\n              \u2032\n            \n            ,\n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle R_{K\\_i',k}}\n  , for species \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          i\n          \u2032\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle i'}\n   in reaction \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k}\n  , is governed by the local mean species concentrations and temperature in the following way:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          R\n          \n            K\n            _\n            \n              i\n              \u2032\n            \n            ,\n            k\n          \n        \n        =\n        \u2212\n        \n          \u03bd\n          \n            \n              i\n              \u2032\n            \n            ,\n            k\n          \n        \n        \n          M\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n        \n          A\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n        \n          T\n          \n            \n              \u03b2\n              \n                k\n              \n            \n          \n        \n        exp\n        \u2061\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \u2212\n              \n                \n                  \n                    E\n                    \n                      k\n                    \n                  \n                  \n                    R\n                    T\n                  \n                \n              \n            \n            )\n          \n        \n        \n          \u220f\n          \n            \n              j\n              \u2032\n            \n            =\n            1\n          \n          \n            N\n          \n        \n        \n          \n            [\n            \n              C\n              \n                \n                  j\n                  \u2032\n                \n              \n            \n            ]\n          \n          \n            \n              \u03b7\n              \n                \n                  j\n                  \u2032\n                \n                ,\n                k\n              \n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          K\n          \n            \n              i\n              \u2032\n            \n            ,\n            k\n          \n        \n        \n          M\n          \n            \n              i\n              \u2032\n            \n          \n        \n        \n          \u220f\n          \n            \n              j\n              \u2032\n            \n            =\n            1\n          \n          \n            N\n          \n        \n        \n          \n            [\n            \n              C\n              \n                \n                  j\n                  \u2032\n                \n              \n            \n            ]\n          \n          \n            \n              \u03b7\n              \n                \n                  j\n                  \u2032\n                \n                ,\n                k\n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle R_{K\\_i',k}=-\\nu _{i',k}M_{i}A_{k}T^{\\beta _{k}}\\exp {\\left(-{\\frac {E_{k}}{RT}}\\right)}\\prod _{j'=1}^{N}\\left[C_{j'}\\right]^{\\eta _{j',k}}=K_{i',k}M_{i'}\\prod _{j'=1}^{N}\\left[C_{j'}\\right]^{\\eta _{j',k}}}\n  This expression describes the rate at which species \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          i\n          \u2032\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle i'}\n   is consumed in reaction \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k}\n  . The constants \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          A\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A_{k}}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          E\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle E_{k}}\n  , the Arrhenius pre-exponential factor and activation energy,\nrespectively, are adjusted for specific reactions, often as the result of experimental measurements. The stoichiometry for species \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          i\n          \u2032\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle i'}\n   in reaction \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k}\n   is represented by the factor \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03bd\n          \n            \n              i\n              \u2032\n            \n            ,\n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\nu _{i',k}}\n  , and is positive or negative, depending upon whether the species serves as a product or reactant. The molecular weight of the species \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          i\n          \u2032\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle i'}\n   appears as the factor \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          M\n          \n            \n              i\n              \u2032\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M_{i'}}\n  . The temperature, \n  \n    \n      \n        T\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle T}\n  , appears in the exponential term and also as a factor in the rate expression, with an optional exponent, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03b2\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\beta _{k}}\n  . Concentrations of other species, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          j\n          \u2032\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle j'}\n  , involved in the reaction, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          [\n          \n            C\n            \n              \n                j\n                \u2032\n              \n            \n          \n          ]\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left[C_{j'}\\right]}\n  , appear as factors with optional exponents associated with each. Other factors and terms not appearing in the equation, can be added to include effects such as the presence of non-reacting\nspecies in the rate equation. Such so-called third-body reactions are typical of the effect of a catalyst on a reaction, for example. Many of the factors are often collected into a single rate constant, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          K\n          \n            \n              i\n              \u2032\n            \n            ,\n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle K_{i',k}}\n  .", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Maintenance-free operating period (MFOP) is an alternative measure of performance to the mean time between failures (MTBF), defined as the time period during which a device will be able to perform each of its intended functions, requiring only a minimal degree of maintenance. It was originally proposed in 1996 by the United Kingdom's Ministry of Defence, with intended application to military aircraft.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Marcus' method (also referred to as Marcus's method and Method of Marcus) is a structural analysis method which was designed to design concrete slabs with rectangular, orthogonal shapes. It represents an adaptation of the strip method. It is based on elastic analysis of torsionally restrained two-way rectangular slabs with a uniformly distributed load.\nMarcus introduced a correction factor (reduction factor rather) to the existing Rankine Grashoff theory in order to account for the torsional restraints at the corners.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Marks' Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers is a comprehensive handbook for the field of mechanical engineering. Originally based on the even older German H\u00fctte, it was first published in 1916 by Lionel Simeon Marks. In 2017, its 12th edition, published by McGraw-Hill, marked the 100th anniversary of the work. The handbook was translated into several languages.\nLionel S. Marks was a professor of mechanical engineering at Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the early 1900s.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In chemical separation processes, a mass separating agent (MSA) is a chemical species that is added to ensure that the intended separation process takes place. It is analogous to an energy separating agent, which aids separations processes via addition of energy. An MSA may be partially immiscible with one or more mixture components and frequently is the constituent of highest concentration in the added phase. Alternatively, the MSA may be miscible with a liquid feed mixture, but may selectively alter partitioning of species between liquid and vapor phases. \nDisadvantages of using an MSA are:\n(1) need for an additional separator to recover the MSA for recycle,\n(2) need for MSA makeup,\n(3) possible MSA product contamination, and\n(4) more difficult design procedures.\nProcesses like absorption and stripping generally utilize various MSAs.\nsource: Separation Process Principles, Third-Edition. Seader, Henley, Roper accessed 5/5/2020", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In engineering, the mass transfer coefficient is a diffusion rate constant that relates the mass transfer rate, mass transfer area, and concentration change as driving force:\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          k\n          \n            c\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                \n                  \n                    n\n                    \u02d9\n                  \n                \n              \n              \n                A\n              \n            \n            \n              A\n              \u0394\n              \n                c\n                \n                  A\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k_{c}={\\frac {{\\dot {n}}_{A}}{A\\Delta c_{A}}}}\n  \nWhere:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          k\n          \n            c\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k_{c}}\n   is the mass transfer coefficient [mol/(s\u00b7m2)/(mol/m3)], or m/s\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \n                n\n                \u02d9\n              \n            \n          \n          \n            A\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\dot {n}}_{A}}\n   is the mass transfer rate [mol/s]\n\n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n   is the effective mass transfer area [m2]\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \u0394\n        \n          c\n          \n            A\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Delta c_{A}}\n   is the driving force concentration difference [mol/m3].This can be used to quantify the mass transfer between phases, immiscible and partially miscible fluid mixtures (or between a fluid and a porous solid). Quantifying mass transfer allows for design and manufacture of separation process equipment that can meet specified requirements, estimate what will happen in real life situations (chemical spill), etc.\nMass transfer coefficients can be estimated from many different theoretical equations, correlations, and analogies that are functions of material properties, intensive properties and flow regime (laminar or turbulent flow).  Selection of the most applicable model is dependent on the materials and the system, or environment, being studied.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The mass-spring-damper model consists of discrete mass nodes distributed throughout an object and interconnected via a network of springs and dampers. This model is well-suited for modelling object with complex material properties such as nonlinearity and viscoelasticity.\nPackages such as MATLAB may be used to run simulations of such models. As well as engineering simulation, these systems have applications in computer graphics and computer animation.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Material flow is the description of the transportation of raw materials, pre-fabricates, parts, components, integrated objects and final products as a flow of entities. The term applies mainly to advanced modeling of supply chain management.\nAs industrial material flow can easily become very complex, several different specialized simulation tools have been developed for complex systems. Typical tools are:\n\nAnyLogic\nAutoMod for logistics systems\nPlant Simulation for production system", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure or MAOP is a pressure limit set, usually by a government body, which applies to compressed gas pressure vessels, pipelines, and storage tanks. For pipelines, this value is derived from Barlow's Formula, which takes into account wall thickness, diameter, allowable stress (which is a function of the material used), and a safety factor.\nThe MAOP is less than the MAWP (maximum allowable working pressure).  MAWP is defined as the maximum pressure based on the design codes that the weakest component of a pressure vessel can handle. Commonly standard wall thickness components are used in fabricating pressurized equipment,  and hence are able to withstand pressures above their design pressure. The MAWP is the pressure stamped on the pressure equipment, and the pressure that must not be exceeded in operation.\nDesign pressure is the pressure a pressurized item is designed to, and is higher than any expected operating pressures. Due to the availability of standard wall thickness materials, many components will have a MAWP higher than the required design pressure.  For pressure vessels, all pressures are defined as being at highest point of the unit in the operating position, and do not include static head pressure.  The equipment designer needs to account for the higher pressures occurring at some components due to static head pressure.\nRelief valves are set at the design pressure of the pressurized item and sized to prevent the item under pressure from being over-pressurized.  Depending on the design code that the pressurized item is designed,  an over-pressure allowance can be used when sizing the relief valve.  This is +10% for PD 5500,  and ASME Section VIII div 1 & 2 (with an additional +10% allowance in ASME Section VIII for a fire relief case).  ASME has different criteria for steam boilers.\nMaximum expected operating pressure (MEOP) is the highest expected operating pressure.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Herbert Burdell Maxson (1849/1850\u20131927) was a miner and civil engineer in Arizona and later deputy United States surveyor for Nevada. He was one of the pioneers of the National Irrigation Congress, a group concerned with water resources in the Western United States, serving for eight years as its secretary. He also served on the Panama Canal staff.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Mean time (to) first failure (MTFF, sometimes MTTFF) is a concept in reliability engineering, which describes time to failure for non-repairable components like an integrated circuit soldered on a circuit board.\nFor repairable components like a replaceable light bulb the concept of mean time between failures is used to describe the failure rate.\nMTFF and MTTF (mean time to failure) have identical meanings. The key is that this is a non-repairable and non-recoverable failure. For example, the failure of a TV typically isn't measured by this criterion because the TV can be repaired. However, if this failure was due to a burned out integrated circuit that circuit itself can't be repaired and must be replaced. The failure of that circuit is measured by mean time to failure. It's generally used to predict the first failure after manufacturing", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Mechanical rebar connections, also known as mechanical splices or mechanical coupler, are used to join lengths of rebar together to transfer forces from one steel rebar to another.\n\nMechanical couplers can be advantageous in comparison with conventional methods of lap splicing because of the requirement for less steel for overlapping. It is more effective in the seismic detailing to avoid reinforcement congestion problems.The couplers are also used in pre-cast construction.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Mercedes-Benz M23 engine is a naturally-aspirated, 1.5-liter, inline-4 gasoline engine, designed, developed and produced by Mercedes-Benz; between 1934 and 1939.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Mercedes-Benz M142 engine is a naturally-aspirated, 3.2-liter to 3.4-liter, straight-6, internal combustion piston engine, designed, developed and produced by Mercedes-Benz; between 1937 and 1942.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Metal powder is a metal that has been broken down into a powder form. Metals that can be found in powder form include aluminium powder, nickel powder, iron powder and many more. There are four different ways metals can be broken down into this powder form:\nDirect Reduction\nGas Atomization\nLiquid Atomization\nCentrifugal Atomization", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Diesel bug is contamination of diesel fuel by microbes such as bacteria and fungi.Water can get into diesel fuel as a result of condensation, rainwater penetration or adsorption from the air \u2014 modern biodiesel is especially hygroscopic.  The presence of water then encourages microbial growth which either occurs at the interface between the oil and water or on the tank walls, depending on whether the microbes need oxygen.  Species which may grow in this way include:\nbacteria \u2014 clostridium; desulfotomaculum; desulfovibrio; flavobacterium; hydrogenomonas; pseudomonas; sarcina\nfungi \u2014 aspergillus; candida; fusarium; hormoconis resinaeFuel companies agree that if left untreated fuel will remain reliable for just 6\u201312 months, after which fuel contamination (such as the diesel bug) begins to appear. Most industrial engine manufacturers now recommend a fuel conditioning programme to ensure the reliability of fuel.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Midwest Roadside Safety Facility (MwRSF), part of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, is a research organization with a main focus of researching all aspects of highway design and safety.  MwRSF conducts safety performance evaluations of various roadside appurtenances, developing new and innovative design concepts and technologies in the area of highway safety.\nMwRSF engineers designed the SAFER barrier.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Miesbach\u2013Munich Power Transmission of 1882 was the first\ntransmission of direct current (DC) electrical energy over a large distance (57 km).\nAfter the first International Exposition of Electricity was held in Paris in 1881, the German Empire set up a power transmission between a steam engine situated near Miesbach and the glass palace of Munich, where an electricity exhibition opened on September 16, 1882. The voltage used was 2000 V direct current, and the distance 57 kilometres. Only 2.5 kilowatts of power (about 1.25 Ampere) was transmitted, which was used to run an artificial waterfall. The system was designed by Oskar von Miller and Marcel Deprez. A simple iron telegraph wire was used, which failed a few days later. \nIn later years, Deprez set up a 112 km long DC transmission in France between Creil and Paris, using 6 kV.\nOn August 25, 1891, the Lauffen-Frankfurt Three Phase AC Transmission over 175 km became part of the International Electrotechnical Exhibition in Germany, setting an end to the war of the currents.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Million standard cubic feet per day  is a unit of measurement for gases that is predominantly used in the United States. It is frequently abbreviated MMSCFD. MMSCFD is commonly used as a measure of natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, compressed natural gas and other gases that are extracted, processed or transported in large quantities.A related measure is \"mega standard cubic metres per day\" (MSm3/d), which is equal to 106 Sm3/d used in many countries outside the United States. One MMSCFD equals 1177.6 Sm3/h.\nWhen converting to mass flowrate, the density of the gas should be used at Standard temperature and pressure.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Moment redistribution refers to the behavior of statically indeterminate structures that are not completely elastic, but have some reserve plastic capacity.  When one location first yields, further application of load to the structure causes the bending moment to redistribute differently from what a purely elastic analysis would suggest.\nWhen the load is applied to a beam, the beam has the property to resist it. When the beam is indeterminate, it forms sufficient number of hinges to make itself determinate. Hence in this process, few hinges are formed earlier and the rest are formed afterwards. Further increment in load does not increase the moment at the points where the plastic hinges are formed. The increased load increases the moment in the less stressed sections of the beam; hence due to this, further plastic hinges are formed. This  process of shift of application of moment in the beam is termed as moment redistribution in a beam.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Montgomery Elevator Company was a vertical transportation company founded in 1892, but entered the elevator business in 1910, acquired Roelofson Elevator of Galt Ontario in the early 1960s and operated it as its Canadian Division.  Montgomery manufactured elevators, escalators & moving walkways until 1994, when it was acquired by KONE. Montgomery was the 4th-largest elevator company in the U.S. at the time.\nAfter Montgomery was acquired, they worked with KONE to make elevators and escalators under the brand name Montgomery KONE, but only for 6 years until the full integration into KONE US in 2000. \nOne of the most unusual Montgomery elevators in the world is the elevator tramway in the St. Louis Gateway Arch.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Mosser Glass is a company making handmade glass, founded in Cambridge, Ohio, in 1970 by Thomas R. Mosser. The company is operated by his oldest son, Tim Mosser. The Mosser family got their start in the business at the Cambridge Glass Company.The company offers tours of its facilities.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Mount Stromlo Hydro-Power Station is a small hydro-electric power station installed on the Bendora Gravity Main in Canberra, Australia. It produces about 200 megawatt-hours (720 GJ) megawatt hours of electricity per month. Production of energy depends on the water flow into the nearby Mount Stromlo Water Treatment Plant.\nIt was constructed in 2000 and is operated by Icon Water, the water and sewerage utility of the Australian Capital Territory.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A moving magnet actuator is a type of electromagnetic linear actuator. It typically consists of an arrangement of a permanent magnet and coil, arranged so that currents in the coil generate a pair of equal and opposite forces between the coil and magnet. The main difference between this and a voice coil actuator is that in a moving magnet actuator, the magnet is intended to move and the coil to stay still, as opposed to vice versa.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Introduction  \nIn the oil industry, mud weight is the density of the drilling fluid and is normally measured in pounds per gallon (lb/gal) (ppg) or pound cubic feet (pcf) . In the field it is measured using a mud scale or mud balance. Mud can weigh up to 22 or 23 ppg. A gallon of water typically weighs 8.33 pounds. \nIn conventional drilling fluids, barite is used to increase the density. Although other additives such as halite (salt) or calcium carbonate can also be used. Mud weight can be decreased by dilution or solids control equipment such as an industrial centrifuge, desilter, desander and shale shaker . Mud weight use to control the trapped fluids or gas in the formations by adding a hydro static pressure on them, increasing the mud weight = increasing the hydro static pressure. If the hydro static pressure increased over the formations pressure that will make a fracture in the formation leading to lose the mud to the formation, so adding loss circulation material like gel-flake or wood chips that can refill the gap and stop the mud loss. If the mud loss continues, then the hydro static pressure will decrease and flammable fluids and gas trapped under pressure will start leaking to the surface. This can lead to a potential blowout.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The M\u00fcller-Breslau principle is a method to determine influence lines. The principle states that the influence lines of an action (force or moment) assumes the scaled form of the deflection displacement.\nOR,\nThis principle states that \"ordinate of ILD for a reactive force is given by ordinate of elastic curve if a unit deflection is applied in the direction of reactive force.\"\nThis method is named after the German engineer Heinrich M\u00fcller-Breslau and it is one of the easiest way to draw the influence lines.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Municipal castings refers to many products, including: Access Hatches; Ballast Screens; Benches (Iron or Steel); Bollards; Cast Bases; Cast Iron Hinged Hatches, Square and Rectangular; Cast Iron Riser Rings; Catch Basin Inlet; Cleanout/Monument Boxes; Construction Covers and Frames; Curb and Corner Guards; Curb Openings; Detectable Warning Plates; Downspout Shoes (Boot, Inlet); Drainage Grates, Frames and Curb Inlets; inlets; Junction Boxes; Lampposts; Manhole Covers, Rings and Frames, Risers; Meter Boxes; Service Boxes; Steel Hinged Hatches, Square and Rectangular; Steel Riser Rings; Trash receptacles; Tree Grates; Tree Guards; Trench Grates; and Valve Boxes, Covers and Risers.These products are covered by the Buy America Act of 1982. \"By law, American-made municipal castings must be used in many federal, state and local-level public works infrastructure projects that are funded or financed with U.S. taxpayer dollars\".\n\nThe Buy America Act states that transportation infrastructure projects must be built with iron, steel, and manufactured products in the United States. This relates to highways, bridges, airports, and tunnels funded by federal grants. There are severe penalties for not following the Buy America laws. The Municipal Castings Association is an organization made up of the following American manufacturers: Charlotte Pipe and Foundry Company, D&L Foundry and Supply, US Foundry, EBAA Iron, EJ, McWane, Neenah Foundry, and Spring City. They are dedicated advocates ensuring that all applicable federal, state, and local laws and specifications are followed for infrastructure projects in the United States. Municipal castings also have to follow the country-of-origin marking requirement laws. Every casting of foreign origin entering the United States has to be marked legibly with the English name. There is a special marking law for municipal castings that states they must be marked on the top surface of the casting, visible once the product is installed in the field, so that the general public can easily see country of origin. This means manhole or inlet frames must be marked on the very top surface or lip of the frame or the top surface of a manhole lid or grate.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Murray's Hypocycloidal Engine, now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum, England, was made around 1805 and is the world's third-oldest working steam engine and the oldest working engine with a Tusi couple hypocycloidal straight line mechanism.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A musical clock is a clock that marks the hours of the day with a musical tune. They can be considered elaborate versions of striking or chiming clocks.The music on mechanical clocks is typically played from a spiked cylinder on bells, organ pipes, or bellows.  On electric clocks such as quartz clocks, the music is usually generated using an electronic sound module; Seiko and Rhythm Clock are known for their battery-powered musical clocks, which frequently feature flashing lights, automatons and other moving parts designed to attract attention while in motion. Most of these quartz musical clocks utilize either FM synthesis or sample-based synthesis technology for sound generation to produce high-fidelity and complex music, similar to the sound generation methods of electronic musical instruments. \nOne of the earliest known domestic musical clocks was constructed by Nicholas Vallin in 1598, and it currently resides in the British Museum in London.Elaborate large-scale musical clocks with automatons are often installed in public places and are widespread in Japan. Unlike conventional electronic musical clocks, these clocks plays pre-recorded music samples, instead of using programmed sound synthesis.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The National Council of Structural Engineers Associations (NCSEA) is a professional association in the United States, with member organizations in 44 states.  NCSEA was established in 1993.  As of 2003, NCSEA represented 12,000 individual engineers, who are members of local state associations.NCSEA advances the practice of structural engineering and, as the national voice for practicing structural engineers, protects the public's right to safe, sustainable and cost effective buildings, bridges and other structures. It was formed to constantly improve the level of standard of practice of the structural engineering profession throughout the United States, and to provide an identifiable resource for those needing communication with the profession. NCSEA serves the needs of the structural engineering profession, its clientele, and ...Architects, Building Code and Enforcement Authorities, Construction Industry, Owners, Developers, Public Building Agencies, Disaster Response Organizations, Licensing and Registration Boards, Legislatures and Regulatory Agencies, Structural Material Trade Groups, Public News Media, Professional and Trade Organizations, and Engineering Societies.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, National Engineers Week is always the week in February which encompasses George Washington's actual birthday, February 22. It is observed by more than 70 engineering, education, and cultural societies, and more than 50 corporations and government agencies. The purpose of National Engineers Week is to call attention to the contributions to society that engineers make. It is also a time for engineers to emphasize the importance of learning math, science, and technical skills.\nThe celebration of National Engineers Week was started in 1951 by the National Society of Professional Engineers in conjunction with President George Washington's birthday. President Washington is considered as the nation's first engineer, notably for his survey work. Prior to the start of National Engineers Week, the University of Missouri College of Engineering began celebrating the world's first Engineers' Week in 1903, 48 years before the National Society of Professional Engineers, with St. Patrick as the patron saint of engineers.The results of the Federal Engineer of the Year Award are announced during the week.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering or NIBGE (\u0642\u0648\u0645\u06cc \u0627\u062f\u0627\u0631\u06c1\u064e \u0628\u0631\u0627\u0626\u06d2 \u0641\u0646\u0648\u0646\u0650 \u062d\u06cc\u0627\u062a\u06cc\u0627\u062a\u06cc \u0648 \u0645\u06c1\u0646\u062f\u0633\u06cc\u0650 \u0627\u0645\u0648\u0631\u0650 \u062a\u0646\u0627\u0633\u0644) is one of the main biotechnology institutes operated by Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC). It was planned under the auspices of PAEC in 1987 and was formally inaugurated in 1994. It is affiliated to Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences (PIEAS) Islamabad, for awarding MPhil & PhD degrees. NIBGE is also the home institution of National Biology Talent Contest. The institute is located in Faisalabad.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Nominal power is a power capacity in engineering.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Oil-based mud  is a drilling fluid used in drilling engineering. It is composed of oil as the continuous phase and water as the dispersed phase in conjunction with emulsifiers, wetting agents and gellants. The oil base can be diesel, kerosene, fuel oil, selected crude oil or mineral oil.\nThe requirements are a gravity of 36\u201337 API, a flash point of 180 \u00b0F (82 \u00b0C), fire point of 200 \u00b0F (93 \u00b0C) and an aniline point of 140 \u00b0F (60 \u00b0C).\nEmulsifiers are important to oil-based mud due to the likelihood of contamination. The water phase of oil-based mud can be freshwater, or a solution of sodium or calcium chloride. The external phase is oil and does not allow the water to contact the formation. The shales don't become water wet.\nPoor stability of the emulsion results in the two layers separating into two distinct layers. \nThe advantages are: \n\nhigh drilling rates\nlowered drill pipe torque and drag,\nless bit balling and\nreduction in differential sticking.Oil-based muds are expensive, but are worth the cost when drilling through: \n\ntroublesome shales that would otherwise swell and disperse in water based mud e.g. smectite,\nto drill deep, high-temperature holes that dehydrate water-based mud,\nto drill water-soluble zones and\nto drill producing zones.The disadvantages of using oil-based mud, especially in wildcat wells are:\n\nInability to analyze oil shows in cuttings, because the oil-based mud has fluorescence confusing with the original oil formation.\nContamination samples of cuttings, cores, sidewall cores for geochemical analysis of TOC and masks the real determination of API gravity due to this contamination.\nContaminate areas of freshwater aquifers causing environmental damage.\nDisposal of cuttings in an appropriate place to isolate possible environmental contamination.This mud type can be used as a completion and workover fluid, a spotting fluid to relieve a stuck pipe and as packer or casing fluid. They are very good for \"Gumbo\" shales. The mud weight can be controlled from 7\u201322 lbs/gal. It is sensitive to temperature but does not dehydrate as in the case of water based mud as mentioned before. It has no limit on the drilled solids concentration. The water phase should be maintained above a pH of 7. Stability of the emulsion depends on the alkaline value.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Thomas Oliver was an engineer who invented the first machine for forging bolts in England.  This used a treadle-operated hammer which was called an Oliver hammer or English Oliver, after the inventor.  Production of bolts using this machinery started in Darlaston in Staffordshire in 1838.  Similar machines were still in use in the Black Country in 1979 at Lench's Oliver Shop, making special bolts to order.  Using such a hammer could be strenuous work, stamping on the treadle to force the red hot iron into the die over a thousand times a day.  Despite the physical strain and injury which resulted, even women laboured in this way during the 19th century.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Operating capacity, or rated operating capacity (ROC), has to do with the calculated tipping load. The capacity (load) that one can safely pick-up and operate without flipping or nose-diving the equipment. Not to be confused with Operating weight.The definitive range of operating capacity is the asset within which a company hopes to operate\u2014commonly during a short-term period.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Operating weight is the basic weight of a vehicle or machine, including the driver/operator and fuel.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Operational loads monitoring (OLM) is a term given to act of investigating the characteristics of a structure in its normal operating environment. This term is often used to describe programs involving aircraft to extending their in-service life in a manner that does not compromise flight safety. A typical program would involve the installation of strain gauges to measure loads, accelerometers to measure g-force and other parameters to support the program or to add value (such as flap position, aircraft altitude, environmental conditions etc.), data acquisition system to process this data and a recorder to save the data for later analysis\n. In this way it is very similar to structural health monitoring, a term that is sometimes also used to describe operational loads monitoring. Unlike Health and Usage Monitoring Systems, OLM programs are generally a short term project used to assess the remaining useful safe life of an airframe. This is especially important when an aircraft's role changes as the stresses and strains may now be significantly different from those initially anticipated. OLM program's benefits include a possible increased safe operating life figure and helping to prevent accidents such as the C-130 crash that occurred after the platform had been modified and flown for a different mission (fire fighting).\nThere are several active OLM programs currently underway, including research initiatives to standardize approaches for civilian aircraft.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In engineering, optomechatronics  is a field that investigates the integration of optical components and technology into mechatronic systems. The optical components in these systems are used as sensors to measure mechanical quantities such as surface structure and orientation. Optical sensors are used in a feedback loop as part of control systems for mechatronic devices. Optomechatronics has applications in areas such as adaptive optics, vehicular automation, optofluidics, optical tweezers and thin-film technology.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students is an aerospace engineering textbook by Howard D. Curtis, in its fourth edition as of 2019. The book provides an introduction to orbital mechanics, while assuming an undergraduate-level background in physics, rigid body dynamics, differential equations, and linear algebra.Topics covered by the text include a review of kinematics and Newtonian dynamics, the two-body problem, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, orbit determination, orbital maneuvers, relative motion and rendezvous, and interplanetary trajectories. The text focuses primarily on orbital mechanics, but also includes material on rigid body dynamics, rocket vehicle dynamics, and attitude control. Control theory and spacecraft control systems are less thoroughly covered.The textbook includes exercises at the end of each chapter, and supplemental material is available online, including MATLAB code for orbital mechanics projects.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Oswald efficiency, similar to the span efficiency, is a correction factor that represents the change in drag with lift of a three-dimensional wing or airplane, as compared with an ideal wing having the same aspect ratio and an elliptical lift distribution.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "An output signal switching device (or OSSD) is an electronic device used as part of the safety system of a machine. It provides a coded signal which, when interrupted due to a safety event, signals the machine to shut down. It works by converting the standard direct current supply, usually 24 volts, into two pulsed and out-of-phase signals. The benefit of this is to avoid the possibility of a stray signal keeping the machine operating while actually in an unsafe condition.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The overflow downdraw method or fusion method is a technique for producing flat glass. The key advantage of this technique as compared to the float glass process is that the pristine surfaces are not touched by molten tin. The technique is used for the production of very thin flat panel display glass by the companies Asahi Glass Co., Corning,  Nippon Electric Glass,Samsung Corning Precision Materials, \nand various other companies operating in the field of display glass and other types of thin glass.\nThe fusion method was originally conceived by Corning in the 1960s as a method for manufacturing automotive windshields. Shelved for years, the technology was reintroduced to supply the flat screen display market.\nA sheet of glass is formed when molten glass overflows from a supply trough, flows down both sides, and rejoins (fuses) at the tapered bottom, where it is drawn away in sheet form.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Pacific Coast Electric Transmission Association was an American engineering institute founded in 1884 in response to the East coast establishment of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.  It published its proceedings in the journalist George P. Low's journal The Electrical Journal, later titled The Journal of Electricity and then The Journal of Electricity, Power, and Gas, and began annual meetings in 1898.  The annual meeting acted as both an electrical industry conference and an academic conference in electrical engineering.  It disbanded with the continuation of the AIEE to the West coast in or shortly after 1905.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A packaged terminal air conditioner (often abbreviated PTAC) is a type of self-contained heating and air conditioning system commonly found in hotels, motels, senior housing facilities, hospitals, condominiums, apartment buildings, add-on rooms & sunrooms. Many are designed to go through a wall, having vents and heat sinks both inside and outside. Different standard dimensions are found in the market including 42\u00d716 inches (1067 x 406 mm), 36x15 inches, and 40x15 inches.\nAlthough PTACs are used mostly to heat or cool a single living space using only electricity (with resistive and/or heat pump heating), there are cooling-only PTACs with external heating through a hydronic heating coil or natural gas heating. Typical PTAC heating and cooling capacity values range from 2 to 5.5 kilowatts (7,000\u201319,000 BTU/h) nominal. One characteristic of PTACs is that condensate drain piping is not required because the condensate water extracted from the air by the evaporator coil is drawn by the condenser fan onto the condenser coil surface where it evaporates. Conventional PTACs still require condensate drain piping to be installed. The first practical semi-portable air conditioning unit was invented by engineers at Chrysler Motors and offered for sale starting in 1935.PTACs are commonly installed in window walls and masonry walls. Their installation typically requires the following:\n\nLouvers\nMetal sleeve\nHeating coil\nThe PTAC itself\nRoom enclosure", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Paran\u00e1 Association of Electrical Engineers (in Portuguese: Associa\u00e7\u00e3o Paranaense de Engenheiros Eletricistas) exists to promote scientific and technological development and to protect the interests of professional electrical engineering, such as: electrical, electronics, telecommunications, computer, automation of the state of Paran\u00e1. It is a nonprofit organization.It was founded on August 2, 1984 in Curitiba, capital of the Brazilian state of Paran\u00e1.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Parasitic load is a term used with regard to electrical appliances, railway locomotives and internal combustion engines. With regard to electrical appliances, it represents the power consumed even when the appliance is shut off, that is standby power.  With regard to railway locomotives, it is any of the loads or devices powered by the prime mover not contributing to tractive effort, such as an air compressor, traction motor blower, or radiator fans. With regard to internal combustion engines such as those used in automobiles, it refers to devices that take energy from the engine in order to enhance the engine's ability to create more energy or convert energy to motion.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "PD 5500 \"Specification for unfired, fusion welded pressure vessels\" is a code of practice that provides rules for the design, fabrication, and inspection of pressure vessels.\nPD 5500 was formerly a widely used British Standard known as BS 5500, but was withdrawn from the list of British Standards because it was not harmonized with the European Pressure Equipment Directive (97/23/EC). In the United Kingdom it was replaced by EN 13445. It is currently published as a \"Published Document\" (PD) by the British Standards Institution.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A per cent mille or pcm is one one-thousandth of a percent. It can be thought of as a \"milli-percent\". It is commonly used in epidemiology, and in nuclear reactor engineering as a unit of reactivity.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A permanent magnet  motor is a type of  electric motor that uses permanent magnets in addition to windings on its field, rather than windings only.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Permissible stress design  is a design philosophy used by mechanical engineers and civil engineers. \nThe civil designer ensures that the stresses developed in a structure due to service loads do not exceed the elastic limit. This limit is usually determined by ensuring that stresses remain within the limits through the use of factors of safety.\nIn structural engineering, the permissible stress design approach has generally been replaced internationally by limit state design (also known as ultimate stress design, or in USA, Load and Resistance Factor Design, LRFD) as far as structural engineering is considered, except for some isolated cases.\nIn USA structural engineering construction, allowable stress design (ASD) has not yet been completely superseded by limit state design except in the case of Suspension bridges, which changed from allowable stress design to limit state design in the 1960s. Wood, steel, and other materials are still frequently designed using allowable stress design, although LRFD is probably more commonly taught in the USA university system.\nIn mechanical engineering design such as design of pressure equipment, the method uses the actual loads predicted to be experienced in practice to calculate stress and deflection. Such loads may include pressure thrusts and the weight of materials. The predicted stresses and deflections are compared with allowable values that have a \"factor\" against various failure mechanisms such as leakage, yield, ultimate load prior to plastic failure, buckling, brittle fracture, fatigue, and vibration/harmonic effects. However, the predicted stresses almost always assumes the material is linear elastic. The \"factor\" is sometimes called a factor of safety, although this is technically incorrect because the factor includes allowance for matters such as local stresses and manufacturing imperfections that are not specifically calculated; exceeding the allowable values is not considered to be good practice (i.e is not \"safe\"). \nThe permissable stress method is also known in some national standards as the working stress method because the predicted stresses are the unfactored stresses expected during operation of the equipment (e.g. AS1210, AS3990).\nThis mechanical engineering approach differs from an ultimate design approach which factors up the predicted loads for comparison with an ultimate failure limit. One method factors up the predicted load, the other method factors down the failure stress.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Perry\u2013Robertson formula is a mathematical formula which is able to produce a good approximation of buckling loads in long slender columns or struts, and is the basis for the buckling formulation adopted in EN 1993.  \nThe formula in question can be expressed in the following form:\n\nwith \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b8\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                w\n                \n                  o\n                  ,\n                  1\n                \n              \n              c\n            \n            \n              i\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta ={\\frac {w_{o,1}c}{i^{2}}}}\n  \nwhere:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03c3\n          \n            m\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{m}}\n   is the average longitudinal stress in the beam's cross section\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          f\n          \n            y\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f_{y}}\n   is the material's elastic limit\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03c3\n          \n            e\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{e}}\n   is the average tension measured in the cross section which correspond to the beam's Euler load\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          w\n          \n            o\n            ,\n            1\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle w_{o,1}}\n   the amplitude of the initial geometrical imperfection\n\n  \n    \n      \n        c\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c}\n   distance from the cross section's centroid to the section's most stressed fiber\n\n  \n    \n      \n        i\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle i}\n   the section's radius of gyrationRobertson then proposed that \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b8\n        =\n        0.003\n        \u03bb\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta =0.003\\lambda }\n  , where \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03bb\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\lambda }\n   represents the beam's slenderness.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Phu Phong Glass Joint Stock Company (CTCP S\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t Th\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u1ea1i D\u1ecbch v\u1ee5 Ph\u00fa Phong) is a company based in the outskirts of Ho Chi Minh City that makes architectural glass and float glass for use in furniture and construction materials.  Phu Phong's main offices are in Ho Chi Minh City.  Its stock is listed at the Hanoi Securities Trading Center, symbol is PPG.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A pile cap is a thick concrete mat that rests on concrete or timber piles that have been driven into soft or unstable ground to provide a suitable stable foundation. It usually forms part of the deep foundation of a building, typically a multi-story building, structure or support base for heavy equipment, or of a bridge. The cast concrete pile cap distributes the load of the building into the piles. A similar structure to a pile cap is a \"raft\", which is a concrete foundation floor resting directly onto soft soil which may be liable to subsidence.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A ping test is a physical test to determine the natural frequency of an object or assembly. The test consists of instrumenting the object or assembly with measuring devices and then tapping it with another metallic object (usually a hammer.) The undamped system will then vibrate at its natural frequency.  The ping test is used on assemblies and objects where vibration can be an issue.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A pinion is a round gear\u2014usually the smaller of two meshed gears\u2014used in several applications, including drivetrain and rack and pinion systems.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A plumbing drawing, a type of technical drawing, shows the system of piping for fresh water going into the building and waste going out, both solid and liquid.\nIt also includes fuel gas drawings. Mainly plumbing drawing consist of water supply system drawings, drainage system drawings, irrigation system drawings, storm water system drawings. \nIn water supply system drawing there will be hot water piping and cold water piping and hot water return piping also. \nIn drainage system drawings there will be waste piping , Soil piping and vent piping. \nThe set of drawing of each system like water supply , drainage etc is consist of Plans, Riser diagram, Installation details, Legends, Notes. \nEvery pipes should me marked with pipe sizes. \nIf the drawing is detailed , fixture units also should be marked along with the pipe. \nIf it is shop drawing, sections also should be shown where there pipes are crossing. \nIn shop drawings pipe sizes should be marked with the text and size should be shown with double line.\nEach pipes with different purposes will be displayed with different colors for ease of understanding. Drainage pipes should be shown with slope. \nFor water supply , pump capacity and number of pumps will be attached as drawing file. \nFor drainage,  manhole schedule which consist of each manhole name, Invert level, Cover level , Depth are also attached as drawing file.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Polished plate is a type of hand-made glass. It is produced by casting glass onto a table and then subsequently grinding and polishing the glass. This was originally done by hand, and then later by machine. It was an expensive process requiring a large capital investment.Other methods of producing hand-blown window glass included: broad sheet, blown plate, crown glass and cylinder blown sheet. These methods of manufacture lasted at least until the end of the 19th century.  The early 20th century marks the move away from hand-blown to machine manufactured glass such as rolled plate, machine drawn cylinder sheet, flat drawn sheet, single and twin ground polished plate, and float glass.\nThe Frenchman, Louis Lucas de Nehou, in 1688, in conjunction with Abraham Thevart, succeeded in perfecting the process of casting plate-glass. Mirror plates previous to the invention had been made from blown \"sheet\" glass, and were consequently very limited in size. De Nehou's process of rolling molten glass poured on an iron table rendered the manufacture of very large plates possible.In 1773 English polished plate (by the French process) was produced at Ravenhead.\nBy 1800 a steam engine was used to carry out the grinding and polishing of the cast glass.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Pontis is a software application developed to assist in managing highway bridges and other structures. Known as AASHTOWare Bridge Management since version 5.2, Pontis stores bridge inspection and inventory data based on the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) National Bridge Inventory system coding guidelines. In addition, the system stores condition data for each of a bridge's structural elements.\nThe system is designed to support the bridge inspection process, recommend a bridge preservation policy, predict future bridge conditions, and recommend projects to perform on one or more bridges to derive the most agency and user benefit from a specified budget. The system uses a Markovian Decision Process to model bridge deterioration and recommend an optimal preservation policy. It uses the Markovian model results, in conjunction with a simulation model, to predict future conditions and recommend work.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "William Potts (May 1883 \u2013 1947), a Detroit police officer, is credited with inventing the modern, three-lens traffic light in Detroit in 1920. (The two-lens, red/green traffic signal was invented in London in 1868 by John Peake Knight).", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A pound-foot (lbf\u22c5ft) is a unit of torque representing one pound of force acting at a perpendicular distance of one foot from a pivot point. Conversely one pound-foot is the moment about an axis that applies one pound-force at a radius of one foot.  \nThe value in SI units is given by multiplying the following approximate factors:\n\nOne pound (force) = 4.448 222 newtonsOne foot = 0.3048 mThis gives the conversion factor:\n\nOne pound-foot = 1.35582 newton metres.The name \"pound-foot\", intended to minimize confusion with the foot-pound as a unit of work, was apparently first proposed by British physicist Arthur Mason Worthington.Despite this, in practice torque units are commonly called the foot-pound (denoted as either lb-ft or ft-lb) or the inch-pound (denoted as in-lb).  Practitioners depend on context and the hyphenated abbreviations to know that these refer to neither energy nor moment of mass (as the symbol ft-lb rather than lb-ft would imply).\nSimilarly, an inch-pound (or pound-inch) is the torque of one pound of force applied to one inch of distance from the pivot, and is equal to 1\u204412 lbf\u22c5ft (0.1129848 N\u22c5m).  It is commonly used on torque wrenches and torque screwdrivers for setting specific fastener tension.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Power density is the amount of power (time rate of energy transfer) per unit volume.In energy transformers including batteries, fuel cells, motors, power supply units etc., power density refers to a volume, where it is often called volume power density, expressed as W/m3.\nIn reciprocating internal combustion engines, power density (power per swept volume or brake horsepower per cubic centimeter) is an important metric, based on the internal capacity of the engine, not its external size.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A powerpack or power pack is a part of a modular powertrain that contains some type of engine (most frequently an internal combustion engine, \u2063\u2063 but other types, including electric motors, are possible) and may also contain a transmission and various supporting components.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Pressure piling describes phenomena related to combustion of gases in a tube or long vessel.  When a flame front propagates along a tube, the unburned gases ahead of the front are compressed, and hence heated. The amount of compression varies depending on the geometry and can range from twice to eight times the initial pressure. Where multiple vessels are connected by piping, ignition of gases in one vessel and pressure piling may result in a deflagration to detonation transition and very large explosion pressure.In electrical equipment in hazardous areas, if two electrical enclosures are connected by a conduit, an explosion of a gas in one of the compartments travels through the conduit into the next enclosure. The pressure of the 'primary' explosion together with the pressure from the 'secondary' explosion in the other compartment produces one huge explosion that the equipment cannot handle. Heat, arcs or sparks escape from the equipment and ignite any gas or vapour that may be around.\nOperators avoid this by not using conduits to join classified equipment together and by using barrier glands on cables going into the enclosure. This ensures that compartments remain separate at all times.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A pressure tank or pressurizer is used in a piping system to maintain a desired pressure. Applications include buffering water pressure in homes.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A Pressure vessel for human occupancy is a container that is intended to be occupied by one or more persons at a pressure which differs from ambient by at least 2 pounds per square inch (0.14 bar). Since 1977, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers PVHO committee has published standards governing the construction of a number of structures which are defined as Pressure Vessels for Human Occupancy. The current standard is PVHO-1-2019. Similar standards are published by a range of national and international standards organisations.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Primary form is used in surface metrology to refer to the over-all shape of a surface which can be measured quantitatively.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Proactive maintenance is the maintenance philosophy that supplants \u201cfailure reactive\u201d with \u201cfailure proactive\u201d by activities that avoid the underlying conditions that lead to machine faults and degradation.  Unlike predictive or preventive maintenance, proactive maintenance commissions corrective actions aimed at failure root causes, not failure symptoms.  Its central theme is to extend the life of machinery as opposed to\n\nmaking repairs when often nothing is wrong,\naccommodating failure as routine or normal, or\ndetecting impending failure conditions followed by remediation.Proactive maintenance depends on rigorous machine inspection and condition monitoring.  In mechanical machinery it seeks to detect and eradicate failure root causes such as wrong lubricant, degraded lubricant, contaminated lubricant, botched repair, misalignment, unbalance and operator error.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research on manufacturing engineering. The journal was established in 1989 and is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers the fundamentals of engineering science and its application to the solution of challenges and problems in engineering. The journal obtained its current name in 1989 when it was split off from the Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. It is published by SAGE Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. The editor-in-chief is J.W. Chew (University of Surrey).", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research on the design and operation of process equipment. The journal was established in 1989 and is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research in applied sciences and technology dealing with aircraft and spacecraft, as well as their support systems. The journal was established in 1989 and is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal that covers the field of biomedical engineering. It was established in 1971 as Engineering in Medicine, obtaining its current title in 1989. The journal is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part I: Journal of Systems and Control Engineering is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers systems and control studies. The journal was established in 1991 and is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Journal of Engineering Tribology, Part J of the Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE), is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes research on engineering science associated with tribology and its applications. The journal was first published in 1994 and is published by SAGE Publications on behalf of IMechE.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part K: Journal of Multi-body Dynamics is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers mechanical design and dynamic analysis of multi-body systems. The journal was established in 1999 and is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L: Journal of Materials: Design and Applications is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers the usage and design of materials for application in engineering. The journal was established in 1999 and is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part M: Journal of Engineering for the Maritime Environment is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on the design, production, and operation of engineering artefacts for the maritime environment. The journal covers subjects including naval architecture, marine engineering, offshore/ocean engineering, coastal engineering and port engineering. It was established in 2002 and is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers the development of novel sports apparel, footwear, and equipment; and the materials, instrumentation, and processes that make advances in sports possible. The journal was established in 2008 and is published by Sage Publications on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In geometric dimensioning and tolerancing, a projected tolerance zone is defined to predict the final dimensions and locations of features on a component or assembly subject to tolerance stack-up.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Creo Elements/Direct Drafting now owned by PTC, and formerly called ME10 is a CAD software application exclusively for 2D drawings, especially in mechanical engineering and electrical engineering.\nThe program was first developed by Hewlett Packard in Germany. HP released the first version 1986. Hewlett Packard MDD (Mechanical Design Division) continued the ME10 development.  The first product designed using ME10 was the original HP DeskJet printer at the HP Vancouver Division.(HP Journal Reference)\nCreo Elements/Direct Drafting was originally developed for the Hewlett-Packard 98xx workstation family (also referred to as the Series 200) on their proprietary Pascal based operating system / development environment, followed by a move a few years later to the operating system HP-UX. With the success of Microsoft Windows, a version was offered for this operating system. Some versions have also been developed for Linux. Today, MS-Windows is the standard platform for Creo Elements/Direct Drafting.\nIn 2010 the product was renamed to Creo Elements/Direct Drafting (as opposed to 3D product Creo Elements/Direct Modeling). Creo Elements/Direct Drafting is one of the most common 2D CAD programs for mechanical engineering in Germany, behind the leader AutoCAD.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A pullback motor (also pull back or pull-back) is a simple clockwork motor used in toy cars. A patent for them was granted to Bertrand 'Fred' Francis in 1952 as a keyless clockwork motor.Pulling the car backward (hence the name) winds up an internal spiral spring; a flat spiral rather than a helical coil spring. When released, the car is propelled forward by the spring. When the spring has unwound and the car is moving, the motor is disengaged by a clutch or ratchet and the car then rolls freely onward. Often the clutch mechanism is geared so that the pullback distance needed to wind the spring is less than the distance the spring is engaged propelling forward.\nMost of these cars are otherwise free-rolling. Winding them up requires them to be pushed downwards, engaging the clutch. As the motor is only engaged for winding while held down, the complete winding must be completed in one pass, unlike the flywheel motor. Some motors have an internal one-way clutch that allows winding with a back-and-forth motion.Some pullback motors, usually intended for racing in pairs, have used a catch and release mechanism to retain their springs. These may be wound separately, then launched together by releasing their spring triggers. Darda use such a mechanism for their Stop'n'Go motor. This is pre-wound, then releases automatically when shunted from behind. This allows relay races to be set up with multiple cars.\nA few pullback motors are used in toys other than cars. The K'Nex construction toy has such a motor, as have some later Meccano sets.\nThe very simplest of these motors may use a stretched rubber band as a linear spring, rather than a coil spring. These are bulky and less powerful but require little manufacturing sophistication: coil springs, although apparently simple, demand a highly developed steel metallurgy. For this reason, these toys are usually home- or crafts made.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A pulse-swallowing counter is a component in an all-digital feedback system. The divider produces one output pulse for every N counts (N  is usually a power of 2) when not swallowing, and per N+1 pulses when the 'swallow' signal is active.  The overall pulse-swallowing system is used as part of a fractional-N frequency divider. The overall pulse-swallowing system cancels beatnotes created when switching between N, N+1, or N\u22121 in a fractional-N synthesizer.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "QS9000 was a quality standard developed by a joint effort of the \"Big Three\" American automakers, General Motors, Chrysler and Ford. It was introduced to the industry in 1994. It has been adopted by several heavy truck manufacturers in the U.S. as well. Essentially all suppliers to the US automakers needed to implement a standard QS9000 system, before its termination.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Quadruplanar inversor of Sylvester and Kempe is a generalization of Hart's inversor. Like Hart's inversor, is a mechanism that provides a perfect straight line motion without sliding guides.\nThe mechanism was described in 1875 by James Joseph Sylvester in the journal Nature.Like Hart's inversor, it is based on an antiparallelogram but the rather than placing the fixed, input and output points on the sides (dividing them in fixed proportion so they are all similar), Sylvester recognized that the additional points could be displaced sideways off the sides, as long as they formed similar triangles.  Hart's original form is simply the degenerate case of triangles with altitude zero.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A rack lift is a type of elevator which consists of a cage attached to vertical rails affixed to the walls of a tower or shaft and which is propelled up and down by means of an electric motor which drives a pinion gear that engages a rack gear which is also attached to the wall between the rails.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Radial stress is stress towards or away from the central axis of a component.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In engineering, RAMS (reliability, availability, maintainability and safety) is used to characterize a product or system:    \n\nReliability \u2013 as ability to perform a specific function and may be given as design reliability or operational reliability.\nAvailability, \u2013 as ability to keep a functioning state in the given environment.\nMaintainability \u2013 as ability to be timely and easily maintained (including servicing, inspection and check, repair and/or modification).\nSafety \u2013 as ability not to harm people, the environment, or any assets during a whole life cycle.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In distillation, a Rayleigh Still is a separation process where a feed stream is charged and withdrawn batch-wise with a separate stream fed and removed continuously.  It is also known as a Rayleigh Distillation.  It consists of a single stage distillation where the batch-charged phase is well mixed during operation.  This was developed originally by Lord Rayleigh in 1902.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Reach-in ovens are meant for different industrial applications that may need uniform temperature throughout. The ovens normally use horizontal re-circulating air to ensure the uniform temperature, and can use fans that circulate air, creating the airflow. Reach-in ovens can be used in numerous production and laboratory applications, including curing, drying, sterilizing, aging, and other process-critical applications.\nReach-in ovens are considered a type of industrial batch oven. Other types of batch ovens are bench/laboratory, burn in, laboratory, walk in/truck in, and clean process.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Rebar detailing is the discipline of preparing 'shop/placing' or 'fabrication' drawings or shop drawings of steel reinforcement for construction.\nArchitects and Engineers prepare 'design drawings' that develop required strengths by applying rebar size, spacing, location, and lap of steel.\nBy contrast, 'shop/placing drawings' or 'fabrication drawings' apply the intent of the 'design drawings' for the ironworker. These designs specify the quantity, description, placement, bending shapes with dimensions and laps of the reinforcing steel. Various applications are used to produce bar bending schedules which can be directly fed into CNC machines that cuts and bends the rebar to the desired shapes.\nThe fabrication of the bars is scheduled and the placing/fixing sequence indicated, adding the elements required to support those bars during construction.\n'Shop/placing drawings' are submitted to the architect or engineer for review of compliance with design drawings before construction can proceed. These drawings must be detailed using the ACI & CRSI Specifications (United States), ACI & RSIC Specifications (Canada) BS Specifications (United kingdom).\nRebar detailing is usually assigned to in-house rebar fabricators or rebar detailing companies. The great majority of rebar detailing companies are stationed in The Middle East and India. The earnings for a rebar detailer in the US and Canada is from $30,000 to $90,000 per year on average but outsourcing is common due to substantially lower wages overseas.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Reciprocating motion, also called reciprocation, is a repetitive up-and-down or back-and-forth linear motion. It is found in a wide range of mechanisms, including reciprocating engines and pumps. The two opposite motions that comprise a single reciprocation cycle are called strokes.A crank can be used to convert circular motion into reciprocating motion, or conversely turn reciprocating motion into circular motion.For example, inside an internal combustion engine (a type of reciprocating engine),  the expansion of burning fuel in the cylinders periodically pushes the piston down, which, through the connecting rod, turns the crankshaft. The continuing rotation of the crankshaft drives the piston back up, ready for the next cycle. The piston moves in a reciprocating motion, which is converted into circular motion of the crankshaft, which ultimately propels the vehicle or does other useful work.The reciprocating motion of a pump piston is close to, but different from, sinusoidal simple harmonic motion. Assuming the wheel is driven at a perfect constant rotational velocity, the point on the crankshaft which connects to the connecting rod rotates smoothly at a constant velocity in a circle. Thus, the displacement of that point, is indeed  exactly sinusoidal by definition.  However, during the cycle, the angle of the connecting rod changes continuously. So, the horizontal displacement of the \"far\" end of the connecting rod (i.e., connected to the piston) differs slightly from sinusoidal.  Circumstances where the wheel is not spinning with perfect constant rotational velocity, such as a steam locomotive starting up from a stop, are very much not sinusoidal.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A recording head is the physical interface between a recording apparatus and a moving recording medium. Recording heads are generally classified according to the physical principle that allows them to impress their data upon their medium. A recording head is often mechanically paired with a playback head, which, though proximal to, is often discrete from the record head.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In automatic control, a regulator is a device which has the function of maintaining a designated characteristic. It performs the activity of managing or maintaining a range of values in a machine. The measurable property of a device is managed closely by specified conditions or an advance set value; or it can be a variable according to a predetermined arrangement scheme. It can be used generally to connote any set of various controls or devices for regulating or controlling items or objects.\nExamples are a voltage regulator (which can be a transformer whose voltage ratio of transformation can be adjusted, or an electronic circuit that produces a defined voltage), a pressure regulator, such as a diving regulator, which maintains its output at a fixed pressure lower than its input, and a fuel regulator (which controls the supply of fuel).\nRegulators can be designed to control anything from gases or fluids, to light or electricity. Speed can be regulated by electronic, mechanical, or electro-mechanical means. Such instances include; \n\nElectronic regulators as used in modern railway sets where the voltage is raised or lowered to control the speed of the engine\nMechanical systems such as valves as used in fluid control systems. Purely mechanical pre-automotive systems included such designs as the Watt centrifugal governor whereas modern systems may have electronic fluid speed sensing components directing solenoids to set the valve to the desired rate.\nComplex electro-mechanical speed control systems used to maintain speeds in modern cars (cruise control) - often including hydraulic components,\nAn aircraft engine's constant speed unit changes the propeller pitch to maintain engine speed.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Rejlers is one of the largest engineering consultancy firms in the Nordic region. Rejlers has 2400 employees in technology areas such as energy, industry, infrastructure, real estate and telecom. Rejlers have representation in Sweden, Finland, Norway and the United Arab Emirates. In 2019, the company had a turnover of 2.6 billion SEK and its class B share is listed on Nasdaq Stockholm.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Reliability index is an attempt to quantitatively assess the reliability of a system using a single numerical value. The set of reliability indices varies depending on the field of engineering, multiple different indices may be used to characterize a single system. In the simple case of an object that cannot be used or repaired once it fails, a useful index is the mean time to failure representing an expectation of the object's service lifetime. Another cross-disciplinary index is forced outage rate (FOR), a probability that a particular type of a device is out of order. Reliability indices are extensively used in the modern electricity regulation.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A resonant converter is a type of electric power converter that contains a network of inductors and capacitors called a \"resonant tank\", tuned to resonate at a specific frequency. They find applications in electronics, in integrated circuits.There are multiple types of resonant converter:\n\nSeries Resonant Converter\nParallel Resonant Converter\nClass E Resonant Converter\nClass E Resonant Rectifier\nZero Voltage Switching Resonant Converter\nZero Current Switching Resonant Converter\nTwo Quadrant ZVS Resonant Converter\nResonant dc-link inverter\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Retrogression heat treatment (RHT) is a heat treatment process that rapidly heat treats age-hardenable aluminum alloys. Mainly induction heating is used for RHT. In the past, it was mainly used for 6061 and 6063 aluminum alloys. Therefore, forming of complex shapes is possible, without creating damages like cracks. Even hard tempers (for example -T6) can be formed easily after subjecting these alloys to RHT.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In civil engineering, a reverse curve (or \"S\" curve) is a section of the horizontal alignment of a highway or railroad route in which a curve to the left or right is followed immediately by a curve in the opposite direction.On highways in the United States reverse curves are often announced by the posting of a W1-4L sign (left-right reverse curve) or a W1-4R sign (right-left reverse curve), as called for in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices.Reverse curves on the Northeast Corridor in the USA hinder the development of  high-speed rail.Reverse curves cause buffer-locking.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In structural engineering, a rigid frame is the load-resisting skeleton constructed with straight or curved members interconnected by mostly rigid connections, which resist movements induced at the joints of members. Its members can take bending moment, shear, and axial loads.\nThe two common assumptions as to the behavior of a building frame are (1) that its beams are free to rotate at their connections or (2) that its members are so connected that the angles they make with each other do not change under load.  Frameworks with connections of intermediate stiffness will be intermediate between these two extremes.  Frameworks with connections of intermediate stiffness are commonly called semirigid frames.  The AISC specifications recognize three basic frame types: Rigid Frame, Simple Frame, and Partially Restrained Frame.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Risdon Zinc Works is a zinc refinery in Lutana, Tasmania operated by Nyrstar.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Road-holding \u2013 also written as roadholding and road holding \u2013 (in French being called \"tenue de route\", in German \"Beibehaltung der Spur\"), is essentially determined by the ability of a vehicle to stay on the road and on a desired trajectory of motion, whatever the circumstances (in curves, on greasy, wet or low-grip ground, loaded or not, etc.) may be, but also by the degree of ease that a driver may sense in controlling it in an emergency situation. (Hereby, the laws of nature as a framework, including the gravitational field of the planet \u201eEarth\u201c as well as the phenomenon of inertia, are tacitly assumed as given.)\nIn the above context, the straight-line stability of a vehicle \u2013 which is concomitant with its ability to stay on a desired trajectory of motion \u2013 necessitates a certain degree of understeering.The capability to smooth down the road imperfections, affects both the comfort and the road-holding of a vehicle. To improve comfort in this regard means, basically, to limit the vertical acceleration fluctuations of the vehicle body and hence of passengers. To improve road-holding means, among other things, to limit the fluctuations of the vertical force that each tire exchanges with the road. Therefore, modeling and simulation using realistic suspension-damping models, taking the vehicle tires into account, offer a straight-forward opportunity for road-holding improvement of vehicles. Optimization techniques for this purpose are also known. The application of inerters is a very new possibility in this regard, although this technology is more destined to race cars than to ordinary vehicle applications.As a more sophisticated means for improving road-holding, active suspension \u2013 involving sensors, actuators and microcontrollers \u2013 may also serve.For vehicle speeds above approximately 40 meters per second, the effects of aerodynamic forces at an automobile (that is not designed in a too odd manner) tend to become sensible for its road-holding.Beyond what has been previously mentioned, electronic stability control, if being present on a vehicle and properly tuned, will have a stabilizing influence on the trajectory of motion and accordingly an improving effect on road-holding of that vehicle.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The IEEE Robert N. Noyce Medal is a science award presented by the IEEE for outstanding contributions to the microelectronics industry. It is given to individuals who have demonstrated contributions in multiple areas including technology development, business development, industry leadership, development of technology policy, and standards development. The medal is named in honour of Robert N. Noyce, the co-founder of Intel Corporation. He was also renowned for his 1959 invention of the integrated circuit. The medal is funded by Intel Corporation and was first awarded in 2000.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A rock shed is a civil engineering structure used in mountainous areas where rock slides and land slides create highway closure problems. A rock shed is built over a roadway that is in the path of the slide.  They are equally used to protect railroads.  They are usually designed as a heavy reinforced concrete covering over the road, protecting the surface and vehicles from damage due to the falling rocks with a sloping surface to deflect slip material beyond the road, however an alternative is to include an impact-absorbing layer above the ceiling. A further use of this type of structure may be seen protecting the A4 road; although constructed primarily to alleviate risk from falling rocks from a limestone seam it also serves to protect against objects or persons falling from the Clifton Suspension Bridge where the height differential of approximately 70 metres from the bridge to the bottom of the Avon Gorge would give sufficient kinetic energy to even a relatively small item to cause injury on impact.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Rockware Glass is a UK company manufacturing glass containers. \nThe company has a works at Doncaster, South Yorkshire, Worksop, Nottinghamshire, Knottingley West Yorkshire and Irvine, Scotland. Rockware became part of Ardagh Glass Group in 2006.\nRockware's former works by the Grand Union Canal in Greenford, London, developed from W.A.Bailey's glassworks founded in 1900 and Purex lead works. By 1959 Rockware employed 1,220 people on a 14 hectare (35 acre) site.In 1968, Rockware acquired the former Forster's Glass Company of St Helens, Lancashire.The Greenford works closed in 1973 and is commemorated by Rockware Avenue.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In the field of electronic devices, roll-to-roll processing, also known as web processing, reel-to-reel processing or R2R, is the process of creating electronic devices on a roll of flexible plastic, metal foil, or flexible glass. In other fields predating this use, it can refer to any process of applying coating, printing, or performing other processes starting with a roll of a flexible material and re-reeling after the process to create an output roll. These processes, and others such as sheeting, can be grouped together under the general term converting. When the rolls of material have been coated, laminated or printed they can be subsequently slit to their finished size on a slitter rewinder.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A rotary transfer machine is a machine tool, typically for metal working by machining, comprising a large indexing table with machining stations surrounding the table. Such rotary transfer machines are used for producing a large number of parts in fairly short cycle times.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A Rubb Hall is a commercial name for particularly large, relocatable tent-like structure often used in situations of emergency (e.g. humanitarian) and temporary industry (e.g. construction projects).  The name derives from Rubb Building Systems, and Hall Engineering of Bergen Norway, manufacturers of this kind of structure. Other types of similar structure include HAGUHALL.\nRubb Halls are usually made of aluminium frames, with steel tension wires and polyester skins. They typically come in sections so the length can be determined by the number of sections employed. A common standard size is an area of 200 square metres. Doors at either end are made from the same material as the walls, and are drawn back like curtains. More secure and longer lasting structures include Flospan - frameless steel structures.\nVarious specialised modifications are possible, including the fitting of artificial ceilings inside, together with doors in end walls, to facilitate heating. It is also not unheard of to have a frame erected inside to provide a second floor.\nIn humanitarian aid situations, Rubb Halls are often used as warehouses for items such as food and medicine. They are also used for temporary emergency shelter for large numbers of people, and as spaces for activities such as person registration to take place under shelter.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Rushton disc turbine or Rushton turbine is a radial flow impeller used for many mixing applications (commonly for gas dispersion applications) in process engineering and was invented by John Henry Rushton. The design is based on a flat horizontal disk, with flat, vertically-mounted blades. Recent innovations include the use of concave or semi-circular blades.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "SAE J306 is a standard that defines the viscometric properties of automotive gear oils. It is maintained by SAE International. Key parameters for this standard are the kinematic viscosity of the gear oil, the maximum temperature at which the oil has a viscosity of 150,000 cP, and a measure of its shear stability through the KRL test.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Also known as the SAFE Foundation System, developed by architect and inventor Greg Henderson and his team at Arx Pax Labs, Inc., is a way to build in flood zones and coastal areas. It is designed to float buildings, roadways, and utilities in a few feet of water.  The self-adjusting floating environment draws from existing technologies used to float concrete bridges and runways such as Washington's SR 520 and Japan's Mega-Float. It also absorbs the shock of earthquakes, allowing buildings and their related communities to remain stable. Arx Pax is working with Republic of Kiribati and Pacific Rising to solve for sustainable development challenges associated with rising sea levels.Arx Pax, the company involved in this technology has proposed building a \u201cfloating village\u201d project in north San Jose's Alviso hamlet, deploying a group of pontoons beneath the buildings to protect the development from floods and earthquakes.Originally developed for earthquakes as an alternative to Base Isolation the floating foundation decouples the structure from the earth with a simple patented method consisting of three parts. According to the patent, \"Three part foundation systems can include a containment vessel, which constrains a buffer medium to an area above the containment vessel, and a construction platform. A building can be built on the construction platform. In a particular embodiment, during operation, the construction platform and structures built on the construction platform can float on the buffer medium. In an earthquake, a construction platform floating on a buffer medium may experience greatly reduced shear forces. In a flood, a construction platform floating on a buffer medium can be configured to rise as water levels rise to limit flood damage.\"", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Safety Equipment Institute (SEI) is a private, non-profit organization established to administer non-governmental, third-party certification programs to test and certify a broad range of safety and protective products. As of April 2016, it became an affiliate of ASTM International, a global standards development organization.  It is accredited to ISO/IEC Guide 65:1996 by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Standards Council of Canada (SCC).  It works with assorted standards organizations to verify that various products meet the safety standards set for them.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In traffic engineering, saturation describes the maximum traffic flow which can be handled by a junction. The saturation flow is the rate at which a continuous flow of vehicles can pass through a constant green signal, typically expressed in vehicles per hour or PCUs per hour. A formula to calculate saturation flows based on lane geometry is given in Transport and Road Research Laboratory RR67. However, the formula can over-estimate saturation flows at congested locations.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A Sawyer motor or planar motor is a type of linear electric motor with a forcer capable of moving in two dimensions, riding on a stator which is a large flat\u2014or nearly flat\u2014plate. Sawyer motors have been used in positioning stages and pen plotters.\nThis class of motors is named for Bruce Sawyer, who invented it in 1968.The US-patent was submitted 1966 and granted 1968.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The School of Engineering of Juiz de Fora (Portuguese: Escola de Engenharia de Juiz de Fora) was an engineering college in the city of Juiz de Fora, Brazil. It is now the engineering faculty of the Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF). The former president of Brazil Itamar Franco was an alumnus.\nIt was set up in 1914 in the city of Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais state, Brazil, and taught a five-year course of Civil and Eletrotechnic Engineering. In 1960, the school joined the Medicine, Pharmacy and Law schools of that city to found the UFJF.\nNowadays, the Faculty of Engineering provides courses in civil, production, electrical (divided into telecommunication, energy, power, electronic, robotic and automation systems), mechanical, computer, sanitary and environmental engineering, and architecture.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Standard Data Exchange Format (SDEF) provides a proprietary protocol to exchange project planning and progress data between scheduling systems and project management software. It is used by the United States Army Corps of Engineers USACE (or Corps Of Engineers, COE) in their project management and network analysis systems (NAS). The USACE publications library includes the exact SDEF specification in PDF format.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A self-discharger (or self-unloader) is a ship that is able to discharge its cargo using its own gear. The most common discharge method for bulk cargo is to use an excavator that is fitted on a traverse running over the vessel's entire hatch, and that is able to move sideways as well. Lake freighters on the Great Lakes use conveyor-based unloading gear to empty funnel-shaped holds from the bottom, lifting the bulk cargo onto a boom. \n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The sending loudness rating (SLR) is a measure of the loudness of the transmit audio sent through the microphone of a communication device (for example, a mobile phone) It compares the Sound intensity of the sound waves into the microphone to the resulting audio signal. It is measured in dBV/Pa.\nFor telephony, the reference sound pressure level is 20 micro-Pascals, with values in dB referenced to that value. \n20 micro-Pascals is called the Threshold of human hearing, and is equal to 0 dB Sound pressure level (SPL).\nITU-T recommendation P.79 has the frequency weighted sensitivity calculations in it for sending loudness rating (SLR) and receive loudness rating (RLR) for telephony.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In engineering, a serviceability failure occurs when a structure does not collapse, but rather fails to meet the required specifications. For example, severe wind may cause an excess of vibration at a pedestrian bridge making it impossible to cross it safely or comfortably. Similar excessive vibrations can be caused by pedestrians due to their walking, running, or jumping. Similarly, storm conditions may cause water to spill over a coastal structure, so that boats are not safe behind the structure.\nExamples of serviceability failures include:\na) Deformations\nb) Vibration\nc) Cracking\nd) Leakages", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The seven basic tools of quality is a designation given to a fixed set of graphical techniques identified as being most helpful in troubleshooting issues related to quality. They are called basic because they are suitable for people with little formal training in statistics and because they can be used to solve the vast majority of quality-related issues.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Shaded-pole synchronous motors are a class of AC motors.\nLike a shaded pole induction motor, they use field coils with additional copper shading coils (see the illustration) to produce a weakly rotating magnetic field. But unlike a shaded pole induction motor (which uses a squirrel cage rotor), the synchronous version of this motor uses a magnetized rotor, e.g. a permanent magnet. This rotor rotates synchronously with the rotating magnetic field: if the rotor begins to lag behind the rotating field, driving torque increases and the rotor speeds up slightly until the rotor's position within the rotating field is a point where torque = drag; similarly, if the rotation of the field slows down, the rotor will advance relative to the field, torque will decline, or even become negative, slowing the speed of the rotor until it again reaches a position relative to the field where torque = drag.\nBecause of this, these motors are often used to drive electric clocks and, occasionally, phonograph turntables. In these applications, the speed of the motor is as accurate as the frequency of the mains power applied to the motor. These motors are also used in shavers.\nFrequently, the rotor and its associated reduction geartrain are encased in an aluminium, copper, or plastic enclosure; the enclosed rotor is driven magnetically through the enclosure. Such geared motors are commonly available with the final output shaft or gear rotating from 600 RPM down to as low as 1/168 revolutions per hour (1 revolution per week!).\nA further development dispenses with the shading rings altogether.  The application of power gives the magnetised rotor enough of a 'flick' to move it fast enough to establish synchronism.  A mechanical means prevents the rotor from starting in the wrong direction.  This design will only work satisfactorily if the standstill load is near to zero and has very little inertia.  This is similar to the motor used in quartz-timed mechanical clocks.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In engineering, shear strength is the strength of a material or component against the type of yield or structural failure when the material or component fails in shear. A shear load is a force that tends to produce a sliding failure on a material along a plane that is parallel to the direction of the force. When a paper is cut with scissors, the paper fails in shear.\nIn structural and  mechanical engineering, the shear strength of a component is important for designing the dimensions and materials to be used for the manufacture or construction of the component (e.g. beams, plates, or bolts). In a reinforced concrete beam, the main purpose of reinforcing bar (rebar) stirrups is to increase the shear strength.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A sheave () or pulley wheel is a grooved wheel often used for holding a belt, wire rope, or rope and incorporated into a pulley. The sheave spins on an axle or bearing inside the frame of the pulley. This allows the wire or rope to move freely, minimizing friction and wear on the cable. Sheaves can be used to redirect a cable or rope, lift loads, and transmit power. The words sheave and pulley are sometimes used interchangeably. \n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A shelf support is a fastener used to hang a shelf on the wall.\nTypes of shelf supports:\n\nL-shaped shelf supports are named shelf bracket and they are a subset of angle brackets\nCabinet shelf support, wardrobe shelf support, shelf pin, shelf support peg, shelf support push, plug-in shelf support - when used in a wardrobe or cabinet\nThe 32 mm system on frameless cabinets using 5 mm diameter studs spaced 32 mm apart", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A shift invariant system is the discrete equivalent of a time-invariant system, defined such that if \n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        (\n        n\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y(n)}\n   is the response of the system to \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        (\n        n\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x(n)}\n  , then \n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        (\n        n\n        \u2212\n        k\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y(n-k)}\n   is the response of the system to \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        (\n        n\n        \u2212\n        k\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x(n-k)}\n  . That is, in a shift-invariant system the contemporaneous  response of the output variable to a given value of the input variable does not depend on when the input occurs; time shifts are irrelevant in this regard.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Mark Shtaif (Hebrew: \u05de\u05e8\u05e7 \u05e9\u05d8\u05d9\u05d9\u05e3) is an Israeli communication scientist, and a professor of electrical engineering at the faculty of engineering of Tel Aviv University. As of October 2020 he serves as Tel Aviv University\u2019s rector.\nMark Shtaif was born in 1966 in Kishinev of the former USSR. His father Abraham was an engineer of agricultural machinery and his mother Tania worked as a pediatrician. His family immigrated to Israel in April 1973 when he was 7 years old. After graduating from the Reali high-school in Haifa, and following a mandatory military service, he completed the bachelor, masters and doctorate degrees in electrical engineering at the Technion in 1997 and joined the light-wave research lab of AT&T in Red Bank NJ. His initial position at AT&T was of a post-doctoral fellow, but he was soon promoted to the position of a senior and subsequently principal member of technical staff and specialized on the theoretical modeling of fiber communications systems. In 2000 he assumed the position of a principal architect at a newly established optical communication start-up named Celion Networks. Later in 2002 he joined Tel Aviv University\u2019s faculty of engineering, where he has been teaching and conducting research ever since. \nHis fields of research focus primarily on fiber optics and optical communication systems. Within this general area of activity he integrates the fields of optics, quantum theory, nonlinear systems, communications theory, information theory, and signal processing. Over the years he has contributed to a variety of topics including optical amplification, analysis of nonlinear propagation, polarization-related phenomena, analyses of noise and signal detection, quantum information in fiber systems, and fundamental limits to optical communications. \nIn the years 2014 \u2013 2017 he headed the department of Physical Electronics within the School of Electrical Engineering in Tel Aviv University, and in 2017 \u2013 2020 he was the head of the entire school. In October 2020 he was appointed rector of Tel Aviv University.\nMark  Shtaif is married to Michal, an educational councilor. They have three children and reside in the town of Even Yehuda.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A shunt generator is a type of electric generator in which field winding and armature winding are connected in parallel, and in which the armature supplies both the load current and the field current for the excitation (generator is therefore self excited).", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Signal overspill is the receiving of a broadcast signal outside of its geographical target area. Radio frequencies have no way of obeying geographical borders and licensing arrangements, and the extent of overspill depends on where broadcast transmitters are sited and their power. In addition to traditional transmitters, overspill occurs when the footprint of a satellite is greater than that needed to serve its target audience.Transmitters located near to international borders may overspill into a large part of a neighbouring country, for example the signal from Republic of Ireland broadcaster 2RN's Clermont Carn site can be picked up in a large swathe of Northern Ireland, and vice versa BBC broadcasts can be picked up in the Republic.\nOverspill is usually welcomed by listeners and viewers as it gives them additional choices, when for example the Republic of Ireland began to migrate to a digital platform measures were put in place so that viewers in Northern Ireland could continue to receive the channels they had become used to. However, legally and often politically overspill can be  unwelcome. Broadcast rights are sold on a per territory basis, and overspill can be seen as harmful to  the commercial and intellectual property rights of creators. \nPolitically some governments may be wary of their own populace becoming too familiar with the culture of a neighbouring country or territory and feel threatened by it. For example, in China prior to its reforms, television dramas from Hong Kong could be easily picked up in neighbouring Guangdong, and helped spread the desire for greater liberty and material goods in Guangdong. Cross border radio and television reception was an important influence on political developments in Germany during the cold war.\nOverspill may have an accidental soft power effect, for example for many years listeners in the Netherlands were able to pick up BBC radio signals, listeners wanting to learn English would tune into the BBC leading to a British cultural influence on the Netherlands. Some nations will purposefully site transmitters and broadcast at a higher power than strictly necessary as a purposeful exercise in soft power. With regards to television, countries wishing to prevent this will choose a television encoding system incompatible to that of its neighbours.\nOverspill is used as a cover by stations, such as those known as border blaster and those of the radio p\u00e9riph\u00e9rique, where the audience supposedly accidentally receiving a broadcast is actually the intended audience. The transmitters used are positioned and are very much more powerful than that needed to serve their licensed audience.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is used in imaging to characterize image quality.  The sensitivity of a (digital or film) imaging system is typically described in the terms of the signal level that yields a threshold level of SNR.\nIndustry standards define sensitivity in terms of the ISO film speed equivalent, using SNR thresholds (at average scene luminance) of 40:1 for \"excellent\" image quality and 10:1 for \"acceptable\" image quality.SNR is sometimes quantified in decibels (dB) of signal power relative to noise power, though in the imaging field the concept of \"power\" is sometimes taken to be the power of a voltage signal proportional to optical power; so a 20 dB SNR may mean either 10:1 or 100:1 optical power, depending on which definition is in use.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A signal tone or signalling tone (or signaling tone) is a steady or pulsating periodic sound (not necessarily a pure tone) used to indicate a condition, for example on a telephone line or as an audible warning. \nIn telephone systems, signaling tones are used as call progress tones for in-band indications to subscribers. Certain telephone switching systems used tones, in-band or out-of-band, for signaling on trunks.\nTypical well-known call progress tones are dial tone, ringing tone, busy tone, and the reorder tone. A loud stutter tone is used to alert subscribers of a handset left off-hook, effectively disabling the circuit for receiving calls.\nSubscribers may choose to subscribe to additional services, such as call forwarding, which may indicate function by a stutter dial tone.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Silicone Impregnated Refractory Ceramic Ablator, or SIRCA, is a lightweight ceramic ablative material, often used in thermal protection systems to protect parts of launch vehicles and spacecraft from very high temperature heat sources.SIRCA was used for ceramic substrates on both the Viking spacecraft and the Space Shuttle, and was also used on the aeroshells for Mars Pathfinder and the Mars Exploration Rovers.  It was developed at NASA Ames Research Center in the 1980s and 1990s.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In control engineering, a single-input and single-output (SISO) system is a simple single variable control system with one input and one output. In radio it is the use of only one antenna both in the transmitter and receiver.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Space Data Integrator is a process/service platform or tool being developed by the US FAA to integrate space launch and reentry into the US National Airspace System.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A space fountain is a proposed form of an extremely tall tower extending into space. As known materials cannot support a static tower with this height, a space fountain has to be an active structure: A stream of pellets is accelerated upwards from a ground station. At the top it is deflected downwards. The necessary force for this deflection supports the station at the top and payloads going up the structure. A spacecraft could launch from the top without having to deal with the atmosphere. This could reduce the cost of placing payloads into orbit. Its largest downside is that the tower will re-enter the atmosphere if the accelerator fails and the stream stops. This risk could be reduced by several redundant streams.The lower part of a pellet stream has to be in a vacuum tube to avoid excessive drag in the atmosphere. Similar to the top station, this tube can be supported by its own system of transferring momentum from a space-bound stream to a surface-bound stream. If the tube itself also accelerates the station-supporting stream, it would have to transfer additional momentum to an earth-bound stream in order to keep itself supported. The tube-supporting streams could also be designed to integrate with the station-supporting streams.Unlike a space elevator, this concept does not need extremely strong materials anywhere, and unlike space elevators and orbital rings, it does not need a 40,000-kilometre (25,000 mi) long structure.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "SPE John Franklin Carll Award is one of the Society of Petroleum Engineers' (SPE) highest prizes, established in 1956. It recognizes contributions of applications of engineering practices in petroleum development and recovery. The prize is named in honor of John Franklin Carll, a geologist of the 19th century, who was involved with writing reports on oil and gas surveys.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Spicules are tiny glass flakes which are formed during the manufacture of glass vials. A glass tube is extruded at a constant rate and a jet of water applied to the hot glass is used to cut the blank tube to length. The bottom and lip of the vial are formed by swagging or upset forming while the glass is still hot.\nSpicules are formed in a cloud when the glass explodes from the contact of the cold jet. These are held to the glass blank during forming, and if the vial is not reheated or cleaned after manufacture, these spicules can drift off into the mixture subsequently placed in the vial. This is a serious problem in the manufacture of soft contact lenses or pharmaceutical products.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In offshore construction, the splash zone is the transition from air to water when lowering heavy burdens into the sea. The overall efforts applied on the crane change dramatically when the load starts touching water, up to the point where it is completely submerged. Its buoyancy reduces the static mass that the crane has to support, but contact with the waves creates widely fluctuating dynamic forces.\nSimulation of these changing efforts are necessary to correctly dimension cranes and lifting equipment. See for example DNV-RP-H103 (Det Norske Veritas recommended practices) for a mention of the piston effect created in the splash zone between two walls.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Squeeze casting is a casting method that combines die casting and forging. It starts with low-pressure casting, followed by the application of very high pressure as the material cools, producing a high quality casting. This is often carried out using a hydraulic press as part of the casting apparatus.Squeeze casting was originally created to make stronger metal parts for use in the construction and defense industries. The resulting metal parts created from this process are more resistant to wear and heat and have historically been very expensive to produce. The market for these parts has grown to include the agricultural and automotive industries.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Squeeze job, or squeeze cementing is a term often used in the oilfield to describe the process of injecting cement slurry into a zone, generally for pressure-isolation purposes.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Squegging is a radio engineering term. It is a contraction of self-quenching. A squegging or self-blocking oscillator produces an intermittent or changing output signal. Wildlife tags for birds and little mammals use squegging oscillators. The Armstrong super-regenerative radio receiver uses a self-blocking oscillator, too. The receiver sensitivity rises while the oscillation builds up. The oscillation stops when the operation point no longer fulfills the Barkhausen stability criterion. The blocking oscillator recovers to the initial state and the cycle starts again.\nThe receive frequency of the Armstrong Super-Regenerative receiver was some hundred kilohertz. The self-quenching frequency was ten kilohertz, just above the highest audio frequency the headphone could reproduce.\nSquegging is an oscillation that builds up and dies down with a much longer time constant than the fundamental frequency of the oscillation. A self-quenching oscillator circuit oscillates at two or more frequencies at the same time.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Steady-state free precession (SSFP) imaging is a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequence which uses steady states of magnetizations. In general, SSFP MRI sequences are based on a (low flip angle) gradient echo MRI sequence with a short repetition time which in its generic form has been described as the FLASH MRI technique. While spoiled gradient-echo sequences refer to a steady state of the longitudinal magnetization only, SSFP gradient-echo sequences include transverse coherences (magnetizations) from overlapping multi-order spin echoes and stimulated echoes. This is usually accomplished by refocusing the phase-encoding gradient in each repetition interval in order to keep the phase integral (or gradient moment) constant. Fully balanced SSFP MRI sequences achieve a phase of zero by refocusing all imaging gradients.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In engineering and computing, \"stovepipe system\" is a pejorative term for a system that has the potential to share data or functionality with other systems but which does not do so. The term evokes the image of stovepipes rising above buildings, each functioning individually. A simple example of a stovepipe system is one that implements its own user IDs and passwords, instead of relying on a common user ID and password shared with other systems.\nStovepipes are\n\nsystems procured and developed to solve a specific problem, characterized by a limited focus and functionality, and containing data that cannot be easily shared with other systems.\nA stovepipe system is generally considered an example of an anti-pattern, particularly found in legacy systems. This is due to the lack of code reuse, and resulting software brittleness due to potentially general functions only being used on limited input.\nHowever, in certain cases stovepipe systems are considered appropriate, due to benefits from vertical integration and avoiding dependency hell. For example, the Microsoft Excel team has avoided dependencies and even maintained its own C compiler, which helped it to ship on time, have high-quality code, and generate small, cross-platform code.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The strain hardening exponent (also called the strain hardening index), usually denoted \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n  , a constant often used in calculations relating to stress\u2013strain behavior in work hardening. It occurs in the formula known as Hollomon's equation (after John Herbert Hollomon Jr.) who originally posited it as \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c3\n        =\n        K\n        \n          \u03f5\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sigma =K\\epsilon ^{n}}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c3\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sigma }\n   represents the applied true stress on the material, \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03f5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\epsilon }\n   is the true strain, and \n  \n    \n      \n        K\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle K}\n   is the strength coefficient.\nThe value of the strain hardening exponent lies between 0 and 1, with a value of 0 implying a perfectly plastic solid and a value of 1 representing a perfectly elastic solid. Most metals have an \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n  -value between 0.10 and 0.50.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Structural testing is the evaluation of an object (which might be an assembly of objects) to ascertain its characteristics of physical strength.  Testing includes evaluating compressive strength, shear strength, tensile strength, all of which may be conducted to failure or to some satisfactory margin of safety.  Evaluations may also be indirect, using techniques such as x-ray  ultrasound, and ground-penetrating radar, among others, to assess the quality of the object.Structural engineers conduct structural testing to evaluate material suitability for a particular application and to evaluate the capacity of existing structures to withstand foreseeable loads.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A stub girder system is a model of steel frame structures consisting of beams and decking.\nShort lengths of stub girders the same depth as the floor beams are welded to the tops of the main girders to provide a connection to the slab.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The word substrate comes from the Latin  sub - stratum  meaning 'the level below' and refers to any material existing or extracted from beneath the topsoil, including sand, chalk and clay.\n The term is also used for materials used in building foundations or else incorporated into plaster, brick, ceramic and concrete components, which are sometimes called 'filler' products.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Subsurface Utilities are the utility networks generally laid under the ground surface. These utilities include pipeline networks for water supply, sewage disposal, petrochemical liquid transmission, petrochemical gas transmission or cable networks for power transmission, telecom data transmission, any other data or signal transmission. In North America alone, there are an estimated 35 million miles of subsurface infrastructure that deliver critical services to homes and businesses.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Control of alignment and grade during construction is established through the use of survey stakes. Stakes are generally made of wood in different sizes. Based on the use of the stake they are called alignment stakes, offset stakes, grade stakes, and slope stakes.\nSurvey stakes are markers surveyors use in surveying projects to prepare job sites, mark out property boundaries, and provide information about claims on natural resources like timber and minerals. \nThe stakes can be made from wood, metal, plastic, and other materials and typically come in a range of sizes and colors for different purposes. Sources can include surveying and construction suppliers, and people can also make or order their own for custom applications.\nA survey stake is typically small, with a pointed end to make it easy to drive into the earth. It may be color-coded or have a space for people to write information on the stake. Surveyors use stakes when assessing sites to mark out boundaries, record data, and convey information to other people. On a job site, for example, survey stakes indicate where it is necessary to backfill with soil to raise the elevation, or to cut soil away to lower it. Stakes can also provide information about slope and grading for people getting a job site ready for construction.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In materials engineering, suspension plasma spray (SPS) is a form of plasma spraying where the ceramic feedstock is dispersed in a liquid suspension before being injected into the plasma jet.By suspending powder in a fluid, normal feeding problems are circumvented, allowing the deposition of finer microstructures through the use of finer powders.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "For a frequency synthesizer, the switching time or more colloquially the switching speed  is the amount of time from when the command for the next frequency is requested until the time that the synthesizer's output becomes usable and meets the specified requirements.  Such requirements will vary depending on the design of the synthesizer.  In the 1970s switching speeds ranged from 1 millisecond to 10 microseconds. A more general statement has been given by James A. Crawford: 50 reference cycles as a rule of thumb. IIIT-H is making a processor having clock speed higher than i7 processors having 16 cores. By this rule, a reference frequency of 50 kHz has a settling time of 1 millisecond. Two other authors state (Hamid Rategh and Thomas H. Lee) that the switching time (i.e., settling time) is a function of the percentage change  in the feedback division ratio. So according to them, the delta N over N itself determines the switching time, where N is the frequency synthesizer's feedback divisor.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The deployment of a mechanical device, electrical system, computer program, etc., is its assembly or transformation from a packaged form to an operational working state.\nDeployment implies moving a product from a temporary or development state to a permanent or desired state.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Tangential firing is a method of firing a fuel to heat air in thermal power stations. The flame envelope rotates ensuring thorough mixing within the furnace, providing complete combustion and uniform heat distribution.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The tank services industry exists to assist companies in maintaining their tanks.\nRegular maintenance, as well as other services are required for many types of above ground storage tank systems used in the energy and petro-chemical industry.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A Temperley transporter is an early form of overhead crane invented by John Ridley Temperley in 1892.  They were manufactured by the Temperley Transporter Company of London.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A tension meter is a device used to measure tension in wires, cables, textiles, Mechanical belts and more. Meters commonly use a 3 roller system where the material travels through the rollers causing deflection in the center roller that is connected to an analog indicator or load cell on digital models. Single roll tension sensors and sonic tension meters are other types of tension meters. Tension may also be inferred from the frequency of vibration of the material under stress by solving the \"Vibrating String Equation\". Tension meters are available as handheld devices or as equipment for fixed installations. These are basically necessary to build up a tension-controlled closed loop.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Terbium gallium garnet (TGG) is a kind of synthetic garnet, with the chemical composition Tb3Ga5O12. This is a Faraday rotator material with excellent transparency properties and is very resistant to laser damage. TGG can be used in optical isolators for laser systems, in optical circulators for fiber optic systems, in optical modulators, and in current and magnetic field sensors.\nTGG has a high Verdet constant which results in the Faraday effect. The Verdet constant increases substantially as the mineral approaches cryogenic temperatures. The highest Verdet constants are found in terbium doped dense flint glasses or in crystals of TGG. The Faraday effect is chromatic (i.e. it depends on wavelength) and therefore the Verdet constant is quite a strong function of wavelength. At 632 nm, the Verdet constant for TGG is reported to be \u2212131 rad/(T\u00b7m), whereas at 1064 nm it falls to \u221238 rad/(T\u00b7m). This behavior means that the devices manufactured with a certain degree of rotation at one wavelength, will produce much less rotation at longer wavelengths. Many Faraday rotators and isolators are adjustable by varying the degree to which the amount of the Faraday rotator material is inserted into the magnetic field of the device. In this way, the device can be tuned for use with a range of lasers within the design range of the device.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A testbed (also spelled test bed) is a platform for conducting rigorous, transparent, and replicable testing of scientific theories, computational tools, and new technologies.\nThe term is used across many disciplines to describe experimental research and new product development platforms and environments.  They may vary from hands-on prototype development in manufacturing industries such as automobiles (known as \"mules\"), aircraft engines or systems and to intellectual property refinement in such fields as computer software development shielded from the hazards of testing live.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Thermal dissolution  is a method of liquefaction of solid fossil fuels. It is a hydrogen-donor solvent refining process. It may be used for the shale oil extraction and coal liquefaction.  Other liquids extraction processes from solid fuels are pyrolysis and hydrogenation. Compared to hydrogenation, the process of thermal dissolution has milder conditions, simpler process, and no consumption of catalyst.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A Thermal dose unit (TDU) is a unit of measurement used in the oil and gas industry to measure exposure to thermal radiation. It is a function of intensity (power per unit area) and exposure time.1 TDU = 1 (kW/m2)4/3s.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Thermal engineering is a specialized sub-discipline of mechanical engineering that deals with the movement of heat energy and transfer. The energy can be transferred between two mediums or transformed into other forms of energy. A thermal engineer will have knowledge of thermodynamics and the process to convert generated energy from thermal sources into chemical, mechanical, or electrical energy.  Many process plants use a wide variety of machines that utilize components that use heat transfer in some way. Many plants use heat exchangers in their operations. A thermal engineer must allow the proper amount of energy to be transferred for correct use. Too much and the components could fail, too little and the system will not function at all.  Thermal engineers must have an understanding of economics and the components that they will be servicing or interacting with. Some components that a thermal engineer could work with include heat exchangers, heat sinks, bi-metals strips, radiators and many more. Some systems that require a thermal engineer include; Boilers, heat pumps, water pumps, engines, and more.\nPart of being a thermal engineer is to improve a current system and make it more efficient than the current system. Many industries employ thermal engineers, some main ones are the automotive manufacturing industry, commercial construction, and Heating Ventilation and Cooling industry. Job opportunities for a thermal engineer are very broad and promising.\nThermal engineering may be practiced by mechanical engineers and chemical engineers.\nOne or more of the following disciplines may be involved in solving a particular thermal engineering problem: Thermodynamics, Fluid mechanics, Heat transfer, or\nMass transfer.\nOne branch of knowledge used frequently in thermal engineering is that of thermofluids.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Thermal stability describes the stability of a water body and its resistance to mixing. It is the amount of work needed to transform the water (e.g. a lake) to a uniform water density. The Schmidt stability \"S\" is commonly measured in joules per square meter, or \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            J\n            \n              /\n            \n            m\n          \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle \\mathrm {J/m} ^{2}}\n  .", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Thoriated glass is a glass material used in the manufacture of optical systems, specifically photographic lenses. It is useful to this process due to its high refractive index. Thoriated glass is radioactive due to the inclusion of thorium dioxide, oxide of radioactive element thorium. It has therefore been succeeded as a material of choice by glass including lanthanum oxide. Thoriated glass can contain up to 30% by weight of thorium. The thoriated glass elements in lenses over time develop a brown tint reducing transmission and interfering with neutral color reproduction.\nMany Kodak, Fuji and Asahi Takumar lenses that were produced prior to the 1970s are radioactive.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A thread protector is used to protect the threads of a pipe during transportation and storage.  Thread protectors are generally manufactured from plastic or steel and can be applied to the pipe manually or automatically (by machine).\nThread protectors are used frequently in the oil and gas industry to protect pipes during transportation to the oil and gas fields. Metal thread protectors can be cleaned and re-used, while plastic thread protectors are often collected and either re-used or recycled.\nThread protectors are widely used on firearms to protect threaded barrels. Some firearms are manufactured with thread and protectors in the factory, but most thread protectors are part of the aftermarket process of fitting a sound moderator (silencer), muzzle brake or flash hider. They protect the threads from mechanical damage and ensure the center lines line up when the muzzle device is replaced.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Joseph Thomas (Joe) Threston (born ca. 1935) is an American Navy systems engineer, known for his contributions to the development of the Aegis Combat System.Threston started his career in 1959 at Hughes Aircraft Company in the Guided Missile Laboratory, as entry-level engineer he participated in the further development and production of the Falcon Missile system, that the United States Air Force used since 1956. In the 1960s he joined RCA Corporation, where he made significant contributions to the development of the Aegis Combat System. After RCA was acquired by General Electric in 1986 Threston became General Manager of the Naval Systems Department. His department was part of GE Aerospace businesses, which was sold to Martin Marietta in 1992, and became part of Lockheed Martin in 1995. From General manager and president of manufacturing Threston became company president.Threston received several awards and honors. In 1991 he received the Harold E. Saunders Award from the American Society of Naval Engineers; and in 1995 he received the IEEE Simon Ramo Medal for his \"leadership of the design, development and production of the AEGIS ship combat system.\"", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Tienstra formula is used to solve the resection problem in surveying, by which the location of a given point is determined by observations of angles to known landmarks from the unknown point.\nJ.M.Tienstra (1895-1951) was a professor of the Delft university of Technology where he taught the use of barycentric coordinates in solving the resection problem. It seems most probable that his name became attached to the procedure for this reason, though when, and by whom, the formula was first proposed is unknown.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Time metrology or time and frequency metrology is the application of metrology for time keeping, including frequency stability.\nIts main tasks are the realization of the second as the SI unit of time and the establishment of time standards and frequency standards as well as their dissemination.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Timing margin is an electronics term that defines the difference between the actual change in a signal and the latest time at which the signal can change in order for an electronic circuit to function correctly.  It is used in the design of digital electronics.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A top kill is a procedure used as a means of regaining control over an oil well that has been producing or is experiencing well control issues with crude oil or natural gas in the well. It is not a procedure where control has been lost over the well, like a blowout. The process involves pumping heavyweight drilling mud into the well. This procedure is expected to stop the flow of oil and gas from the well. \nA further step could be sealing the well completely, often with cement.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A torque motor is a specialized form of DC electric motor which can operate indefinitely while stalled, without incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor will apply a steady torque to the load (hence the name). A torque motor that cannot perform a complete rotation is known as a limited angle torque motor. Brushless torque motors are available; elimination of commutators and brushes allows higher speed operation.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A torque to yield fastener (TTY) or stretch bolt is a fastener which is torqued beyond the state of elasticity and therefore undergoes plastic deformation, causing it to become permanently elongated.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A system is said to be transient or in a transient state when a process variable or variables have been changed and the system has not yet reached a steady state. The time taken for the circuit to change from one steady state to another steady state is called the transient time.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In electrical engineering, transposed excitation of a dipole array means that adjacent dipoles in the array  are excited in opposite directions.Dipole arrays with transposed excitation are used as antennas; they are closely related to self-complementary antenna.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A tree grate is a metallic grating installed at the same level with the pavement around a tree that allows the soil underneath to stay uncompacted and the pedestrians to walk near the tree without stepping on the soil.\nGrate slots allow tree roots to absorb air, sunlight, and water, meanwhile its soil is protected from pedestrian traffic impact. Tree grates create a protective barrier, providing uncompacted soil and development space for tree roots. They also serve as a decorative element along ceremonial streets, matching a street's design style and personality.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In systems engineering, the tricotyledon theory of system design (T3SD) is a mathematical theory of system design developed by A. Wayne Wymore. T3SD consists of a language for describing systems and requirements, which is based on set theory, a mathematical systems model based on port automata, and a precise definition of the different types of system requirements and relationships between requirements.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Trudelturm (English: \"spin tower\") is an approximately 20-meter-high former specialist wind tunnel in the Adlershof district of Berlin, Germany.\nThe building, also known as the \"Trudelwindkanal\" (\"spin wind tunnel\"), was built by the German Aviation Research Institute (Deutsche Versuchsanstalt f\u00fcr Luftfahrt, DVL) between 1934 and 1936 at the former Berlin-Johannisthal airfield. It stands next to the approximately 130-meter-long Gro\u00dfer Windkanal (\"big wind tunnel\") from the same period. Both are listed on the Berlin State Monuments List as part of the former DVL site.When it was built, the tower represented a technical innovation that for the first time made it possible to simulate the dangerous condition of aircraft spin in the laboratory. The experiments helped to better understand the complex processes involved in spinning. For example, it was determined how to intercept and regain control of aircraft \"lurching\" toward the earth without a pilot. A (precisely manufactured) model could be inserted into a vertical (bottom-up) airflow in such a way that it always flew at the height of the observation facility and could be filmed by high-speed cameras. The speed of the airflow could be regulated to match the speed of the model's fall. The internals are no longer in place.\nThe tower currently belongs to the Aerodynamic Park on the Adlershof campus of Humboldt University and is part of the building ensemble of Technical Monuments of Aviation Research in Berlin-Adlershof of the 1930s. The entire site is part of the Adlershof WISTA science and technology park, which has been developed since 1992 on an area of around 420 hectares. Since 2005, a connecting path between Max-Born-Strasse and Brook-Taylor-Strasse has borne the name Zum Trudelturm (\"to the Trudelturm\").", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A tubular linear motor is a type of linear electric motor with a forcer consisting of a series of solenoids wrapped around a cylinder enclosing a movable rod that contains a number of strong cylindrical permanent magnets aligned in alternating and opposing directions. Tubular linear motors are used in applications requiring linear actuators with performance that cannot be met by other forms of linear actuators such as pneumatic cylinders or lead screw linear actuators. Either the forcer (the part containing the coils) or the rod (the part containing the magnets) may be the moving part, depending on the application.\nAs part of a servomechanism, tubular linear motors can achieve a simultaneous combination of high forces, high speeds, and high precision that is well beyond the capabilities of most other types of actuators.\nPermanent-magnet based tubular linear motors should not be confused with tubular linear induction motors, which work on a different principle.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Unity Systems was a home automation company that was based in Redwood City, California and was formed in 1983. In 1985, Unity Systems released the Unity Home Manager which was one of the earliest home automation systems as well as one of the most successful systems. It featured a green monochrome touchscreen display with options such as temperature settings, floor plans, lighting control, the sprinkler system, HVAC control, security and general maintenance settings. The Unity Home Manager was sold by a dealer network which consisted of small, and dedicated companies, with around 90 dealers across the United States at a point in time. Unity systems closed its doors in 1999.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM), developed by Donaldson et al. in 1969,  is a method to measure wettability of petroleum reservoir rocks. In this method, the areas under the forced displacement Capillary pressure curves of oil and water drive processes are denoted as \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A1}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        2\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A2}\n   to calculate the USBM index.\n\n  \n    \n      \n        U\n        S\n        B\n        M\n        =\n        l\n        o\n        g\n        \n          \n            \n              A\n              \n                \n                  1\n                \n              \n            \n            \n               \n              \n                A\n                \n                  \n                    2\n                  \n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle USBM=log{\\frac {A_{\\mathit {1}}}{\\ A_{\\mathit {2}}}}}\n  USBM index is positive for water-wet rocks, and negative for oil-wet systems.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A valve exerciser is a device that operates a valve periodically in order to prevent it from becoming so stiff that it no longer works. Valves that are left in a static position for a long time may corrode, or become blocked with mineral deposits. Electronic valve exercisers can provide information on the health of a valve by monitoring the required operating torque.\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Valve leakage refers to flow through a valve which is set in the 'off' state.\nThe importance of valve leakage depends on what the valve is controlling. For example, a dripping tap is less significant than a leak from a six-inch pipe carrying high-pressure radioactive steam.\nIn the United States, the American National Standards Institute specifies six different leakage classes, with \"leakage\" defined in terms of the full open valve capacity:\n\nClass I, or 'dust-tight' valves, are intended to work but have not been tested\nClass II valves have no more than 0.5% leakage with 50psi (or less if operating pressure is less) of air pressure at the operating temperature\nClass III valves have no more than 0.1% leakage under those conditions; this may require soft valve seats, or lapped metal surfaces\nClass IV valves have no more than 0.01% leakage under those conditions; this tends to require multiple graphite piston rings or a single Teflon piston ring, and lapped metal seats.\nClass V valves leak less than 5*10^-12 cubic metres, per second, per bar of pressure differential, per millimetre of port diameter, of water when tested at the service pressure.Class VI valves are slightly different in that they are required (at 50psi or operating pressure, whichever is less) to have less than a specified leakage rate in millilitres of air per minute:", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In engineering, variable-buoyancy propulsion is the use of a buoyancy engine to provide propulsion for a vehicle. The concept was first explored in the 1960s for use with underwater gliders, but has since been applied to autonomous aircraft as well.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC) is a semiannual international academic conference on wireless communications organized by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' Vehicular Technology Society.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "VELUX is a manufacturing company that specialises in roof windows, skylights, suntunnels and related accessories. The company is headquartered in H\u00f8rsholm, Denmark and is a part of VKR Holding A/S.\nVELUX Group is a founding partner of the global Active House Alliance. \n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A volute is a curved funnel that increases in area as it approaches the discharge port.    The volute of a centrifugal pump is the casing that receives the fluid being pumped by the impeller, maintaining the velocity of the fluid through to the diffuser. As liquid exits the impeller it has high kinetic energy and the volute directs this flow through to the discharge.  As the fluid travels along the volute it is joined by more and more fluid exiting the impeller but, as the cross sectional area of the volute increases, the velocity is maintained if the pump is running close to the design point.  If the pump has a low flow rate then the velocity will decrease across the volute leading to a pressure rise causing a cross thrust across the impeller that we see as vibration.  If the pump flow is higher than design the velocity will increase across the volute and the pressure will decrease according to the first law of thermodynamics.  This will cause a side thrust in the opposite direction to that caused by low flow but the result is the same - vibration with resultant short bearing and seal life.  \nThe volute does not convert kinetic energy into pressure - that is done at the diffuser by reducing liquid velocity while increasing pressure.\n\nThe name \"volute\" is inspired by the resemblance of this kind of casing to the scroll-like part near the top of an ionic order column in classical architecture, called a volute.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Walter Schoel Engineering Co. located in Birmingham, Alabama, has offered consulting civil engineering, hydrologic and environmental consulting, and land surveying services, since its founding by Herman Schoel in 1888. The company is a member of the Alabama Engineering Hall of Fame.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In algebra and network theory, a Wang algebra is a commutative algebra \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n  , over a field or (more generally) a commutative unital ring, in which \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n   has two additional properties:(Rule i) For all elements x of  \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n  , x + x = 0 (universal additive nilpotency of degree 1).(Rule ii) For all elements x of \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n  , x\u22c5x = 0 (universal multiplicative nilpotency of degree 1).\n\n", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The weld access hole or rat hole is a structural engineering technique in which a part of the web of an I-beam or T-beam is cut out at the end or ends of the beam.  The hole in the web allows a welder to weld the flange to another part of the structure with a continuous weld the full width on both top and bottom sides of the flange.  Without the weld access hole, the middle of the flange would be blocked by the web and inaccessible for welding.  \nThe hole also minimizes the induction of thermal stresses with a combination of partially releasing the welded section, avoiding welding the T section where the flange joins the web and improving cooling conditions.The configuration adopted for web access holes affects how the beam joint will bend when under stress.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Western Society of Engineers is a professional and educational organization founded in Chicago, Illinois, U.S., on May 25, 1869 as the Civil Engineers' Club of the Northwest. In 1880 the club was incorporated as the Western Society of Engineers. The organization is devoted to the development of engineering leaders and the advancement of the engineering profession.\nAviation pioneer Octave Chanute was a prominent member of the Society in its early years.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The wetted perimeter is the perimeter of the cross sectional area that is \"wet\". The length of line of the intersection of channel wetted surface with a cross sectional plane normal to the flow direction. The term wetted perimeter is common in civil engineering, environmental engineering, hydrology, geomorphology, and heat transfer applications; it is associated with the hydraulic diameter or hydraulic radius. Engineers commonly cite the cross sectional area of a river.\nThe wetted perimeter can be defined mathematically as \n\n  \n    \n      \n        P\n        =\n        \n          \u2211\n          \n            i\n            =\n            0\n          \n          \n            \u221e\n          \n        \n        \n          \n            l\n            \n              i\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle P=\\sum _{i=0}^{\\infty }{l_{i}}}\n  where li is the length of each surface in contact with the aqueous body.\nIn open channel flow, the wetted perimeter is defined as the surface of the channel bottom and sides in direct contact with the aqueous body. Friction losses typically increase with an increasing wetted perimeter, resulting in a decrease in head. In a practical experiment, one is able to measure the wetted perimeter with a tape measure weighted down to the river bed to get a more accurate measurement.\nWhen a channel is much wider than it is deep, the wetted perimeter approximates the channel width.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "E. C. Williams was the first Ramsay Memorial Professor of Chemical Engineering at University College London, as well as the first in the United Kingdom being appointed in 1923.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "A wing wall (also \"wingwall\" or \"wing-wall\") is a smaller wall attached or next to a larger wall or structure.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions is a 1984 book co-edited by American authors Violet B. Haas and Carolyn C. Perrucci. It was published through University of Michigan Press. The book was reviewed in several academic journals.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Woolrich Electrical Generator, now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum, England, is the earliest electrical generator used in an industrial process. Built in February 1844 at the Magneto Works of Thomas Prime and Son, Birmingham, to a design by John Stephen Woolrich (1820\u20131850), it was used by the firm of Elkingtons for commercial electroplating.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "X-bracing is a structural engineering practice where the lateral load on a building is reduced by transferring the load into the exterior columns. \nX-bracing was used in the construction of the 1908 Singer Building, then the tallest building in the world.Some skyscrapers by engineer Fazlur Khan, such as the 1969 John Hancock Center, have a distinctive X-bracing exterior, allowing for both higher performance from tall structures and the ability to open up the inside floorplan (and usable floor space) if the architect desires.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "XFdtd is electromagnetic simulation software with a very wide variety of applications in RF circuit, antenna, military/defense, medical EM, photonics, radar, component, metamaterial, and related fields.  It originally stood for X (Window System) Finite Difference Time Domain and was first developed in the mid 1990s by Remcom Incorporated of State College, PA in the United States.  XFdtd includes full wave (FDTD), electrostatic, thermal-biological, circuit, and 2D Eigen solver and integrates with PO/MEC, and GTD/UTD method solvers.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "Xinyi Glass Holdings Limited is a private company in People's Republic of China, engaged in the production of float glass, automobile glass and construction glass. Its customers includes large international automobile corporations such as Ford, General Motors and Volkswagen of Germany. It was established in 1988 and headquartered in Hong Kong. It was listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange in 2005. In 2020, a proposed plant by Xinyi in Stratford, Ontario attracted protests on environmental and national security grounds, and was later abandoned. It has become a constituent of the Hang Seng Index (HSI) since 6 September 2021.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "In mechanical engineering, Yoshimura buckling is a triangular mesh buckling pattern found in thin-walled cylinders under compression along the axis of the cylinder, producing a corrugated shape resembling the Schwarz lantern. The same pattern can be seen on the sleeves of Mona Lisa.This buckling pattern is named after Yoshimaru Yoshimura, the Japanese researcher who provided an explanation for its development in a paper first published in Japan in 1951, and later republished in the United States in 1955. Unknown to Yoshimura, the same phenomenon had previously been studied by Theodore von K\u00e1rm\u00e1n and Qian Xuesen in 1941.The crease pattern for folding the Schwarz lantern from a flat piece of paper, a tessellation of the plane by isosceles triangles, has also been called the Yoshimura pattern based on the same work by Yoshimura. The Yoshimura creasing pattern is related to the Kresling fold and the Hexagonal fold, and can be framed as a special case of the Miura fold. Unlike the Miura fold which is rigidly deformable, both the Yoshimura pattern and the Kresling pattern require panel deformation to be folded to a compact state.", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The Ziegler\u2013Nichols tuning method is a heuristic method of tuning a PID controller. It was developed by John G. Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols. It is performed by setting the I (integral) and D (derivative) gains to zero. The \"P\" (proportional) gain, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          K\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle K_{p}}\n   is then increased (from zero) until it reaches the ultimate gain \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          K\n          \n            u\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle K_{u}}\n  , at which the output of the control loop has stable and consistent oscillations. \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          K\n          \n            u\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle K_{u}}\n   and the oscillation period \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          T\n          \n            u\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle T_{u}}\n   are then used to set the P, I, and D gains depending on the type of controller used and behaviour desired:\n\nThe ultimate gain \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        \n          K\n          \n            u\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (K_{u})}\n   is defined as 1/M, where M = the amplitude ratio, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          K\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          K\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n        \n          /\n        \n        \n          T\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle K_{i}=K_{p}/T_{i}}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          K\n          \n            d\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          K\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n        \n          T\n          \n            d\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle K_{d}=K_{p}T_{d}}\n  .\nThese 3 parameters are used to establish the correction \n  \n    \n      \n        u\n        (\n        t\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle u(t)}\n   from the error \n  \n    \n      \n        e\n        (\n        t\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle e(t)}\n   via the equation:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        u\n        (\n        t\n        )\n        =\n        \n          K\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n        \n          (\n          \n            e\n            (\n            t\n            )\n            +\n            \n              \n                1\n                \n                  T\n                  \n                    i\n                  \n                \n              \n            \n            \n              \u222b\n              \n                0\n              \n              \n                t\n              \n            \n            e\n            (\n            \u03c4\n            )\n            \n            d\n            \u03c4\n            +\n            \n              T\n              \n                d\n              \n            \n            \n              \n                \n                  d\n                  e\n                  (\n                  t\n                  )\n                \n                \n                  d\n                  t\n                \n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle u(t)=K_{p}\\left(e(t)+{\\frac {1}{T_{i}}}\\int _{0}^{t}e(\\tau )\\,d\\tau +T_{d}{\\frac {de(t)}{dt}}\\right)}\n  which has the following transfer function relationship between error and controller output:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        u\n        (\n        s\n        )\n        =\n        \n          K\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n        \n          (\n          \n            1\n            +\n            \n              \n                1\n                \n                  \n                    T\n                    \n                      i\n                    \n                  \n                  s\n                \n              \n            \n            +\n            \n              T\n              \n                d\n              \n            \n            s\n          \n          )\n        \n        e\n        (\n        s\n        )\n        =\n        \n          K\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              \n                \n                  T\n                  \n                    d\n                  \n                \n                \n                  T\n                  \n                    i\n                  \n                \n                \n                  s\n                  \n                    2\n                  \n                \n                +\n                \n                  T\n                  \n                    i\n                  \n                \n                s\n                +\n                1\n              \n              \n                \n                  T\n                  \n                    i\n                  \n                \n                s\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n        e\n        (\n        s\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle u(s)=K_{p}\\left(1+{\\frac {1}{T_{i}s}}+T_{d}s\\right)e(s)=K_{p}\\left({\\frac {T_{d}T_{i}s^{2}+T_{i}s+1}{T_{i}s}}\\right)e(s)}", "label": "Engineering"}, {"sentence": "The lirnyk (Ukrainian: \u043b\u0456\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a; plural \u043b\u0456\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 - lirnyky) were itinerant Ukrainian musicians who performed religious, historical and epic songs to the accompaniment of a lira, the Ukrainian version of the hurdy-gurdy.\nLirnyky were similar to and belonged to the same guilds as the better known bandura players known as kobzars. However, the lirnyk played the lira, a kind of crank-driven hurdy-gurdy, while the kobzars played the lute-like banduras. Lirnyky were usually blind or had some major disability. \nThey were active in all areas of Ukraine from (at least) the 17th century on. The tradition was discontinued in Eastern/Central Ukraine in the mid-1930s, some lirnyky were seen in the regions of Western Ukraine until the 1970s and even the 1980s. \nToday, the repertoire of the instrument is mostly performed by educated, sighted performers. Notable performers of the lira include Mykhailo Khai, Vadym \"Yarema\" Shevchuk, Volodymyr Kushpet and Andrii Liashuk.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A literary agent is an agent who represents writers and their written works to publishers, theatrical producers, film producers, and film studios, and assists in sale and deal negotiation. Literary agents most often represent novelists, screenwriters, and non-fiction writers. They are paid a fixed percentage (usually twenty percent on foreign sales and ten to fifteen percent for domestic sales) of the sales they negotiate on behalf of their clients.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The location manager is a member of the film crew responsible for finding and securing locations to be used, obtaining all fire, police and other governmental permits, and coordinating the logistics for the production to complete its work. They are also the public face of the production, and responsible for addressing issues that arise due to the production's impact on the community.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A master of ceremonies, abbreviated MC or emcee, is the official host of a ceremony, staged event, conference, convention, or similar performance.\nThe term is earliest documented in the Catholic Church since the 5th century, where the master of ceremonies is an official of the Papal Court responsible for the proper and smooth conduct of the elaborate rituals involving the pope and the sacred liturgy.\nThe master of ceremonies sometimes also refers to the protocol officer during an official state function, especially in monarchies.\nToday, the term is often used to connote a person who presents performers, speaks to the audience, entertains people, and generally keeps an event moving. This usage occurs in the entertainment industry, for example in reference to television game show hosts, as well as in contemporary hip hop and electronic dance music culture.\nIn addition, the term also exists in various chivalric orders and fraternal orders.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A minstrel was an entertainer, initially in medieval Europe. It originally described any type of entertainer such as a musician, juggler, acrobat, singer or fool; later, from the sixteenth century, it came to mean a specialist entertainer who sang songs and played musical instruments.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A monologist (), or interchangeably monologuist (), is a solo artist who recites or gives dramatic readings from a monologue, soliloquy, poetry, or work of literature, for the entertainment of an audience.  The term can also refer to a person who monopolizes a conversation; and, in an obsolete sense, could describe a bird with an unchanging, repetitive song.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The music editor is a type of sound editor in film or other multimedia productions (e.g. video or games) responsible for compiling, editing, and syncing music during the production of a soundtrack.\nAmong the music editor's roles is creating a \"temp track\", which is a \"mock-up\" of the film's soundtrack using pre-existing elements to use for editing, audience previews, and other purposes while the film's commissioned score is being composed.One of the few courses dedicated solely to Temp Music was offered at Chapman University's Dodge College", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A musician is a person who composes, conducts, or performs music. According to the United States Employment Service, \"musician\" is a general term used to designate one who follows music as a profession. Musicians include songwriters who write both music and lyrics for songs, conductors who direct a musical performance, or performers who perform for an audience. A music performer is generally either a singer who provides vocals or an instrumentalist who plays a musical instrument. Musicians may perform on their own or as part of a group, band or orchestra. Musicians specialize in a musical style, and some musicians play in a variety of different styles depending on cultures and background. A musician who records and releases music can be known as a recording artist.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The NBC Page Program is a 12-month paid fellowship at the  NBCUniversal's studios in New York City and Universal City, California. Over the course of one year, pages gain exposure to various areas of the NBCUniversal portfolio. Pages contribute to various teams while on business, consumer and content assignments. East Coast pages also give tours and work in audience services at NBC Studios in New York City. Notable people who began their careers as NBC pages include Regis Philbin, Michael Eisner, Ted Koppel, and Aubrey Plaza.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A party princess is a person who entertains children at birthday parties, often dressed as different Disney characters especially those from the Disney Princess franchise. The most common party princess costumes are Elsa, Cinderella, Aurora, and Ariel. These types of princess character entertainers are usually hired through children's birthday party entertainment planners. Party princesses generally perform at private birthday parties for young girls: they sing, dance, and play with the girls, all the while maintaining a party theme based on the character they are dressed up as.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A poker dealer distributes cards to players and manages the action at a poker table.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A pornographic film actor or actress, adult entertainer, or porn star is a person who performs sex acts in video that is usually characterized as a pornographic movie. Such videos tend to be made in a number of distinct pornographic subgenres and attempt to present a sexual fantasy; the actors selected for a particular role are primarily selected on their ability to create or fit that fantasy. Pornographic videos are characterised as either softcore, which does not contain depictions of sexual penetration or extreme fetishism, and hardcore, which can contain depictions of penetration or extreme fetishism, or both. The genres and sexual intensity of videos is mainly determined by demand. Depending on the genre of the film, the on-screen appearance, age, and physical features of the main actors and their ability to create the sexual mood of the video is of critical importance. Most actors specialize in certain genres, such as straight sex, bisexual sex, gay sex, lesbian sex, bondage, strap-on sex, anal sex, double penetration, semen swallowing, teenage women, orgy sex, age roleplay sex, fauxcest sex, interracial or MILFs and much more.\nThe pornography industry in the United States was the first to develop its own movie star system, primarily for commercial reasons. In other countries, the \"star\" system is not common, with most actors being amateurs. Most performers use a pseudonym and strive to maintain off-screen anonymity. A number of pornographic actors and actresses have written autobiographies. It is very rare for pornographic actors and actresses to successfully cross over to the mainstream film industry.\nThe number of pornographic film actors who have worked in the United States can be indicated by number of actors tested by Adult Industry Medical Health Care Foundation (AIM). When in 2011 its patient database was leaked it contained details of over 12,000 pornographic actors that it had tested since 1998. As of 2011, it was reported that roughly 1,200\u20131,500 performers were working in California's \"Porn Valley\".", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A production assistant, also known as a PA,  is a member of the film crew and is a job title used in filmmaking and television for a person responsible for various aspects of a production.  The job of a PA can vary greatly depending on the budget and specific requirements of a production as well as whether the production is unionized.\nProduction assistants on films are sometimes attached to individual actors or filmmakers.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The production manager of a musical ensemble is in charge of the technical crew. The technical crew moves independently of the band because the technical crew must arrive at the gig location by the morning of the show to start setting up the equipment. The band members usually arrive much later, just before the event itself.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A promotional model is a model hired to drive consumer demand for a product, service, brand, or concept by directly interacting with potential customers. Most promotional models are conventionally attractive in physical appearance. They serve to make a product or service more appealing and can provide information to journalists and consumers at trade show and convention events. Promotional models are used in motorsports, other sports (such as dart competitions) or at trade shows, or they can act as \"spokesmodels\" to promote a specific brand or product in advertisements.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A pyrotechnician is a person who is responsible for the safe storage, handling, and functioning of pyrotechnics and pyrotechnic devices. Although the term is generally used in reference to individuals who operate pyrotechnics in the entertainment industry, it can include all individuals who regularly handle explosives. However, individuals who handle more powerful materials for commercial, demolition, or military applications are generally referred to as explosive technicians.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Redcoat is the name given to frontline staff at Butlins holiday camps in the UK. A Redcoat has duties ranging from adult entertainer or children's entertainer to stewarding.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A rhapsode (Greek: \u1fe5\u03b1\u03c8\u1ff3\u03b4\u03cc\u03c2, \"rhaps\u014didos\") or, in modern usage, rhapsodist, refers to a classical Greek professional performer of epic poetry in the fifth and fourth centuries BC (and perhaps earlier). Rhapsodes notably performed the epics of Homer (Iliad and Odyssey) but also the wisdom and catalogue poetry of Hesiod and the satires of Archilochus and others. Plato's dialogue Ion, in which Socrates confronts a star player rhapsode, remains the most coherent source of information on these artists. Often, rhapsodes are depicted in Greek art, wearing their signature cloak and carrying a staff. This equipment is also characteristic of travellers in general, implying that rhapsodes were itinerant performers, moving from town to town. Rhapsodes originated in Ionia, which has been sometimes regarded as Homer's birthplace, and were also known as Homeridai, disciples of Homer, or \"singers of stitched lays.\"", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A ring girl is a woman who enters the ring between rounds of a combat sport, carrying a sign that displays the number of the upcoming round. Ring girls are often seen in boxing, kickboxing and mixed martial arts.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A ringmaster or ringmistress, or sometimes a ringleader, is a significant performer in many circuses. Most often seen in traditional circuses, the ringmaster is a master of ceremonies that introduces the circus acts to the audience. In smaller circuses, the ringmaster is often the owner and artistic director of the circus. \n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A scop (\n or ) was a poet as represented in Old English poetry. The scop is the Old English counterpart of the Old Norse skald, with the important difference that \"skald\" was applied to historical persons, and scop is used, for the most part, to designate oral poets within Old English literature. Very little is known about scops, and their historical existence is questioned by some scholars.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A script coordinator is a role in the production of a film or television series. The script coordinator is responsible for producing each draft of the script and annotating it for ease of use for the production team.\nOn a television series the script coordinator is responsible for liaising between the writing and production departments. The writers deliver the first draft of a script to the script coordinator who prepares it for the production team and handles any clearance issues. Clearance refers to the need to check the script for potential legal problems and ensure that all names are cleared by the legal department. The script coordinator must check the draft for proper formatting, spelling, punctuation and continuity before releasing the draft. Once a script has been released, other members of the production team offer notes to the writers necessitating revisions to the script. The process of how widely each draft is released (e.g. just to the writers, then to the writers and producers and then to the network) varies from show to show. With each round of revisions the script coordinator must ensure that the changes are clearly marked, re-issue the script and again check the script for errors. Many script coordinators are also responsible for foreign language translations and compiling a show bible that tracks plot points and character introductions as a reference tool. \nA script coordinator is a distinct role from script supervisor. A script supervisor is responsible for on-set annotation of the script for editing purposes rather than pre-production coordination of the script to facilitate production. A script coordinator is considered a junior role in the writing staff and becoming a full-time screenwriter is typically a common promotion from being a script coordinator.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A showgirl is a female dancer or performer in a stage entertainment show intended to showcase the performer's physical attributes, typically by way of revealing clothing, toplessness, or nudity. \n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Showman can have a variety of meanings, usually by context and depending on the country.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A showrunner (or colloquially a helmer) is the leading producer of a television series. In United States network television they are typically credited as an executive producer. Alternatively they may be credited as a producer. A showrunner has creative and management responsibility for a television series' production through combining the responsibilities of employer and, in comedy or dramas, typically also character creator, head writer, and script editor, or in animation, a story editor. In films, the director has creative control of a production, but in television, the showrunner outranks the episodic directors.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A stunt coordinator, usually an experienced stunt performer, is hired by a TV, film or theatre director or production company for stunt casting. Their job is to arrange the casting (stunt players and stunt doubles) and performance of stunts for a film, television programme or a live audience.\nWhere the film requires a stunt, and involves the use of stunt performers, the stunt coordinator will arrange the casting and performance of the stunt, working closely with the director.\nIn many cases, the stunt coordinator budgets, designs and choreographs the stunt sequence to suit the script and the director's vision.\nIt is a stunt coordinator's responsibility to create an environment where open dialogue among cast & crew involved in stunts can occur (i.e., concerns and problems can be resolved without fear of retaliation, bullying or belittlement). They should ensure that adequate rehearsals and planning occur prior to filming on set, and also ensure that performer credentials are vetted.There are two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Stunt Coordination:\nOutstanding Stunt Coordination for a Drama Series, Limited Series, or Movie\nOutstanding Stunt Coordination for a Comedy Series or Variety Program", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A stunt performer, often referred to as stuntman respectively stuntwoman and occasionally as stuntperson or stunt-person, is a trained professional who performs daring acts, often as a career. Stunt performers usually appear in films or on television, as opposed to a daredevil, who performs for a live audience. When they take the place of another actor, they are known as stunt doubles.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A talent agent, or booking agent, is a person who finds jobs for actors, authors, broadcast journalists, film directors, musicians, models, professional athletes, screenwriters, writers, and other professionals in various entertainment or broadcast businesses. In addition, an agent defends, supports and promotes the interest of their clients. Talent agencies specialize, either by creating departments within the agency or developing entire agencies that primarily or wholly represent one specialty. For example, there are modeling agencies, commercial talent agencies, literary agencies, voice-over agencies, broadcast journalist agencies, sports agencies, music agencies and many more.\nHaving an agent is not required, but does help the artist in getting jobs (concerts, tours, movie scripts, appearances, signings, sport teams, etc.). In many cases, casting directors or other businesses go to talent agencies to find the artists for whom they are looking. The agent is paid a percentage of the star's earnings (typically 10%). Therefore, agents are sometimes referred to as \"10 percenters\". Various regulations govern different types of agents. The regulations are established by artist's unions and the legal jurisdiction in which the agent operates. There are also professional associations of talent agencies.\nTalent agents are considered gatekeepers to their client's careers. They have the ability to reshape and reconstruct their client's image. They are dealmakers and assist their client by orchestrating deals within the entertainment industry, more specifically in the Hollywood entertainment industry.\nIn California, because talent agencies are working with lucrative contracts, the agencies must be licensed under special sections of the California Labor Code, which defines an agent as a \"person or corporation who engages in the occupation of procuring, offering, promising, or attempting to procure employment for an artist or artists.\"", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A talent manager (also known as an artist manager, band manager or music manager) is an individual who guides the professional career of artists in the entertainment industry. The responsibility of the talent manager is to oversee the day-to-day business affairs of an artist; advise and counsel talent concerning professional matters, long-term plans and personal decisions which may affect their career.An artist manager is also a person responsible for hiring and managing the employees in a company.   \nThe roles and responsibilities of a talent manager vary slightly from industry to industry, as do the commissions to which the manager is entitled. For example, a music manager's duties differ from those managers who advise actors, writers, or directors. A manager can also help artists find an agent, or help them decide when to leave their current agent and identify whom to select as a new agent. Talent agents have the authority to make deals for their clients while managers usually can only informally establish connections with producers and studios but do not have the ability to negotiate contracts.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The technical crew, often abbreviated to the \"tech crew\" or simply the \"crew\" (individually often known as \"techies\", \"techs\", or \"technicians\"), are the people employed behind the scenes (\"backstage\") to control all the technical aspects of creating a concert, play, musical, opera or other live performance. The technical crew can consist of only a few individuals, or be divided up into a multitude of positions depending on the scale and needs of a particular production.\nThe roles, composition and number of workers in a tech crew can change significantly depending on the nature of an event, and often evolves as the production does. In a small scale production, the technical crew might consist of a single person, operating the lights and controlling the volume of the sounds and music. In a large scale productions, the technical crew can consist of dozens of different departments and may run into the hundreds of individuals. Each department has their own specific job that pertains to their area of expertise, but they are all part of the technical crew.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A technical director (TD) is usually a senior technical person within e.g. a software company, engineering firm, film studio, theatre company or television studio.  This person usually has the highest level of skill within a specific technical field.\nIt is also a common alternative title in association football for the position of Sporting director.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Television crew positions are derived from those of film crew, but with several differences.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A theatre practitioner is someone who creates theatrical performances and/or produces a theoretical discourse that informs his or her practical work. A theatre practitioner may be a director, dramatist, actor, designer or a combination of these traditionally separate roles. Theatre practice describes the collective work that various theatre practitioners do.The term was not ordinarily applied to theatre-makers prior to the rise of modernism in the theatre. Instead, theatre praxis from Konstantin Stanislavski's development of his system is described through Vsevolod Meyerhold's biomechanics, Antonin Artaud's Theatre of cruelty, Bertolt Brecht's epic, and Jerzy Grotowski's poor theatre. Contemporary theatre practitioners include Augusto Boal with his Theatre of the Oppressed, Dario Fo's popular theatre, Eugenio Barba's theatre anthropology, and Anne Bogart's viewpoints.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Toastmaster is a general term, prevalent in the United States in the middle 20th century, referring to a person in charge of the proceedings of a public speaking event. The toastmaster is typically charged with organization of the event, arranging the order of speakers, introducing one or more of the speakers, and keeping the event on schedule.  Such meetings typically include civic events, service organization meetings, and banquets for various purposes.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A vedette is the main female artist of a show derived from cabaret and its subcategories of revue, vaudeville, music hall or burlesque. The purpose of the vedette is to entertain and captivate the public. The vedette has to know how to sing, dance and act on stage. Particularly accomplished artistes are considered super vedettes or first vedettes. Vedettes often appear alongside groups of dancers, flashy and revealing costumes, magicians, comedians, jugglers, or even performing animals. Vedettes specializing in burlesque generally do  striptease and may also perform nude on stage.\nIn the 20th century, vedette shows were successful in the cabarets, theaters and nightclubs of countries such as Spain, France, Argentina and Mexico. Paris and Las Vegas were considered the main cradle of the vedettes.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The VFX creative director is a position common in films, television programs, and computer games using a large amount of visual effects (VFX).\nFor films which are fully or partly computer generated, a VFX creative director works closely with the director. On smaller VFX-intensive productions such as music videos or some television commercials, a VFX creative director may also assume the responsibilities of the director. They are charged with making creative and aesthetic choices for visual effects. Although the role is generally more creative in nature, most VFX creative directors have a technical background and may exert a strong practical hand in production.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A video game producer is the top person in charge of overseeing  development of a video game.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Voice acting is the art of performing voice-overs to present a character or provide information to an audience. Performers are called voice actors/actresses, voice artists, dubbing artists, voice talent, voice-over artists, or voice-over talent. Voice acting is recognised as a specialized dramatic profession in the United Kingdom, primarily due to BBC broadcasts of radio drama production.Examples of voice work include animated, off-stage, off-screen or non-visible characters in various works such as feature films, dubbed foreign-language films, animated films, anime, television shows, video games, cartoons, documentaries, commercials, audiobooks, radio dramas and comedies, amusement rides, theater productions, puppet shows and audio games. Voice actors are also heard through pre-recorded and automated announcements that are a part of everyday modern life in areas such as shops, elevators, waiting rooms and public transport. The role of a voice actor may involve singing, most often when playing a fictional character, although a separate performer is sometimes enlisted as the character's singing voice.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The weapons master, sometimes credited as the armorer, weapons specialist, weapons handler, weapons wrangler, or weapons coordinator, is a film crew specialist that works with the property master, director, actors, stunt coordinator and script supervisor. The weapons master is specifically responsible for maintaining control of any prop weapons, including firearms, knives, swords, bows, and staff weapons.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "BFBS Live Events (formerly Combined Services Entertainment (CSE) until 2 March 2020) is the live entertainment arm of the British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) (and prior to March 2020 the Services Sound and Vision Corporation (SSVC), a registered British charity). It is the official provider of live entertainment to the British Armed Forces. BFBS Live Events routinely sends tours of entertainment to Afghanistan, Cyprus, Oman, the Falkland Islands and to Royal Navy ships deployed worldwide.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The British Association for Screen Entertainment (BASE) is a video home entertainment organisation established in 1980 as the British Video Association (BVA). Its members include the BBC and Hollywood studios. The association organises an annual awards ceremony (The BASE Awards, formerly the BVA Awards) in London. In 2003, the association reported a 61% increase of DVD sales alongside a tripling in the illegal downloading of film and television files. In 2010 the association publicised the fact that around six million people in the UK had failed to acquire a high-definition television signal for television sets that were HD ready.In 2016 the association changed its name from the British Video Association to the British Association for Screen Entertainment.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Coalition of Asian Pacifics in Entertainment (CAPE) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization that advocates for Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in the entertainment industry. Established in 1991, CAPE \"champions diversity by educating, connecting, and empowering Asian American and Pacific Islander artists and leaders in entertainment and media.\" The organization focuses on training development program and incubators for emerging and mid-level entertainment industry professionals and media consulting and training services.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A concert party, also called a Pierrot troupe, is the collective name for a group of entertainers, or Pierrots, popular in Britain during the first half of the 20th century. The variety show given by a Pierrot troupe was called a Pierrot show.\n\nConcert parties were travelling shows of songs and comedy, often put on at the seaside and opening with a Pierrot\nnumber.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA) was an organisation established in 1939 by Basil Dean and Leslie Henson to provide entertainment for British armed forces personnel during World War II. ENSA operated as part of the Navy, Army and Air Force Institutes. It was superseded by Combined Services Entertainment (CSE) which now operates as part of the Services Sound and Vision Corporation (SSVC).The first big wartime variety concert organised by ENSA was broadcast by the BBC to the Empire and local networks from RAF Hendon in north London on 17 October 1939. Among the entertainers appearing on the bill were Adelaide Hall, The Western Brothers and Mantovani. A newsreel of this concert showing Hall singing \"We're Going to Hang out the Washing on the Siegfried Line\" accompanied by Mantovani and His Orchestra exists.Many members of ENSA later had careers in the entertainment industry after the war, including actors Terry-Thomas, Peter Sellers and Kenneth Connor.\nTap and acrobatic dancer Vivienne Hole, stage name Vivienne Fayre, a civilian aged 19, was the only ENSA member killed in the war. On 23 January 1945 in Normandy, she was being driven between shows as a passenger aboard a truck carrying stage scenery which strayed into a minefield. She was buried with full military honours in Sittard War Cemetery.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "European Arenas Association (EAA) is an international association that represents 36 European arenas in 20 nations.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "GERA Europe is the European wing of the Global Entertainment Retail Association. It is a Brussels-based umbrella group for trade associations representing entertainment retailers and distributors across Europe. It has active members in six European countries.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Gesellschaft zur Verfolgung von Urheberrechtsverletzungen e.V. (GVU, Society for the Prosecution of Copyright Infringement) is a registered association under German law. According to its own description it works for the video game industry and film industry and helps to protect intellectual property and to counter the illegal distribution of copied materials. For this purpose, the association cooperates with the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).The GVU was founded in the spring of 1984 and entered the register of associations in February 1985 for the first time. The headquarters were located first in Hamburg, since 2008 they have been in Berlin-Mitte. The GVU became known to a wider public by participating in campaigns such as \"pirates are criminals\u201c and investigations in the Kino.to case.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A Jeep Show was a Western Front European Theatre of Operations initiative to bring entertainment to rapidly advancing American troops.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The National Society of Arts and Letters (known by its abbreviation NSAL) is an American non-profit group founded in 1944 as a women's organization to assist promising young artists through arts competitions, scholarships and other career opportunities.  Men were later admitted to the organization, and have been an important and enriching addition.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "SMOLART is a Russian Agency based in Moscow (Russia), specializing in the international artist management of individual artists, ensembles and projects primarily in the area of classical music and dance (ballet). The Agency was founded in 2009  in Moscow, Russia. SMOLART Director is Mr. Sergei Molchanov.,SMOLART is the only Russian Agency accepted as a full member to the International Artist Managers' Association (IAMA) (as of 15 November 2012).", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Special Services was the entertainment branch of the American military. The unit was created on 22 July 1940 by the War Department as part of the Army Service Forces. Special Services not only used its own specially trained and talented troops but also would often engage local performers.  Among its activities were staging plays and stage acts, holding concerts, filming documentaries, and providing recreational opportunities for servicemen.\nSpecial Services were one of the few U.S. Army units to be racially integrated during World War II. Special Services opened their first Recreational Officer school at Fort Meade Maryland on 1 April 1942.Within the United States Marine Corps, the Special Services Division was the forerunner of today's Special Services Branch. It was formed on 1 March 1943, to provide morale maintaining recreational and informational services to Marine Corps personnel. As of at least 2004, the Special Services Branch was still active within the USMC.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The United Service Organizations Inc. (USO) is an American nonprofit-charitable corporation that provides live entertainment, such as comedians, actors and musicians, social facilities, and other programs to members of the United States Armed Forces and their families. Since 1941, it has worked in partnership with the Department of War, and later with the Department of Defense (DoD), relying heavily on private contributions and on funds, goods, and services from various corporate and individual donors. Although it is congressionally chartered, it is not a government agency.\nFounded during World War II, the USO sought to be the GI's \"home away from home\" and began a tradition of entertaining the troops and providing social facilities. Involvement in the USO was one of the many ways in which the nation had come together to support the war effort, with nearly 1.5 million people having volunteered their services in some way. The USO initially disbanded in 1947, but was revived in 1950 for the Korean War, after which it continued, also providing peacetime services. During the Vietnam War, USO social facilities (\"USOs\") were sometimes located in combat zones.\nThe organization became particularly known for its live performances, called camp shows, through which the entertainment industry helps boost the morale of servicemen and women. In the early days, Hollywood was eager to show its patriotism, and many celebrities joined the ranks of USO entertainers. They went as volunteers to entertain, and celebrities continue to provide volunteer entertainment in military bases in the U.S. and overseas, sometimes placing their own lives in danger by traveling or performing under hazardous conditions. In 2011, the USO was awarded the National Medal of Arts.\nThe USO has over 200 locations around the world in 14 countries (including the U.S.) and 27 states. During a gala marking the USO's 75th anniversary in 2016, retired Army Gen. George W. Casey Jr., the chairman of the USO Board of Governors, estimated that the USO has served more than 35 million Americans over its history.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Women in Entertainment is an American 501c3 nonprofit organization entertainment conference and summit founded in 2015.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Zoonga (formerly known as Kyazoonga) is a privately held global ticketing company that operates an online ticketing service which is accessible via its websites and mobile apps. It also provides its service through retail outlets and box-office distribution channels. Users can use the service to purchase tickets to major sports, entertainment, leisure and lifestyle events and venues across the world. Zoonga's partners include sports franchises, teams, concert promoters and event organizers. As a primary ticket outlet, typically, Zoonga's clients (promoters) control their events, and Zoonga acts as an agent, selling the tickets that the clients make available to them. It is also the only ticketing company from the Indian subcontinent to have qualified as a finalist for an Olympics ticketing bid.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "An entertainment robot is, as the name indicates, a robot that is not made for utilitarian use, as in production or domestic services, but for the sole subjective pleasure of the human. It serves, usually the owner or his housemates, guests or clients. Robotics technologies are applied in many areas of culture and entertainment.\nExpensive robotics are applied to the creation of narrative environments in commercial venues where servo motors, pneumatics and hydraulic actuators are used to create movement with often preprogrammed responsive behaviors such as in Disneyland's haunted house ride.\nEntertainment robots can also be seen in the context of media arts where artist have been employing advanced technologies to create environments and artistic expression also utilizing the actuators and sensor to allow their robots to react and change in relation to viewers.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Awaze Tribune or AwazeTribune is an Eritrean news satire organization that publishes articles on international, national, and local news. Based in Asmara, Eritrea.  The website carries articles that may cover current events, both real and fictional, satirizing the tone and format of traditional news organizations with stories, editorials, op-ed pieces, and man-in-the-street interviews using a traditional news website layout and an editorial voice modelled after The New York Times, and the usage of the AP Style of news writing.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Brobdingnag is a fictional land, which is occupied by giants, in Jonathan Swift's 1726 satirical novel Gulliver's Travels. The story's main character, Lemuel Gulliver, visits the land after the ship on which he is travelling is blown off course. As a result, he becomes separated from a party exploring the unknown land. In the second preface to the book, Gulliver laments that the publisher misspelled the land's name, which Gulliver asserts is actually called Brobdingrag.The adjective \"Brobdingnagian\" has come to describe anything of colossal size.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A cactolith is \"a quasihorizontal chonolith composed of anastomosing ductoliths whose distal ends curl like a harpolith, thin like a wedge, partly cocordant and partly discordant sphenolith, or bulge discordantly like an akmolith or ethmolith.\"\nThe term was coined by Charles B. Hunt, a USGS researcher, in his paper \"Geology and geography of the Henry Mountains region, Utah\" (1953). He was in fact describing an actual geological feature\u2014a laccolith which he saw as resembling a cactus\u2014he was also, tongue-in-cheek, commenting on what he saw as an absurd number of \"-lith\" words in the field of geology.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Satirical cartography is a form of art, exposing stereotypes and political messages with comical geopolitical illustrations. Satirical cartography dates back to the late 18th century and early 19th century. Hanna Humphrey and Frederick W. Rose are among the earliest pioneers in cartoon-ish maps.In some cases, satirical cartography is meant to critique places and peoples or alternatively the stereotypes forming around given places and peoples.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Castigat ridendo mores (Latin pronunciation: [ka\u02c8sti\u02d0\u0261at r\u026a\u02c8d\u025bndo\u02d0 \u02c8mo\u02d0re\u02d0s]; \"laughing corrects customs/manners\") is a Latin phrase that generally means \"one corrects customs by laughing at them,\" or \"he corrects customs by ridicule.\" Some commentators suggest that the phrase embodies the essence of satire; in other words, the best way to change things is to point out their absurdity and laugh at them. French New Latin poet Abb\u00e9 Jean de Santeul (1630\u20131697) allegedly coined the phrase.The phrase is often used to explain the idea of satire in works by Moli\u00e8re and Marivaux.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Clown society is a term used in anthropology and sociology for an organization of comedic entertainers (Heyoka or \"clowns\") who have a formalized role in a culture or society.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Comedy rock is rock music that is comedic in nature. Oftentimes it is mixed with satire or irony.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Craposyncrasies or Doozakhrafat is a book by Sorush Pakzad of satirical pieces in Persian, which were posted on his personal blog before publication. The book includes 107 stories about gods, prophets, and angels and was published in February 2012 by H&S Media. The publisher included the book among its top-sellers in 2014.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The dangibon (\u8ac7\u7fa9\u672c) was a pre-modern Japanese literary genre. Texts were written in a humorous, satirical sermon-style with the purpose of educating the masses. It is type of gesaku.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Diminution is a satirical technique. It reduces the size of something in order that it may be made to appear ludicrous, or in order to be closely examined. For example, if the Canadian Members of Parliament are portrayed as squabbling, spoiled little boys and girls, this would be diminution. A diminutive satire is Gulliver's Travels.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Dog poop girl refers to a 2005 incident in South Korea which was one of the first internationally reported occurrences of doxing. In a Seoul subway car, a young woman's lap dog defecated inside the train, and the woman was photographed on another passenger's mobile phone camera after she did not clean up the mess despite numerous requests. The photos were posted on a popular Korean website and widely distributed; the woman was later identified, and her personal information was published online. The woman was publicly shamed, and quit her university. Newspaper editorials then addressed the issues concerning Internet vigilantism and privacy concerns.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Dogecoin ( DOHJ-koyn or DOHZH-koyn, code: DOGE, symbol: \u00d0) is a cryptocurrency created by software engineers Billy Markus and Jackson Palmer, who decided to create a payment system as a \"joke\", making fun of the wild speculation in cryptocurrencies at the time. It is considered both the first \"meme coin\", and, more specifically, the first \"dog coin\". Despite its satirical nature, some consider it a legitimate investment prospect. Dogecoin features the face of the Shiba Inu dog from the \"doge\" meme as its logo and namesake. It was introduced on December 6, 2013, and quickly developed its own online community, reaching a market capitalization of over $85 billion on May 5, 2021. It is the current shirt sponsor of Watford Football Club.Dogecoin.com promotes the currency as the \"fun and friendly Internet currency\", referencing its origins as a \"joke.\" Software engineers Billy Markus and Jackson Palmer launched the satirical cryptocurrency as a way to make fun of Bitcoin and the many other cryptocurrencies boasting grand plans to take over the world. With the help of Reddit, the site became an instant hit. Within two weeks, Dogecoin had established a dedicated blog and forum, and its market value has reached $8 million, once jumping to become the seventh largest electronic currency in the world. Dogecoin is based on Scrypt algorithm, and the transaction process is more convenient than Bitcoin. Dogecoin takes only 1 minute to confirm, while BTC takes 10 minutes.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Newspeak is the fictional language of Oceania, a totalitarian superstate that is the setting of the 1949 dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, by George Orwell. In the novel, the Party created Newspeak:\u200a309\u200a to meet the ideological requirements of Ingsoc (English Socialism) in Oceania. Newspeak is a controlled language of simplified grammar and restricted vocabulary designed to limit the individual's ability to think and articulate \"subversive\" concepts such as personal identity, self-expression and free will. Such concepts are criminalized as thoughtcrime since they contradict the prevailing Ingsoc orthodoxy.In \"The Principles of Newspeak\", the appendix to the novel, Orwell explains that Newspeak follows most of the rules of English grammar, yet is a language characterised by a continually diminishing vocabulary; complete thoughts are reduced to simple terms of simplistic meaning. The political contractions of Newspeak\u2014Ingsoc (English Socialism), Minitrue (Ministry of Truth), Miniplenty (Ministry of Plenty)\u2014are described by Orwell as similar to real examples of German and Russian contractions in the 20th century. Like Nazi (Nationalsozialist), Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei), politburo (Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), Comintern (Communist International), kolkhoz (collective farm), and Komsomol (communist youth union), the contractions in Newspeak, often syllabic abbreviations, are supposed to have a political function already in virtue of their abbreviated structure itself: nice sounding and easily pronounceable, their purpose is to mask all ideological content from the speaker.:\u200a310\u20138\u200aThe word \"Newspeak\" is sometimes used in contemporary political debate as an allegation that one tries to introduce new meanings of words to suit one's agenda.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Estate satire is a genre of writing from 14th Century, Medieval literary works. The three Medieval estates were the Clergy (those who prayed), the Nobility (those who fought) and lastly the Peasantry (those who labored). These estates were the major social classes of the time and were typically gender specific to men, although the clergy also included nuns. Nevertheless, women were considered as a separate class in themselves, the best-known example being Geoffrey Chaucer's Wife of Bath. Estates satire praised the glories and purity of each class in its ideal form, but was also used as a window to show how society had gotten out of hand. The Norton Anthology of English Literature describes the duty of estates satire: \"They set forth the functions and duties of each estate and castigate the failure of the estates in the present world to live up to their divinely assigned social roles\".The First Estate, the Church, consisted of those who ran the Catholic church and part of the country. They were the recipients of the tithe or the 10% tax given to the Church.\nThe Second Estate, the Nobility, were royalty, not including the King. They were never taxed but could collect taxes from the Third Estate, and had other special privileges.\nThe Third Estate, the Commons, is the largest, consisting of around 98% of the population (UCL). The commons included everyone who did not belong to the first two estates, primarily rural peasants and the urban bourgeois or middle class. They had none of the privileges or luxuries that the first two estates enjoyed, although the rise of capitalism in the late 14th Century resulted in the bourgeois having relatively more power.\nAmong 14th-century English authors, John Gower, William Langland, and Geoffrey Chaucer were three of the most prominent writers of the time to include estates satire in their works. Although Gower was more aggressive in his approach, Chaucer was more subtle and more successful, making himself to be the fool of the joke and subverting many of the conventions of the genre. Several Medieval authors used estates satire to express their disgust towards the hypocrisy of the three estates and their supposed virtuous ways.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Fratire is a type of 21st-century fiction literature written for and marketed to young men in a politically incorrect and overtly masculine fashion. The term was coined following the popularity of works by George Ouzounian (writing under the pen name Maddox) and Tucker Max. Described as a satirical celebration of traditional masculinity, the genre has been criticized for allegedly promoting sexism and misogyny.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Comedy hip hop or comedy rap, is a subgenre of lighter hip hop music designed to be amusing or funny, compared to artists who incorporate humor into their more serious, purist hip hop styles.\nSatirical hip hop is a variant of comedy hip hop done in a sarcastic, parodic, deadpan or tongue-in-cheek way.Other forms of comedy rap, such as meme rap and ironic rap, both known for their aggressive and dark comedic approach achieved some mainstream success during the 2000s and 2010s. Many examples of comedy hip hop are parodic.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Jonah or Jonas, son of Amittai, is a prophet in the Hebrew Bible and the Quran, from Gath-hepher of the northern kingdom of Israel in about the 8th century BCE. Jonah is the central figure of the Book of Jonah, which details his reluctance in delivering God's judgement on the city of Nineveh, and then his subsequent, albeit begrudged, return to the divine mission after he is swallowed by a large sea creature.\nIn Judaism, the story of Jonah represents the teaching of teshuva, which is the ability to repent and be forgiven by God. In the New Testament, Jesus calls himself \"greater than Jonah\" and promises the Pharisees \"the sign of Jonah\", which is his resurrection. Early Christian interpreters viewed Jonah as a type for Jesus. Jonah is regarded as a prophet in Islam and the biblical narrative of Jonah is repeated, with a few notable differences, in the Quran. Mainstream Bible scholars generally regard the Book of Jonah as fictional, and often at least partially satirical, but the character of Jonah son of Amittai may have been based on the historical prophet of the same name who prophesied during the reign of Amaziah of Judah, as mentioned in 2 Kings.Although the creature which swallowed Jonah is often depicted in art and culture as a whale, the Hebrew text actually uses the phrase  dag gadol, which means \"big fish\". In the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, the species of the fish that swallowed Jonah was the subject of speculation for naturalists, who interpreted the story as an account of a historical incident. Some modern scholars of folklore say there are similarities between Jonah and other legendary figures, specifically Gilgamesh and the Greek hero Jason.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Dunce is a mild insult in English meaning \"a person who is slow at learning or stupid\". The etymology given by Richard Stanyhurst is that the word is derived from the name of the Scottish Scholastic theologian and philosopher John Duns Scotus.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Satirical music describes music that employs satire or was described as such. It deals with themes of social, political, religious, cultural structures and provides commentary or criticism on them typically under the guise of dark humor or respective music genres. Topics include sexuality, race, culture, religion, politics,  institutions, taboo subjects, morality, and the human condition.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The genre of Menippean satire is a form of satire, usually in prose, that is characterized by attacking mental attitudes rather than specific individuals or entities. It has been broadly described as a mixture of allegory, picaresque narrative, and satirical commentary. Other features found in Menippean satire are different forms of parody and mythological burlesque, a critique of the myths inherited from traditional culture, a rhapsodic nature, a fragmented narrative, the combination of many different targets, and the rapid moving between styles and points of view.The term is used by classical grammarians and by philologists mostly to refer to satires in prose (cf. the verse Satires of Juvenal and his imitators). Social types attacked and ridiculed by Menippean satires include \"pedants, bigots, cranks, parvenus, virtuosi, enthusiasts, rapacious and incompetent professional men of all kinds,\" although they are addressed in terms of \"their occupational approach to life as distinct from their social behavior ... as mouthpieces of the idea they represent\". Characterization in Menippean satire is more stylized than naturalistic, and presents people as an embodiment of the ideas they represent. The term Menippean satire distinguishes it from the earlier satire pioneered by Aristophanes, which was based on personal attacks.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Metaparody is a form of humor or literary technique consisting \"parodying the parody of the original\", sometimes to the degree that the viewer is unclear as to which subtext is genuine and which subtext parodic. The American literary critic Gary Saul Morson has written extensively on the topic:\nIn texts of this type, each voice may be taken to be parodic of the other; readers are invited to entertain each of the resulting contradictory interpretations in potentially endless succession. In this sense such texts remain fundamentally open... readers may witness the alternation of statement and counterstatement, interpretation and antithetical interpretation, up to a conclusion which fails, often ostentatious, to resolve their hermeneutic perplexity. (Morson 1989)", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A satiric misspelling is an intentional misspelling of a word, phrase or name for a rhetorical purpose. This can be achieved with intentional malapropism (e.g. replacing erection for election), enallage (giving a sentence the wrong form, eg. \"we was robbed!\"), or simply replacing a letter with another letter (for example, in English, k replacing c), or symbol ($ replacing s). Satiric misspelling is found widely today in informal writing on the Internet, but is also made in some serious political writing that opposes the status quo.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Mock-heroic, mock-epic or heroi-comic works are typically satires or parodies that mock common Classical stereotypes of heroes and heroic literature.  Typically, mock-heroic works either put a fool in the role of the hero or exaggerate the heroic qualities to such a point that they become absurd.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Nacirema (\"American\" spelled backwards) is a term used in anthropology and sociology in relation to aspects of the behavior and society of citizens of the United States of America. The neologism attempts to create a deliberate sense of self-distancing in order that American anthropologists might look at their own culture more objectively.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "News satire or news comedy is a type of parody presented in a format typical of mainstream journalism, and called a satire because of its content. News satire has been around almost as long as journalism itself, but it is particularly popular on the web, with websites like The Onion and The Babylon Bee, where it is relatively easy to mimic a legitimate news site. News satire relies heavily on irony and deadpan humor.\nTwo slightly different types of news satire exist. One form uses satirical commentary and sketch comedy to comment on real-world events, while the other presents wholly fictionalized news stories.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Newspeak is the fictional language of Oceania, a totalitarian superstate that is the setting of the 1949 dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, by George Orwell. In the novel, the Party created Newspeak:\u200a309\u200a to meet the ideological requirements of Ingsoc (English Socialism) in Oceania. Newspeak is a controlled language of simplified grammar and restricted vocabulary designed to limit the individual's ability to think and articulate \"subversive\" concepts such as personal identity, self-expression and free will. Such concepts are criminalized as thoughtcrime since they contradict the prevailing Ingsoc orthodoxy.In \"The Principles of Newspeak\", the appendix to the novel, Orwell explains that Newspeak follows most of the rules of English grammar, yet is a language characterised by a continually diminishing vocabulary; complete thoughts are reduced to simple terms of simplistic meaning. The political contractions of Newspeak\u2014Ingsoc (English Socialism), Minitrue (Ministry of Truth), Miniplenty (Ministry of Plenty)\u2014are described by Orwell as similar to real examples of German and Russian contractions in the 20th century. Like Nazi (Nationalsozialist), Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei), politburo (Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), Comintern (Communist International), kolkhoz (collective farm), and Komsomol (communist youth union), the contractions in Newspeak, often syllabic abbreviations, are supposed to have a political function already in virtue of their abbreviated structure itself: nice sounding and easily pronounceable, their purpose is to mask all ideological content from the speaker.:\u200a310\u20138\u200aThe word \"Newspeak\" is sometimes used in contemporary political debate as an allegation that one tries to introduce new meanings of words to suit one's agenda.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "NPC (; each letter separately), derived from non-player character, is an internet meme that represents people who do not think for themselves or do not make their own decisions; it is also known as NPC Wojak.\nThe NPC meme, which graphically is based on the Wojak meme, was created in July 2016 by an anonymous author and first published on the imageboard 4chan, where the idea and inspiration behind the meme were introduced.The NPC meme gained widespread attention and in October 2018 was covered in numerous news outlets, including The New York Times, The Verge, BBC, and Breitbart News.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Our Lady of Perpetual Exemption was a legally recognized church in the United States, established by comedian and satirist John Oliver. Its purpose was to expose and ridicule televangelists such as Robert Tilton and Creflo Dollar who preach the \"prosperity gospel\", seen as a way to defraud believers of their money, and to draw attention to the tax-exempt status given to churches and charities with little government oversight. Oliver announced formation of his church on March 31, 2015, in a twenty-minute segment on his show Last Week Tonight.Oliver announced that the Church would be shutting down during his show on September 13, 2015. All donations were forwarded to Doctors Without Borders.In June 2021, Oliver set up a healthcare sharing ministry (HCSM) in Florida called Our Lady of Perpetual Health, satirizing what HCSMs are allowed to do by law, essentially having no obligation to provide any care.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A parody, also called a spoof, a satire, a send-up, a take-off, a lampoon, a play on (something), or a caricature, is a creative work designed to imitate, comment on, and/or make fun of its subject by means of satiric or ironic imitation. Often its subject is an original work or some aspect of it \u2014 theme/content, author, style, etc. But a parody can also be about a real-life person (e.g. a politician), event, or movement (e.g. the French Revolution or 1960s counterculture). Literary scholar Professor Simon Dentith defines parody as \"any cultural practice which provides a relatively polemical allusive imitation of another cultural production or practice\". The literary theorist Linda Hutcheon said \"parody ... is imitation, not always at the expense of the parodied text.\" \nParody may be found in art or culture, including literature, music, theater, television and film, animation, and gaming. Some parody is practiced in theater.\nThe writer and critic John Gross observes in his Oxford Book of Parodies, that parody seems to flourish on territory somewhere between pastiche (\"a composition in another artist's manner, without satirical intent\") and burlesque (which \"fools around with the material of high literature and adapts it to low ends\"). Meanwhile, the Encyclop\u00e9die of Denis Diderot distinguishes between the parody and the burlesque, \"A good parody is a fine amusement, capable of amusing and instructing the most sensible and polished minds; the burlesque is a miserable buffoonery which can only please the populace.\" Historically, when a formula grows tired, as in the case of the moralistic melodramas in the 1910s, it retains value only as a parody, as demonstrated by the Buster Keaton shorts that mocked that genre.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A pasquinade or pasquil is a form of satire, usually an anonymous brief lampoon in verse or prose, and can also be seen as a form of literary caricature. The genre became popular in early modern Europe, in the 16th century, though the term had been used at least as early as the 15th century. Pasquinades can take a number of literary forms, including song, epigram, and satire. Compared with other kinds of satire, the pasquinade tends to be less didactic and more aggressive, and is more often critical of specific persons or groups.The name \"pasquinade\" comes from Pasquino, the nickname of a Hellenistic statue, the remains of a type now known as a Pasquino Group, found in the River Tiber in Rome in 1501 \u2013 the first of a number of \"talking statues of Rome\" which have been used since the 16th century by locals to post anonymous political commentary.The verse pasquinade has a classical source in the satirical epigrams of ancient Roman and Greek writers such as Martial, Callimachus, Lucillius, and Catullus. The Menippean satire has been classed as a type of pasquinade. During the Roman Empire, statues would be decorated with anonymous brief verses or criticisms.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Political satire is satire that specializes in gaining entertainment from politics; it has also been used with subversive intent where political speech and dissent are forbidden by a regime, as a method of advancing political arguments where such arguments are expressly forbidden.\nPolitical satire is usually distinguished from political protest or political dissent, as it does not necessarily carry an agenda nor seek to influence the political process. While occasionally it may, it more commonly aims simply to provide entertainment. By its very nature, it rarely offers a constructive view in itself; when it is used as part of protest or dissent, it tends to simply establish the error of matters rather than provide solutions.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Pop culture fiction is a genre of fiction where stories are written intentionally to be filled with references from other works and media. Stories in this genre are focused solely on using popular culture references.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The satire boom was the output of a generation of British satirical writers, journalists and performers at the beginning of the 1960s. The  satire boom is often regarded as having begun with the first performance of Beyond the Fringe on 22 August 1960 and ending around December 1963 with the cancellation of the BBC TV show That Was The Week That Was. The figures most closely identified with the satire boom are Peter Cook, John Bird, John Fortune, David Frost, Dudley Moore, Bernard Levin and Richard Ingrams. Many figures who found celebrity through the satire boom went on to establish subsequently more serious careers as writers including Alan Bennett (drama), Jonathan Miller (polymathic), and Paul Foot (investigative journalism).\nIn his book The Neophiliacs, Christopher Booker, who as a founding editor of Private Eye was a central figure of the satire boom, charts the years  1959 to 1964. He begins with the Cambridge Footlights student revue The Last Laugh written by Bird and Cook; it later transferred to the West End. Booker ends the period with the cancellation of the television series That Was The Week That Was, and the closing  of the Establishment Club.\n\nThe boom was driven by well-connected graduates from first the University of Cambridge, and then the University of Oxford. BT states, \"The ground-breaking revue Beyond the Fringe, starring Oxbridge graduates Alan Bennett, Peter Cook, Jonathan Miller and Dudley Moore, opened at the Fortune Theatre, London in 1961 \u2013 and started something of a revolution in humour.\" Booker argues that, with the response to the Suez Crisis which effectively marked the end of the British Empire as a great power, an upper middle class generation with public school and Oxbridge educations who had grown up with certain expectations\u2014of following a career in colonial administration or the civil service\u2014suddenly found themselves surplus. Peter Cook had already entered for a Foreign Office entrance exam, before his stage career took off. At the same time the emergence of the \"angry young men\" and \"kitchen sink realism\" in drama were signs that British culture was increasingly dominated by the concerns of the \"common man\". The Labour Party was proving to be an ineffective opposition to a patrician Conservative government. The satire-boom generation were in general apolitical or had (at that time) left-of-centre tendencies.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Satirical ostraca are a category of ostraca (singular: an ostracon) that represent the real world in unrealistic, impossible situations\u2013a satire. The common example portrayed which helped create this categorization, are animals which take reversed roles, for example a vertically\u2013walking cat, with ducks on the end of leashes. The same role reversals can be seen on satirical papyri. This concept is a prevalent feature in absurdist literature, such as in the works of Mikhail Bulgakov.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Smelfungus is a name given by Laurence Sterne to a character in his novel \"A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy\", written in 1768. The character was created as a satire of Tobias Smollett, himself author of a volume of Travels through France and Italy, which was published in 1766.  Sterne had met Smollett during his own travels in Europe, and strongly objected to Smollett's 'spleen, acerbity and quarrelsomeness.' He modelled the character of Smelfungus on him for the 'snarling abuse he heaps on the institutions and customs of the countries he visited.'The term \"smellfungus\" (pl. \"smellfungi\") thereafter passed into broader use to describe a grumbling traveller, and might even be applied to a faultfinder in general.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Spoudaiogeloion (Greek: \u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd) denotes the mixture of serious and comical elements stylistically. The word comes from the Greek \u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd spoudaion, \"serious\", and \u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd geloion, \"comical\".The concept of the word, but not the word itself, first appears in Aristophanes's The Frogs (405 BC) lines 389\u2013393, in a scene where the Chorus, who are devoted to Demeter, pray for victory: \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03ac \u03bc\u2019 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c0\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03b1, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f21\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f21\u03c2 \u1f72\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u1f21\u03c2 \u1f70\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c3\u03ba\u03ce\u03c8\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9. (Allow me to say many things in jest and many things in seriousness, and, having sported and lampooned in a manner worthy of your feast, let me, victorious, win the victor's wreath.) The word was first coined in the Old Comedy period.Spoudaiogeloion was often used in satirical poems or folktales, which were funny, but had a serious, often ethical, theme. The serio-comic style became a rhetorical mainstay of the Cynics. It was also used by the Pyrrhonist philosopher Timon of Phlius. The Romans gave it its own genre in the form of satire, contributed to most notably by the poets Horace and Juvenal. It was the most common tone of the works made by Menippus and Meleager of Gadara.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Taking the piss is a Commonwealth colloquial term meaning to mock at the expense of others, or to be joking, without the element of offence. (Compare with the American \"fuck with.\") It is a shortening of the idiom taking the piss out of, which is an expression meaning to mock, tease, joke, ridicule, or scoff. It is not to be confused with \"taking a piss\", which refers to the act of urinating. Taking the Mickey (Mickey Bliss, Cockney rhyming slang), taking the Mick or taking the Michael are additional terms for making fun of someone. These terms are most often used in the United Kingdom, Ireland, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Translation as a rhetorical device is a form of parody, where a sarcastic paraphrase of a source quotation is given to mock its author; to enhance the irony, it is furthermore stated that the version being given is merely a translation into the speaker's language, implying that the original speaker was unduly obscure or ranting. Given the nature of Usenet forums, parodic translation is prevalent in flame wars, where remarks such as \"Translation: 'I do not have a clue and am throwing mud'\" are used to imply \u2014 on very little ground \u2014 that another poster is not making any appreciable contribution to the subject.\nUnlike other forms of parody, translation has a relatively recent history; early usages of the device can be seen in the work of the Viennese literary critic and journalist Karl Kraus,  who claimed to translate from other journalists' \u2014 famously former friend Harden \u2014 and from Moskauderwelch \u2014 a derisive term for the highly elaborate Marxist jargon of the time, a pun on Moskau, Moscow, and Kauderwelch, gibberish. Kraus' influence is notable in Karl Popper; while translation of scientific theories into verificationist terms had been a standard procedure in logical positivism for some time, Popper's criticism of several philosophers and scientists that failed to comply with his notion of the scientific method took a mocking quality reminiscent of the former.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Trickle-down economics is a colloquial term for supply-side economic policies. In recent history, the term has been used by critics of supply-side economic policies, such as \"Reaganomics\". Whereas general supply-side theory favors lowering taxes overall, trickle-down theory more specifically advocates for a lower tax burden on the upper end of the economic spectrum.Major examples of Republicans supporting what critics call \"trickle-down economics\" include the Reagan tax cuts, the Bush tax cuts and the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. In each of the aforementioned tax reforms, taxes were cut across all income brackets, but the biggest reductions were given to the highest income earners, although the Reagan Era tax reforms also introduced the earned income tax credit which has received bipartisan praise for poverty reduction and is largely why the bottom half of workers pay no federal income tax. Similarly, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 cut taxes across all income brackets, but especially favored the wealthy.The term \"trickle-down\" originated as a joke by humorist Will Rogers and today is often used to criticize economic policies that favor the wealthy or privileged while being framed as good for the average citizen. David Stockman, who as Ronald Reagan's budget director championed Reagan's tax cuts at first, later became critical of them and told journalist William Greider that \"supply-side economics\" is the trickle-down idea:\nIt's kind of hard to sell 'trickle down,' so the supply-side formula was the only way to get a tax policy that was really 'trickle down.' Supply-side is 'trickle-down' theory.\nPolitical opponents of the Reagan administration soon seized on this language in an effort to brand the administration as caring only about the wealthy. Some studies suggest a link between trickle-down economics and reduced growth, and some newspapers concluded that trickle-down economics does not promote jobs or growth, and that \"policy makers shouldn't worry that raising taxes on the rich [...] will harm their economies\".", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Whirl-Mart is a culture jamming tactic aimed at retail establishments, typically superstores.Whirl-Mart consists of a group of \"Whirl-Marters\" who congregate at a large superstore (usually a Walmart, Asda, or Sainsbury's) and slowly push empty shopping carts silently through store aisles. Participants will not purchase anything and seek to form a lengthy chain of non-shoppers, continually weaving and \"whirling\" through a maze of store aisles for up to an hour at a time. Participants describe their actions as \"a collective reclamation of space that is otherwise only used for buying and selling\". Whirl-Marters seek to mimic and mock what they perceive as the absurdity of the shopping process.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Sport pertains to any form of competitive physical activity or game that aims to use, maintain, or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants and, in some cases, entertainment to spectators. Sports can, through casual or organized participation, improve one's physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously or consecutively, with one winner; in others, the contest (a match) is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a \"tie\" or \"draw\", in which there is no single winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner and one loser. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs.\nSport is generally recognised as system of activities based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity, with major competitions such as the Olympic Games admitting only sports meeting this definition. Other organisations, such as the Council of Europe, preclude activities without a physical element from classification as sports. However, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition as mind sports. The International Olympic Committee (through ARISF) recognises both chess and bridge as bona fide sports, and SportAccord, the international sports federation association, recognises five non-physical sports: bridge, chess, draughts (checkers), Go and xiangqi, and limits the number of mind games which can be admitted as sports.Sport is usually governed by a set of rules or customs, which serve to ensure fair competition, and allow consistent adjudication of the winner. Winning can be determined by physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring elements of the sporting performance, including objective or subjective measures such as technical performance or artistic impression.\nRecords of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced or reported in sport news. Sport is also a major source of entertainment for non-participants, with spectator sport drawing large crowds to sport venues, and reaching wider audiences through broadcasting. Sport betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in some cases is central to the sport.\nAccording to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013. The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of professional sports \u2013 that is, sports (and, more broadly, non-sport games subject to organized competition) that support one or more systems of professional sports players, sportspeople by occupation.  Such sports also have a vibrant community of amateur players, from whom the best rise to become professionals.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The following is a list of sports/ games, divided by category.\nAccording to the  World Sports Encyclopaedia (2003), there are 8,000 indigenous sports and sporting games.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Vocotruyen World Championships, also known as the World Vo Vietnam Vo Co Truyen Championships, are one of the competition for Vietnam martial arts organized by the World Federation of Vietnam Vocotruyen (WFVV).", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Sports entertainment is a type of spectacle which presents an ostensibly competitive event using a high level of theatrical flourish and extravagant presentation, with the purpose of entertaining an audience. Unlike typical sports and games, which are conducted for competition, sportsmanship, physical exercise or personal recreation, the primary product of sports entertainment is performance for an audience's benefit. Commonly, but not in all cases, the outcomes are predetermined; as this is an open secret, it is not considered to be match fixing.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Airmageddon is a children's technological game show that aired on CBBC from 20 February to 18 December 2016 and is hosted by Will Best and Rachel Stringer. The show involves teams of children using radio-controlled drones.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Avenger monster truck, piloted by Columbus, Michigan native Jim Koehler, was created in 1997. The original monster truck sported a forest green Chevrolet S10 body style and a teal chassis and rims. With the exception of World Finals 14, the Avenger truck has always sported at least three flaming skulls (one on each side and one on the hood) and flowing flames running from the wheel wells. As time passed, the S10 body was replaced by a 1957 Chevrolet Bel-Air body with bright green headlights, which is the same body style that is run today by \"Mr. Excitement.\"\nAvenger is out of the Team Scream stable, which also features the Brutus, Mega-Bite, Spike, and Wrecking Crew monster trucks. The original Avenger chassis is currently run as Wrecking Crew by Steve Koehler, Jim's brother.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Battle Dome is a syndicated American television series that aired from September 1999 to April 2001. It combined elements of American Gladiators \u2013 inspired athletic competition \u2013 with scripted antics more reminiscent of professional wrestling. Recurring character-athletes known as \"Warriors\" competed against weekly contestants in a variety of physically demanding (and sometimes dangerous) events.  The series was filmed at the Los Angeles Sports Arena and produced by Columbia TriStar Television.\nThe entire first and second season of Battle Dome is available for purchase on iTunes and Amazon Video.\nMill Creek Entertainment announced the complete series on DVD.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "BattleBots (logo: B\ua4ed) is an American robot combat television series. The show was an adaptation of the British show Robot Wars, in which competitors design and operate remote-controlled armed and armored machines designed to fight in an arena combat elimination tournament.  For five seasons, BattleBots aired on the American Comedy Central and was hosted by Bil Dwyer, Sean Salisbury, and Tim Green. Comedy Central's first season premiered on August 23, 2000, and its fifth and last season ended on December 21, 2002. The show was in hiatus until it was revived on ABC in 2015.\nA six-episode revival series premiered on ABC on June 21, 2015, to generally favorable reviews and ratings.  Additionally, ABC renewed BattleBots for a seventh season, which premiered on June 23, 2016.\nIn February 2018, Discovery Channel and Science picked up the show for an eighth season, which premiered on May 11, 2018. A ninth season of BattleBots premiered on Discovery Channel on June 7, 2019, the tenth season premiered on December 3, 2020. and the eleventh season on January 6, 2022.\nOn December 3, 2020, it was announced that a spin-off titled BattleBots: Bounty Hunters would be produced. That spinoff premiered on January 4, 2021 on Discovery+.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Bear Foot is a monster truck currently owned by Paul Shafer. It was originally built by Jack Wilman and Fred Shafer (no relation to Paul) and, along with Bigfoot and USA-1 was one of the first monster trucks. It won the 1990, 1992, and 1993 USHRA Camel Mud and Monsters championships.  Originally a Chevrolet, it became a Dodge in 1992 as a result of a factory sponsorship which lasted until 1997.  Shortly thereafter, the truck was sold and Fred retired from the sport at the age of 50.\nThe truck was, for a long time, the primary rival of Bigfoot, and their meetings were heavily promoted. Today, the truck runs largely for Paul Shafer's own promotion.\nIn 2011, Fred Shafer was inducted into the International Monster Truck Hall of Fame.[1]\nIn 1985, the truck appeared in the music video for ZZ Top's single \"Sleeping Bag\", as well as appearing along with the smaller \"Lil' Bear Foot\" on an episode of Knight Rider.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Beer pong, also known as Beirut, is a drinking game in which players throw a ping pong ball across a table with the intent of landing the ball in a cup of beer on the other end. The game typically consists of opposing teams of two or more players per side with 6 or 10 cups set up in a triangle formation on each side. Each team then takes turns attempting to throw ping pong balls into the opponent's cups. If a ball lands in a cup, the contents of that cup are consumed by the other team and the cup is removed from the table. The first team to eliminate all of the opponent's cups is the winner.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Beijing Wushu Team (Chinese: \u5317\u4eac\u6b66\u672f\u961f; pinyin: B\u011bij\u012bng w\u01d4sh\u00f9 du\u00ec ) is a world-renowned wushu team from Beijing, China. The team has produced many famous international stars such as Jet Li, Donnie Yen, Hao Zhihua, Huang Qiuyan, Zhang Hongmei and Wu Jing. The Beijing team members also work with movie producers to make films. Aside from Jet Li, many other athletes have also been featured in movies (e.g. Wang Jue has starred in Shaolin Temple.) Every year, the Beijing Team performs demonstrations of wushu for the citizens of Beijing as well as visiting dignitaries. They have performed for former US President Jimmy Carter as well as many other foreign heads of state when they visited Beijing.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Bigfoot is a monster truck. The original Bigfoot began as a 1974 Ford F-250 pickup that was modified by its owner Bob Chandler beginning in 1975. By 1979, the modifications were so extensive, the truck came to be regarded as the first monster truck. Other trucks with the name \"Bigfoot\" have been introduced in the years since, and it remains a well-known monster truck moniker in the United States.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Black Stallion is a monster truck that races on the USHRA circuit and for other promoters.  Black Stallion started out as a stock 1982 Ford F350 back in 1982, owned and modified by Michael Vaters.  The first modification was a homemade 12\" lift kit, since such kits were unavailable at the time.  Mike then later added two sunroofs, an Alpine stereo system, a Ford 460 Engine, Rockwell 5 ton toploaders, Clark 20 ton planetaries, 66\" terra tires, a 9\" television and later on, a 1988 Ford F series front end.  Between 1990 and 1991, Mike realized the future of monster trucks, which was racing.  To be competitive, Mike replaced the leaf springs with airbags, the old heavy split ring rims with lightweight one piece rims, fiberglass body pieces, cutting the tires, gutting the interior out, 4 linking the truck and putting in a bigger engine.  The modifications proved to be beneficial to Mike, with close races with First Blood, and competing in some Pendaliner Special Events racing events.  After a violent rollover in Bloomsburg Pennsylvania in 1991, Mike decided to put King shocks on the truck, which he later added coil springs in 1992.  Along with the coil springs, Mike also removed the airbags.  Mike is credited as the first owner to use bypass shocks. Also for 1992, Mike changed the front clip to a 1992 Ford F-series front end.  Mike rarely ran this truck after he built the popular Boogey Van in 1993, driven by his then wife, Pam Vaters.  Due to this, the truck was nicknamed Rodney, after the comedian, Rodney Dangerfield.  Mike then built a truck for the 1996 season for research and development, named Black Stallion 2000, since his crew members joked about Mike not building a new truck for himself until the new millennium.  This chassis is still running strong to this day.  For his 20th anniversary, Mike decided to repaint Black stallion, with the front of the truck yellow, going into black with a horse face painted on.  The truck currently has the same paint scheme. The drivers for 2016 are Michael Vaters & Matt Cody. Vaters will compete in the Fox Sports 1 Championship Series. Cody will travel to Birmingham, Toronto, Newark, Charleston, Columbia, Worcester, Wheeling & Baton Rouge.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Blue Thunder is a monster truck that races in the USHRA Monster Jam series. It was originally sponsored by the truck division of Ford Motor Company and Live Nation.  The truck has several similarities with the monster truck Bigfoot. Some fans saw Blue Thunder as a replacement for Bigfoot in the Monster Jam series. The truck has been moderately successful and won several major events during its existence. However, it has not yet won a championship. Blue Thunder was used by Ford Motor Company for promotional purposes along with competition. The truck is currently driven by Todd LeDuc. The truck did not compete in 2012 when Todd LeDuc moved to Metal Mulisha after driving Blue Thunder in 2011, but as of 2022, he began driving Blue Thunder again due to the Monster Energy truck not operating anymore. With Ford dropping its sponsorship in 2012, the truck was redesigned and brought back in 2013 with veteran driver Dan Evans; former owner/driver of the Destroyer monster truck.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Bud Light Daredevils were an American acrobatic basketball show that performed during the halftime of college and NBA basketball games from 1983 to 1998.  The show combined gymnastics, trampoline, acrobatics, and basketball.  The team was started by University of Mississippi cheerleaders Ty Cobb, Sam Martin, Robert Kirby, Tyler Hubbard, John White, and Ty Cobb's younger brother Guy Cobb.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Bulldozer was a monster truck designed by Guy Wood. It featured one of the first 3-D body shells, with horns sticking out of the roof. The truck debuted in 1997 as a promotional truck for Smoke Craft jerky in the USA Motorsports series (since acquired by Monster Jam, who now own the rights to the design). The truck has been driven by Bobby Zoelner, Steve Reynolds, Rob Knell, former Taurus driver Eldon DePew, and current Maximum Destruction superstar Tom Meents, as well as Chuck Werner and Alex Blackwell. The truck El Toro Loco was created as a spin-off of the Bulldozer design.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Captain's Curse was a monster truck created by Monster Jam and FELD Motorsports, and competed in the Monster Jam series from 2007 through 2016.\nCaptain's Curse was first seen in 2007 driven by Pablo Huffaker at Monster Jam World Finals 8. Alex Blackwell then drove the truck for the next five years until moving to Wolverine in 2012.\nStyled after a 1941 Willys pickup, the truck originally featured a red-and-black pirate-themed paint scheme. Designed to replace the Blacksmith monster truck, the truck's debut at World Finals 8 was an immediate success, with driver Pablo Huffaker winning his first Monster Jam World Finals freestyle championship behind the wheel of Captain's Curse. Alex Blackwell later took over as driver of the truck with a different chassis, experiencing similar success. At World Finals X, the truck reached the final round in racing against Maximum Destruction. However, the truck lost its brakes during the run, causing the truck to flip violently when Blackwell attempted to steer it. The truck eventually landed several rows in the stands of Sam Boyd Stadium, although no one was injured. After that incident, the truck got a brand new PEI chassis, debuting at Old Bridge Township RACEWAY PARK on May 30, 2009. Ever since then, the truck and driver combo has bought consistent success. In 2012, the truck was temporarily retired, as driver Alex Blackwell was assigned to drive the new version of Wolverine. The truck made a return at the Advance Auto Parts MONSTER JAM World Finals 13 in March 2012, with its original driver Pablo Huffaker behind the wheel. In the 2013 season, Captain's Curse debuted a new black paint scheme, with Blackwell returning behind the wheel. In 2016, a successor named Pirate's Curse debuted, however, the two trucks competed alongside each other for the beginning of the year, with Blackwell eventually moving to Megalodon. Captain\u2019s Curse has since been retired from competition.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Carolina Crusher is a monster truck in the Feld Entertainment Monster Jam series. The first version of Carolina Crusher was built in 1985 by Gary Porter. Gary Porter and Carolina Crusher was one of the most popular monster trucks of the 1980s and 1990s. In the Fall of 2014, it was announced that Gary Porter would be returning to the Carolina Crusher in the Monster Jam series to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the truck in 2015.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Guy Franke Cobb (born October 27, 1963) is an American artist born in St. Louis, Missouri, United States.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A combine demolition derby is a demolition derby in which combine harvesters are used. Several fairs in the United States feature demolition derbies using combines, including events in Missouri, Nebraska, Iowa, , Michigan, Ohio, North Dakota, Washington, and Illinois.\n\nDerbies sometimes last for up to three hours. Competitors typically remove heavy or unneeded parts of the combines before competitions and reinforce the front, or header, of the vehicle. A vehicle is deemed eliminated once its header section is destroyed or the combine is immobilized. Competitors attempt to use the header to pop other vehicle's tires, rupture their drive belts, or tear off their header. The competitions can end in ties if the only remaining machines become inextricably tangled together. The competition in Lind, Washington often includes multiple heats, including rounds for event veterans, rookies, and consolation rounds for losers. In Michigan, there is a derby circuit with competitions in several towns.Competitors use old worn-out combines for the competitions; the use of new combines would be prohibitively expensive. Many, but not all, of the contestants are farmers. Some of the combines used date from the 1960s. The vehicles used in competition often are 15 feet (4.6 m) tall and weigh up to 15,000 pounds (6,800 kg). Some competitions enforce rules about the height of the header, tire standards, age of the contestants, and the location and contents of the gas tank. Most combines are given colorful nicknames by their owners. Many combine owners elaborately decorate their combines. Prizes are sometimes awarded for most impressively decorated combine. Though some competitions offer prizes of $1,500, it is expensive to modify and maintain the combines and some winners lose money overall.Though the events are usually safe, during the 1999 event in Lind, one competitor suffered a broken leg after falling from his combine. This event led to more rules being enforced at the event, including a prohibition on concrete filled headers.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Competitive eating, or speed eating, is an activity in which participants compete against each other to eat large quantities of food, usually in a short time period. Contests are typically eight to ten minutes long, although some competitions can last up to thirty minutes, with the person consuming the most food being declared the winner. Competitive eating is most popular in the United States, Canada, and Japan, where organized professional eating contests often offer prizes, including cash.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Crusty Demons are a group of daredevil freestyle motorcyclists from the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe. They originated in 1994 with the filming of Crusty Demons of Dirt by Fleshwound Films. Since then, they have been the subject of about 20 videos, and in 2007, the video game Crusty Demons was released to the public. Together the members of Crusty Demons have set 11 world records in their careers.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Cue sports are a wide variety of games of skill played with a cue, which is used to strike billiard balls and thereby cause them to move around a cloth-covered table bounded by elastic bumpers known as cushions.\n\nThere are three major subdivisions of games within cue sports:\n\nCarom billiards, played on tables without pockets, typically 10 feet in length, including straight rail, balkline, one-cushion carom, three-cushion billiards, artistic billiards, and four-ball\nPool, played on six-pocket tables of 7-, 8-, 9-, or 10-foot length, including among others eight-ball (the world's most widely played cue sport), nine-ball (the dominant professional game), ten-ball, straight pool (the formerly dominant pro game), one-pocket, and bank pool\nSnooker, English billiards, and Russian pyramid, played on a large, six-pocket table (dimensions just under 12 ft by 6 ft), all of which are classified separately from pool based on distinct development histories, player culture, rules, and terminology.Billiards has a long history from its inception in the 15th century, with many mentions in the works of Shakespeare, including the line \"let's to billiards\" in Antony and Cleopatra (1606\u201307), and enthusiasts of the sport include Mozart, Louis XIV of France, Marie Antoinette, Immanuel Kant, Napoleon, Abraham Lincoln, Mark Twain, George Washington, French president Jules Gr\u00e9vy, Charles Dickens, George Armstrong Custer, Theodore Roosevelt, Lewis Carroll, W. C. Fields, Babe Ruth, Bob Hope, and Jackie Gleason.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Cup-and-ball (or ball in a cup) or ring and pin is a traditional children's toy. It is generally a wooden handle to which a small ball is attached by a string and that has one or two cups, or a spike, upon which the player tries to catch the ball. It is popular in Spanish-speaking countries, where it is called by a wide number of names (including boliche in Spain, Capirucho in El Salvador and balero in most of Hispanic America), and was historically popular in France as the bilboquet. A similar toy with three cups and a spike called kendama is very popular in Japan and has spread globally in popularity.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Demolition derby is a non-racing motorsport usually presented at county fairs and festivals. While rules vary from event to event, the typical demolition derby event consists of five or more drivers competing by deliberately ramming their vehicles into one another. The last driver whose vehicle is still operational is awarded the victory. Demolition derbies originated in the United States and quickly spread to other Western nations. For example, Australia's first demolition derby took place in January 1963. In the UK and parts of Europe, demolition derbies (sometimes called \"destruction derbies\") are often held at the end of a full day of banger racing.\nIn demolition derbies, although serious injuries are rare, they do happen. An example of a demolition derby injury is chronic whiplash pain, often characterized by migraines. Drivers are typically required to sign a waiver to release the promoter of an event from liability.  At almost all derbies, attempts are made to make the event safer, all glass is removed from the vehicles, and deliberately ramming a driver's-side door area is forbidden. The driver's door is often required to be painted white with black numbers or blaze orange, or with contrasting colors, for visibility. Most demolition derbies are held on dirt tracks, or in open fields, that are usually soaked with water. This causes the competition area to become muddy, which helps to slow the vehicles.\nThe part of the vehicle used to ram opponents varies; some drivers use both the front and rear of the vehicle to ram the other competitors, while others tend to use only the rear end of the vehicle to protect the engine compartment from damage.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Dotch Cooking Show (Japanese: \u3069\u3063\u3061\u306e\u6599\u7406\u30b7\u30e7\u30fc, Hepburn: Dotchi no Ry\u014dri Sh\u014d) (April 17, 1997 \u2013 March 17, 2005) was a Japanese cooking show produced by the Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation and known for its use of the highest quality and most expensive food ingredients available from both domestic and international sources. In the show two chefs prepare two competing dishes, each using a special premium ingredient, but the dish that is ultimately served at the end of the show is determined by majority vote of the panelists, and then served only to those who voted for that dish. The show is continued by the New Dotch Cooking Show (\u65b0\u3069\u3063\u3061\u306e\u6599\u7406\u30b7\u30e7\u30fc, Shin Dotchi no Ry\u014dri Sh\u014d) from April 14, 2005.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Double Dare is an American television game show in which two teams compete to win cash and prizes by answering trivia questions and completing messy stunts known as physical challenges. It originally ran from 1986 to 1993. A revival ran in 2000, and the most recent revival ran from 2018 to 2019.\nHosted by Marc Summers, the program originally premiered on Nickelodeon on October 6, 1986, as its first game show. The series saw many adjustments in scheduling and titling throughout its run. Almost immediately after its debut, Double Dare had more than tripled viewership for Nickelodeon's afternoon lineup, becoming the most-watched original daily program on cable television. The program was a major success for Nickelodeon, helping to establish the network as a major player in cable television and to revitalize the genre of game shows for children. Double Dare remains Nickelodeon's longest-running game show. In January 2001, TV Guide ranked the show number 29 on its list of 50 Greatest Game Shows.\nA continuation for syndication premiered on February 22, 1988, later revamped as Super Sloppy Double Dare on January 22, 1989. The program also had a short run on Fox as Family Double Dare, airing from April 3 to July 23, 1988. Nickelodeon continued Family Double Dare, premiering a new version on October 6, 1990. The original series ended on February 7, 1993. The series was revived, hosted by Jason Harris, and titled Double Dare 2000; this aired from January 22 to November 10, 2000. A second revival of the series, hosted by Liza Koshy and featuring Marc Summers, aired from June 25, 2018, to December 20, 2019.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Dwarf-tossing, also called midget-tossing, is a pub/bar attraction in which people with dwarfism, wearing special padded clothing or Velcro costumes, are thrown onto mattresses or at Velcro-coated walls. Participants compete to throw the person with dwarfism the farthest. Dwarf Tossing was started in Australia as a form of pub entertainment in the early 1980s. A related formerly practiced activity was dwarf-bowling, in which a person with dwarfism was placed on a skateboard and used as a bowling ball.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "El Toro Loco (Spanish for \"The Crazy Bull\") is a monster truck currently racing in the Monster Jam series. The truck was created in 2001 as a variant of the 3-D molded body of the Bulldozer design, but as El Toro Loco has increased in popularity, it has become the primary truck for the body style. The truck is commonly known for \"snorting\" smoke out of its nose, which is toggled by a button inside the truck.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "FightBox is a game show that aired on BBC Three from 13 October to 10 November 2003 and is hosted by Lisa Snowdon and Trevor Nelson with Paul Dickenson as commentator.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Foxy boxing is a form of sports entertainment which involves two or more women boxing (or pretending to do so) in a sexualized context as a form of erotic entertainment. The participants are typically dressed in revealing clothing such as bikinis or skintight leotards, while the actual fight usually focuses on the beauty of the combatants rather than fighting skills. Foxy boxing is unusual in that the audience generally does not care who wins. It is believed to have its roots in \"singles' bars in southern California\" after the interest in women's boxing began to decline in the late 1980s.The mainstream competitive sport of women's boxing has tried to avoid association with  foxy boxing but the successful female boxer Mia St. John emphasised her sexuality by appearing on the cover of Playboy magazine.It was a popular entertainment used in the Philippines for military men in the 1980s and 90s. It included both boxing and wrestling and the women were expected to \"draw blood and show bruises before they got paid\". Foxy boxing was also utilized by bar owners in Thailand for the same type of audience.The style of fighting was formed into a new genre by David Borden, into what came to be known as Kaiju Big Battel, which was staged fights with a heavy tokusatsu and pop culture influence.Although foxy boxing is more of an entertainment spectacle than a sport, it has resulted in injuries. A foxy boxer at a high-end strip club in Rhode Island sued her employer after her silicone breast implants were ruptured in a fight. The class action suit ruled her employer liable.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Grudge Match is a 1991 syndicated television game show that invited feuding people to settle their issues in a boxing ring using various implements of revenge.\nThe show was presided over by Steve Albert and Jesse \"The Body\" Ventura, with Albert calling the action and Ventura as the colour commentator. Michael Buffer was the ring announcer and comedian John Pinette refereed the bouts. Then-Entertainment Tonight correspondent Paula McClure served as a reporter.\nThe Grudge Match later was revived for British television, with Nick Weir and Lisa Rogers hosting and boxer Barry McGuigan as the referee.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Harlem Globetrotters are an American exhibition basketball team. They combine athleticism, theater, and comedy in their style of play. Created in 1926 by Tommy Brookins in Chicago, Illinois, the team adopted the name Harlem because of its connotations as a major African-American community. Over the years, they have played more than 26,000 exhibition games in 124 countries and territories, mostly against deliberately ineffective opponents, such as the Washington Generals (1953\u20131995, since 2015) and the New York Nationals (1995\u20132015). The team's signature song is Brother Bones' whistled version of \"Sweet Georgia Brown\", and their mascot is an anthropomorphized globe named \"Globie\". The team is owned by Herschend Family Entertainment.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Harlem Magicians was a basketball enterprise founded in 1953 by Lon Varnell through his Varnell Enterprises, that was similar in fashion and activities to the famous exhibition basketball team the Harlem Globetrotters. The full name of the barnstorming basketball team was the Fabulous Harlem Magicians with the main star attraction of the team being Marques Haynes. Haynes had been a member of the Globetrotters, but had left the team due to a contract dispute to join the Magicians. Other famous players in the team were Goose Tatum, comic Sam \"Boom\" Wheeler, Josh Grider, Ron Cavenall, and Bob \"Ergie\" Erickson (who once stole the ball from Haynes four times in one game). Dempsey Hovland, founder of 20th Century Booking Agency and himself owner of several barnstorming teams, was recruited to book the Harlem Magicians' games. \nIn late 1961, Abe Saperstein, founder and owner of the Harlem Globetrotters, filed a lawsuit against Lon Varnell for alleged violation of Harlem Globetrotters' registered trademarks, \"Harlem Globetrotters\" and \"Magicians of Basketball\" by promoting a basketball team known as the \"Harlem Magicians\". In 1964, the parties settled the litigation by entering a consent decree approved by the District Court for the Southern District of New York.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Georgia Ann Siedenberg Hase (December 31, 1938 - July 31, 2015 [1]) - also known as \"Mizz\" Georgia Hase - was best known as a heel manager of two prominent roller games teams, the Detroit Devils of the original Roller Games league and Bad Attitude of the syndicated TV series RollerGames and was recognized as the most controversial figure in the history of the game.  She had a longtime bitter feud against the legendary Los Angeles Thunderbirds (aka the T-Birds).  It was rumored that she tried out for the T-Birds but never got her shot, so went on to skate for, and later manage, the Devils.  She put that rumor to rest in an interview done on the debut edition of RollerShoot on the AVE Radio Network on Blog Talk Radio.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Holey Moley is an American sports reality competition television series created for ABC by Chris Culvenor. The series is produced by Eureka Productions and Unanimous Media, with Culvenor, Paul Franklin, Wesley Dening, Stephen Curry, Jeron Smith, Erick Peyton, Charles Wachter, and Michael O'Sullivan serving as executive producers.\nThe series features contestants competing against each other in a series of head-to-head, sudden-death matchups on a supersized miniature golf obstacle course. Curry stars as the resident golf pro, with play-by-play commentator Joe Tessitore, color commentator Rob Riggle, and sideline correspondent Jeannie Mai. In October 2018, ABC announced they were developing a miniature golf game show. The series was officially announced in April 2019, along with Curry's involvement. Filming of the series takes place at Sable Ranch in Canyon Country, Santa Clarita, California.\nHoley Moley premiered on June 20, 2019, and its first season consisted of 10 episodes. In October 2019, ABC renewed the series for a second season, titled Holey Moley II: The Sequel, and premiered on May 21, 2020. In February 2021, it was announced that the series was renewed for a third and fourth season. The third season, titled Holey Moley 3D in 2D, premiered on June 17, 2021. The fourth season, titled Holey Moley Fore-Ever, and featuring the Muppets, premiered on May 3, 2022.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Holey Moley is an Australian reality game show based on the international U.S.-based Holey Moley format. Following the premise of the original version, the series features contestants competing against each other in a series of head-to-head, sudden-death matchups on a supersized miniature golf obstacle course. Greg Norman stars as the resident golf pro, alongside expert commentators Rob Riggle (who also appears on the American version) and Matt Shirvington, along with host and sideline correspondent Sonia Kruger.\nThe series premiered on 1 February 2021. After the conclusion of the first season on 22 February 2021, a celebrity special Celebrity Holey Moley aired on 28 February 2021, with a kids special Holey Moley Junior following on 1 March 2021.Although the first episode launched with over one million viewers, the series ultimately garnered lower than expected ratings and was absent at the network's 2022 upfronts. However Seven has yet to officially renew or cancel the series, hinging its return on other international adaptations of the Holey Moley format potentially using the Australian version's Queensland-based set to financially justify another season.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Home Run Derby is an annual home run hitting competition in Major League Baseball (MLB) customarily held the day before the MLB All-Star Game, which places the contest on a Monday in July. A \"home run\" in the context of the competition, consists of hitting a baseball in fair territory out of the playing field on the fly. It differs from a home run hit during legal gameplay in that the batter is not competing against a pitcher and a defensive team attempting to make an out. In the Home Run Derby, all pitches are purposefully thrown slowly and at a closer range than the official 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m) distance, usually by a coach behind a pitching screen. In addition, like batting practice, the batter remains in the batter's box after each swing, and does not run, nor circle the bases to score a run. \nThe batter also does not have to conform to the usual league uniform standards, and as all pitches are tossed in the strike zone without any threat of beanballs, may choose to wear a regular baseball cap instead of a batting helmet. As the event traditionally takes place at sunset where the sun is of no factor to the batter, they can choose to wear their hat casually and backwards.\nSince the inaugural derby in 1985, the event has seen several rule changes, evolving from a short outs-based competition, to multiple rounds, and eventually a bracket-style timed event.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "I Survived a Japanese Game Show is an American reality show that saw its first-season premiere on ABC on June 24, 2008. The show followed a group of Americans, who leave the United States for Japan where they competed in a Japanese style game show. The winner takes home US $250,000. The series won both the Best Reality prize and the overall prize at the 2009 Rose d'Or ceremony.\nOn October 9, 2008, it was renewed for a second season. On March 5, 2010, it was announced that ABC had not renewed the show for a third season.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Ice Wars was an annual elite figure skating team competition. The first Ice Wars took place in 1994. The competition format was \"Team World\" vs. \"Team USA\" or \"Team North America\". The 2005 competition was one exception, with the format changed to a \"Battle of the Sexes\" format, Men vs. Ladies.  It was an unsanctioned made-for-TV professional event, meaning that skaters who participated would lose their eligibility to compete in the Winter Olympics and other events recognized by the International Skating Union.\nMen, ladies, pair skaters, and ice dancers have all taken part in Ice Wars, though in 2005 only single skaters competed. \nThe event took  place in November, changing locations each year. \nThe 2001 competition was renamed \"World Ice Challenge\" after the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Idol Star Athletics Championships (Korean: \uc544\uc774\ub3cc\uc2a4\ud0c0 \uc721\uc0c1 \uc120\uc218\uad8c \ub300\ud68c) is a South Korean television program which aired for the first time in 2010. The program features celebrities, most notably Korean pop idols singers and groups, which compete in multi-sport events. The show is broadcast by MBC.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Jesse White Tumbling Team is a team of acrobats that was founded in 1959 by Illinois athlete and politician Jesse White and their agents Zach Mitchell. Their acrobatic performances, choreographed by Mitchell, can frequently be seen during half-time shows for the National Basketball Association, the National Football League and Major League Baseball games. \nWhite, who still coaches, created the team for children residing in Chicago's inner city housing projects. It serves a juvenile delinquency prevention program. Members are required to abide by White's rules, which include staying in school, maintaining a C average in academic coursework and staying away from gangs and drugs. Since the team's inception, over 10,000 children, ages 6 and up, have participated in the program. \nThe tumblers have appeared in the movies Heaven is a Playground, Ferris Bueller's Day Off, and The Meteor Man. They have performed at the half time for every NBA team with the exception of the Oklahoma City Thunder and the Charlotte Hornets. They have also appeared in two presidential inaugural parades,  for President Bill Clinton and President Barack Obama.\nThe Jesse White Tumbling Team makes over 1,500 appearances each year, in state and out of state. They have gone to U.S. states as far as Hawaii, and have even made international performances. They have gone to Canada 17 times, Tokyo, Japan to appear on television, China for the Chinese New Year, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, and Croatia.\nThe Team celebrated their 50th anniversary at the United Center in February 2010.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Jump City: Seattle was an American television series that formerly aired on G4 in 2011. It featured four of the top freerunning and parkour teams in the United States participating in a parkour competition. Each week, the athletes competed in different parkour challenges spread out across the streets of Seattle. The series ran for eight episodes and was not renewed for a second season. Team Tempest, led by Levi Meeuwenberg and Brian Orosco of American Ninja Warrior fame, won the competition.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The kendama (\u3051\u3093\u7389, \"sword [and] ball\") is a traditional Japanese skill toy. It consists of a handle (ken), a pair of cups (sarado), and a ball (tama) that are all connected together by a string. On one end of the ken is a cup, while the other end of ken is narrowed down, forming a spike (kensaki) that fits into the hole (ana) of the tama. The kendama is the Japanese version of the classic cup-and-ball game, and is also a variant of the French cup-and-ball game bilboquet. Kendama can be held in different grips, and many tricks and combinations can be performed. The game is played by tossing the ball into the air and attempting to catch it on the stick point.The origins of kendama are disputed, but it is generally believed to have originated during the 17th or 18th century. Kendama started to evolve when it came to Japan during the Edo period, and since then the use of the toy has spread throughout the world. The size and materials used to create kendamas now vary as they are offered in jumbo and mini sizes, and have been created out of plastic, metal, and nylon. There are now kendama competitions held in countries all over the world, the biggest competition being the annual Kendama World Cup in Japan.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Extreme Football League (X League) is an American women's tackle football minor league. The league was originally founded in 2009 as the Lingerie Football League (LFL), and later rebranded as the Legends Football League in 2013.On December 13, 2019, the league announced that it would not be holding a 2020 season and that it had instead restructured under its current name, placing new teams mostly in the same locations as the 2019 LFL season. The X League's 2022 season would begin play on June 10, 2022.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Lingerie Basketball League (LBL) was a women's basketball league, created in 2011. The Lingerie Basketball League was set up after the success of the Legends Football League, originally called the Lingerie Football League. Like the LFL, players in the LBL wear revealing outfits instead of traditional uniforms.The Lingerie Basketball League held its inaugural season in 2011 with four Los Angeles based teams. The L.A. Beauties won the first championship.The LBL held a second season in 2012, but there was no championship game. A championship game between the L.A. Divas and L.A. Glam was announced, but never held.The LBL did not play in 2013 and is currently inactive.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The LKL Slam Dunk Contest is an annual Lithuanian Basketball League (LKL) competition, that was originally held during the LKL All-Star Day, and later during the King Mindaugas Cup. The contest has been held almost every year, from the first All-Star Day.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The LKL Three-point Shootout, currently known as CBet.lt Three-point Shootout for sponsorship purposes, is a Lithuanian professional King Mindaugas Cup final day contest, that is held between the cup's final and third-place matches. Formerly, it was a part of the LKL's All-Star Day, and took place before the All-Star Game.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Lucas Oil Crusader (or simply known as Crusader) was a monster truck that raced in the Monster Jam professional monster truck racing series. It was driven by Linsey Weenk, former Blue Thunder driver, who debuted in 2011 in Houston, Texas. It featured one of the first trucks to change its roof artwork, which is the medieval knight decal and the truck's logo, and then after a while, it was replaced with the Lucas Oil logo. It also had the Lucas Oil flags at the back of the truck. It was sponsored by Lucas Oil since its debut in Houston, Texas, 2011. The truck was supposedly retired on July 28, 2019, but returned in 2020 to compete in Stadium Championship Series Red.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Man vs. Beast is a series of sensationalistic television specials aired in the United States by the Fox television network in 2003. The shows were produced by Brian Richardson and directed by Bob Levy. They involve a variety of challenges in which people and animals compete against each other. Although the initial special, Man vs. Beast, was panned by critics and animal rights groups, Fox commissioned a sequel, Man vs. Beast 2, which aired on February 20, 2004.\nIn 2003, ITV commissioned Granada Productions to re-create the American special for British audiences. A six-part series was filmed, hosted by John Fashanu. However, owing to heavy lobbying by animal rights groups, transmission of the series was postponed indefinitely.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A mascot race is a promotional sports entertainment or charity competition consisting of costumed runners racing around a baseball field or race course, usually as a form of between-innings entertainment. The racers are typically anthropomorphized inanimate objects or mascots related to local culture, a sponsor's products, or sport culture. The outcomes of races can both be decided in a legitimate race or may be predetermined for purely entertainment purposes.The world's largest ever mascot race was the Sue Ryder Mascot Gold Cup held at Wetherby Racecourse in West Yorkshire, United Kingdom, on April 26, 2015. The race featured 131 mascots with 125 of them completing the 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) distance and becoming the new Guinness World Record for most mascots in a race. The winning mascot was the Red Marauder entered by the Ingmanthorpe Racing Stables and helped to victory by Scottish international footballer Gary McAllister.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Maximum Destruction, also known as Max-D, is a monster truck team owned by Feld Entertainment and operated by Tom Meents that runs as part of the Monster Jam circuit.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "MLB Home Run Derby X, known for sponsorship reasons as FTX MLB Home Run Derby X, is a global baseball tour operated by Major League Baseball (MLB). Its inaugural edition is being held in 2022. It is based on the Home Run Derby that is usually held the day before the MLB All-Star Game.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Great Clips Mohawk Warrior (originally and simply known as Mohawk Warrior) is a monster truck currently racing in the Monster Jam professional monster truck racing series. It is currently driven by Bryce Kenny, and was originally driven by George Balhan, former An Escalade driver, who debuted in 2010 during the Monster Jam World Finals XI Encore in the Obsession Chassis. It features one of the first trucks a decoration on the roof, which is a Giant Mohawk. The truck is also a successor to An Escalade. It also has an NGK Spark Plugs flag at the back of the truck, and was replaced by the Great Clips flags in 2017. It is sponsored by Great Clips since Bryce Kenny became the new driver of Mohawk Warrior after Balhan retired from Monster Jam.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Monster Mutt is a monster truck from West Chicago, Illinois, competing in the United States Hot Rod Association (USHRA) Monster Jam series since 2003. Originally styled after a 1950 Mercury, and later a custom body, the truck has a canine motif, complete with big ears, tail and tongue. It is painted in two tones of brown, with a dog mouth drawn in the front. The truck has three spin offs, two of which are currently competing. It is currently driven by Tanner Root.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A monster truck is a specialized off-road vehicle with a heavy duty suspension, four-wheel steering, large-displacement V8 engines and oversized tires constructed for competition and entertainment uses. Originally created by modifying stock pickup trucks and sport utility vehicles (SUVs), they have evolved into purpose-built vehicles with tube-frame chassis and fiberglass bodies rather than metal. A competition monster truck is typically 12 feet (3.7 m) tall, and equipped with 66-inch (1.7 m) off-road tires.\nMonster trucks developed in the late 1970s and came into the public eye in the early 1980s as side acts at popular motocross, tractor pulling, and mud bogging events, where they were used in car-crushing demonstrations. Today they are usually the main attraction with motocross, mud bogging, ATV racing, or demolition derbies as supporting events.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Mormon Yankees were an exhibition basketball team in Australia from 1937-1961. Composed of young missionaries from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, the team played all over Australia and became widely known. One Mormon Yankees squad played exhibition games against International teams preparing for the 1956 Summer Olympics, which were held in Australia that year.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Most Extreme Elimination Challenge (MXC) is an American comedy television program that aired on TNN/Spike TV from April 19, 2003 to February 9, 2007. It is a re-purpose of footage from the Japanese game show Takeshi's Castle, which originally aired in Japan from 1986 to 1990. The re-purposed MXC created a completely new premise, storyline, and characters, with two teams competing against each other \u00e0 la a typical team sports broadcast and players trying to win points for their teams by surviving through different challenges.  In the original program the Count and his underlings would follow the progress of the players as they moved through the course. In the re-purpose Count Takeshi became veteran network announcer Vic Romano and the Count's flunky became young upstart Kenny Blankenship.\nMost Extreme Elimination Challenge was created and produced by RC Entertainment, Inc. (Paul Abeyta and Peter Kaikko) in Los Angeles, California, and Larry Strawther (a writer and producer on a number of network sitcoms).  The three were friends who had worked together at Merv Griffin Productions in the late 1970s. Strawther was a staffer on Dance Fever, which Abeyta took over as executive producer the following season, while Strawther stayed with Jeopardy!. Between jobs they would occasionally try to create their own projects. One of these was the 1990s talk show spoof Night Stand with Dick Dietrick.  MXC is the property of both Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS) and RC Entertainment. The 2004 special episode MXC Almost Live is the property of Viacom International and was filmed in Orlando, Florida, by the producers of MXC.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Mud wrestling is defined as physical confrontation (fighting, wrestling, etc.) that occurs in mud or a mud pit. The popular modern interpretation specifies that participants wrestle while wearing minimal clothing and usually going barefoot, with the emphasis on presenting an entertaining spectacle as opposed to physically injuring or debilitating the opponent to the point where they are unable to continue the match.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "My Dad Is Better than Your Dad was a reality sports TV show on NBC that premiered on February 18, 2008. The show was produced by Mark Burnett, producer of other shows like Survivor, The Apprentice, and Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?, and was hosted by actor Dan Cortese. Four teams of children and their fathers competed in each episode, with the winning team having the chance to win up to $50,000.\nThe series was cancelled on April 2, 2008 after NBC announced its 2008\u20132009 schedule.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Nagelbalken (German for nail beam) is a competition in which participants compete against each other to drive nails into a wooden beam.  It can be found as a game of leisure at events and festivals, often for children and as a wedding custom.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest is an annual American hot dog competitive eating competition. It is held each year on Independence Day at Nathan's Famous Corporation's original, and best-known restaurant at the corner of Surf and Stillwell Avenues in Coney Island, a  neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York City.\nThe contest has gained public attention in recent years due to the stardom of Takeru \"The Tsunami\" Kobayashi and Joey \"Jaws\" Chestnut. The defending men's champion is Chestnut, who ate 63 hot dogs in the 2022 contest. The defending women's champion is Miki Sudo, who ate 40 hot dogs in 2022.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The NFL's Quarterback Challenge , created by the Challenge Group, LLC, was an annual competition of National Football League quarterbacks, sponsored in part by DirecTV, produced by NFL Players Inc. and NFL QB Greats. The first NFL Quarterback Challenge took place in 1990 on the island of Kauai. Previously it was sponsored by 989 Sports and in 2005 by Electronic Arts EA Sports.\nEach of the quarterback challenges had different events that would test each quarterback's skills, with points being given to each quarterback. Whichever quarterback had the most points at the end of all the events, would win the challenge, with rewards also given to the quarterback who won each event. The events included the following:\nSpeed and Mobility : \nPenalties for knocking over obstacles and missing targets\nBonus for hitting the bullseye or inner ring\nTop two advance to the final round\nQBC 7.61 seconds (Rick Mirer, 1995)\nFor this event, each quarterback would go run a slalom-like course, where they would have to run around cones, past cardboard cutouts of defenders, and a jump over a small hurdle and throw a pass at a target. Depending on where the target was hit by the football, the quarterback would have fractions of a second deducted from their overall time, such as .5 seconds being deducted if the quarterback hits the bullseye, or .25 seconds if they hit the outer ring of the target. The fastest time, including the deductions, was the winner.\nCourse outline:\n1st Duck back right, run around the cone\n2nd through ring\n3rd run left \n4th run right right \n5th over hurdle \n6th throw into ring; red = 0.5 bonus, white = 0.25 bonus, grey = 0.00 \nAccuracy: \n30 seconds to complete the course, closer to bullseye = higher score. \nHighest possible score - 84 points\nQBC record - Troy Aikman, 70 points (1995)\n1st cart; 6, 8, 10 points over 3 balls, cart cutting diagonal right to left like a post route\nMax score 30\n2nd group; 6, 8, 10 points over 3 balls, cart cutting left to right like an in route \nMax score 30\n3rd group; 12,18 24 points over 1 ball, deep post about 40 yards \nMax score 24 \n\nAll cart movements are inverted opposite for lefty QBsLong Distance: Each quarterback tries to throw a football as far as they can, with the quarterbacks with the top three distances getting a chance to try again. The quarterbacks also have to keep the balls in bounds, or their throws wouldn't count. The winner of the event was the quarterback with the longest pass.\nBetter of 2 throws count\nIF tie, 1 throw shoot out\n2 points awarded every yard past 50 yards\nQBC record - Vinny Testaverde, 80 yards (1988)\nRead & Recognition: Each quarterback throws a football at moving targets, but only the targets designated by a yellow flag, with each quarterback having four attempts.\nIf tie, 1 throw shootout\nHighest possible score: 192\n4 attempts aiming for short, medium or long targets\nShort; 6,8,12\t\t\none from left, one from right crossing\nMedium; 18,27,36 \t\none from left, one from right crossing \nLong; 30,45,60 \n(2 chances only) \nQBC record - Neil O'Donnell (1996) & Brett Favre (1997), 111 points", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Nickelodeon Guts (stylized as Nickelodeon GUTS) is an American television \"action sports\" competition series hosted by American actor/writer Mike O'Malley and officiated by English actress Moira \"Mo\" Quirk. The series originally ran from 1992 to 1995 on Nickelodeon.\nEach episode features three young athletes competing against each other in four \"extreme\" versions of athletic events culminating in a fifth and final round which set the three competitors on a race up an artificial \"mountain\" to decide the victor.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Nickelodeon Robot Wars is a game show that aired on Nickelodeon from August 25, 2002, to October 6, 2002. Hosted by Dave Aizer, the show was Nickelodeon's take on Robot Wars, the popular and long-running robot-fighting game show. The show was canceled after one season, and subsequently aired on Nick GAS.\nThe series of six shows was filmed at Shepperton Studios in England in January 2002, at the same time as the second season of Robot Wars: Extreme Warriors, which aired on TNN in the U.S. (now Paramount Network). Both shows featured American teams and robots flown to England for the filming.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Nitro Circus is an \"action sport collective\" led by Travis Pastrana, featuring his friends and him traveling around the world riding dirtbikes, BASE jumping, and performing stunts. Co-founded in 2003 by Pastrana, Nitro Circus has become a media company that produces television programming, documentaries and the Nitro Circus Live tour. In 2016, the company introduced the Nitro World Games, an action sports competition designed around pushing progression in core action sports disciplines like FMX, BMX, skate and scooter.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Nitro Circus Live (also known as Nitro Circus Live: World Tour in the final three seasons) is a reality television show. It follows Travis Pastrana and the Nitro Circus crew as they perform live on tour around the world.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Omaha Productions is an American entertainment company founded by former football quarterback Peyton Manning. It is known for producing Manningcast, an alternate live television broadcast of ESPN's Monday Night Football hosted by Peyton and Eli Manning.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Party games are games that are played at social gatherings to facilitate interaction and provide entertainment and recreation. Categories include (explicit) icebreaker, parlour (indoor), picnic (outdoor), and large group games. Other types include pairing off (partnered) games, and parlour races. Different games will generate different atmospheres so the party game may merely be intended as an icebreakers, or the sole purpose for or structure of the party. As such, party games aim to include players of various skill levels and player-elimination is rare. Party games are intended to be played socially, and are designed to be easy for new players to learn.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Philadelphia Sphas, also stylized SPHAs or SPHAS, were an American basketball franchise that existed in professional, semi-professional, and exhibition forms. They played their home games in the ballroom of Philadelphia's Broadwood Hotel. The team's name is an acronym, derived from South Philadelphia Hebrew Association (the group that initially funded the team), and the team's players, at least in its earlier years, were primarily Jewish. Future Philadelphia Warriors owner Eddie Gottlieb founded the team as an amateur group shortly after he and some close friends graduated from high school, and it later became a professional team. The Sphas played in many leagues around the Philadelphia area and the East Coast, most notably the Eastern Basketball League and the American Basketball League (ABL), between which the Sphas won 10 championships. The Sphas won a total of 12 championships, their first two coming from the early Philadelphia League and Philadelphia Basket Ball League.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Predator Racing, Inc. is a monster truck team consisting of the trucks Predator, Prowler, Pouncer and Lone Eagle all of which currently compete primarily on the USHRA Monster Jam circuit. The team is owned by Allen Pezo, and includes Pezo, Larry Jaruzel, Lenny Kuilder and Dale Mitchell as drivers.  The trucks are famous for their \"cat\" designs, with the trucks modeled after a panther, tiger, and leopard, respectively.  The team also occasionally runs a conventional Dodge Ram by the name of Lone Eagle.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Pro Sportsman No. 1 (\u6700\u5f37\u306e\u7537\u306f\u8ab0\u3060!\u58ee\u7d76\u7b4b\u8089\u30d0\u30c8\u30eb!!\u30b9\u30dd\u30fc\u30c4\u30de\u30f3No.1\u6c7a\u5b9a\u6226, Saiky\u014d no Otoko wa Dare da! S\u014dzetsu Kinniku Batoru!! Sup\u014dtsuman Nanb\u0101 Wan Ketteisen, \"Who is the Strongest Man?! Grand Muscle Battle!! Sportsman No. 1 Decisive Battle\") was an annual program made by Monster9, the same company that produces series such as Kinniku Banzuke and SASUKE and broadcast on TBS TV.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Professional wrestling is a form of theater in which wrestlers perform mock wrestling matches interwoven with melodrama. The outcomes of the matches are predetermined, and the performers use simulated attacks that minimize injury while maximing entertainment. Professional wrestlers are also actors who portray flamboyant characters with turbulent rivalries. Most matches in high-level promotions are performed in an arena modeled on boxing arenas. In televised wrestling shows, many additional \"backstage\" scenes are also recorded to supplement the drama in the arena.Professional wrestling in the United States began in the 19th century as a genuine competitive sport based on catch wrestling. Around the turn of the century, wrestlers began making their matches predetermined and choreographing some of their matches to make the matches less physically taxing, shorter in duration, and more entertaining. This allowed the wrestlers to perform more frequently, reduce the risk of injury, and attract larger audiences. The wrestlers did not admit that their sport had become theater, a tradition that became known in America as kayfabe. Professional wrestling became very popular while authentic catch wrestling became a marginal sport. The business model was imitated in other countries, with particular success in Mexico and Japan.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Pros vs. Joes was an American physical reality game show that aired on Spike from 2006 to 2010.  The show featured male amateur contestants (the \"Joes\") matching themselves against professional athletes (the \"Pros\"; mostly of retired male and female pro-athletes) in a series of athletic feats related to the expertise sport of the Pro they are facing.  For its first three seasons, the show was hosted by Petros Papadakis. In the last two seasons, it was co-hosted by Michael Strahan and Jay Glazer. The first two seasons were filmed at Carson, California's Home Depot Center, which was referenced in aerial shots. Repeats can currently be seen on the El Rey Network.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Raminator, Rammunition and Hotsy Raminator are monster trucks that race on the Monster Jam, Family Events, and Monster National tours. They are primarily driven by Mark Hall and Mat Dishman. The team is sponsored by Ram Trucks. Until recently, the team was, along with Team Bigfoot, one of the most high-profile teams to not run in Monster Jam, although since 2017, they have competed in several Monster Jam tours.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Robot Wars was a robot combat competition that was broadcast on British television from 1998 to 2004 and from 2016 to 2018. Each series involves teams of amateur and professional roboteers operating their own constructed remote controlled robots to fight against each other in an arena formed of steel and bullet proof glass fitted with arena hazards and containing areas occupied by hostile and heavier \"House Robots\". Earlier series included assault and trial courses for competing robots.\nThe original version of the show was broadcast on BBC Two from 20 February 1998 to 23 February 2001, on BBC Choice from 8 October 2001 to 7 February 2003 (later repeated on BBC Two) and on Channel 5 from 2 November 2003 to 28 March 2004. A revival was broadcast on BBC Two from 24 July 2016 to 7 January 2018. To date, the show has been broadcast as 10 main series each centred around a single competition, two \"Extreme\" series with several unconnected events and several special episodes.Jeremy Clarkson presented the first series, with Craig Charles taking over for the second to seventh series. Philippa Forrester co-hosted the first three series, the fifth, sixth and Extreme 2. Forrester also hosted the spin-off series Robot Wars Revealed from 1998 to 1999. The fourth series and Extreme 1 were co-hosted by Julia Reed and the seventh by Jayne Middlemiss. The revived series were hosted by Dara \u00d3 Briain and Angela Scanlon. Jonathan Pearce provided commentary for all series.Additional series were filmed at the UK venue for specific sectors of the global market, including two series of Robot Wars Extreme Warriors with American competitors for the TNN network (hosted by Mick Foley with Rebecca Grant serving as pit reporter), two of Dutch Robot Wars for distribution in the Netherlands and a single series for Germany. The fourth series of the UK Robot Wars was shown in the US on TNN as Robot Wars: Grand Champions in 2002 and hosted by Joanie Laurer.Its merchandising was commercially successful, being one of the most popular selling toy ranges in 2002 produced by Logistix Kids. It included a mini arena, pullback, friction and ripcord toys and radio-controlled versions of the House Robots.In 2003, the roboteers themselves formed The Fighting Robot Association and with their associated event organizers, carry on participating in competitions for new audiences. In 2013, Roaming Robots purchased the rights to the Robot Wars brand from Robot Wars LLC and operated their travelling robotic combat show under that name. The use of the name Robot Wars for live shows ceased in early 2017, being renamed Extreme Robots.With a peak audience of six million viewers in the UK during the late 1990s, the format went on to become a worldwide success, showing in 45 countries including the US, Australia, Canada, China, India, Germany and Italy. In March 2003, it was dropped by BBC Two after eight series and Mentorn announced it was making 22 episodes for Channel 5, concluding with The Third World Championships broadcast in March 2004. Channel 5 later axed the show after one series due to low ratings.In July 2016, the show returned to BBC Two with a new arena, house robots and presenters. The first episode was well received becoming the top trending topic on Twitter that evening and having two million viewers, more than the last episode of the 23rd series of Top Gear in the same 8pm Sunday slot just a few weeks earlier. The revived show ran for three series, before it ended in March 2018.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Robotica is a robot combat show (similar to the early seasons of Robot Wars) produced for the American television cable channel TLC, a subsidiary of the Discovery Channel, from April 4, 2001, to November 16, 2002. Ahmet Zappa and Tanya Memme hosted all three seasons while Tanika Ray only hosted the first season with Dan Danknick replacing her for the second and third seasons.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Roller derby is a roller skating contact sport played by two teams of fifteen members. Roller derby is played by approximately 1,250 amateur leagues worldwide, mostly in the United States.Game play consists of a series of short scrimmages (jams) in which both teams designate a jammer (who uniquely wears a star on the helmet) and four blockers to skate counter-clockwise around a track. The jammer scores points by lapping members of the opposing team. The teams attempt to hinder the opposing jammer while assisting their own jammer\u2014in effect, playing both offense and defense simultaneously.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Roller Games was the name of a sports entertainment spectacle created in the early 1960s in Los Angeles, California as a rival to the Jerry Seltzer-owned Roller Derby league, which had enjoyed a monopoly on the sport of roller derby \u2014 and its name \u2014 since its inception in 1935. Roller Games provided a mostly televised, increasingly theatrical version of the sport. Roller Games and its flagship team, the Los Angeles Thunderbirds (T-Birds) has endured several boom and bust cycles, including a roller derby attendance record in 1972, a major reorganization in 1975, appearances on ESPN in 1986, a TV series called RollerGames in 1989\u20131990 (and its corresponding arcade game by Konami and its video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System; there was also a pinball machine based on the show), and a small number of untelevised exhibition matches in 1987, 1988, 1990, 1993, and the early and mid-2000s.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "RollerGames is a U.S. television series that presented a theatrical version of the sport of roller derby, and featured a number of skaters who had been in the Roller Games league (1961\u20131975), as well as younger participants. It was broadcast for one season (1989\u20131990).  The series came from the combination of Roller Games owner William Griffiths, Sr. and the television production team of David Sams and Michael Miller. Chet Forte served as the show's director for its entire run. Chuck Underwood served as play-by-play commentator while Sams provided the color commentary.  Former TV reporter Shelly Jamison was trackside reporter and Hot Seat host and conservative commentator Wally George hosted halftime segments known as RollerSports Central.\nAfter a 30-year absence, Fox Sports 1 began to air the series again on August 1, 2020 to celebrate the series' 30th anniversary. A fan page on Facebook was also launched.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "RollerJam is an American television series featuring roller derby that aired on The Nashville Network (TNN, now Paramount Network) from 1999 to 2001. It was the first attempt to bring roller derby to TV since RollerGames.\nRollerJam was derived from the original roller derby, but newer skaters used inline skates to modernize the sport (several skaters, mostly older ones, used the traditional quad skates). The program was taped at Universal Studios Stage 21 in Orlando, Florida, known as RollerJam Arena and now the Impact Wrestling Zone, for the first and second seasons (1999 and 2000) and the former American Gladiators arena in the show's final season. The first few weeks of the show's second season, which ran from August to October 1999, were taped at the MGM Grand Las Vegas.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The NBA Slam Dunk Contest (officially known as the AT&T Slam Dunk is an annual National Basketball Association (NBA) competition held during the NBA All-Star Weekend. Sports Illustrated wrote \"the dunk contest was the best halftime invention since the bathroom.\"The contest was conceived of and started by the American Basketball Association (ABA) for its 1976 ABA All-Star Game in Denver. The winner was Julius Erving of the New York Nets. As a result of the ABA\u2013NBA merger later that year, the contest moved to the NBA for the 1976-1977 season.There was not another slam dunk contest at the professional level until 1984. The contest has adopted several formats over the years, including, until 2014, the use of fan voting, via text-messaging, to determine the winner of the final round. The current champion of the Slam Dunk Contest is Obi Toppin of the New York Knicks.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Stage combat, fight craft  or fight choreography is a specialised technique in theatre designed to create the illusion of physical combat without causing harm to the performers. It is employed in live stage plays as well as operatic and ballet productions. With the advent of cinema and television the term has widened to also include the choreography of filmed fighting sequences, as opposed to the earlier live performances on stage. It is closely related to the practice of stunts and is a common field of study for actors. Actors famous for their stage fighting skills frequently have backgrounds in dance, gymnastics or martial arts training.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "John Michael Seasock (born July 3, 1965) is a retired professional monster truck driver. He competed on the USHRA circuit with his Batman truck, where it was the 2007 and 2008 Monster Jam World Racing Champion. He last drove Grinder sponsored by Advance Auto Parts.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Superstars was a televised sporting event featuring ten top athletes from ten different sports competing in events that were not their own. The idea was developed by Dick Button who shopped the idea to all three U.S. television networks.  The show was sold to ABC which aired it as a two-hour ABC Sports special in the winter of 1973.\nBy the end of 1973, a similar event appeared in Great Britain and within a few years, separate competitions were being held in nearly a dozen countries including Australia, Canada, Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand and Sweden. The U.S. version grew to encompass women, entire sporting teams and celebrities and lasted off and on for three decades, from 1973 until 2003. It was briefly revived in 2009.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Superstars is a sports competition in which elite athletes from a variety of sports compete against each other. The athletes must not compete in the sport for which they practice as their profession; resembling a decathlon. Points are awarded for the position in which the competitor places in each event. The competitor with the most points at the end of all ten events is declared the champion.\nOn the original ABC version, an athlete was able to compete in a maximum of seven events, but no athlete was permitted to compete in the sport(s) of his or her profession. In the World, International, European and British versions of the contest, athletes would compete in 8 out of 10 events, with no one allowed to take part in their own sport, although some handicapping rules did apply.\nThe idea was developed by 1948 and 1952 Olympic figure skating champion Dick Button. He shopped the idea to all three U.S. television networks, and ABC bought it as a special for the winter of 1973. The first Superstars competition was held in Rotonda West, Florida in February 1973 and was won by pole vaulter Bob Seagren. The BBC covered the competition and aired their own programme, featuring British athletes on 31 December 1973, which was won by 400-metre hurdles Olympic champion David Hemery. Television broadcasts of the competitions were popular both in Europe and North America in the 1970s and 1980s. Further events featuring European athletes started in 1975, with six World Superstars championships taking place from 1977 to 1982.\nCompetitors participate in a range of different sporting events, including a 100-yard dash/100m sprint, a half mile (800 m) run, obstacle course or steeplechase, weightlifting, soccer skills, rowing, tennis, basketball, bicycle racing, shooting and swimming. The sports have varied over time and between the various national and international competitions; in the first competition there was no obstacle course, but table tennis and baseball hitting were included, while the European versions featured a 600m Steeplechase, indoor cycling on a highly banked velodrome, and the infamous \"Gym Tests\".\nCanadian soccer player Brian Budd was unbeaten in Superstars contests, winning the World Championship three times from 1978 to 1980, making him the most successful Superstar of all time.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A swimsuit competition, more commonly now called a bikini contest, is a beauty contest which is judged and ranked while contestants wear a swimsuit, typically a bikini. One of the judging criteria is the physical attractiveness of the contestants. The Big Four international beauty pageants have included examples of such a competition.\nBikini contests have sometimes been organized or sponsored by companies for marketing purposes or to find new models for their products, with the contests being presented as a form of adult entertainment. Swimwear competitions have formed a part of beauty pageants, such as the Miss Earth and Miss World pageants, and sponsors have included commercial brands such as Hawaiian Tropic. Contests have also been held in bars and nightclubs, during intermissions in boxing or wrestling matches and at car shows. Bodybuilding and fitness competitions have evolved to include a bikini division. Participants in such contests may be competing for prizes including trophies, money, and modeling contracts.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Techno Games is a robot competition television programme that aired on BBC Two from 20 March 2000 to 28 March 2003. It is a spin-off from the hugely successful Robot Wars.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Topgolf is a golf driving range game with electronically tracked golfballs and automatically scored drives that started in 2000 and grew to become an American multinational sports entertainment company. Headquartered in Dallas, Texas, it has locations in the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, Mexico and the United Arab Emirates. In October 2020, publicly traded Callaway Golf announced it was acquiring Topgolf, with the merger completed in March 2021. TopGolf locations in Australia are run by a joint venture of Topgolf International (3.7%) and Village Roadshow Theme Parks. In Canada, a joint venture with Cineplex Entertainment was established to operate locations there, but was abandoned by Cineplex in 2020.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Truck and tractor pulling, also known as power pulling, is a motorsport competition, popular in the United States, Canada, Europe (especially in the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark and Germany), Australia, Brazil and New Zealand, which requires antique or modified tractors to pull a heavy drag along an 11-metre-wide (35 ft), 100-metre-long (330 ft) track, with the winner being the tractor that pulls the drag, or sled, the farthest.  The sport is known as the world's most powerful motorsport, due to the multi-engined modified tractor pullers.\nAll tractors in their respective classes pull a set weight in the drag. When a tractor gets to the end of the 100 metre track, this is known as a \"full pull\". When more than one tractor completes the course, more weight is added to the drag, and those competitors that moved past 91 metres (300 ft) will compete in a pull-off; the winner is the one who can pull the drag the farthest.\nThe drag is known as a weight transfer drag. This means that, as it is pulled down the track, the weight is transferred (linked with gears to the drag\u2019s wheels) from over the rear axles and towards the front of the drag. In front of the rear wheels, instead of front wheels, there is a \"pan\". This is essentially a metal plate, and as the weight moves toward it, the resistance between the pan and the ground builds. The farther the tractor pulls the drag, the more difficult it gets.\nThe most powerful tractors, such as those in the heavy modified class in Europe, can produce over 8,800 kilowatts (12,000 metric horsepower).", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Ultimate Parkour Challenge is a mini-series that premiered on October 22, 2009 on MTV featuring the six of the top parkour and freerunning competitors from around the world expressing their styles against each other in a series of themed challenges filmed in California. It was originally aired as a special, but a full miniseries aired in May 2010. The series is hosted by freestyle motocross and parkour enthusiast Andy Bell, and stylish freerunner/martial artist Travis Wong. The first season's episodes aired on Thursdays at 10 pm EST on MTV with repeats airing on MTV2. While the second season's time slot moved to 11 pm EST.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Ultimate Surfer is an American television surfing competition show that aired on ABC from August 23 to September 21, 2021. In March 2022, the series was canceled after one season.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "USA-1 is a monster truck that was competing during the 1980s and 1990s, named after a Chevrolet ad campaign. It competed against Bigfoot in the first televised monster truck race on the American television show That's Incredible! in 1983. The truck was initially painted blue before it was repainted in white.Everett Jasmer built and raced the truck in the late 1970s. USA-1 was a consistent winner in the mid-to-late 1980s with Steve Wilke and Rod Litzau sharing the driving, and is best known for its many wins and legendary crashes. It won the 1988 TNT Monster Truck Racing Series championship. It was one of the last nationally competitive monster trucks to use a leaf spring suspension. Everett contacted Mark Hall, co-owner of Raminator, to campaign a USA-1 body in 1992 on their Executioner chassis.  In the next year, Everett had Kirk Dabney campaign the body on his Nitemare 4 chassis. USA-1 stopped racing in the early 1990s, after the folding of the TNT Monster Truck Racing Series. As of March 2008, Everett owns the original vehicles and the trademark to the name. He has been trying to find a racing series that meets his vision of professional monster truck racing. In November 2011, Everett Jasmer was inducted into the International Monster Truck Hall of Fame.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Washington Generals are an American basketball team who play exhibition games against the Harlem Globetrotters. The team has also played under several different aliases in their history as the Globetrotters' perennial opponents.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Wild & Crazy Kids is an American television game show in which large teams, usually consisting entirely of children, participated in head-to-head physical challenges on Nickelodeon. The show lasted for three seasons from 1990 until 1992 for a total of 65 episodes. Wild & Crazy Kids starred three teenage co-hosts Omar Gooding and Donnie Jeffcoat in all three seasons, accompanied by Annette Chavez in season 1 and Jessica Gaynes for the last two seasons.\nIn 2002, a revival was produced which lasted ten episodes and aired on Nickelodeon from July 29 to October 7, 2002. It was hosted by Mati Moralejo, Dave Aizer and Viviane Collins of Nick GAS.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Windsor Pumpkin Regatta is an annual water race held in October on Lake Pesaquid in Windsor, Nova Scotia. The course is a half mile (800 m) from start to finish. The race features brightly coloured giant pumpkins as the sole means of flotation.\nThe race was founded in 1999 by Danny Dill, son of Howard Dill, breeder of the Atlantic Giant pumpkin.\nLeo Swinamer of New Ross, Nova Scotia has dominated the competition, winning six out of the first ten races, including one at the age of 73. Despite his dominance, the race's popularity continues to grow, with 10,000 spectators and 60 entries in the 2008 race.There are three classes: motor, experimental and paddling. Not all classes attract competitors each year. The paddling class is the best known and most popular in terms of entries.The race gained a degree of notability in 2005 when Martha Stewart participated in a race!. While her pastel-coloured pumpkin did appear in the race, Ms Stewart could not participate as permission to enter Canada was delayed after her release from incarceration in the ImClone affair; when permission was finally granted, weather prevented her from reaching Nova Scotia on time. Various other celebrity participants have raced, notably local member of parliament Scott Brison, who has appeared in several of the races.\nWindsor was not the first to feature a giant pumpkin as a water-borne craft. That distinction falls to Wayne Hackney of Winchester, New Hampshire who paddled in a pumpkin he grew in 1996. However, the regatta has inspired several other pumpkin regattas, including one at the University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison (held since 2005) and on Lake Champlain (Colchester, Vermont).", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Wing Bowl was an annual eating contest founded in 1993 by Philadelphia talk-radio hosts Angelo Cataldi and Al Morganti.  The contest was first broadcast on WIP.About 150 people attended Wing Bowl I (held in a hotel) in 1993 to see a competition between two contestants. The event pitted competitive eaters in a Buffalo wing eating contest. The Wing Bowl was traditionally held on the Friday before the Super Bowl. The event, which began as a radio promotion, grew to encompass television, the Internet, and a contest for women who were termed \"the Wingettes.\"From 2000 to 2018, the event was held at Philadelphia's Wells Fargo Center, where they did live broadcasts on 94-WIP-FM. There were no television deals to broadcast the event live; however, a replay was usually shown on CW 57, Comcast SportsNet, or one of the other local stations within the following week. The Wing Bowl drew crowds of over 20,000.The final Wing Bowl, Wing Bowl XXVI was held on February 2, 2018 and the winner was Molly Schuyler, who devoured a record 501 wings in a half hour.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "WMAC Masters is an American live-action television show produced by Norman Grossfeld featuring choreographed martial arts fights.  It was created and produced by 4Kids Productions (later known as 4Kids Entertainment) in conjunction with Renaissance Atlantic Entertainment (best known as the co-producers of the Saban's Power Rangers franchise), and syndicated by The Summit Media Group (4Kids and Summit Media were divisions of licensing agency Leisure Concepts Inc., later becoming the now-defunct 4Licensing Corporation).\nThe show, while featuring real martial arts by trained martial artists, depicted a fantasy setting using fictional episodic stories, with each episode relating a life lesson. Battles were fought on elaborate closed sets, with an omniscient narrator, on-screen scoring and health gauges, giving the show a feel of a cinematic live-action video game.\nWMAC stands for the fictional World Martial Arts Council, where the best martial artists compete for the ultimate prize, the Dragon Star.  The Dragon Star is a gold trophy that looks like a shuriken surrounded by a dragon; it was proof that its holder was the best martial artist in the world.\nThe show lasted for two seasons, from 1995 to 1997.  The first season was hosted by Shannon Lee, the daughter of martial artist Bruce Lee and the sister of actor Brandon Lee. In season 2, Shannon Lee was no longer the host, and the show focused more on fantasy and less on real-life issues.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The XFL was a professional American football league that played its only season in 2001. The XFL was operated as a joint venture between the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) and NBC. The XFL was conceived as an outdoor football league that would begin play immediately after the National Football League season ended, to take advantage of the perceived lingering public desire to watch football after the NFL and college football seasons conclude. It was promoted as having fewer rules to encourage rougher play than other major leagues, while its telecasts featured sports entertainment elements inspired by professional wrestling (and in particular, the WWF's then-current \"Attitude Era\"), including heat and kayfabe, and suggestively-dressed cheerleaders. Commentary crews also featured WWF commentators (such as Jesse Ventura, Jim Ross, and Jerry Lawler) joined by sportscasters and veteran football players. Despite the wrestling influence, the games and their outcomes were legitimate and not based on scripted storylines.\nThe XFL operated as a single entity with all teams owned by the league, in contrast to most major professional leagues, which use a franchise model with individual owners. The league had eight teams in two divisions, and each franchise was based in a market that either currently had an NFL team (New York/New Jersey, Chicago, San Francisco); had previously supported other pro leagues like the United States Football League, the original World League, or the Canadian Football League (Memphis, Orlando, Birmingham, Las Vegas); or was the largest market without a professional franchise (Los Angeles). Co-owner NBC served as the main carrier of XFL games, with UPN and TNN also carrying selected games.\nThe first night of play brought higher television viewership than NBC had projected, but ratings exponentially plummeted for subsequent games, with criticism directed toward its overall quality of play, on-air presentation, and connection to the WWF. NBC and the WWF both lost $35 million on their $100 million investment in the inaugural season, prompting NBC to pull out of the venture after one season. While plans were made to continue without NBC (with plans for expansion teams as well), UPN allegedly made inordinate demands of the league, which hastened its demise. The league ceased operations entirely in May 2001. Its closure was announced just a few weeks after the league's season championship game, in which the Los Angeles Xtreme defeated the San Francisco Demons, on April 21, 2001, at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. \nDespite its short-lived existence, the XFL did pioneer several on-air technologies that would later become commonplace in football telecasts, such as aerial skycams, and on-player microphones. WWE owner Vince McMahon maintained control of the XFL brand after the league ceased operations, despite many, including McMahon himself, considering the original league to be a \"colossal failure.\"  Interest in the league was revived when ESPN Films released a 30 for 30 documentary surrounding the league, and shortly after the film debuted, McMahon began preparing for a new iteration of the league in 2020. The new XFL was run by a new McMahon-controlled company independent from the present-day WWE, and did not utilize the sports entertainment elements featured in the previous incarnation. The second iteration of the XFL's inaugural season was aborted due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the league suspended operations and filed for bankruptcy in April 2020, with McMahon relinquishing the XFL brand in a sale to his former WWE wrestler Dwayne Johnson and Dany Garcia that August.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A yo-yo (also spelled yoyo) is a toy consisting of an axle connected to two disks, and a string looped around the axle, similar to a spool. It is an ancient toy with proof of existence since 500 BCE. The yo-yo was also called a bandalore in the 17th century.\nIt is played by holding the free end of the string known as the handle (by inserting one finger\u2014usually the middle or ring finger\u2014into a slip knot), allowing gravity (or the force of a throw and gravity) to spin the yo-yo and unwind the string (similar to how a pullstring works). The player then allows the yo-yo to wind itself back to the player's hand, exploiting its spin (and the associated rotational energy). This is often called \"yo-yoing\" or \"playing yo-yo\".\nIn the simplest play, the string is intended to be wound on the spool by hand; the yo-yo is thrown downward, hits the end of the string then winds up the string toward the hand, and finally the yo-yo is grabbed, ready to be thrown again. One of the most basic tricks is called the sleeper, where the yo-yo spins at the end of the string for a noticeable amount of time before returning to the hand.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Za Gaman (\u30b6\u30fb\u30ac\u30de\u30f3) \"The Endurance\" [sic] is a Japanese television program from the 1980s. It is not particularly well-known or remembered in Japan, but it became famous in other countries, particularly the United Kingdom. This is likely due to its appearance on the British television program Clive James on Television and subsequently Tarrant on TV, under the name Endurance.The program was a version of an activity at Japanese universities, the gaman taikai or \"endurance contest\", where students try to outdo each other in withstanding unpleasant experiences. The TV program featured teams from universities, such as Keio University, who were subjected to various unpleasant ordeals, such as being buried up to the neck in sand or licked by reptiles. The person who endured the longest was declared the winner.\nShort segments of the program were used in the British television shows, which humorously examined television programs from around the world. Following Clive James on Television, clips from the now-defunct show were also used in the 1990s in Tarrant on TV. A very short-lived British version of the show was also created, hosted by Paul Ross, but it did not feature the extreme conditions of the original program. Only two series of the British version were produced for Challenge TV, which first aired from 1997 to 1998, and it saw little success.The use of the clips on the Clive James show created controversy, with some Japanese people feeling that the show was unrepresentative, and some former British prisoners of war also complained about the contents. James went on to write a novel called Brrm! Brrm! with a Japanese lead character, Akira Suzuki, who was made fun of by his British friends using the word \"endurance\".The program made the Guinness Book of World Records for \"Most Extreme Game Show\".\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "AlloCin\u00e9 (English: ScreenRush) is an entertainment website which specializes on providing information on French cinema, mostly centering on novelties' promotion with DVD, Blu-ray and VOD information. The enterprise was founded as a telephonic communicator, and subsequently became an Internet portal site, which offers sufficient information by fast access and covers all movies that have been distributed in France. In 2005, it began covering television series. The website is considered the \"French equivalent of IMDb.\"AlloCin\u00e9 was launched in 1993, before being purchased by Canal+ in 2000 and Vivendi Universal in 2002. From June 2007 to 2013, it was under the ownership of Tiger Global, an American investment fund. Since July 2013, Allocin\u00e9 is owned by FIMALAC, a French holding company and hosted inside the Webedia group, a FIMALAC company. The corporate headquarters is located on the Champs-\u00c9lys\u00e9es in Paris.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Araldo Telefonico (\"Telephone Herald\" in English) was the name used for a group of telephone newspaper systems located in Italy, which provided news and entertainment programming over telephone lines to subscribing homes and businesses. Beginning with the capital city of Rome in 1910, this was the most widely implemented of the various telephone newspaper operations, however, in the early 1920s, the systems were merged with, and eventually superseded by, the development of radio broadcasting.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Telephone banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial institution, that enables customers to perform over the telephone a range of financial transactions which do not involve cash or Financial instruments  (such as cheques), without the need to visit a bank branch or ATM.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Childline is a counselling service for children and young people up to their 19th birthday in the United Kingdom provided by the NSPCC. They deal with any issues which cause distress or concern; some of the most common issues include child abuse, bullying, mental illness, parental separation or divorce, teenage pregnancy, substance misuse, neglect, and psychological abuse (other problems).\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Dial-A-Poem is a public poetry service established in 1968 by the late poet, artist and activist John Giorno after a phone conversation with William Burroughs. The service enabled members of the public to call Giorno Poetry Systems and to listen to a poem selected at random by writers including Amiri Baraka, William Burroughs, John Cage, Allen Ginsberg, Bobby Seale, Patti Smith and Anne Waldman. Installed first at the Architectural League of New York (in January 1969) before moving to the Museum of Contemporary Art in Chicago for six weeks (in November 1969) and then to the Museum of Modern Art in New York (in July 1970), the venture received widespread media attention. However, it was also known for its counter-cultural content \u2013 including polemics, Black Panther speeches, Buddhist mantras and queer love poetry \u2013 and following complaints and an investigation by the FBI, the service was shut down in 1970.Dial-a-Poem has had a number of iterations since Giorno\u2019s original service, including the Museum of Modern Art's 'Ecstatic Alphabets/Heaps of Language' exhibition and Ugo Rondinone\u2019s 2017 \u2018I \u2665 John Giorno\u2019 exhibition at the Red Bull Arts Gallery in New York. Dial-A-Poem Montreal ran from 1985 to 1987, and recently resumed with a 2020-2021 edition. In 2020, a new version of the service was launched as a mobile app from Nottingham Trent University and the Arts and Humanities Research Council.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Dial-A-Poem Montreal was a phone-based service started in 1985 by Fortner Anderson, who was inspired by John Giorno's Dial-A-Poem and wanted to expand poetry beyond the limits of print. Listeners in Montreal could call 843-7636 (THE-POEM) anytime of the day to hear a poem. The service ran from September 1985 to July 1987 and ended because Anderson lacked the time and money needed for the project to continue. He produced the recordings himself and funded the project with his own money, sales of Clifford Duffy's first book Blue Dog Plus, individual sponsorships, and sponsorships by bookstores, local craftsmen, and schools. Participating bookstores included The Word Bookstore, Argo Bookshop, The Double Hook Book Shop, Steve Welch Books, and V\u00e9hicule Press. Anderson reported that in the first year, the service received about 200 phone calls a day and that over 150 poets contributed. He described the content of the poems as containing \"themes of reaction to society's structures and structures, personal and social violence, topical issues of sex and gender, and people coping with alienation and the shifting ground of their own personalities.\"Dial-A-Poem Montreal participated in Canada's eighth National Book Festival in April 1986 by showcasing a poem by a participating poet for each day of the festival. It celebrated it first anniversary September 1986 with a 100 Poets Party, where 11 hours of continuous recorded performance poetry was presented at Galerie Articule.Though predominantly showcasing Anglophone poets in Montreal, Dial-A-Poem Montreal also aired the work of poets from Vancouver who sent their recordings to Dial-A-Poem Montreal. Poets who read on Dial-A-Poem Montreal include: Er\u00edn Moure, Howard Tessler, Bill Furey, Errol MacDonald, Raymond Filip, Clifford Duffy, Laurence Hutchman, Michael Toppings, Anne McLean, Roo Borson, Daphne Marlatt, Tom Wayman, Claudia Lapp, Elizabeth Allen, Patrick Lane, Lorna Crozier, Peter van Toorn, Endre Farkas, Brian Bartlett, Michael Harris, Noah Zacharin, Leo Kennedy, Esther Ross, Johanne Lafleur, Margaret Christakos, R.G. Everson, Louis Dudek, Irving Layton, Kathy Acker, Lynne Tillman, Chris Kraus, Sylvere Lotringer, David Rattray, Edmundo Farolan, Manuel Betanzos Santos, Shulamis Yelin, and Renato Trujillo.Dial-A-Poem Montreal recently resumed with a 2020-2021 edition.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Electrophone was a distributed audio system that operated in the United Kingdom, primarily in London, between 1895 and 1925. Using conventional telephone lines, it relayed live theatre performances, music hall shows, and Sunday church services to subscribers who listened over special headsets. It ultimately failed due to the rise of radio broadcasting in the early 1920s.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Grapevine radio refers to the transmission infrastructures, used for distributing audio programs, which were built to serve a small number of rural upstate South Carolina communities from the early 1930s to the middle 1940s. Despite their name, these systems did not employ radio transmitters, but were actually a type of \"telephone newspaper\", because the programs were sent telephonically over wires strung to subscribing homes.\nThe equipment used to distribute programming over a facility's wire network was located at a central site, for example a general store's back room. Programs normally consisted of retransmissions of radio stations, however, some programming was locally produced, originating from a studio at the distribution site or relayed from a local church or other gathering place. The locally produced programs included announcements and emergency messages, commercials and live performances. The transmissions were made daily, generally starting around 6 a.m. and running until 10:00 p.m. or midnight.\nThe grapevine systems soon became unneeded, because they primarily served homes that did not have electricity. Once a community received electric service the local grapevine system would soon close down, as the subscribers switched to radio receivers that could receive a wide selection of programs at no cost, instead of the single program and monthly fees characteristic of the grapevine systems.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A Haredi news hotline is a telephone service that serves as an important source of news in the Haredi world. Many Haredim do not listen to the radio or have access to the internet, leaving them with little or no access to breaking news. News hotlines were formed to fill this gap, and many have expanded to additional fields over time. Currently, many news lines provide rabbinic lectures, entertainment, business advice and similar services, in addition to their primary function of reporting the news. Many hasidic sects maintain their own hotlines, where relevant internal news is reported and the group's perspective can be advocated for. In the Israeli Haredi community, there are dozens of prominent hotlines, in both Yiddish and Hebrew. Some Haredi hotlines have played significant public roles, however many prominent services have faced struggles.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A helpline is a telephone service which offers help to those who call. Many helpline services now offer more than telephone support - offering access to information, advice or customer service via telephone, email, web or SMS. \nThe word hotline is also sometimes used to refer to a helpline.\nA helpline can provide emotional support to a person in distress in its minimalistic form. It may help the individual.\nServices include:\n\nuser assistance, for example computer software support\ntelephone counseling, medical hotlines, insolvency hotlines, crisis hotlines and many other types of hotlines.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Moviefone is an American-based moving pictures listing and information service. Moviegoers can obtain local showtimes, cinema information, film reviews, and advance tickets, as well as TV content and a comprehensive search tool that allows users to find theaters, channels, and streaming services offering movies and television shows. The service is owned by Born in Cleveland LLC, Cleveland O\u2019Neal III's holding company. O\u2019Neal is creator and producer of Made in Hollywood syndicated daytime entertainment show.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Musolaphone (also marketed as the Multa Musola), developed by the Automatic Electric Company of Chicago, Illinois, was an audio distribution system that transmitted news and entertainment over telephone lines to subscribing homes and businesses. The company's  \"Automatic Enunciator\" loudspeakers were employed at the receiving end.\nA test commercial installation was established in southside Chicago in 1913, but the project was short-lived and did not prove to be financially successful. This was the last significant attempt to set up a \"telephone newspaper\" to transmit entertainment over telephone lines in the United States, prior to the development of radio broadcasting in the early 1920s.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Phone sex is a conversation between two or more people by means of the telephone which is sexually explicit and is intended to provoke sexual arousal in one or more participants. All parties participate voluntarily; it is typically accompanied by masturbation. As a practice between individuals temporarily separated, it is as old as dial telephones, on which no operator could eavesdrop (1930s\u20131950s). In the later 20th century businesses emerged offering, for a fee, sexual conversations with a phone sex worker.\nPhone sex takes imagination on both individuals' part, as each party imagines virtual sex. The sexually explicit conversation takes place between two or more persons via telephone, especially when at least one of the participants masturbates or engages in sexual fantasy.\nPhone sex conversation may take many forms, including: guided fantasy, sexual sounds, narrated and enacted suggestions, sexual anecdotes and confessions, candid expression of sexual fantasies, feelings, or love, or discussion of personal and sensitive sexual topics.\nOnce means of transmitting payment were developed, phone sex turned into primarily a commercial activity, with customers and sellers.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A speaking clock or talking clock is a live or recorded human voice service, usually accessed by telephone, that gives the correct time. The first telephone speaking clock service was introduced in France, in association with the Paris Observatory, on 14 February 1933.The format of the service is similar to that of radio time signal services. At set intervals (e.g. ten seconds) a voice announces (for example) \"At the third stroke, the time will be twelve forty-six and ten seconds...\", with three beeps following. Some countries have sponsored time announcements and include the sponsor's name in the message.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Sports Phone was a telephone service in the United States that allowed users to hear sports scores and information. The service was launched in 1972, and after initially failing it was relaunched three years later. The service gained a following, and by 1981 had hit a peak of 50 million calls in a year. Sports Phone began in New York City, but expanded to offer programming in numerous other locations, including Chicago and Detroit. The rise of sports radio stations and score tickers on television broadcasts helped reduce the popularity of Sports Phone, before an increase in Internet usage led to its demise in 2000.\nCallers to Sports Phone heard messages of one minute or less, with up to 30 scores provided in a given update. In addition to scores, the service's programming included news and interviews, along with a sports trivia game. Some information was recorded specifically for certain markets. The announcers for Sports Phone included future broadcasters of several franchises in the major U.S. sports leagues.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Tel-musici was an early entertainment innovation, which used telephone lines to transmit phonograph recordings to individual households. Subscribers called a central \"music room\" to request selections, which they listened to at home over specially designed loudspeakers called \"magnaphones\". The service later incorporated live programs, expanding its operations to more along the lines of a general \"telephone newspaper\".\nA Tel-musici company was incorporated in Delaware in 1908, and the service began operation in Wilmington the next year. However, although there were plans to expand throughout the United States, only this single location ever became operational, until it ceased operations around 1914.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Telephone Newspapers, introduced in the 1890s, transmitted news and entertainment to subscribers over telephone lines. They were the first example of electronic broadcasting, although only a few were established, most commonly in European cities. These systems predated the development, in the 1920s, of radio broadcasting. They were eventually supplanted by radio stations, because radio signals could more easily cover much wider areas with higher quality audio, without incurring the costs of a telephone line infrastructure.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Th\u00e9\u00e2trophone (\"the theatre phone\") was a telephonic distribution system available in portions of Europe that allowed the subscribers to listen to opera and theatre performances over the telephone lines. The th\u00e9\u00e2trophone evolved from a Cl\u00e9ment Ader invention, which was first demonstrated in 1881, in Paris. Subsequently, in 1890, the invention was commercialized by Compagnie du Th\u00e9\u00e2trophone, which continued to operate until 1932.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The United States Telephone Herald Company, founded in 1909, was the parent corporation for a number of associated \"telephone newspaper\" companies, located throughout the United States, that were organized to provide news and entertainment over telephone lines to subscribing homes and businesses. This was the most ambitious attempt made to develop a distributed audio service prior to the rise of radio broadcasting in the early 1920s.\nAt least a dozen associate companies were chartered, but despite initial optimism and ambitious goals, only two systems ever went into commercial operation \u2014 one based in Newark, New Jersey (New Jersey Telephone Herald, 1911-1912) and the other in Portland, Oregon (Oregon Telephone Herald, 1912-1913). Moreover, both of these systems were shut down after operating for only a short time, due to economic and technical issues.\nCorporation activity peaked in 1913, but the lack of success caused the company to suspend operations, and the corporation charter for the United States Telephone Herald Company was repealed in early 1918.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Television, sometimes shortened to TV, is a telecommunication medium for transmitting moving images and sound. The term can refer to a television set, or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertising, entertainment, news, and sports.\nTelevision became available in crude experimental forms in the late 1920s, but only after several years of further development was the new technology marketed to consumers. After World War II, an improved form of black-and-white television broadcasting became popular in the United Kingdom and the United States, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses, and institutions. During the 1950s, television was the primary medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the U.S. and most other developed countries.\nThe availability of various types of archival storage media such as Betamax and VHS tapes, high-capacity hard disk drives, DVDs, flash drives, high-definition Blu-ray Discs, and cloud digital video recorders has enabled viewers to watch pre-recorded material\u2014such as movies\u2014at home on their own time schedule. For many reasons, especially the convenience of remote retrieval, the storage of television and video programming now also occurs on the cloud (such as the video-on-demand service by Netflix). At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity. Another development was the move from standard-definition television (SDTV) (576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution and 480i) to high-definition television (HDTV), which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in different formats: 1080p, 1080i and 720p. Since 2010, with the invention of smart television, Internet television has increased the availability of television programs and movies via the Internet through streaming video services such as Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, iPlayer and Hulu.\nIn 2013, 79% of the world's households owned a television set. The replacement of earlier cathode-ray tube (CRT) screen displays with compact, energy-efficient, flat-panel alternative technologies such as LCDs (both fluorescent-backlit and LED), OLED displays, and plasma displays was a hardware revolution that began with computer monitors in the late 1990s. Most television sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs. Major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, Digital Light Processing (DLP), plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs. Also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s.Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency television transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by coaxial cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and, since the 2000s via the Internet. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, but a transition to digital television was expected to be completed worldwide by the late 2010s. A standard television set consists of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Film look (also known as filmizing or film-look) is a process in which video is altered in overall appearance to appear to have been shot on film stock. The process is usually electronic, although filmizing can sometimes occur as an unintentional by-product of some optical techniques, such as telerecording.  The effect is the exact opposite of a process called VidFIRE.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Interactive television or interactive TV, sometimes also called pseudo-interactive television to distinguish it from technologically enabled interactive television, is a term used to refer to television programs in which it is pretended that the characters and the viewing audience can interact, while in actuality they cannot. This narrative technique is often used in children's television. It is a simulated form of audience participation. When employed, characters will often break the fourth wall and ask the viewers to give them advice or the solution to a problem. Characters typically provide a short period of time for the viewers to react, and then proceed as though the viewers have given them the correct answer.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to television broadcasting:\nTelevision broadcasting: form of broadcasting in which a television signal is transmitted by radio waves from a terrestrial (Earth based) transmitter of a television station to TV receivers having an antenna. \n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Telerobotics is the area of robotics concerned with the control of semi-autonomous robots from a distance, chiefly using television, wireless networks (like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and the Deep Space Network) or tethered connections. It is a combination of two major subfields, which are teleoperation and telepresence.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Triangle of Knowledge is a writing technique to create and amplify tension in a screenplay, teleplay or stage play identified by Eric R. Williams.  The Triangle represents  \u2018three minds\u2019 that contain knowledge within a scene: the Protagonist, the audience, and any other Character in the scene. According to Williams, tension is created or enhanced when one of the three corners of the triangle is deprived knowledge (or \"kept in the dark\") in the scene.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience. The specific place of the performance is also named by the word \"theatre\" as derived from the Ancient Greek \u03b8\u03ad\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd (th\u00e9atron, \"a place for viewing\"), itself from \u03b8\u03b5\u03ac\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 (the\u00e1omai, \"to see\", \"to watch\", \"to observe\").\nModern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the theatre of ancient Greece, from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into genres, and many of its themes, stock characters, and plot elements. Theatre artist Patrice Pavis defines theatricality, theatrical language, stage writing and the specificity of theatre as synonymous expressions that differentiate theatre from the other performing arts, literature and the arts in general.Modern theatre includes performances of plays and musical theatre. The art forms of ballet and opera are also theatre and use many conventions such as acting, costumes and staging. They were influential to the development of musical theatre; see those articles for more information.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to theatre:\nTheatre \u2013 the generic term for the performing arts and a collaborative form of fine art involving live performers to present the experience of a real or imagined event (such as a story) through acting, singing, and/or dancing before a live audience in a specific place. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of speech, gesture, mime, puppets, music, dance, sound and spectacle \u2014 indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts.  Elements of design and stagecraft are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A 2.5 dimensional musical (Japanese: 2.5\u6b21\u5143\u30df\u30e5\u30fc\u30b8\u30ab\u30eb, Hepburn: nitengo jigen myujikaru, abbreviated 2.5D musical), also known as an anime musical, is a type of modern Japanese musical theatre production based exclusively on popular Japanese anime, manga, or video games. The term \"2.5D musical\" was coined to describe stories presented in a two-dimensional medium being brought to real life.Approximately 70 2.5D musicals were produced in 2013 and attracted at least 1.6 million people, most of them young women in their teens and 20s. 2.5D musicals are often seen as the starting point of many young actors in Japan.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "11 o'clock number is a theatre term for a big, show-stopping song that occurs late in the second act of a two-act musical, in which a major character, often the protagonist, comes to an important realization. Examples include \"So Long Dearie\" from Hello, Dolly!, \"Rose's Turn\" from Gypsy, and \"Work the Wound\" from Passing Strange. It was so named because in the days when musical performances would start at 8:30 p.m., this song would occur around 11:00 p.m.Among the theatre community, there is some debate as to the characteristics of an 11 o'clock number. It often signifies a moment of revelation or change in heart of a lead character, although there are exceptions to this. The 11 o'clock number is also differentiated from the finale in that it is not the final number in the show, but even this is not considered a requirement by some commenters. Broadway producer Jack Viertel defines an 11 o'clock number as \"a final star turn\".Other notable 11 o'clock numbers include \"Sit Down, You're Rockin' the Boat\" from Guys and Dolls, \"Memory\" from Cats, \"Brotherhood of Man\" from How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying, \u201cFor Good\u201d from Wicked, \"Gimme Gimme\" from Thoroughly Modern Millie, \"Another National Anthem\" from Assassins, \"The American Dream\" from Miss Saigon, \"Goodbye\" from Catch Me If You Can, \"Revolting Children\" from Matilda The Musical, \"I'm Here\" from The Color Purple, and \"Always Starting Over\" from If/Then.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "An atmospheric theatre is a type of movie palace design which was popular in the late 1920s. Atmospheric theatres were designed and decorated to evoke the feeling of a particular time and place for patrons, through the use of projectors, architectural elements and ornamentation that evoked a sense of being outdoors. This was intended to make the patron a more active participant in the setting.The most successful promoter of the style was John Eberson. He credited the Hoblitzelle Majestic Theatre (Houston, 1923) as the first. Before the end of the 1920s he designed around 100 atmospheric theatres in the U.S. and a few other countries, personally selecting the furnishings and art objects. His most notable surviving theatres in the United States include the Tampa Theatre (1926), Palace Theatre (1928), Majestic Theatre (1929), Paramount Theatre (1929), and the Loew's Theatre (1929). Remaining international examples include The Civic Theatre (1929, Auckland, New Zealand), The Forum (1929, Melbourne, Australia), as well as two theatres completed in Sydney, Australia, the Capitol Theatre (1928) and State Theatre (1929) (both designed by Henry Eli White with assistance from Eberson), and Le Grand Rex, (1932, Paris, France) which was designed by architect Auguste Bluysen with assistance from Eberson.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "An audience is a group of people who participate in a show or encounter a work of art, literature (in which they are called \"readers\"), theatre, music (in which they are called \"listeners\"), video games (in which they are called \"players\"), or academics in any medium. Audience members participate in different ways in different kinds of art. Some events invite overt audience participation and others allow only modest clapping and criticism and reception.\nMedia audience studies have become a recognized part of the curriculum. Audience theory offers scholarly insight into audiences in general. These insights shape our knowledge of just how audiences affect and are affected by different forms of art. The biggest art form is the mass media. Films, video games, radio shows, software (and hardware), and other formats are affected by the audience and its reviews and recommendations.\nIn the age of easy internet participation and citizen journalism, professional creators share space, and sometimes attention with the public. American journalist Jeff Jarvis said, \"Give the people control of media, they will use it. The corollary: Don't give the people control of media, and you will lose. Whenever citizens can exercise control, they will.\" Tom Curley, President of the Associated Press, similarly said, \"The users are deciding what the point of their engagement will be \u2014 what application, what device, what time, what place.\"", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "\"Break a leg\" is a typical English idiom used in the context of theatre or other performing arts to wish a performer \"good luck\". An ironic or non-literal saying of uncertain origin (a dead metaphor), \"break a leg\" is commonly said to actors and musicians before they go on stage to perform or before an audition. In English (though it may originate in German), the expression was likely first used in this context in the United States in the 1930s or possibly 1920s, originally documented without specifically theatrical associations. Among professional dancers, the traditional saying is not \"break a leg\", but the French word \"merde\".", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "In the performing arts industry such as theatre, film, or television, a casting (or casting call) is a pre-production process for selecting a certain type of actor, dancer, singer, or extra for a particular role or part in a script, screenplay, or teleplay. This process is typically utilized for a motion picture, television program, documentary, music video, play, or television advertisement, etc. This involvement in a dramatic production, advertisement, and or industrial video is intended for an audience, or studio audience.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Classical acting is a type of acting that is based on the theories and systems of select classical actors including Konstantin Stanislavski and Michel Saint-Denis, including the expression of the body, voice, imagination, personalizing, improvisation, external stimuli, and script analysis.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A combination company was a touring  theater company which performed only one play. Unlike repertory companies, which performed multiple plays in rotation, combination companies used more elaborate and specialized scenery in their productions.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A Cornelian dilemma (dilemme corn\u00e9lien) (also spelt in translation with two \"l\"'s i.e. \"Corneillian\") is a dilemma in which someone is obliged to choose one option from a range of options all of which reveals a detrimental effect on themselves or someone near them. In classical drama, it will typically involve the character experiencing an inner conflict, forcing them to choose between love and honour or inclination and duty. The dilemma is named after French dramatist Pierre Corneille, in whose play Le Cid (1636) the protagonist, Rodrigue, is torn between two desires: that of the love of Chim\u00e8ne, or avenging his family, who has been wronged by Chim\u00e8ne's father. Rodrigue either seeks revenge to avenge his lover or lose the honour.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A costume shop is a space where costumes for theatrical or film productions are designed, built, and stored for the company or production. Costume designers, builders, seamstresses, and stitchers work in costume shops. The shops themselves can vary in size, from one large room to a house with multiple floors. Costumes from past productions, fabric, jewelry and accessories are often stored in the shop.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Cyberformance refers to live theatrical performances in which remote participants are enabled to work together in real time through the medium of the internet, employing technologies such as chat applications or purpose-built, multiuser, real-time collaborative software (for example, UpStage, Visitors Studio, the Waterwheel Tap, MOOs, and other platforms).  Cyberformance is also known as online performance, networked performance, telematic performance, and digital theatre; there is as yet no consensus on which term should be preferred, but cyberformance has the advantage of compactness. For example, it is commonly employed by users of the UpStage platform to designate a special type of Performance art activity taking place in a cyber-artistic environment.\nCyberformance can be created and presented entirely online, for a distributed online audience who participate via internet-connected computers anywhere in the world, or it can be presented to a proximal audience (such as in a physical theatre or gallery venue) with some or all of the performers appearing via the internet; or it can be a hybrid of the two approaches, with both remote and proximal audiences and/or performers.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A dialect coach is an acting coach who helps an actor design the voice and speech of a character in the context of an on-camera (film, television or commercial), stage (theatre, musical theatre, opera, etc.), radio or animation voiceover production. The dialect coach often does original research on dialects and speech patterns, prepares training materials, provides instruction and works on lines with the actor. A dialect coach will give the actor feedback focusing on issues of credibility, consistency, and clarity. A dialect coach may also be employed to help comedians hone impressions of celebrities, to train non-actor public speakers in vocal character and delivery, or to help singers improve in diction and attain a balance between tone and articulation, especially when singing in a second language.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Didascaly, Greek Antiquity [modern ad. Greek \u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b1 instruction, teaching; in plural as in quotation. So modern French didascalie.]\nIn The Catalogues of the ancient Greek Dramas, with their writers, dates, etc., such as were compiled by Aristotle and others.\nThe instruction of the chorus in ancient Greek theatre.\nIn ancient Greek theatre, the performance of a tetralogy.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Digital Performance is a very wide category filled with a range of productions. It is performance that incorporates and integrates  computer technologies and techniques. Performers can incorporate multimedia into any type of production whether it is live on a theatre stage or in the street. Anything as small as video recordings or a visual image classifies the production as multimedia. When the key role in a performance is the technologies, it is considered a digital performance. This can be as little as projections on a screen in front of a live audience to creating and devising a performance in an online environment to using animation and sensing software\u2019s.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Strictly, digital theatre is a hybrid art form, gaining strength from theatre's ability to facilitate the imagination and create human connections and digital technology's ability to extend the reach of communication and visualization. (However, the phrase is also used in a more generic sense by companies such as Evans and Sutherland to refer to their fulldome projection technology products.)", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Drama therapy is the use of theatre techniques to facilitate personal growth and promote mental health. Drama therapy is used in a wide variety of settings, including hospitals, schools, mental health centers, prisons, and businesses.  Drama therapy, as a modality of the creative arts therapies, exists in many forms and can apply to individuals, couples, families, and various groups.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Entr'acte (or entracte, French pronunciation: \u200b[\u0251\u0303t\u0281akt]; German: Zwischenspiel and Zwischenakt, Italian: intermezzo, Spanish: intermedio, intervalo) means \"between the acts\". It can mean a pause between two parts of a stage production, synonymous to an intermission (this is nowadays the more common meaning in French), but it more often (in English) indicates a piece of music performed between acts of a theatrical production.\nIn the case of stage musicals, the entr'acte serves as the overture of act 2 (and sometimes acts 3 and 4, as in Carmen). In films that were meant to be shown with an intermission, there was frequently a specially recorded entr'acte on the soundtrack between the first and second half of the film, although this practice eventually died out.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Flash drama is a type of theatrical play that does not exceed ten minutes in duration, hence the name. Groups of four to six flash drama plays are popular with school, university and community drama companies since they offer a wide variety of roles and situations in a single performance.There are no set rules for flash plays but the typical play has certain characteristics, such as:\n\nConsisting of one act\nUtilising one to three characters\nSimple, if any, set design", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Forum theatre is a type of theatre created by the innovative and influential film director practitioner Augusto Boal, one of the techniques under the umbrella term of Theatre of the Oppressed (TO). This relates to the engagement of spectators influencing and engaging with the performance as both spectators and actors, termed \"spect-actors\", with the power to stop and change the performance. As part of TO, the issues dealt with in forum theatre are often related to areas of social justice with aims to explore solutions to oppression featured in the performance.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The gods (UK English), or sometimes paradise, is a theatrical term, referring to the highest areas of a theatre such as the upper balconies.  These are generally the cheapest seats.  One reason for naming the cheapest seats \"the gods\" is because the theatres have beautifully painted ceilings, often mythological themes, so the cheap seats are up near the gods. Another is that those seated in \"the gods\" look down upon both the performers and the occupants of more expensive seats, like the Olympian Gods looking down from Mount Olympus upon the lives of mortal people.There are references to the \"gods\" in many plays and films.  Among them is the famous French film, Les Enfants du Paradis (or Children of Paradise in its US release), which is described as \"set in the teeming theatre district of 1840s Paris (the \"boulevard du crime\"), the paradise of the film's title is a reference to \"the gods\", the highest, cheapest seats in the theatre, occupied by the poorest of the poor. As the well-known 1930s-and-later screenwriter Jacques Pr\u00e9vert said when asked about the meaning of the title, \"it refers to the actors ... and the audiences too, the good-natured, working-class audience\".", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Grammelot (or gromalot or galimatias)  is an imitation of language used in satirical theatre, an ad hoc gibberish that uses prosody along with macaronic and onomatopoeic elements to convey emotional and other meaning,  and used in association with mime and mimicry. The satirical use of such a format may date back to the 16th century commedia dell'arte; the group of cognate terms appears to belong to the 20th century.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Hip-hop theater is a form of theater that presents contemporary stories through the use of one or more of the four elements of hip-hop culture\u2014b-boying, graffiti writing, MCing (rapping), and DJing. Other cultural markers of hip-hop such as spoken word, beatboxing, and hip-hop dance can be included as well although they are not always present. What is most important is the language of the theatrical piece and the plot's relevance to the world. Danny Hoch, founder of the Hip-Hop Theater Festival, further defines it as such: \"Hip-hop theatre must fit into the realm of theatrical performance, and it must be by, about and for the hip-hop generation, participants in hip-hop culture, or both.\"Hip-hop theater productions appear in a wide range of platforms including single performances, week-long festivals, and traveling repertory companies. Board Chair Of the historic Philadelphia Freedom Theater and producing Director Of The Devon Theater Of Mayfair Karl Dice Raw Jenkins is the leader in hiphop theater with multiple of Grammy nominations as a singer producer and Playwright, The Last Jimmy [The k\u00fcmmel, Freedom Theater, Adrienne Arsht & La Grand performances have all presented Karl. Karl's other works include Box A Hiphop Musical telling the life of enslaved African American Henry Box Brown. The King Of Love and more. Marc Bamuthi Joseph is a spoken word poet and dancer who has been commissioned several times to create and direct single hip-hop theater works. British choreographer Jonzi D is the artistic director of the London-based Breakin' Convention, a week long hip-hop theater festival. Rennie Harris, Mourad Merzouki, Kwesi Johnson and Victor Quijada are artistic directors who run hip-hop theater companies in the U.S., France, UK and Canada respectively. The Rock Steady Crew, Magnificent Force, and the Rhythm Technicians pioneered this theatrical genre which started in the United States.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Improvisation is the activity of making or doing something not planned beforehand, using whatever can be found. Improvisation in the performing arts is a very spontaneous performance without specific or scripted preparation. The skills of improvisation can apply to many different faculties, across all artistic, scientific, physical, cognitive, academic, and non-academic disciplines; see Applied improvisation.\nImprovisation also exists outside the arts. Improvisation in engineering is to solve a problem with the tools and materials immediately at hand. Improvised weapons are often used by guerrillas, insurgents and criminals.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Kwagh-hir (literally means something magical or a thing of magic and pronounced kwaa-hee) is a multipart culturally edifying art form of the Tiv people of central Nigeria which became popular in the 1960s. It is a dramatic public performance telling moral stories of past and current events, and incorporates puppetry, masquerading, poetry, music, dance and animated narratives to portray its moral themes. It is used by the Tiv people to reinforce traditional beliefs and convey other worldly tales to educate, socialize, provide secular entertainment and address societal issues.Kwagh-hir is a higher art form of kwagh-alom, an aged practice of the Tiv people where the family was treated to a storytelling session by creative storytellers, usually in the early hours of the night after the day's farming work by moonlight.The most familiar variant of the kwagh-hir according to Jonathan Fogel may be the Punch and Judy show, in which recognizable characters lampoons current political figures and events in the news while also referencing an array of cultural mores.Kwagh-hir was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2019 by the decision of the Intergovernmental Committee: 14.COM 10.B.27", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The law of reentry is a traditional rule in theatre that a character who is on stage at the end of one scene should not enter the stage at the beginning of the next scene. Writer Bill Bryson describes it as \"almost the only 'rule' in London theatre that was still faithfully followed\" in the time of Shakespeare. This, for instance, led to John of Gaunt in Richard II making an \"abrupt and awkward departure [in the middle of a scene] purely to be able to take part in a vital scene that follows\".", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Live event support includes staging, scenery, mechanicals, sound, lighting, video, special effects, transport, packaging, communications, costume and makeup for live performance events including theater, music, dance, and  opera. They all share the same goal: to convince live audience members that there is no better place that they could be at the moment. This is achieved through establishing a bond between performer and audience. Live performance events tend to use visual scenery, lighting, costume amplification and a shorter history of visual projection and sound amplification reinforcement.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Runs of several thousand performances were familiar in West End theatres in the 21st century. The closure of London theatres in the Covid-19 pandemic halted the continuous runs of eight shows that had been running for more than 4,000 performances. Such long runs were a phenomenon not seen before the late 20th century: in earlier years, much shorter runs were the norm, even for shows considered great successes.\nThe ballad opera The Beggar's Opera ran for 62 performances in 1728, and held the record for London's longest run for nearly a century. Another musical show, Tom and Jerry, or Life in London (1821), was the first production to reach 100 consecutive performances.\nIn the second half of the 19th century longer runs became familiar. The 1860s saw the first production to reach 300 performances, and in the 1870s came the first runs in excess of 1,000. Among them was the farce Charley's Aunt, which ran for 1,466 performances, a record that remained unbroken for 25 years. The upward trend continued in the 20th century. The first show to reach 2,000 performances was Chu Chin Chow which opened in 1916. It held the record for London's longest run until 1958.\nBy far the West End's longest run is that of the murder mystery The Mousetrap, by Agatha Christie. It opened in 1952 and by 1958 was the longest-running stage work seen in London; it was still running in 2020 when the theatres closed. Its record of more than 28,000 continuous performances has not been rivalled by any other production. London's second-longest-running show, and longest-running musical, Les Mis\u00e9rables, totalled  14,156 performances during its run from 1985 to 2020.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Method acting, informally known as The Method, is a range of training and rehearsal techniques, as formulated by a number of different theatre practitioners, that seeks to encourage sincere and expressive performances through identifying with, understanding, and experiencing a character's inner motivation and emotions. These techniques are built on Stanislavski's system, developed by the Russian actor and director Konstantin Stanislavski and captured in his books An Actor Prepares, Building a Character, and Creating a Role.Among those who have contributed to the development of the Method, three teachers are associated with \"having set the standard of its success\", each emphasizing different aspects of the approach: Lee Strasberg (the psychological aspects), Stella Adler (the sociological aspects), and Sanford Meisner (the behavioral aspects). The approach was first developed when they worked together at the Group Theatre in New York and later at the Actors Studio.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The  term multilingual titling defines, in the field of titling for the performing arts (musical theatre, drama, audiovisual productions), the chance for the audience to follow more than one linguistic option.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Multimedia translation, also sometimes referred to as Audiovisual translation, is a specialized branch of translation which deals with the transfer of multimodal and multimedial texts into another language and/or culture. and which implies the use of a multimedia electronic system in the translation or in the transmission process.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A municipal theatre is a theatre that is publicly owned. By contrast with a state theatre, such as the Landesb\u00fchnen of Germany and Austria, a municipal theatre is not financed by the state, but by the town or city in which it is situated. In Europe the municipal theatres emerged from the court theatres of the later 18th or 19th century and, in some cases, also from private theatres jointly financed by the wealthy citizens of a town or city.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Museum theatre is the use of theatre and theatrical techniques by a museum for educational, informative, and entertainment purposes.  It can also be used in a zoo, an aquarium, an art gallery, and at historic sites. It is generally performed by professional actors.  Varieties of museum theatre include historical characters, puppetry, movement and music.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Music Theatre International (MTI) is a theatrical licensing agency based in New York City.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Naturalism is a movement in European drama and theatre that developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It refers to theatre that attempts to create an illusion of reality through a range of dramatic and theatrical strategies. Interest in naturalism especially flourished with the French playwrights of the time, but the most successful example is Strindberg's play Miss Julie, which was written with the intention to abide by both his own particular version of naturalism, and also the version described by the French novelist and literary theoretician, Emile Zola.Zola's term for naturalism is la nouvelle formule.  The three primary principles of naturalism (faire vrai, faire grand and faire simple) are first, that the play should be realistic, and the result of a careful study of human behaviour and psychology.  The characters should be flesh and blood; their motivations and actions should be grounded in their heredity and environment.  The presentation of a naturalistic play, in terms of the setting and performances, should be realistic and not flamboyant or theatrical.  The single setting of Miss Julie, for example, is a kitchen.  Second, the conflicts in the play should be issues of meaningful, life-altering significance \u2014 not small or petty.  And third, the play should be simple \u2014 not cluttered with complicated sub-plots or lengthy expositions.Darwinian understandings pervade naturalistic plays, especially in the determining role of the environment on character, and as motivation for behavior.  Naturalism emphasizes everyday speech forms; plausibility in the writing (no ghosts, spirits or gods intervening in the human action); a choice of subjects that are contemporary and reasonable (no exotic, otherworldly or fantastic locales, nor historical or mythic time-periods); an extension of the social range of characters portrayed (not only the aristocrats of classical drama but also bourgeois and working-class protagonists) and social conflicts; and a style of acting that attempts to recreate the impression of reality.\nNaturalism was first advocated explicitly by \u00c9mile Zola in his 1880 essay entitled Naturalism on the Stage.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The terms offscreen, off camera, and offstage refer to fictional events in theatre, television, or film which are not seen on stage or in frame, but are merely heard by the audience, or described (or implied) by the characters or narrator. Offscreen action often leaves much to the audience's imagination. As a narrative mode and stylistic device, it may be used for a number of dramatic effects. It may also be used to save time in storytelling, to circumvent technical or financial constraints of a production, or to meet content rating standards in a similar way to a deleted scene.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Opera glasses, also known as theater binoculars or Galilean binoculars, are compact, low-power optical magnification devices, usually used at performance events, whose name is derived from traditional use of binoculars at opera performances. Magnification power below 5\u00d7 is usually desired in these circumstances in order to minimize image shake and maintain a large enough field of view. A magnification of 3\u00d7 is normally recommended. The design of many modern opera glasses of the ornamental variety is based on the popular lorgnettes of the 19th century.\nIn addition to the more stereotypical binocular type, folding opera glasses were another common design. They were made mostly of metal and glass, with a leatherette cover for grip and color. Although folding glasses have existed in one form or another since the 1890s, they were perhaps most popular in the mid-20th Century and many from this era are marked \"Made in Japan\" or, less commonly, \"Made in Occupied Japan\". The design can still be purchased new, although the most common contemporary designs are now almost entirely plastic.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "See also the suffix -opsis.Opsis (Ancient Greek: \u1f44\u03c8\u03b9\u03c2) is the Greek word for spectacle in the theatre and performance. Its first use has been traced back to Aristotle's Poetics. It is now taken up by theatre critics, historians, and theorists to describe the mise en sc\u00e8ne of a performance or theatrical event.\nIt is also the word used in the Bible for \u201csight\u201d or \u201cappearance\u201d.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A peanut gallery was, in the days of vaudeville, a nickname for the cheapest and ostensibly rowdiest seats in the theater, the occupants of which were often known to heckle the performers. The least expensive snack served at the theatre would often be peanuts, which the patrons would sometimes throw at the performers on stage to convey their disapproval.  Phrases such as \"no comments from the peanut gallery\" or \"quiet in the peanut gallery\" are extensions of the name.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Peninsula Players is a summer theater located in Fish Creek, Wisconsin. Founded in 1935 by Richard and Caroline Fisher, it is known as \"America's Oldest Professional Resident Summer Theatre.\"", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Performance art is an artwork or art exhibition created through actions executed by the artist or other participants. It may be witnessed live or through documentation, spontaneously developed or written, and is traditionally presented to a public in a fine art context in an interdisciplinary mode. Also known as artistic action, it has been developed through the years as a genre of its own in which art is presented live. It had an important and fundamental role in 20th century avant-garde art.It involves four basic elements: time, space, body, and presence of the artist, and the relation between the creator and the public. The actions, generally developed in art galleries and museums, can take place in the street, any kind of setting or space and during any time period. Its goal is to generate a reaction, sometimes with the support of improvisation and a sense of aesthetics. The themes are commonly linked to life experiences of the artist themselves, or the need of denunciation or social criticism and with a spirit of transformation.The term \"performance art\" and \"performance\" became widely used in the 1970s, even though the history of performance in visual arts dates back to futurist productions and cabarets from the 1910s. The main pioneers of performance art include Carolee Schneemann, Marina Abramovi\u0107, Ana Mendieta, Chris Burden, Hermann Nitsch, Joseph Beuys, Nam June Paik, Yves Klein and Vito Acconci. Some of the main exponents more recently are Tania Bruguera, Abel Azcona, Regina Jos\u00e9 Galindo, Tehching Hsieh, Marta Minuj\u00edn and Petr Pavlensky. The discipline is linked to happening, the Fluxus movement, body art and conceptual art.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Playback Theatre is an original form of improvisational theatre in which audience or group members tell stories from their lives and watch them enacted on the spot.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A premi\u00e8re, also spelled premiere, is the debut (first public presentation) of a play, film, dance, or musical composition.\nA work will often have many premi\u00e8res: a world premi\u00e8re (the first time it is shown anywhere in the world) and its first presentation in each country. When a work originates in a country that speaks a different language from that in which it is receiving its national or international premi\u00e8re, it is possible to have two premi\u00e8res for the same work in the same country\u2014for example, the play The Maids by the French dramatist Jean Genet received its British premi\u00e8re (which also happened to be its world premi\u00e8re) in 1952, in a production given in the French language. Four years later, it was staged again, this time in English, which was its English-language premi\u00e8re in Britain.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A puppet is an object, often resembling a human, animal or mythical figure, that is animated or manipulated by a person called a puppeteer. The puppeteer uses movements of their hands, arms, or control devices such as rods or strings to move the body, head, limbs, and in some cases the mouth and eyes of the puppet. The puppeteer often speaks in the voice of the character of the puppet, and then synchronizes the movements of the puppet's mouth with this spoken part. The actions, gestures and spoken parts acted out by the puppeteer with the puppet are typically used in storytelling. Puppetry is a very ancient form of theatre which dates back to the 5th century BC in Ancient Greece. There are many different varieties of puppets, and they are made from a wide range of materials, depending on their form and intended use. They range from very simple in construction and operation to very complex.\nTwo simple types of puppets are the finger puppet, which is a tiny puppet that fits onto a single finger, and the sock puppet, which is formed and operated by inserting one's hand inside a sock, with the opening and closing of the hand simulating the movement of the puppet's \"mouth.\" The sock puppet is a type of hand puppet, which is controlled using one hand that occupies the interior of the puppet and moves the puppet around. A \"live-hand puppet\" is similar to a hand puppet but is larger and requires two puppeteers for each puppet. A Marionette is a much more complicated type of puppet that is suspended and controlled by a number of strings connected to the head, back and limbs, plus sometimes a central rod attached to a control bar held from above by the puppeteer.\nA rod puppet is constructed around a central rod secured to the head. A shadow puppet is a cut-out figure held between a source of light and a translucent screen. Bunraku puppets are a type of Japanese wood-carved puppet. A ventriloquist's dummy is a puppet, often human-shaped, operated by a ventriloquist performer's hand; the performer produces the puppet's voice with little or no movement of her mouth, which creates the illusion that the puppet is alive. Carnival puppets are large puppets, typically bigger than a human, designed to be part of a large spectacle or parade.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A puppeteer is a person who manipulates an inanimate object, called a puppet, to create the illusion that the puppet is alive. The puppet is often shaped like a human, animal, or legendary creature. The puppeteer may be visible to or hidden from the audience. A puppeteer can operate a puppet indirectly by the use of strings, rods, wires, electronics or directly by his or her own hands placed inside the puppet or holding it externally or any other part of the body- such as the legs. Some puppet styles require two or more puppeteers to work together to create a single puppet character.\nThe puppeteer's role is to manipulate the physical object in such a manner that the audience believes the object is imbued with life. In some instances, the persona of the puppeteer is also an important feature, as with ventriloquist's dummy performers, in which the puppeteer and the human figure-styled puppet appear onstage together, and in theatre shows like Avenue Q.\nThe puppeteer might speak in the role of the puppet's character, synchronising the movements of the puppet's mouth. However, there is much puppetry which does not use the moving mouth (which is a lip-sync innovation created originally for television where close-ups are popular). Often, in theatre, a moveable mouth is used only for gestural expression, or speech might be produced by a non-moving mouth. In traditional glove puppetry often one puppeteer will operate two puppets at a time out of a cast of several. Much work is produced without any speech at all with all the emphasis on movement.\nIn a shadow play only the shadows of the puppet are seen on a screen positioned  between the puppets and the audience.\nThe relationship between the puppeteer and the puppet-maker is similar to that between an actor and a playwright, in cases where a puppet-maker designs a puppet for a puppeteer. Very often, though, the puppeteer assumes the joint roles of puppet-maker, director, designer, writer and performer. In this case a puppeteer is a more complete theatre practitioner than is the case with other theatre forms, in which one person writes a play, another person directs it, and then actors perform the lines and gestures.\nPuppetry is a complex medium sometimes consisting of live performance, sometimes contributing to stop frame puppet animation, and film where performances might be technically processed as motion capture, CGI or as virtual puppetry.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A rehearsal is an activity in the performing arts that occurs as preparation for a performance in music, theatre, dance and related arts, such as opera, musical theatre and film production. It is undertaken as a form of practising, to ensure that all details of the subsequent performance are adequately prepared and coordinated. The term rehearsal typically refers to ensemble activities undertaken by a group of people. For example, when a musician is preparing a piano concerto in their music studio, this is called practising, but when they practice it with an orchestra, this is called a rehearsal. The music rehearsal takes place in a music rehearsal space.\nA rehearsal may involve as few as two people, as with a small play for two actors, an art song by a singer and pianist or a folk duo of a singer and guitarist. On the other end of the spectrum, a rehearsal can be held for a very large orchestra with over 100 performers and a choir. A rehearsal can involve only performers of one type, as in an a cappella choir show, in which a group of singers perform without instrumental accompaniment or a play involving only theatre actors; it can involve performers of different instruments, as with an orchestra, rock band or jazz \"big band\"; vocal and instrumental performers, as with opera and choral works accompanied by orchestra; or a mix of actors, vocalists, instrumentalists and dancers, as with musical theatre.\nRehearsals of small groups, such as small rock bands, jazz quartets or organ trios may be held without a leader; in these cases, the performers jointly determine how to run the rehearsal, which songs to practice, and so on. Some small groups may have their rehearsals led by a bandleader. Almost all mid- to large-group performances have a person who leads the rehearsals; this person may be a bandleader in a rock, country, or jazz setting; conductor in classical music (including opera); director in theatre or musical theatre; or film director for movies.\nWhile the term is most commonly used in the performing arts to refer to preparation for a public presentation, the term is also used to refer to the preparation for other anticipated activities, such as wedding guests and couples practicing a wedding ceremony, paramedics practicing responding to a simulated emergency, or troops practicing for an attack using a mock-up of the building.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A repertoire () is a list or set of dramas, operas, musical compositions or roles which a company or person is prepared to perform.Musicians often have a musical repertoire. The first known use of the word repertoire was in 1847. It is a loanword from the French language, as r\u00e9pertoire (French: [\u0281e.p\u025b\u0281.twa\u0281]), with a similar meaning in the arts. This word, in turn, has its origin in the Late Latin word repertorium.The concept of a basic repertoire has been extended to refer to groups which focus mainly on performing standard works, as in repertory theater or repertoire ballet.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A repertory theatre is a theatre in which a resident company presents works from a specified repertoire, usually in alternation or rotation.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Russian puppet theater appears to have originated either in migrations from the Byzantine Empire in the sixth century or possibly by Mongols travelling from China. Itinerant Slavic minstrels were presenting puppet shows in western Russia by the thirteenth century, arriving in Moscow in the mid-sixteenth century. Although Russian traditions were increasingly influenced by puppeteers from western Europe in the eighteenth century, Petrushka continued to be one of the principal figures. In addition to glove puppets and marionettes, rod puppets and flat puppets were introduced for a time but disappeared in the late nineteenth century.\nToday's puppet theaters owe much of their popularity to Nina Simonovich-Efimova and her husband who received support from the Russian authorities shortly after the October Revolution to set up a puppet theater in Moscow. They introduced a number of innovative designs and presented a range of performances for both children and adults. Sergey Obraztsov, who performed classical folk tales with glove puppets and marionettes, established his own theater in 1938. Puppet performances became increasingly widespread during the Soviet era and have remained popular ever since.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A script breakdown is an intermediate step in the production of a play, film, comic book, or any other work that is originally planned using a script.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Showmanship, concerning artistic performing such as in Theatre, is the skill of performing in such a manner that will appeal to an audience or aid in conveying the performance's essential theme or message. \nFor instance, the Canadian stage magician Doug Henning used many classic illusions in his magic show. However, he made the old material seem new by rejecting the old stylistic cliches of the art (such as wearing formal wear), and by presenting them with a childlike exuberance that respected the audience's intelligence.\nProfitable showmanship frequently appeals to pathos. Showmen aim to display goods with tact in order to sell an object or a show. Companies producing drama and entertainment claim that displaying fairness  is necessary.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Site-specific performance is performance created in relation to a physical site and staged at the site itself (as opposed to a theatre space). It often involves research of the  site prior to the performance. It is often discussed in relation to both theatre and visual art traditions. Nick Kaye was one of the first scholars to consider site-specific performance from both theatrical and visual art perspectives in his book, Site-Specific Art: Performance, Place and Documentation.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "In general, spectacle refers to an event that is memorable for the appearance it creates. Derived in Middle English from c. 1340 as \"specially prepared or arranged display\" it was borrowed from Old French spectacle, itself a reflection of the Latin spectaculum \"a show\" from spectare \"to view, watch\" frequentative form of specere \"to look at.\" The word spectacle has also been a term of art in theater dating from the 17th century in English drama.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Stage management is a broad field that is generally defined as the practice of organization and coordination of an event or theatrical production. Stage management may encompass a variety of activities including the overseeing of the rehearsal process and  coordinating communications among various production teams and personnel. Stage management requires a general understanding of all aspects of production and provides complete organization to ensure the process runs smoothly and efficiently.\nA stage manager is an individual who has overall responsibility for stage management and the smooth execution of a theatrical production. Stage management may be performed by an individual in small productions, while larger productions typically employ a stage management team consisting of a head stage manager, or production stage manager, and one or more assistant stage managers.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "In American theater, summer-stock theater is a theater that presents stage productions only in the summer. The name combines the season with the tradition of staging shows by a resident company, reusing stock scenery and costumes. Summer stock theaters frequently take advantage of seasonal weather by having their productions outdoors or under tents set up temporarily for their use.\nSome smaller theaters still continue this tradition, and a few summer stock theaters have become highly regarded by both patrons as well as performers and designers. Often viewed as a starting point for professional actors, stock casts are typically young, just out of high school or still in college.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A supporting character is a character in a narrative that is not the focus of the primary storyline, but is important to the plot/protagonist, and appears or is mentioned in the story enough to be more than just a minor character or a cameo appearance. Sometimes, supporting characters may develop a complex backstory of their own, but this is usually in relation to the main character, rather than entirely independently. In television, supporting characters may appear in more than half of the episodes per season.\nIn some cases, especially in ongoing material such as comic books and television series, supporting characters themselves may become main characters in a spin-off if they gain sufficient approval from their audience.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A sylvan theater\u2014sometimes called a greenery theater (French: th\u00e9\u00e2tre de verdure) (also spelt theatre, see spelling differences)\u2014is a type of outdoor theater situated in a wooded (sylvan) setting. Often adorned with classical motifs (columns, statues), a sylvan theater may substitute a simple green lawn for built seating and can include elaborate arrangements of shrubs, flowers and other greenery. These alfresco stages may be features of grand formal gardens or parks, or of more intimate settings, and may be intended for either public or private use.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Theatre for development (TfD) is a type of community-based or interactive theatre practice that aims to promote civic dialogue and engagement. \nTheatre for development can be a kind of participatory theatre that encourages improvisation and allows audience members to take roles in the performance, or it can be fully scripted and staged, with the audience simply observing. Many productions are a blend of the two. The Theatre of the Oppressed, an influential collection of theatrical forms developed by Augusto Boal in the 1970s, aims to create dialogue and interaction between audience and performer as a means of promoting social and political change.\nHundreds, if not thousands, of organizations and initiatives have used theatre as a development tool: for education or propaganda, as therapy, as a participatory tool, or as an exploratory tool in development.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Theatre for Early Years or TEY is a blanket term for theatrical events designed for audiences of pre-school children (aged under five or six years of age). TEY is considered to be a sub-category of Theatre for Young Audiences (TYA). TEY is known in the US as Theatre for the Very Young, or TVY.\nIt has been defined as \u201cprofessional theatre led by adults performing for an audience of babies from months old to toddlers approximately one and a half to two years old accompanied by a parent or adult companion. Babies usually sit on their caregiver's lap or in a stroller, and watch a play - usually between 30 to 45 minutes long - designed especially for them\u201d. In addition, performances for newborns, centring on bonding and attachment, and more participatory productions which invite children to enter the performance area for a time have become common. Even productions aimed at foetuses and expectant mothers have been created.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Theatre for Young Audiences (TYA) is a branch of theatre arts that encompasses all forms of theatre that are attended by or created for younger audiences. It blankets many different forms of theatre methods and expressions, including plays, dance, music, puppetry, circus, physical theatre, and many others. It is globally practiced, takes many forms, both traditional and non-traditional, and explores a wide variety of themes ranging from fairy tales to parental abuse.\nOriginating in the 20th century, TYA is a recent branch of Theatre Arts. It takes on many functions in different settings and places around the world. In the US, for instance, it is often entertainment-centered, although its roots lie in education. Many writers and production companies have started catering specifically to TYA audiences, causing a continuous increase in theatrical material for children. In the present day, TYA production companies or groups can be found in most regions of the US and around the world.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The theatre games tradition is a method of training actors that was developed in the 20th century by practitioners such as Joan Littlewood, Viola Spolin, Paul Sills, Clive Barker, Keith Johnstone, Jerzy Grotowski and Augusto Boal. Theatre games are also commonly used as warm-up exercises for actors before a rehearsal or performance, in the development of improvisational theatre, and as a lateral means to rehearse dramatic material. They are also used in drama therapy to overcome anxiety by simulating scenarios that would be fear-inducing in real life.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A theatre in the round, arena theatre or central staging is a space for theatre in which the audience surrounds the stage.\nTheatre-in-the-round was common in ancient theatre, particularly that of Greece and Rome, but was not widely explored again until the latter half of the 20th century.\nThe Glenn Hughes Penthouse Theatre in Seattle, Washington was the first theatre-in-the-round venue built in the United States.  It first opened on May 19, 1940 with a production of Spring Dance, a comedy by playwright Philip Barry.  The 160-seat theatre is located on the campus of the University of Washington in Seattle and is on the National Register of Historic Places.\nIn 1947, Margo Jones established America's first professional theatre-in-the-round company when she opened her Theater '47 in Dallas.\nThe stage design as developed by Margo Jones was used by directors in later years for such well-known shows as the Tony Award-winning musical Fun Home, the original stage production of Man of La Mancha, and all plays staged at the ANTA Washington Square Theatre (demolished in the late 1960s), including Arthur Miller's autobiographical After the Fall. Such theatres had previously existed in colleges, but not in professional spaces for almost two millennia. It is also a popular setup used in contemporary pop concerts in an arena or stadium setting.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Theatre pedagogy (German: Theaterp\u00e4dagogik) is an independent discipline combining both theatre and pedagogy. As a field that arose during the 20th century, theatre pedagogy has developed separately from drama education, the distinction being that the drama teacher typically teaches method, theory and/or practice of performance alone, while theatre pedagogy integrates both art and education to develop language and strengthen social awareness. Theatre pedagogy is rooted in drama and stagecraft, yet works to educate people outside the realm of theatre itself.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Theatre techniques are procedures that facilitate a successful presentation of a play. They also include any practices that advance and enhance the understanding the audience brings to the action and the acting by the cast\non stage.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Theatrical blood, stage blood or fake blood is anything used as a substitute for blood in a theatrical or cinematic performance. For example, in the special effects industry, when a director needs to simulate an actor being shot or cut, a wide variety of chemicals and natural products can be used. The most common is red food coloring, often inside small balloons coupled with explosive devices called squibs.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Theatrical constraints are various rules, either of taste or of law, that govern the production, staging, and content of stage plays in the theater.   Whether imposed externally, by virtue of monopoly franchises or censorship laws, or whether imposed voluntarily by actors, directors, or producers, these restraints have taxed the creative minds of the theatre to  tackle the challenges of working with and around them.\nThe Classical unities, requiring \"unity\" of \"time, place, and subject\", is the most well-known of all theatrical constraints.  It was first employed in Italy in 1514 and later became embraced in France. Another example is the Japanese prohibition of female acting in 1625, then the prohibition of young male actors in 1657, that create \"Onnagata\" which is the ground of Japanese theatrical tradition.  In the Elizabethan theatre of Shakespeare, a similar ban forbade all actresses from appearing on stage, at all; the parts of women were generally played by boys.  The plot of Shakespeare in Love turns on this fact.\nIn cinema, the Dogme 95 films form a body of work produced under voluntary constraints that severely limit both the choice of subjects and the choice of techniques used to bring them to the screen.\nAnother culturally significant constraint occurred in France.  In the late seventeenth century (1697 to be exact), Italian companies were prohibited from appearing in France, so native actors took over the Italian plays and made the roles their own with great success.\nIn the markets and fairgrounds, itinerant actors created a new theatrical form by holding up cue-cards (like sub-titles or karaoke) containing the words of the plays or songs, which the audience then acted or sang for them. This became even more successful, with crowds coming from all around to see how the actors had overcome such rigid censorship.\nSome of the restrictions, or traditions born of them, may have still been in place in the nineteenth century, at least if Marcel Carn\u00e9's Les Enfants du Paradis is a reliable guide.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Theatrical makeup is makeup that is used to assist in creating the appearance of the characters that actors portray during a theater production.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A theatrical production is any work of theatre, such as a staged play, musical, comedy or drama produced from a written book or script. Theatrical productions also extend to other performance designations such as Dramatic and Nondramatic theatre, as well as Dance theatre. These works are protected by common law or statuary copyright unless in the public domain.These productions generally feature actors, costumes and sets. The history of the theatrical production goes back to ancient Greece.\nTheatrical productions vary in many ways. They can be anything from high school as well as college productions, community theatre productions to summer stock and regional theatre productions all the way to Broadway and Kings Road productions. Today's contemporary theatres produce a variety of plays and musicals that attract very different audiences.\nIn full theatrical productions there are a great number of people working towards many types of shows. A producer acquires financing, hires staff and oversees everything from the beginning to the end of each show. Theatrical staff is separated by department, which varies from theatre to theatre and production to production depending on needs.\nThe production will employ front of house and back of house staff. In addition to performers, stage hands, stage managers, lighting and sound technicians, many theatres will hire ushers, concessions workers, janitorial and security in mounting a theatrical production.\nTheatrical productions may also involve other types of performance exhibitions, which include improvisational, skit and parody performances which involve varying levels of involvement from off-camera staff or assistants in order to create the productions.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Theatrical superstitions are superstitions particular to actors or the theatre.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The word  titling, in the performing arts (opera, drama, audiovisual productions), defines the work of linguistic mediation encompassing subtitling and surtitling.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "\"Toi toi toi\" (English:  ) is an expression used in the performing arts to wish an artist success in an imminent performance. It is similar to \"break a leg\" and reflects a superstition that wishing someone \"good luck\" is in fact bad luck.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Toy theater, also called paper theater and model theater (also spelt theatre, see spelling differences), is a form of miniature theater dating back to the early 19th century in Europe. Toy theaters were often printed on paperboard sheets and sold as kits at the concession stand of an opera house, playhouse, or vaudeville theater. Toy theatres were assembled at home and performed for family members and guests, sometimes with live musical accompaniment. Toy theatre saw a drastic decline in popularity with a shift towards realism on the European stage in the late 19th century, and again  with the arrival of television after World War II. Toy theatre has seen a resurgence in recent years among many puppeteers, authors and filmmakers and there are numerous international toy theatre festivals throughout the Americas and Europe.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "UpStage is an open source server-side application that has been purpose built for Cyberformance: multiple artists collaborate in real time via the UpStage platform to create and present live theatrical performances, for audiences who can be online (from anywhere in the world) or in a shared space, and who can interact with the performance via a text chat tool. It can also be understood as a form of digital puppetry. It is the first open source platform designed specifically for avatar performances.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A vignette ( (listen), also ) is a French loanword expressing a short and descriptive piece of writing that captures a brief period in time. Vignettes are more focused on vivid imagery and meaning rather than plot. Vignettes can be stand-alone, but they are more commonly part of a larger narrative, such as vignettes found in novels or collections of short stories.Examples of vignettes include Ernest Hemingway\u2019s In Our Time, Margaret Atwood\u2019s The Female Body, Sandra Cisneros\u2019 The House on Mango Street, and Alice Walker\u2019s The Flowers.\nVignettes have been particularly influential in the development of the contemporary notions of a scene as shown in postmodern theater, film and television, where less emphasis is placed on adhering to the conventions of traditional structure and story development.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A workshop production is a form of theatrical performance, in which a play or musical is staged in a modest form which does not include some aspects of a full production. For example, costumes, sets and musical accompaniment may be excluded, or may be included in a simpler form.  In contrast, tryout productions are usually presented as full productions, with performers in costume, on a set, and accompanied by an orchestra or band.\nOne common purpose of a workshop production is to provide a preview staging of a new work in order to gauge audience and critical reaction, following which some parts of the work may be adjusted or rewritten before the work's official premiere. Because a workshop production generally pays less for the rights to perform the play, workshop productions also provide an opportunity for smaller theatres to generate increased publicity by staging a popular or highly anticipated work for which a full production might be too costly. Some theatre companies, in fact, specialize exclusively in workshop productions; amateur and youth theatre companies, for example, are commonly structured on the workshop production model.\nWhen hearing about workshop productions and contrasting them with Off-Broadway or Broadway versions of these plays differences can vary between cut alternate scenes or in musical cases cut songs or alternate lyrics. Typically workshop productions take place in college theaters or venues that are considered as Off-Broadway theaters. \nSome fictional works, including the musical A Chorus Line and the television series Smash, depict the audition and workshop processes of developmental theatrical productions.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "World Mime Day is a worldwide initiative of the World Mime Organisation to celebrate the Art of Mime and non-verbal communication on March 22 the day of birth of legendary french mime artist Marcel Marceau. It is being celebrated since 2011 in more and more countries each year on four continents. World Mime Day is not officially recognized by UNESCO.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A zoomsical, which is a portmanteau of the words \"Zoom\" and \"musical\", is a form of theatrical performance that combines dialogue, music and lyrics that is then performed, either live or recorded, for an online audience via a video conferencing platform like Zoom.\nZoomsicals can be either original works or adaptations of existing stage musicals. The zoomsical arose in 2020 as a response to the social distancing guidelines put in place in many countries to stem the spread of COVID-19. These guidelines made it impossible for many theatre companies to continue their planned seasons of rehearsals and performances, and many were cancelled. The zoomsical emerged from the necessity for musical theatre performances that could adhere to physical distancing guidelines, yet also maintain a venue for artistic self expression. Many theatre companies that produce stage musicals, having pivoted away from their live seasons, began experimenting with live streaming video platforms  as a way to continue to bring new works to audiences during lockdown.\nPublished on 5 May 2020 by Music Theatre International, the first known zoomsical is an adaptation of the Theatre for Young Audiences production of The Big One-Oh! by Academy Award winning author Dean Pitchford. It features music by Doug Besterman, lyrics by Pitchford, and a book by Timothy Allen McDonald.\nComposer, lyricist and director Haddon Kime of Atlanta is credited with creating the first original zoomsical. His zoomsical, produced and premiered by Out of Hand Theater, is entitled LAG: A Zoomsical Comedy, and premiered 30 May 2020 simultaneously on Zoom and YouTube. It has subsequently been published by composer Roger Bean's publishing company, Stage Rights International.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Tickling is the act of touching a part of a body in a way that causes involuntary twitching movements or laughter. The word \"tickle\"  evolved from the Middle English tikelen, perhaps frequentative of ticken, to touch lightly.In 1897, psychologists G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin described a \"tickle\" as two different types of phenomena. One type is caused by very light movement across the skin. This type of tickle, called a knismesis, generally does not produce laughter and is sometimes accompanied by an itching sensation.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Chatouilleuses were a group of Mahoran women who used tickle torture on Comorian political leaders in order to make them accept tightened relations between Mayotte and France.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Consensual tickling refers to any instance of tickling in which the party being tickled has given permission for the party providing the tickling to do so. Some people find tickling to be an erotic experience. They may prefer to be the dominant (tickling) party or the submissive (tickled) party, or they may enjoy both. Some people may prefer to be tickled in specific areas, usually erogenous zones or other particularly sensitive areas of the skin.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Creep Mouse is an informal game played with babies. In the game, one (child, teenager, or adult) marching his or her two fingers up from the infant's toes towards the baby's midsection, reciting a rhythmic verse something like \u201cHere, comes, the, creep, mouse, from, the, barn, into, the, house\u201d once the walking fingers reach the midsection, the baby is then tickled and the sounds  \u201cgiddy giddy getchya\u201d are made, much to the baby's amusement. This game is often repeated with an increased cadence with each round.\nIn the United Kingdom, this game is played along to the song Round and round the garden.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (initially known as Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles in some European countries) is an American animated television series based on characters created by Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird. It is the first animated series in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise.\nThe pilot was shown during the week of December 14, 1987 in syndication as a five-part miniseries, and the show began its official run on October 1, 1988. The series ran until November 2, 1996, when it aired its final episode.\nSet in New York City, the series follows the adventures of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and their allies as they battle the Shredder, Krang, and numerous other villains and criminals. The property was changed considerably from the darker-toned comics, to make it more suitable for children and the family.The show helped launch the characters into mainstream popularity and became one of the most popular animated series in television history. Action figures, breakfast cereals, plush toys, and other merchandise featuring the characters appeared on the market during the late-1980s and early-1990s, and became top-sellers worldwide. A successful Archie Comics comic book based on the animated show instead of the original black-and-white comics was published throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s. By 1990, the series was being shown daily on more than 125 television stations, and the comic books sold 125,000 copies a month. In 2009, Viacom acquired all related titles, logos, characters, and trademarks of the franchise.\nCharacters from the show have been included in crossovers with later entries of the franchise, including the 2009 film Turtles Forever and cameos in the 2012 TV series.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "In physiology, an efference copy or efferent copy is an internal copy of an outflowing (efferent), movement-producing signal generated by an organism's motor system. It can be collated with the (reafferent) sensory input that results from the agent's movement, enabling a comparison of actual movement with desired movement, and a shielding of perception from particular self-induced effects on the sensory input to achieve perceptual stability. Together with internal models, efference copies can serve to enable the brain to predict the effects of an action.An equal term with a different history is corollary discharge.Efference copies are important in enabling motor adaptation such as to enhance gaze stability. They have a role in the perception of self and nonself electric fields in electric fish. They also underlie the phenomenon of tickling.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Knismesis and gargalesis are the scientific terms, coined in 1897 by psychologists G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin, used to describe the two types of tickling.  Knismesis refers to the light, feather-like type of tickling. This type of tickling generally does not induce laughter and is often accompanied by an itching sensation. Gargalesis refers to harder, laughter-inducing tickling, and involves the repeated application of high pressure to sensitive areas.While the two terms are used in academic papers, they do not appear in many dictionaries and their origin is rarely declared. The term knismesis comes from the Ancient Greek \u03ba\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 (kn\u0113sm\u00f3s) meaning 'itching'. The term gargalesis stems from the Ancient Greek \u03b3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b6\u03c9 (gargal\u00edz\u014d) meaning 'to tickle'. The suffix -esis is used to form nouns of action or process.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Mr. Tickle is the first book in the Mr. Men series by Roger Hargreaves which was published on 10 August 1971.The character of the story was originally based on a question by his son Adam Hargreaves, who asked him what a tickle would look like; the claim of which is currently being disputed. Adam Hargreaves said that it was one of his most impossible questions as said in the show 50 Years of Mr. Men.\nMr. Tickle is an orange Mr. Man who has long, bendy arms and a small, blue hat.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Mindhunter is an American psychological crime thriller television series created by Joe Penhall, based on the 1995 true-crime book Mindhunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit written by John E. Douglas and Mark Olshaker. The executive producers include Penhall, Charlize Theron, and David Fincher, the latter of whom has served as the series' most frequent director and de facto showrunner, overseeing many of the scriptwriting and production processes. The series stars Jonathan Groff, Holt McCallany, and Anna Torv, and it follows the founding of the Behavioral Science Unit in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in the late 1970s and the beginning of criminal profiling.The first season of 10 episodes debuted worldwide on Netflix on October 13, 2017. The second season was released by Netflix on August 16, 2019. In January 2020, Netflix announced that the potential for a third season was on indefinite hold as Fincher wanted to pursue other projects, but may \"revisit [the series] in the future\".", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Tickle Me Elmo is a children's plush toy from Tyco Preschool, a division of Tyco Toys, of the Muppet character Elmo from the children's television show Sesame Street. When squeezed, Elmo shakes, vibrates, and recites his trademark giggle.\nThe toy was first produced in the United States in 1996 and slowly became a fad, reaching its apex during the 1996 Christmas shopping season, with some instances of violence reported over the limited available supply. People reported that the toy, which retailed for $28.99 according to its MSRP, was being re-sold by scalpers in newspapers and on the Internet for up to $1,500 by the end of 1996.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Tickle torture is the use of tickling to abuse, dominate, harass, humiliate, or interrogate an individual. While laughter is popularly thought of as a pleasure response, in tickle torture, the one being tickled may laugh whether or not they find the experience pleasant. In a tickling situation, laughter can indicate a panic reflex rather than a pleasure response. Tickle torture may be a consensual activity or one that is forced, depending on the circumstances. In a consensual form, tickle torture may be part of a mutually fulfilling, physically intimate act between partners. However, forced tickle torture can cause real physical and mental distress in a victim, which is why it has been used as an interrogation method or to simply show dominance over another person. Usually tickling is done on feet and armpits after tying the person's ankles and wrists. The recipient is also often stripped to their underwear.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Tickled is a 2016 New Zealand documentary about \"competitive endurance tickling\" and videos featuring it, and the practices of those producing the videos, directed by David Farrier and Dylan Reeve. The film explores possible legal and ethical issues with certain individuals making the videos, and has itself been the subject of legal challenges. A follow-up special, The Tickle King, aired on HBO in February 2017.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Tragedy (from the Greek: \u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u1ff3\u03b4\u03af\u03b1, trag\u014didia) is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character.  Traditionally, the intention of tragedy is to invoke an accompanying catharsis, or a \"pain [that] awakens pleasure\", for the audience.  While many cultures have developed forms that provoke this paradoxical response, the term tragedy often refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of Western civilization.  That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and historical continuity\u2014\"the Greeks and the Elizabethans, in one cultural form; Hellenes and Christians, in a common activity,\" as Raymond Williams puts it.From its origins in the theatre of ancient Greece 2500 years ago, from which there survives only a fraction of the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, as well as many fragments from other poets, and the later Roman tragedies of Seneca; through its singular articulations in the works of Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Jean Racine, and Friedrich Schiller to the more recent naturalistic tragedy of Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg; Samuel Beckett's modernist meditations on death, loss and suffering; Heiner M\u00fcller postmodernist reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.  A long line of philosophers\u2014which includes Plato, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Voltaire, Hume, Diderot, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Freud, Benjamin, Camus, Lacan, and Deleuze\u2014have analysed, speculated upon, and criticised the genre.In the wake of Aristotle's Poetics (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general (where the tragic divides against epic and lyric) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to comedy). In the modern era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, melodrama, the tragicomic, and epic theatre.  Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-generic deterritorialisation from the mid-19th century onwards. Both Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal define their epic theatre projects (non-Aristotelian drama and Theatre of the Oppressed, respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Tragicomedy is a literary genre that blends aspects of both tragic and comic forms. Most often seen in dramatic literature, the term can describe either a tragic play which contains enough comic elements to lighten the overall mood or a serious play with a happy ending. Tragicomedy, as its name implies, invokes the intended response of both the tragedy and the comedy in the audience, the former being a genre based on human suffering that invokes an accompanying catharsis and the latter being a genre intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Cl\u00e9op\u00e2tre captive is a five-act tragedy by \u00c9tienne Jodelle, presented on 9 February 1553, first before the King Henri II of France in the H\u00f4tel de Reims, then at the Coll\u00e8ge de Boncourt. The play is part of the posthumous collection Les \u0152uvres et meslanges poetiques d'Estienne Jodelle Sieur du Lymodin (1574). Remy Belleau played the role of Cleopatra, Jean Bastier de La P\u00e9ruse, that of Octavian. It was the first \"trag\u00e9die humaniste\", and Jodelle composed it in parallel with the first \"humanist comedy\", L'Eug\u00e8ne.\nThe performance was a success, and was followed by a celebration in the antique manner in Arcueil, bringing together all participants and friends for a party known as the Pompe du bouc.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Cruel Gift: A Tragedy is a tragedy (with an unusual happy ending) written by Susanna Centlivre, first performed at Drury Lane in 1716 (and published in 1717). Nicholas Rowe wrote the play's epilogue.\nThe story of Ghismunda and Guiscardo in The Decameron (retold by John Dryden as the poem Sigismonda and Guiscardo (1700)) was an influence on Centlivre's play.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Euridice BA 2037 (Greek: \u0395\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b7 \u0392\u0391 2037) is a 1975 Greek-West German co-production black and white dramatic surrealist underground film directed by Nikos Nikolaidis, his debut feature film.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A fabula crepidata or fabula cothurnata is a Latin tragedy with Greek subjects. The genre probably originated in adaptations of Greek tragedy (hence the names, coming from crepida = sandal and cothurnus) beginning in  the early third century BC. Only nine have survived intact, all by Seneca. Of the plays written by Lucius Livius Andronicus, Gnaeus Naevius, Quintus Ennius, Marcus Pacuvius, Lucius Accius, and others, only titles, small fragments, and occasionally brief summaries are left. Ovid's Medea also did not survive.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "French history has been the basis of plays in the English-speaking theatre since the English Renaissance theatre.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Greek tragedy is a form of theatre from Ancient Greece and Greek inhabited Anatolia. It reached its most significant form in Athens in the 5th century BC, the works of which are sometimes called Attic tragedy.\nGreek tragedy is widely believed to be an extension of the ancient rites carried out in honor of Dionysus, and it heavily influenced the theatre of Ancient Rome and the Renaissance. Tragic plots were most often based upon myths from the oral traditions of archaic epics. In tragic theatre, however, these narratives were presented by actors. The most acclaimed Greek tragedians are Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. These tragedians often explored many themes around human nature, mainly as a way of connecting with the audience but also as way of bringing the audience into the play.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Heer Ranjha (or Heer and Ranjha) (Punjabi: \u06c1\u06cc\u0631 \u0631\u0627\u0646\u062c\u06be\u0627 (Shahmukhi)) is one of several popular tragic romances of Punjab, other important ones being \"Sohni Mahiwal\", \"Mirza Sahiban\" and \"Sassi Punnhun\". There are several poetic narrations of the story, the most famous being Heer by Waris Shah written in 1766. It tells the story of the love between Heer Sial and Dheedo Ranjha.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A modern melodrama is a dramatic work in which the plot, typically sensationalized and for a strong emotional appeal, takes precedence over detailed characterization. Melodramas typically concentrate on dialogue that is often bombastic or excessively sentimental, rather than action. Characters are often flat, and written to fulfill stereotypes. Melodramas are typically set in the private sphere of the home, focusing on morality and family issues, love, and marriage, often with challenges from an outside source, such as a \"temptress\", a scoundrel, or an aristocratic villain. A melodrama on stage, filmed, or on television is usually accompanied by dramatic and suggestive music that offers cues to the audience of the drama being presented..\nIn scholarly and historical musical contexts, melodramas are Victorian dramas in which orchestral music or song was used to accompany the action. The term is now also applied to stage performances without incidental music, novels, films, television, and radio broadcasts. In modern contexts, the term \"melodrama\" is generally pejorative, as it suggests that the work in question lacks subtlety, character development, or both. By extension, language or behavior which resembles melodrama is often called melodramatic; this use is nearly always pejorative.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Mirza Sahiban (Punjabi: \u0a2e\u0a3f\u0a30\u0a1c\u0a3c\u0a3e \u0a38\u0a3e\u0a39\u0a3f\u0a2c\u0a3e\u0a02, \u0645\u0631\u0632\u0627 \u0635\u0627\u062d\u0628\u0627\u06ba, mirz\u0101 s\u0101hib\u0101\u1e41) is one of the four popular tragic romances of Punjab. The other three are Heer Ranjha, Sohni Mahiwal and Sassi Punnun. There are five other popular folklore stories in Punjab: Momal Rano, Umar Marvi, LiLa Chanesar, Noori Jam Tamachi and Sorath Rai Diyach. These nine tragic romances are popular in Punjab.The popular story was written by Pilu. Mirza and Sahiban were lovers who lived in Khewa (Kheiwa), a town in Sial Territory in the Jhang District, which was Sahiban's ancestral village. They loved each other and ran away together to live with each other \nand marry against Sahiban's parents wishes. While eloping Mirza stopped under a jand tree and rested and fell asleep. Sahiban did not want to begin her new life with her brothers' bloodshed . She decided to break all the arrows of Mirza thinking she will beg her brothers for their acceptance so that nobody would get hurt. When Sahiban's brothers reached them, Mirza woke up but discovered his arrows were broken and then he was killed by Sahiban's brothers. Sahiban couldn't bear this loss and chose to end her own life by stabbing herself with an arrow.\nAlong with Sohni Mahiwal and Sassi Punnuh are commonly known as 'Seven Queens' of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai. They are culturally included in both Punjabi and Sindhi traditions.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The praetexta or fabula praetexta was a genre of Latin tragedy introduced at Rome by Gnaeus Naevius in the third century B.C. It dealt with historical Roman figures, in place of the conventional Greek myths. Subsequent writers of praetextae included Ennius, Pacuvius and Lucius Accius. The name refers to the toga praetexta, purple striped, that was the official dress of Roman magistrates and priests. It was mainly a Roman garment. \nAll Roman Republican tragedies are now lost. From the Imperial era only one play has survived, the Octavia.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The revenge tragedy, or revenge play, is a dramatic genre in which the protagonist seeks revenge for an imagined or actual injury. The term revenge tragedy was first introduced in 1900 by A. H. Thorndike to label a class of plays written in the late Elizabethan and early Jacobean eras (circa 1580s to 1620s).", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Revenge tragedy (sometimes referred to as revenge drama, revenge play, or tragedy of blood) is a theoretical genre in which the principal theme is revenge and revenge's fatal consequences. Formally established by American educator Ashley H. Thorndike in his 1902 article \"The Relations of Hamlet to Contemporary Revenge Plays,\" a revenge tragedy documents the progress of the protagonist's revenge plot and often leads to the demise of both the murderers and the avenger himself.The genre first appeared in early modern Britain with the publication of Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy during the latter half of the 16th century. Earlier works, such as Jasper Heywood's translations of Seneca (1560s) and Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville's play Gorbuduc (1561), are also considered revenge tragedies. Other well-known revenge tragedies include William Shakespeare's Hamlet (c.1599-1602), Titus Andronicus (c.1588-1593), and The Revenger's Tragedy (c.1606)  formerly believed to be by Cyril Tourneur, now ascribed to Thomas Middleton.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The tragedy of Rostam and Sohrab forms part of the 10th-century Persian epic Shahnameh by the Persian poet Ferdowsi. It tells the tragic story of the heroes Rostam and his son, Sohrab.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Shakespearean tragedy is the designation given to most tragedies written by playwright William Shakespeare. Many of his history plays share the qualifiers of a Shakespearean tragedy, but because they are based on real figures throughout the history of England, they were classified as \"histories\" in the First Folio. The Roman tragedies\u2014Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus\u2014are also based on historical figures, but because their sources were foreign and ancient they are almost always classified as tragedies rather than histories. Shakespeare's romances (tragicomic plays) were written late in his career and published originally as either tragedy or comedy. They share some elements of tragedy, insofar as they feature a high-status central character, but they end happily like Shakespearean comedies. Almost three centuries after Shakespeare's death, the scholar F. S. Boas also coined a fifth category, the \"problem play,\" for plays that do not fit neatly into a single classification because of their subject matter, setting, or ending. The classifications of certain Shakespeare plays are still debated among scholars.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Stand-up tragedy is a style of tragic performance where a performer performs in front of a live audience, speaking directly to them.  The goal of Stand-up tragedy is to make the audience members cry.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A tragic hero is the protagonist of a tragedy.  In his Poetics, Aristotle records the descriptions of the tragic hero to the playwright and strictly defines the place that the tragic hero must play and the kind of man he must be. Aristotle based his observations on previous dramas.  Many of the most famous instances of tragic heroes appear in Greek literature, most notably the works of Sophocles and Euripides.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Tragic Lovers is a classical music album by the Oregon Symphony under the artistic direction of James DePreist, released by the record label Delos in 2008. It contains three works inspired by tragic love stories in literature: Richard Wagner's Prelude and \"Liebestod\" from Tristan and Isolde (1865), Hector Berlioz's \"Love Scene\" from Rom\u00e9o et Juliette, Op. 17, and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet. Amelia Haygood and Carol Rosenberger served as executive producers of the album; the recording producers were Michael Fine and Adam Stern. The album's creation was financially supported by the Gretchen Brooks Recording Fund, which supported two recording sessions per year for each of DePreist's final five years as music director. Tragic Lovers was the orchestra's final recording with DePreist \u2014 who left the Oregon Symphony in April 2003 \u2014 as conductor and its final contribution to Delos's \"Virtual Reality Recording\" series.\nCompositions from the album have been broadcast on several stations, including Public Radio Exchange, WDAV, New England Public Radio (WFCR) and Northwest Public Radio. WFCR broadcast the Tchaikovsky recording in November 2011 in recognition of DePreist's 75th birthday, and the Berlioz track in February 2013, following DePreist's death. The Classical Music Sentinel published a positive review of the album, comparing it to a three-movement symphony.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Trivia is information and data that are considered to be of little value. It can be contrasted with general knowledge and common sense.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Robert Louis Birch (August 9, 1925 \u2013 July 26, 2005) was an American librarian known for creating National Trivia Day and other lesser-known holidays such as Swap Ideas Day and Lumpy Rug Day. National Trivia Day is celebrated in the United States and Canada and is seen as a way for organizations to share interesting facts about their subject areas. The holiday was first celebrated in 1980. Birch founded the Puns Corp, intended to help people have fun with words.Birch was born in Mobile, Alabama, 1925 and grew up in Cuba. He got a degree from the University of Miami, Florida, with a double major in literature and philosophy and earned a master's degree in library science from the Catholic University of America in 1958. He served in the military during the Korean War.Birch worked for the Patent Office Scientific Library and at the National Agricultural Library, each for ten years. He worked on a research project with the Science Index Group determining a way to make writing or speeches maximally intelligible. This work was centered around translations of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. He did other library research into wording styles of material titles to determine what would make them most efficiently retrieved. He also published papers about Lincoln's speech style that suggested Lincoln was making use of similar wording and memory techniques. Birch was the president of the Lincoln Group of the District of Columbia.Birch co-authored the book Memory Dynamics: A complete Memory System with Judge William Fauver which outlined how people could use \"coded memory pictures\" to recall information. He did presentations about these memory systems to professional librarian associations.Birch lived in Falls Church, Virginia. He and his wife Grace had eight children.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "FunTrivia is a trivia website. It was the first trivia website added to the Yahoo directory and used to be the largest trivia site on the web in terms of traffic. It was one of the first entertainment sites on the web to use a community-generated content model to create all of its content.\nIt contains over one million trivia questions in over one hundred and forty thousand quizzes categorized into nearly sixteen thousand topics, all submitted by over four thousand different contributors. Quizzes are created and submitted by members of the community and placed online for anyone to play for free.\nNew submissions are checked by category editors before being published, and prior accepted submissions may be modified without editor intervention. All editors on FunTrivia are volunteer community members. As of 2009, there are 40 volunteer editors maintaining the site's content.\nFunTrivia also pioneered the \"Ask a Question\" model in early 2000, in which visitors could ask a trivia question and receive answers from other guests.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Edwin \"Ed\" Goodgold (died May 7, 2021) was an American writer, music industry executive, academic administrator. He is known for coining the term \"trivia\" in 1965. He was also the first manager of Sha Na Na.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Hey! Spring of Trivia is the name given by Spike TV to the show The Fountain of Trivia (Japanese: \u30c8\u30ea\u30d3\u30a2\u306e\u6cc9, Hepburn: Toribia no Izumi), a Japanese comedy game show on Fuji TV.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Now I Know is a daily email newsletter about trivia written by Dan Lewis. Described as \"a newer, less snarky iteration of Cecil Adams\u2019 The Straight Dope,\" it has been running since 2010 with over 100,000 subscribers as of 2018. The newsletter won a Webby Award for email newsletters in 2013 and 2014. Lewis credits his success to his engagement with his community, claiming he replies to nearly every email sent to him. He also notes his Jewish background saying \"[T]here's an oral tradition in Judaism to explain and analyze things\" which is the general theme of his newsletter which uses seemingly obscure facts to tell a bigger story.The newsletter has been turned into two books, Now I Know: The Revealing Stories Behind the World\u2019s Most Interesting Facts and Now I Know More: The Revealing Stories Behind Even More of the World's Most Interesting Facts. The newsletter is also being expanded to a YouTube series featuring Matt Silverman. Topics in the newsletter range from  to topical coverage such as the history of collect calling in the United States, to where the fear of poisoned Halloween candy comes from.Lewis is a lawyer and co-founder of ArmchairGM, which was purchased by Wikia. He was an early blogger and is currently the Senior Director of Digital Marketing at Sesame Workshop where he used to tweet for Big Bird and started most of Sesame Street's social media accounts. Lewis was also the Connecticut State Magic the Gathering Champion in 1997.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Trivial Pursuit is a  board game in which winning is determined by a player's ability to answer general knowledge and popular culture questions. Players move their pieces around a board, the squares they land on determining the subject of a question they are asked from a card (from six categories including \"history\" and \"science and nature\"). Each correct answer allows the player's turn to continue; a correct answer on one of the six \"category headquarters\" spaces earns a plastic wedge which is slotted into the answerer's playing piece. The object of the game is to collect all six wedges from each \"category headquarters\" space, and then return to the center \"hub\" space to answer a question in a category selected by the other players.\nSince the game's first release in 1981, numerous themed editions have been released. Some question sets have been designed for younger players, and others for a specific time period or as promotional tie-ins (such as Star Wars, Saturday Night Live, and The Lord of the Rings movies).", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Trivial Pursuit: Unhinged is a video game developed by Artech Studios and published by Atari Interactive based on the trivia board game of the same name. It was released in 2004 for the PlayStation 2, Xbox and Microsoft Windows.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Variety show, also known as variety arts or variety entertainment, is entertainment made up of a variety of acts including musical performances, sketch comedy, magic, acrobatics, juggling, and ventriloquism. It is normally introduced by a comp\u00e8re (master of ceremonies) or host. The variety format made its way from the Victorian era stage in Britain and America to radio and then television. Variety shows were a staple of English language television from the late 1940s into the 1980s.\nWhile still widespread in some parts of the world, such as in the United Kingdom with the Royal Variety Performance, and South Korea with Running Man, the proliferation of multichannel television and evolving viewer tastes have affected the popularity of variety shows in the United States. Despite this, their influence has still had a major effect on late night television whose late-night talk shows and NBC's variety series Saturday Night Live (which originally premiered in 1975) have remained popular fixtures of North American television.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "72 Floors of Mystery (Chinese: \u4e03\u5341\u4e8c\u5c42\u5947\u697c) is a 2017 Chinese adventure variety show on Hunan Television. The members of the cast are Kris Wu, Simon Yam, Leo Wu, Zhao Liying, Wowkie Zhang, Wang Xiaoli, Liu Chang, Waer. The team is tasked with solving mysteries that will aid in understanding the secret behind the 72-floor building. Each episode supposedly was a floor in the 72 story tower that the cast members solved.\nThe show premiered on May 5 via Hunan TV. It will air every Friday at 20:20 for 12 episodes.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The American Guild of Variety Artists (AGVA) is an American entertainment union representing performers in variety entertainment, including circuses, Las Vegas showrooms and cabarets, comedy showcases, dance revues, magic shows, theme park shows, and arena and auditorium extravaganzas. There is some overlap between the jurisdictions of AGVA and Actors' Equity.\n\nAGVA was the successor to the American Federation of Actors organized by actress and singer Sophie Tucker and others in the late 1930s, and affiliated with the American Federation of Labor. In 1939 the AFL dissolved the AFA due to financial irregularities, and issued a new charter to AGVA (although some members went to Equity instead).In 1963, then-AGVA president Joey Adams helped to finance and organize an August 5 variety show in Birmingham, Alabama, to raise funds for the August 28 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Sharing the stage with Martin Luther King Jr. were Ray Charles, Nina Simone, Joe Louis, Johnny Mathis, James Baldwin and The Shirelles.In 1958\u201359, the actress, singer and tap dancer Penny Singleton became the first woman elected president of an AFL-CIO union. She was active in supporting the 1967 strike of the AGVA-represented Rockettes against Radio City Music Hall), and was re-elected to the AGVA presidency in 1969. The most recent executive president was poet, songwriter, composer, and singer Rod McKuen, who held the post for 19 years until his death in 2015. As of the September 2021 vote count, the honorary president was Tommy Tune, the honorary vice-president was Barry Humphries, and the executive president was Judy Little.AGVA's offices are in New York and Los Angeles.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Benny Award is bestowed on a New Zealand variety entertainer. It is presented annually by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand, a non-for-profit organisation and showbusiness club, founded in 1966 and awarded to a variety performer who has achieved \"A lifetime of excellence in their field of the performing arts\".", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Chico Will Scold You! (\u30c1\u30b3\u3061\u3083\u3093\u306b\u53f1\u3089\u308c\u308b!, Chico chan ni shikarareru!) is a Japanese variety program that has been broadcast on NHK General Television since April 13, 2018. It has the 22nd (2019) Entertainment Division Grand Prize (Japan Media Arts Festival).", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Cine-variety is a form of entertainment with a mix of variety acts performing in between the showing of films all for the price of one admission fee. It was popular in the United Kingdom and Ireland between 1900 and the 1930s. Cine-variety was used to keep stage comedians in work during the early days of silent films and talking films.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Come and Toke It was a variety show hosted by Willie Nelson and livestreamed on April 20, 2020. In reference to 420 day, \"the unofficial weed holiday\", it was planned to be four hours and twenty minutes long (it was actually six hours), and started 4:20 P.M. in Texas. Some of the content was cannabis-themed. Some of the proceeds will be used to support The Last Prisoner Project, a restorative justice program relating to persons convicted of cannabis related crimes. It was Nelson's third livestreamed benefit concert since the U.S. coronavirus pandemic lockdowns started in March, after two that raised $700,000 for people who had suffered financial loss due to effects on the U.S. economy.The show booked music performers, entertainers, and other public figures including Kacey Musgraves, Matthew McConaughey, Jeff Bridges, Billy Ray Cyrus, Toby Keith, Tommy Chong, Ziggy Marley, Bill Maher, Aaron Lewis, Kevin Smith, Elle King, Nathaniel Rateliff, Shakey Graves, Angel Olsen, Lukas Nelson, Margo Price, Edie Brickell, Billy Joe Shaver, and Beto O'Rourke.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Louis Davids (born Simon David; December 19, 1883 \u2013 July 1, 1939), was a Dutch actor, singer, comedian and revue artist. He is widely considered one of the biggest names in Dutch performing arts.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Dick vs Dom is a live comedy entertainment stage show devised by Dick and Dom. The show was originally created for Butlins holiday resorts. They headlined the 2014, 2016, and 2020 seasons. (2020 was cut short due to COVID-19)\nOn 29 December 2016 it was announced via Dick and Dom's official Twitter account that Dick vs Dom would go on its first full UK tour in 2017. On 31 January 2017 the full details of the tour were announced via Dick and Dom's official Twitter account and the Dick and Dom official website, The tour began on 10 April 2017 and end on 29 October 2017 and ran for 22 shows.In 2018 they performed to sell-out audiences and received 5-star reviews at the Edinburgh Festival. They also won the BroadwayWorld Best family show award. The show was also performed as a 'late night' version for a Millennial audience which was also a sell-out.\n2019 saw the show headline the May half term at Eden Project in Cornwall. The show was such a success that queues formed and there were traffic jams in the St Austell area. In 2019 they also embarked on a tour with P&O Cruises.\nDick and Dom have taken the Festival version of the show to many family festivals including Camp Bestival, The Big Feastival, CarFest, The Great Wonderfest, Jimmy's Festival, Chalfest, Wychwood, Standon Calling, Hay Festival and BST in Hyde Park. At festivals, they either perform Dick vs Dom, host the main stage or DJ in the Silent Disco or on the main stage with their new spin-off show Dick vs Dom DJ Battle.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Excitante (also spelled Exitante) is an Argentine musical & theatre show that acted in the theatre of Mar del Plata and later Villa Carlos Paz. The show was presented and let by the creators Miguel \u00c1ngel Cherutti and Nito Artaza, and also led by vedette, Adabel Guerrero and singer Estela Raval. The show debuted in Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires on 2 December 2010, ending in September. The musical's third musical cycle debuted in Villa Carlos Paz, C\u00f3rdoba in December. It has recently finished its fourth and last cycle in the months of April and May, with the death of its lead woman, Raval, on 6 June 2012 in Buenos Aires.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Faceboyz Folliez is a variety show presented the first Sunday of each month at the Bowery Poetry Club  in New York City's Lower East Side. The show usually combines a variety of acts including readings by numerous published authors, burlesque performers, live music, underground movies and an audience participation segment. Produced and hosted by actor and performer Faceboy, which the show is named after, it features a core cast consisting of Rev. Jen Miller, Velocity Chyaldd, Stormy Leather, Amanda Whip and Paaje Flash. The event is notable as well for the original short films produced by ASS Studios, a production company Faceboy is directly affiliated with, which are all directed by underground filmmaker Courtney Fathom Sell.Inspired by the famed Folies Berg\u00e8re of Paris, the cast of Faceboyz Folliez present a show that is usually as daring as the Folies Berg\u00e8re was considered to be in its time. Past guests have included; Jonathan Ames, John S. Hall Joey Gay and Zoe Hansen.Regarding the show, Faceboy stated in an interview: \u201cFolliez is a variety show of the weird and wonderful, with an emphasis on bawdy humor\u2026 daring burlesque, live music, creepy films, great writers and crazy fun!\u201d", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "From Hand to Art (Chinese: \u4e00\u624b\u9020\u6210) is a Hong Kong lifestyle television program produced by Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB). It was created by TVB programme producer Liang Jian Heng \u6881\u5109\u6046) and Zhang Ying Shan (\u5f35\u7a4e\u73ca). The programme was first showed on 30 September 2012, and ended on 17 February 2013, on TVB Jade. It was broadcast on every Sunday at 7 pm, 30 minutes each. A total of 18 episodes were aired.\nFrom Hand to Art was themed on traditional handicrafts in Hong Kong. It was hosted by TVB artists Sarah Song, Amigo Choi and Leung Ka Ki. In each episode, two hosts visited and interviewed experts of traditional handicrafts such as Shanghai barber Tao and Gao, wooden puppet master Choi, and Qipao tailor Liu. While listening to the stories of old Hong Kong, the hosts learnt how to make the handicrafts.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A Gang Show is a theatrical performance by members of Scouts and Guides. The shows are produced with the dual aims of providing a learning opportunity for young people in the performing arts, as well as contributing to the artistic and cultural growth of their local community.\nGang Shows will have members of all ages involved, however the on-stage performers are often limited to current Youth Members (those being aged under 25 in most cases). A large amount of other areas will have members of all ages, including backstage, technical, administration, management and other areas.\nGang Shows are entirely volunteer run, and often feature a majority of work written by Scouting and Guiding members. This may be new work, or may be existing works adapted to suit the shows intended narrative.\nThe shows may be a simple affair in a local scout hall, but are often more involved and take place in a local theater. A season may only run for a single weekend, but performance seasons lasting one or two weeks are common. Tickets to these shows are often available to the public, and can be a useful tool to engage the local community in Scouting.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Hot Tub is a weekly variety show hosted by Kurt Braunohler and Kristen Schaal. The show features a mix of alternative comedy from unknown performers to more established comedians. In 2005, Hot Tub was voted \u201cBest Variety Show\u201d by Time-Out New York\u2019s reader poll and has quickly become one of L.A.\u2019s most popular live comedy events. During the first seven years the show saw considerable success at Littlefied's in Brooklyn, New York. In 2013, under the helm of The Super Serious Show producers CleftClips, Hot Tub relocated to the West Coast at The Virgil in Silver Lake, Los Angeles.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Korean variety shows are a form of television entertainment in South Korea. Variety shows were developed in 19th century Europe and the United States, and adapted from stage to television in the 20th century. In the late 20th and 21st centuries, variety shows decreased in popularity in Europe and the US. The variety show format was exported to Asia from Europe and the United States, and became popular in South Korea. Variety shows are currently a major part of television entertainment in South Korea. They are usually composed of various stunts, performances, skits, quizzes, comedy acts, etc. Popular celebrities and K-pop idols are also featured on Korean variety shows.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular is a Thanksgiving television special with American singer Lady Gaga and the Muppets. The 90-minute program aired on ABC on November 28, 2013, with guest stars Joseph Gordon-Levitt, Elton John and RuPaul and an appearance by Kristen Bell. It was the second Gaga Thanksgiving special on ABC, after A Very Gaga Thanksgiving in 2011. The singer had previously collaborated with the Muppets on media appearances and in her shows.\nThe special featured songs from Gaga's third studio album, Artpop, and duets with the guest stars. Critics gave the special mixed reviews, with some praising Gaga for being relatable in the show. Other reviewers were disappointed with its lack of production ideas, other than as a promotion for Artpop. It had lower ratings than other Thanksgiving specials, with a total of 3.62 million viewers and a 0.9 rating in the adult age 18\u201349 demographic.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A late-night talk show is a genre of talk show popular in the United States, where the format originated. It is generally structured around humorous monologues about the day's news, guest interviews, comedy sketches and music performances. It is characterized by spontaneous conversation, and for an effect of immediacy and intimacy as if the host was speaking alone to each of the millions of audience members. Late-night talk shows are also fundamentally shaped by the personality of the host, which constitutes the \"trademark\" of the show.The late-night talk show format was popularized by Johnny Carson and sidekick Ed McMahon with The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson on NBC. Typically the show's host conducts interviews from behind a desk, while the guest is seated on a couch. Many late night talk shows feature a house band which generally performs cover songs for the studio audience during commercial breaks and occasionally will back up a guest artist.\nLate-night talk shows are a popular format in the United States, but are not as prominent in other parts of the world. Shows that loosely resemble the format air in other countries, but generally air weekly as opposed to the nightly airings of those in the United States. They also generally air in time slots considered to be prime time in the United States.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Live from Here, formerly known as A Prairie Home Companion with Chris Thile, is an American variety radio show known for its musical guests, tongue-in-cheek radio drama, and relaxed humor.  Hosted by Chris Thile, it aired live on Saturday evenings. The show's initial home was the Fitzgerald Theater in St. Paul, Minnesota. In 2019, the show moved to The Town Hall in New York City, where it remained until its cancellation the next year.The show was derived from the historic A Prairie Home Companion with Garrison Keillor (APHC) radio show.  The original host, Garrison Keillor, performed his final show on July 2, 2016, and Thile's program began on October 15, 2016. Thile, an American virtuoso mandolinist and singer-songwriter, had a two-decade history with APHC and is known for his work in the folk and progressive bluegrass groups Nickel Creek and Punch Brothers. After Thile made two unprecedented guest host appearances in 2015, Keillor decided on his successor; featured Thile as host again in January\u2013February 2016; and fully ceded his hosting role to Thile in the October 2016 performance at the Fitzgerald Theater in St. Paul, Minnesota, continuing as the show's Executive Producer. Thile's new program presented expanded musical and comedic elements, retaining the template of the earlier program (e.g., its then-present acting and sound effect cast, and \"sponsorships\" from fictitious companies), but without such features as its earlier signatures \"Lives of the Cowboys\" and \"Guy Noir, Private Eye\" series, and \"News from Lake Wobegon\" monologue.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Magic Circus Show was an entertainment show organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Radio T\u00e9l\u00e9vision Suisse (RTS), which took place in 2010, 2011 and 2012. Children aged between seven and fourteen representing eight countries within the EBU membership area, performed a variety of circus acts at the Geneva Christmas Circus (French: Cirque de No\u00ebl Gen\u00e8ve). The main show was also accompanied by the Magic Circus Show Orchestra.The programme was recorded at the end of November each year in the tent of Circus Pajazzo in Ch\u00eane-Bougeries, a town just outside Geneva in Switzerland.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Medicine shows were touring acts (traveling by truck, horse, or wagon teams) that peddled \"miracle cure\" patent medicines and other products between various entertainments. They developed from European mountebank shows and were common in the United States in the nineteenth century, especially in the Old West (though some continued until World War II). They usually promoted \"miracle elixirs\" (sometimes referred to as snake oil), which, it was claimed, had the ability to cure disease, smooth wrinkles, remove stains, prolong life or cure any number of common ailments. Most shows had their own patent medicine (these medicines were for the most part unpatented but took the name to sound official). Entertainments often included a freak show, a flea circus, musical acts, magic tricks, jokes, or storytelling. Each show was run by a man posing as a doctor who drew the crowd with a monologue. The entertainers, such as acrobats, musclemen, magicians, dancers, ventriloquists, exotic performers, and trick shots, kept the audience engaged until the salesman sold his medicine.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Mercury Wonder Show for Service Men was a 1943 magic-and-variety stage show by the Mercury Theatre, produced by Orson Welles and Joseph Cotten as a morale-boosting entertainment for US soldiers in World War II. Directed by Welles, the show starred Welles (\"Orson the Magnificent\"), Cotten (\"Jo-Jo the Great\"), Agnes Moorehead (\"Calliope Aggie\") and Rita Hayworth, whose part was later filled by Marlene Dietrich. Jean Gabin also worked on the show backstage, as a propman. The show ran to 150 minutes.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "MTV What the Hack! is a TV show that airs on MTV India. The first season of the show premiered on MTV India on 18 October 2009 and concluded on 7 February 2010. The show talks about interesting things that people can do with computers, the Internet, and technology. It is hosted by Ankit Fadia and VJ Jose, and airs on Saturdays at 8:20 PM.  According to the MTV India website, MTV has got Ankit Fadia to give viewers everything from tips, tricks to cheat codes that will help make peoples life on the World Wide Web a whole lot simpler. Internet users email their problems to MTV India and Ankit gives them the solution.\nWhen MTV India dropped Music Television from its name and logo, this show was one of the new shows that was introduced and was positioned as a web show that aired on television and also on the MTV India website. This 10 minute show is entirely shot at the MTV studio in Mumbai and most of the show is unscripted improvisation. In an interview with Rediff.com, the show creators share that What The Hack! is not a show about hacking or security, but about things you can do with technology. It is humorous and light-hearted, and is neither too technical nor too basic.All episodes of MTV What the Hack! can be watched on the MTV India Videos Page or on the official web page of the show or on YouTube.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Paris by Night (commonly abbreviated as PBN) is a direct-to-video series featuring Vietnamese-language musical variety shows produced by Th\u00fay Nga Productions. Hosted mainly by Nguy\u1ec5n Ng\u1ecdc Ng\u1ea1n and Nguy\u1ec5n Cao K\u1ef3 Duy\u00ean, the series includes musical performances by modern pop stars, traditional folk songs, one-act plays, and sketch comedy.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "In the Philippines, variety television shows have become mainstays of the noontime slot for network programming since 1958. The first Philippines noontime variety television shows were influenced by the popularity of bodabil (vaudeville) in the first half of the 20th century. Since then, the format has evolved with the changing times, with elements of reality television also incorporated as well since the 2000s.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "A Prairie Home Companion is a weekly radio variety show created and hosted by Garrison Keillor that aired live from 1974 to 2016. In 2016, musician Chris Thile took over as host, and the successor show was eventually renamed Live from Here and ran until 2020. A Prairie Home Companion aired on Saturdays from the Fitzgerald Theater in Saint Paul, Minnesota; it was also frequently heard on tours to New York City and other U.S. cities. The show is known for its musical guests, especially folk and traditional musicians, tongue-in-cheek radio drama, and relaxed humor. Keillor's wry storytelling segment, \"News from Lake Wobegon,\" was the show's best-known feature during his long tenure.\nDistributed by Minnesota Public Radio's distribution arm, American Public Media, A Prairie Home Companion was heard on 690 public radio stations in the United States at its peak in spring 2015 and reached an audience of four million U.S. listeners each week. The show borrowed its name from a radio program in existence in 1969 that was named after the Prairie Home Cemetery near Concordia College, in Moorhead, Minnesota. It inspired a 2006 film of the same name, written by and featuring Keillor.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Programa Silvio Santos is a Brazilian variety program presented and created by Silvio Santos and  broadcast by Sistema Brasileiro de Televis\u00e3o (SBT). Airing since June 2, 1963, it is the second oldest television program in Brazil. It is the main attraction of SBT on Sundays. The program airs from 20:00 until midnight.  It is best known as a program of sequential segments, game shows, pranks and its famous airplanes of money.In 1993, the program was even awarded the title of \"Oldest Program of the Brazilian TV\" by Guinness World Records, shortly after losing the title to the Mosaico na TV, broadcast since July 16, 1961.In 2015, the program's 'C\u00e2mera Escondida' segment with a clown pieing shoppers at a shopping mall escalator went viral internationally, particularly through Twitter. This led many online to question its legitimacy as to whether the show used paid actors, or random members of the public. Contestant Lucas Nogueira confirmed that the various actors were paid to walk around the mall for a comedy show, and told that something would happen to them, but were not told what. Nogueira also confirmed that the actors were provided transport and food in addition to their fee.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "RuPaul's Drag Race Live! is an American residency show in Las Vegas, Nevada featuring past competitors from the television show RuPaul's Drag Race. The variety show features a mix of original music, lip syncs, comedy, and dance numbers directed by RuPaul and choreographed by Drag Race resident choreographer Jamal Sims. It is produced by World of Wonder and Voss Events and performs five nights a week. Performed at the Flamingo Las Vegas, which formerly housed the eleven-year run of the Donny and Marie Osmond show, the show premiered on January 26, 2020 and ran until March 15, 2020 when the COVID-19 pandemic put performances on hold. Performances are currently set to start up again on August 5, 2021 and run until December 31, 2021. Performances resumed in 2022 with a new rotating cast featuring newcomers Jaida Essence Hall, Eureka O'Hara, Trinity K. Bonet, and Plastique Tiara and swing cast members Coco Montrese, Kahanna Montrese, and Alexis Mateo.\nRuPaul's Drag Race Live! was originally announced in September 2019 at RuPaul's DragCon NYC.  The live show features a rotating cast of fourteen performers, all Drag Race alumni. These queens are Yvie Oddly, Aquaria, Asia O'Hara, Coco Montrese, Derrick Barry, Eureka O'Hara, India Ferrah, Kahanna Montrese, Kameron Michaels, Kim Chi, Naomi Smalls, Vanessa Vanjie Mateo, and Shannel.  The show's Pit Crew all double as dancers in the queens' numbers. Crew members include AJ Watkins, Dallas Eli, Filip Lacina, Michael Silas, Nick Lemer, and Sebastian Gonzalez and Ryan Grainger as the assistant choreographer and dance captain.In January 2022, a new roster of rotating queens was announced, featuring newcomers Jaida Essence Hall, Eureka O'Hara, Trinity K. Bonet, and Plastique Tiara.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "In Italian theatrical culture, the term sciantosa (pronounced [\u0283an\u02c8to\u02d0sa; -o\u02d0za]; pl. sciantose) refers to a stock character that developed from the late 19th Century through the early 20th Century in such popular genres such as caf\u00e9-concert, variety show, avanspettacolo, and revue. The term is a distortion of the French word chanteuse (feminine form of \"singer\"), and was originally used for female singers that performed opera or operetta arias in caf\u00e9-chantant venues.  As such, the \"sciantosa\" was a sort of scaled-down version of the opera \"diva\".  Later on, the term acquired further implications, most notably that of femme fatale.  Popular sciantose often had (or pretended to have) mysterious and exotic traits, such as a foreign accent, a turbulent past, or romantic affairs with lovers from the jet set.  To emphasize their reputation of divas, prominent sciantose hired a claque to follow their shows.\nSome of the most well known sciantose were Anna Fougez, Gilda Mignonette, Olimpia D'Avigny, and Yvonne De Fleuriel. \nWith the advent of cinema and television, many forms of popular theatrical shows faded, and so did the \"sciantosa\" archetype, whose traits were partially transferred to new roles such as the soubrette or the showgirl.\nThe 1971 film La Sciantosa, by director Alfredo Giannetti, portrays a typical sciantosa (played by Anna Magnani).", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Scot Nery's Boobie Trap is a long-running weekly live performance variety arts show in Hollywood, California. Performances are every Wednesday, featuring an average of 15 acts each week, with much adult content. Performers include musicians, ventriloquists, comedians, knife throwers, dancers, Magic Castle magicians, jugglers, acrobats and contortionists, circus acts, and other variety entertainers. Nery founded the show in 2015, and it is co-produced by Meranda Carter.Called \"a comedic whirlwind\" by the Los Angeles Times, Boobie Trap was named Best Variety Arts Show in Los Angeles by Los Angeles Magazine, as well as Outstanding Variety Show by San Diego Fringe and has been named the #1 Hollywood show on TripAdvisor.Boobie Trap has attracted celebrities among the audience, such as Emma Thompson, Mark Wahlberg, and Steve-O.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Smoky Mountain Opry Theater (formerly known as The Miracle Theater and Louise Mandrell Theater) is a theater established in 1997.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Society of M.I.C.E. is a charitable organisation based in Kingston upon Hull. It was founded in 1961, by a group of dedicated entertainers working on an idea proposed by Al Gillyon. The society is modelled on the Grand Order of Water Rats. Its membership is exclusively of men, although the members wives, partners and friends often help out in varying capacities. MICE is an acronym for \"Men in Charitable Endeavour\".", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Star-Spangled Women for McGovern\u2013Shriver (styled as Star-Spangled Women for McGovern\u2605Shriver) was a political variety show held on October 27, 1972, produced by Shirley MacLaine and Sid Bernstein as a late-campaign push to help the 1972 presidential campaign of George McGovern, running as the peace candidate. Also known as Star-Spangled Women for McGovern and simply Star-Spangled Women, the concert drew a near-capacity crowd at Madison Square Garden in New York City. With a dozen singing, dancing and spoken-word performances, rock journalist Lillian Roxon described the show as \"one thunderbolt after another.\"Bernstein reported that the event provided the McGovern campaign with $180,000 (equivalent to $1,166,062 in 2021). However, McGovern was not significantly helped by the concert; one week later he was defeated in a landslide by incumbent President Richard Nixon.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Super\u2013Vocal (Chinese: \u58f0\u5165\u4eba\u5fc3; pinyin: Sh\u0113ng r\u00f9 r\u00e9nx\u012bn) is a Chinese reality television created and produced by Hunan TV and iQiyi. It is a singing competition focused on classically trained singers, singing both operatic and musical pieces. It features 36 male singers, with six winners after a total of 100 days of training and filming. \"Super-Vocal\" Season 1 premiered on November 2, 2018, while Season 2 premiered on July 19, 2019.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Time Crisis (referred to as Time Crisis with Ezra Koenig) is a fortnightly internet radio show hosted by Ezra Koenig and Jake Longstreth. The show began airing on July 12, 2015 on Apple Music's radio service, Beats 1. The show covers a variety of topics, such as politics, corporate food history, 1970s rock music, city living, as well as frequently analyzing the latest in contemporary pop music by contrasting it with music released in another era. In addition to Koenig, a variety of guest hosts have appeared over the show's history, including Jonah Hill, Rashida Jones and Jamie Foxx. Since 2017, Koenig is accompanied by co-host, Jake Longstreth, who regularly proclaims his love for the \"tasteful palette\" of early 70s classic rock, plus music from the Grateful Dead, Ween and Guided by Voices.The show typically airs every two weeks. In March 2020, due to the increased number remote workers due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Time Crisis began airing on a weekly basis. In total, 168 episodes aired and the show is in its seventh season.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Trepany House is a 501(c)3 Arts Organization founded by Amit Itelman in 2012.\nFrom its inception, it has been housed at the Steve Allen Theater within the Center for Inquiry, Los Angeles property. \n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Kimball Allen (born February 22, 1982) is an American writer, journalist, playwright, and actor. He is the author of two autobiographical one-man plays: Secrets of a Gay Mormon Felon (2012) and Be Happy Be Mormon (2014). The latter premiered at Theatre Row in Manhattan on September 24 and 27, 2014, as part of the United Solo Theatre Festival. From 2015\u20132017 he hosted the recurring Triple Threat w/ Kimball Allen, a 90-minute variety talk show at The Triple Door in Seattle.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Variety Artists Club of New Zealand Inc (VAC) is a non-for-profit organisation and show business club.  It was founded in 1966 and became an incorporated society in 1972.  The VAC was formed to promote goodwill within the New Zealand entertainment industry and foster a spirit of loyalty, friendship and cooperation between members.  Each year the VAC presents a number of New Zealand entertainment awards including the prestigious Benny Award.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Variety, the Children's Charity is a charitable organization founded in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1927.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Vaudeville in the Philippines, more commonly referred to as bodabil, was a popular genre of entertainment in the Philippines from the 1910s until the mid-1960s. For decades, it competed with film, radio and television as the dominant form of Filipino mass entertainment. It peaked in popularity during the Japanese occupation in the Philippines from 1941 to 1945. Many of the leading figures of Philippine film in the 20th century, such as Dolphy, Nora Aunor, Leopoldo Salcedo and Rogelio de la Rosa, began their showbusiness careers in bodabil.\nBodabil is an indigenized form of  vaudeville, introduced in the Philippines around the turn of the 20th century. It featured a hodgepodge of musical numbers, short-form comedy and dramatic skits, and even magic acts, often staged inside the theaters of Manila. Bodabil proved the vehicle for the popularization of musical trends and musicians, performance genres and performers.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Vinyl Cafe is an hour-long radio variety show hosted by Stuart McLean that was broadcast on CBC Radio and was syndicated to approximately 80 U.S. public radio stations through Public Radio International. It aired on Sunday at noon EST and Tuesday at 11:00 pm EST on CBC Radio One and Saturday at 9 am EST on CBC Radio 2. The program is also available as a podcast, although the podcasts are usually just McLean's stories for studio episodes because of copyright restrictions on recorded music. CBC Radio also formerly aired a separate weekday afternoon program, under the title Vinyl Cafe Stories, which consisted of two previously recorded Dave and Morley stories per episode.\nThe show was produced independently by McLean and sold to the CBC. Each season had approximately 22 new episodes. Half of those were recorded in the studio and the other half were done with live audiences in theatres across Canada and the United States. One episode was recorded onboard VIA Rail's transcontinental passenger train The Canadian from the dome observation car, complete with an audience of passengers and featured a rail travel theme. The musical guest was singer songwriter Reid Jamieson.\nThe Vinyl Cafe stopped touring and producing new episodes following McLean's diagnosis with melanoma in November 2015. McLean announced on December 13, 2016, that he required a second round of treatment, meaning further delay in producing new episodes, and that repeats of past shows would stop airing on CBC Radio One effective January 2017 to \"make room for others to share their work on the radio.\" McLean died on February 15, 2017.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "w00tstock is a touring variety show billed as \"3 Hours of Geeks & Music\". It was created in 2009 by Wil Wheaton, Adam Savage and Paul and Storm. The first shows took place in 2009 in San Francisco and Los Angeles, and as of July 2015, a total of 20 shows had been presented.\nThe name is a play on words combining Woodstock, the notable 1969 counterculture music festival, and w00t, an Internet slang word that expresses excitement.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Whoop Dee Doo is a kid-friendly variety show featuring live performances and active audience participation. The show originated in Kansas City, Missouri and is known for its collaborations with local artists, performance groups, and youth organizations. Whoop Dee Doo also travels and has worked with arts organizations such as the Bemis Center for Contemporary Arts in Omaha, Nebraska, Deitch Projects in New York, NY, Loyal Gallery in Malmo, Sweden, the Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art In Kansas City, MO, The Smart Museum of Art at the University of Chicago, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Art in Philadelphia, PA, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA) in San Francisco, and High Line in New York, NY.Whoop Dee Doo began in 2006 and has taken various forms until the organization began to travel and gained non-profit status as a 501(c)(3) community arts organization.\nWhoop Dee Doo produces and hosts free, live shows. The sets for each show are designed and fabricated throughout workshops with contemporary artists and youth groups such as Operation Breakthrough and the Boys and Girls Club, and local performance groups, most often folkloric groups.\nWhoop Dee Doo has received a Franklin Furnace Grant, an Abrons Arts Center Fellowship, and was an artist-in-residence at the High Line, NYC, and Artists Alliance, NYC.Whoop Dee Doo has created educational programming with MoMA, Art21, Museum of Arts & Design, Fondation Phi pour l\u2019art contemporain, Contemporary Museum Baltimore and Abrons Art Center among many others. Whoop Dee Doo is a featured artist project in ART:21's documentary series New York Close Up and had a feature in Art in America written by Lorelie Ramirez discussing Whoop Dee Doo's community engagement \n\"Recognizing your privilege, let alone using it to support other communities, is rare, especially in the art world. To do that honestly and put everything you have toward creating a memorable time for kids takes love, patience, and the awareness that creative pursuits are not equally available to everyone. Whoop Dee Doo does this work without including people for the sake of diversity but rather building environments where creativity and connection can prosper.\"", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Withrow Minstrels was a musical variety show that ran for 35 years at Withrow High School in Cincinnati, Ohio. It was known as \"The Minstrels\". Two hundred performances were staged between 1931 and 1965.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Woody Allen Looks at 1967 is a television special that premiered on NBC on December 27, 1967, starring stand-up comedian Woody Allen. Allen hosted the show produced by Kraft Music Hall, in which he opens with a standup monologue and acts in a series of comedy skits alongside Liza Minnelli. He also has a conversation with guest and public intellectual and noted conservative William F. Buckley Jr. as they talk about the year 1967 and make jokes at each other's expense. Motown singer Aretha Franklin serves as the musical guest.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Woody Allen Special is a television special that premiered on CBS on September 21, 1969, starring stand-up comedian Woody Allen. Allen hosted and wrote the television special show in which he opens with a standup monologue and acts in a series of comedy skits alongside actress Candice Bergen. He also has a conversation with guest and southern Baptist preacher The Reverend Billy Graham as they talk about religion, faith, and each other. The musical group The 5th Dimension serves as the musical guest.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Writers Guild of America Award for Television: Comedy/Variety Talk Series is an award presented by the Writers Guild of America to the best writing in a comedy or variety talk program. With the exception of 1998 in which no award was given, it has been presented annually since the 49th Writers Guild of America Awards in 1997 where Late Night with Conan O'Brien won the first award. From the award's creation, the category was dominated by Late Night with Conan O'Brien, winning six of the first nine awards. Recently, Last Week Tonight with John Oliver has won the award the last four years in a row, and five times in the last six years.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Entertainment Express is a Nigerian newspaper founded in July 2011 by journalism masters, Mike Awoyinfa and late Pastor Dimgba Igwe, centered on movies, music, and sports. Among the pioneer staff were Azuh Amatus (Editor), Femi Salawu, Ameh Comrade Godwin. The paper folded up and migrated online in 2014 following the death of Pastor.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Studio Briefing is an entertainment industry newsletter edited and published by Lew Irwin. Studio Briefing began \"as a fax-only subscription service in 1992, [and] went online the following year\". It had previously been syndicated through the Newshare corp.  Studio Briefing also runs a blog at StudioBriefing.net.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "In the American vaudeville and British music hall traditions, the bill matter was the identifying phrase used in advertising material to describe and summarize the appeal and attributes of each performer or group of performers. Each was considered as a trademark, not to be used by other performers.  Examples in Britain included George Robey, \"The Prime Minister of Mirth\"; G. H. Elliott, \"The Chocolate Coloured Coon\"; Max Miller, \"The Cheeky Chappie\"; and Billy Bennett, \"Almost a Gentleman\".According to writer Michael Kilgarriff: \"The heydays for these showbiz strap-lines were the inter-war years, for prior to 1914 performers saw little need for a personalised slogan, contenting themselves with such bald descriptions as 'Singer', 'Comedian', or 'Dancer'\".  By the 1950s, the use of bill matter was seen as old-fashioned.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Bow Street Academy for Screen Acting (known simply as Bow Street) previously known as The Factory, Bow Street, is a film and television acting academy in Dublin, Ireland.\nIt has facilities in Bow Street, Smithfield, having moved from premises in the docklands in 2015. It runs full and part-time courses as well as a Young Screen actors course.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Circus Kaput is an intimate theatrical circus and entertainment company based in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, it began as show that benefitted non-profit social causes. It was started by Josh Routh in 2003. Circus Kaput performances have different type of acts: street performance, classic circus, dance, and comedy. Acts include: contortionists, jugglers, clowns, and aerialists. Circus Kaput has been featured on NBC, American Broadcasting Company and Fox affiliate television stations. In 2004 they were the featured performers for Major League Baseball's official World Series Gala for the players of the Boston Red Sox and the St. Louis Cardinals.\nBut Circus Kaput, also does small show for fairs, festivals, college shows, corporate events, company events, church picnics, birthdays, weddings, bar/bat mitzvahs and alike. Circus Kaput has traveled and tours in the US and abroad. Circus Kaput has a rehearsal space in Chesterfield Mall.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Cirque Rocks was a charity circus held in Auckland, [New Zealand]] event that was organised by the Dean Lonergan Events organisation and sponsored by McDonald's restaurants. The event was held August 23\u201326, 2006 with 215 performers. The event was held in the Trusts Stadium in Waitakere.It featured over 80 circus acts and X-Games performers, choreographed to a 60-piece orchestra. The theme of the night being the history of Rock 'n Roll. The festivities began to a backdrop of early Rock 'n Roll hits and through the night progressed into today's modern rock.The event was held live at the Trusts Stadium  in Auckland on August 23, 2006 and broadcast a couple of days later on local network TV3 on Saturday, 26 August 2006.The charities that this event raised money for were:\n\nRonald McDonald House\nYellow Ribbon (Prevention of Youth Suicide)\nChild Cancer Foundation", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The cloud swing is an aerial act that usually combines static and swinging trapeze skills, drops, holds and rebound lifts.\nThe apparatus itself is a soft rope about 25-30mm thick. It can be made from a single rope, or from a cotton-filled sheath. On its simplest level the cloud swing resembles a Spanish web in length and width, with each end braided and spliced-lashed with a thimble, forming a loop. Two high-caliber swivels are required to support the weight; the swivels are anchored to a crane bar or a stationary rig, with the swing itself hanging in a \"V\" shape. Generally, the motion provided to swing the performer is supplied by an assistant pulling on a tether at the bottom of the \"V\".\nThe cloud swing is a relatively new apparatus, and many of the figures performed on it are borrowed or adapted from static and swinging trapeze.\nThe \"Mexican cloud swing\" or corde volante is performed at higher altitude.\nA cloud swing act was featured in the Cirque du Soleil touring production Quidam.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Giffords Circus is a traditional English circus that tours the Cotswolds every summer.  As of 2022 it is also performing at Chiswick House.Established in 2000, Giffords Circus is a small circus company, founded by Nell and Toti Gifford, that tours market towns of the Southwest. When not on the road, the founders concentrated on landscape architecture. \nNell Gifford was the sister of designer Emma Bridgewater and journalist Clover Stroud. She died on 8 December 2019, aged 46, from cancer. The circus is now managed by her niece Lil Rice. and has been directed for the last 11 years by Cal McCrystal.Performers come from many different countries, but one regular is Tweedy the Clown.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Gunpowder & Sky is a media production and distribution company based in the United States. It makes documentaries and fictional programming aimed at millennials.It was founded in January 2016 by Van Toffler, together with Floris Bauer and Otter Media, an American digital media company owned by Warner Bros. Discovery.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Nathans Circus, also known as Welch & Nathans' Circus was a series of circuses operated by the Nathans family in the 1850s. His acts included the Colonel Routh Goshen and Marie Macarte.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The perch is an equilibristic balancing act where one performer balances atop a pole that is being balanced by another performer. Each perch pole has a loop at the top into which the performer may insert either a hand or a foot in order to perform a variety of tricks while hanging down from the loop. During the whole routine, the base at the bottom must balance the pole as the flier shifts their weight from one position to another, climbs up and down, and balances at the top.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The rolling globe or walking globe is a circus skill in which a performer balances atop a large sphere. Various gymnastic or juggling stunts may be performed while the performer moves and controls the position of the ball with their feet and/or hands.\n\n", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Roman ladders are an equilibristic circus skill where four or more people perform acrobatics on specially made ladders. The performers in the middle push the ladders out, while the performers on the outside of the ladders perform various poses and tricks.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Sneezing powder is a group of powders or powder-like substances that induce sneezing when someone is exposed to them. This is usually done as a practical joke or prank to an unsuspecting victim.\nSneezing powders containing Veratrum album alkaloids have been linked to poisoning, including upset stomach, fainting, slowed heart rate and low blood pressure. Children are especially vulnerable.An example of a sternutatory (sneeze-inducing) agent is helenalin (the acetate is called angustibalin). The plant containing this chamissonolide is actually eponymously called sneezeweed.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The Stakes is a podcast hosted by Kai Wright and produced by WNYC Studios.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "Witching Waves is an historical flat ride that was installed at several amusement parks worldwide. The first was at Luna Park on Coney Island, New York, United States, in 1907, where it was one of the most popular rides. \nIt was invented by Theophilus Van Kannel, who also invented the revolving door. It consisted of a large oval course with a flexible metal floor. There were hidden reciprocating levers that produced a wave-like motion. The floor itself did not move but the moving wave propelled small scooter-style cars with two seats, which could be steered by the riders.\nIn 1910, it was installed on the Bowery in Manhattan, New York City.It was installed at other amusement park locations, including Blackpool in England, London\u2019s Imperial National Exhibition in 1909, Euclid Beach Park in Cleveland, Paragon Park in Massachusetts, Saturno Park in Barcelona, Rockaway Beach, and Palisades Park in New Jersey.\nDuring the 1930s, the English poet John Betjeman described St Giles' Fair in Oxford as follows:\n\nIt is about the biggest fair in England. The whole of St Giles' \u2026 is thick with freak shows, roundabouts, cake-walks, the whip, and the witching waves.\n\nThe ride can be seen in use at Luna Park in the silent movies Coney Island with Roscoe Arbuckle and Buster Keaton from 1917 and Speedy with Harold Lloyd from 1928.\nAccidents sometimes occurred on the ride.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "The World's Largest Rubber Duck, sometimes called Mama Duck, is a 60-foot-tall, 15.5-ton inflatable duck.The rubber duck, better known as the #Kindness Duck, is part of a larger Kindness Duck Project. Founded by Mark Burrows, the projects aims to simply spread kindness. When the Kindness Duck visits a city, numerous things come along with it, including Food Truck Row, Vendor Alley, Charity Lane, Drink Stations, Tarrant Health Vaccine Clinic, an open playground area, commercial vendors, a Kids zone, and a Nanda Yoga/training area.", "label": "Entertainment"}, {"sentence": "MDRC is a nonprofit, nonpartisan education and social policy research organization based in New York City; Washington, DC; and Oakland and Los Angeles, California.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Movie production incentives are tax benefits offered on a state-by-state basis throughout the United States to encourage in-state film production. Since the 1990s, states have offered increasingly competitive incentives to lure productions away from other states. The structure, type, and size of the incentives vary from state to state. Many include tax credits and exemptions, and other incentive packages include cash grants, fee-free locations, or other perks. \nProponents of these programs point to increased economic activity and job creation as justification for the credits. Others argue that the cost of the incentives outweighs the benefits and say that the money goes primarily to out-of-state talent rather than in-state cast and crew members.\nStudies show that tax incentives for movie productions have low overall economic effects, with low rates of return for states that offer the incentives.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Multistakeholder governance is a practice of governance that employs bringing multiple stakeholders together to participate in dialogue, decision making, and implementation of responses to jointly perceived problems. The principle behind such a structure is that if enough input is provided by multiple types of actors involved in a question, the eventual consensual decision gains more legitimacy, and can be more effectively implemented than a traditional state-based response. While the evolution of multistakeholder governance is occurring principally at the international level, public-private partnerships (PPPs) are domestic analogues.\nStakeholders refer to a collection of actors from different social, political, economic spheres working intentionally together to govern a physical, social, economic, or policy area. The range of actors can include multinational corporations, national enterprises, governments, civil society bodies, academic experts, community leaders, religious figures, media personalities and other institutional groups.\nAt a minimum a multistakeholder group must have two or more actors from different social, political, or economic groups. If not, then the group is a trade association (all business groups), a multilateral body (all governments), a professional body (all scholars), etc. Almost all multistakeholder bodies have at least one multinational corporation or business-affiliated body and at least one civil society organization or alliance of civil society organizations as key members.\nAlternative terminologies for multistakeholder governance include multi-stakeholder initiatives(MSIs),  Multi-StakeHolder (MSH), multi-stakeholder processes (MSPs), public-private partnerships (PPPs), transnational multistakeholder Partnerships (transnational MSPs), informal governance arrangements, and non-state regulation.\nThe key term 'multistakeholder' (or 'multistakeholderism') is increasingly spelled without a hyphen to maintain consistency with its predecessor 'multilateralism' and to associate this new form of governance with one of the key actors involved that is also generally spelled without a hyphen; 'multinationals'. 'Multistakeholderism' is similarly used in parallel to bilateralism and regionalism.\nAs an evolving global governance form, only a limited number of organizations and institutions are involved in multistakeholderism. In a number of arenas, opposing forces are actively challenging the legitimacy, accountability, and effectiveness of these experimental changes in global governance.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A needle and syringe programme (NSP), also known as needle exchange program (NEP), is a social service that allows injecting drug users (IDUs) to obtain clean and unused hypodermic needles and associated paraphernalia at little or no cost. It is based on the philosophy of harm reduction that attempts  to reduce the risk factors for blood-borne diseases such as HIV/AIDS and hepatitis.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "One Billion Americans: The Case for Thinking Bigger is a book by Matthew Yglesias, first published in 2020. One Billion Americans argues that America is not over-crowded and could have one billion citizens, and still have less than half the population density that Germany has today. Additionally, it makes the case that America is justified for wanting to stay relevant into the far distant future, and that in order to do so, it will need to be populated like China and India. In order to support growth, Yglesias argues for a variety of programs, including increased government spending on child care and day care, the use of S-trains for urban transportation, and increased immigration to the United States, under the general rubric of increasing the American population. It suggests that a substantial increase to the population of the United States is necessary to perpetuate American hegemony. The book gives special attention to housing policy, critiquing zoning requirements that limit urban density in American cities.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In public policy, outrage factor is public opposition to a policy that is not based on the knowledge of the technical details. The term \"outrage factor\" originates from Peter Sandman's 1993 book, Responding to Community Outrage: Strategies for Effective Risk Communication.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Perpetual war, endless war, or a forever war, is a lasting state of war with no clear conditions that would lead to its conclusion. These wars are situations of ongoing tension that may escalate at any moment, similar to the Cold War. From the late 20th century, the concepts have been used to critique the United States Armed Forces interventions in foreign nations and the military\u2013industrial complex, or wars with ambiguous enemies such as the war on terror or war on drugs.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Policy Design for Democracy is a 1997 book by political scientists Anne Schneider and Helen Ingram that describes the process of public policy formation in democratic states, with particular emphasis on the United States.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Policy experimentation points to political-administrative procedures and initiatives that allow to discover or test novel instruments of problem-solving and thereby propel broader-based policy innovation or institutional adaptation in a given polity, economy or society.As compared to centralized legislation or national regulation, one of the major advantages of decentralized policy experimentation is seen in allowing spatially, sectorally or temporally limited policy trials that reduce the risks and costs of introducing major reform schemes to the national polity, economy and society. A major deficit of policy experimentation is seen in promoting policy heterogeneity, legal fragmentation and jurisdictional disparities.\nThe term has come to renewed prominence in the discussion about the political processes behind China's economic rise since the beginning of Chinese economic reform policies in 1978.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Policy laundering is the disguising of the origins of political decisions, laws, or international treaties. The term is based on the similar money laundering.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Policy network analysis is a field of research in political science focusing on the links and interdependence between government's sections and other societal actors, aiming to understand the policy-making process and public policy outcomes.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Policy Studies Organization (PSO) is an academic organization whose purpose is to advance the study of policy analysis by publishing academic journals, books, sponsoring conferences and producing programs.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Private market assets refer to investments in equity (shares) and debt issued by privately owned (non listed) companies \u2013 as opposed to \u2018public\u2019 (listed) corporations. These markets include private equity (PE) and venture capital (VC); real estate (property); infrastructure; farmland and forestry.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Public consultation (Commonwealth countries and European Union), public comment (US),  or simply consultation, is a regulatory process by which the public's input on matters affecting them is sought. Its main goals are in improving the efficiency, transparency and public involvement in large-scale projects or laws and policies. It usually involves notification (to publicise the matter to be consulted on), consultation (a two-way flow of information and opinion exchange) as well as participation (involving interest groups in the drafting of policy or legislation). A frequently used tool for understanding different levels of community participation in consultation is known as Arnstein's ladder, although some academics contest that Arnstein's ladder is contextually specific and was not intended to be a universal tool. Ineffective consultations are considered to be cosmetic consultations that were done due to obligation or show and not true participatory decision making.\nPublic comment (or \"vox populi\") is a public meeting of government bodies which set aside time for public comments, usually upon documents. Such documents may either be reports such as Draft Environmental Impact Reports (DEIR's) or new regulations. There is typically a notice which is posted on the web and mailed to lists of interested parties known to the government agencies. If there is to be a change of regulations, there will be a formal notice of proposed rulemaking.\nThe basis for public comment is found in general political theory of constitutional democracy as originated during and after the Enlightenment, particularly by Rousseau. This basis was elaborated in the American Revolution, and various thinkers such as Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine are associated with the rejection of tyrannical, closed government decision making in favor of open government. The tradition of the New England Town Hall is believed to be rooted in this early American movement, and the distillation of formal public comment in official proceedings in the United States is a direct application of this format in the workings of public administration itself.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Public policy degrees, public administration degrees and public affairs degrees are master and PhD level professional degrees offered by public policy schools.  These include:", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In private international law, the public policy doctrine or ordre public (French: lit. \"public order\") concerns the body of principles that underpin the operation of legal systems in each state. This addresses the social, moral and economic values that tie a society together: values that vary in different cultures and change over time. Law regulates behaviour either to reinforce existing social expectations or to encourage constructive change, and laws are most likely to be effective when they are consistent with the most generally accepted societal norms and reflect the collective morality of the society.\nIn performing this function, Cappalli has suggested that the critical values of any legal system include impartiality, neutrality, certainty, equality, openness, flexibility, and growth. This assumes that a state's courts function as dispute resolution systems, which avoid the violence that often otherwise accompanies private resolution of disputes. That is, citizens have to be encouraged to use the court system to resolve their disputes. The more certain and predictable the outcome of a court action, the less incentive there is to go to court where a loss is probable. But certainty must be subject to the needs of individual justice, hence the development of equity.\nA judge should always consider the underlying policies to determine whether a rule should be applied to a specific factual dispute. If laws are applied too strictly and mechanically, the law cannot keep pace with social innovation. Similarly, if there is an entirely new situation, a return to the policies forming the basic assumptions underpinning potentially relevant rules of law identifies the best guidelines for resolving the immediate dispute. Over time, these policies evolve, becoming more clearly defined and more deeply embedded in the legal system.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In the law of evidence in the United States, public policy doctrines for the exclusion of relevant evidence encompass several types of evidence that would be relevant to prove facts at issue in a legal proceeding, but which are nonetheless excluded because of public policy concerns. There are five major areas of exclusion that arise out of the Federal Rules of Evidence (\"FRE\"): subsequent remedial measures, ownership of liability insurance, offers to plead guilty to a crime, offers to settle a claim, and offers to pay medical expenses.  Many states have modified versions of the FRE under their own state evidence codes which widen or narrow the public policy exclusions in state courts.\nThe exclusionary rule, under which evidence gathered by the police from an illegal search is excluded, is of similar operation but is typically considered separately.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Regulation is the management of complex systems according to a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in various fields of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings according to context. For example:\n\nin biology, gene regulation and metabolic regulation allow living organisms to adapt to their environment and maintain homeostasis;\nin government, typically regulation means stipulations of the delegated legislation which is drafted by subject-matter experts to enforce primary legislation;\nin business,  industry self-regulation occurs through self-regulatory organizations and trade associations which allow industries to set and enforce rules with less government involvement; and,\nin psychology, self-regulation theory is the study of how individuals regulate their thoughts and behaviors to reach goals.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Regulatory competition, also called competitive governance or policy competition, is a phenomenon in law, economics and politics concerning the desire of lawmakers to compete with one another in the kinds of law offered in order to attract businesses or other actors to operate in their jurisdiction. Regulatory competition depends upon the ability of actors such as companies, workers or other kinds of people to move between two or more separate legal systems. Once this is possible, then the temptation arises for the people running those different legal systems to compete to offer better terms than their \"competitors\" to attract investment. Historically, regulatory competition has operated within countries having federal systems of regulation - particularly the United States, but since the mid-20th century and the intensification of economic globalisation, regulatory competition became an important issue internationally.\nOne opinion is that regulatory competition in fact creates a \"race to the top\" in standards, due to the ability of different actors to select the most efficient rules by which to be governed. The main fields of law affected by the phenomenon of regulatory competition are corporate law, labour law, tax and environmental law. Another opinion is that regulatory competition between jurisdictions creates a \"race to the bottom\" in standards, due to the decreased ability of any jurisdiction to enforce standards without the cost of driving investment abroad.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A research report is a publication that reports on the findings of a research project or alternatively scientific observations on or about a subject.\nResearch reports are produced by many sectors including industry, education, government and non-government organizations and may be disseminated internally, or made public (i.e. published) however they are not usually available from booksellers or through standard commercial publishing channels. Research reports are also issued by governmental and international organizations, such as UNESCO.\nThere are various distribution models for research reports with the main ones being: public distribution for free or open access; limited distribution to clients and customers; or sold commercially. For example market research reports are often produced for sale by specialist market research companies, investment companies may provide research reports to clients while government agencies and civil society organizations such as UNESCO, the World Health Organization and many others often provide free access to organization research reports in the public interest or for a range of organization requirements and objectives.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Science policy is concerned with the allocation of resources for the conduct of science towards the goal of best serving the public interest. Topics include the funding of science, the careers of scientists, and the translation of scientific discoveries into technological innovation to promote commercial product development, competitiveness, economic growth and economic development. Science policy focuses on knowledge production and role of knowledge networks, collaborations, and the complex distributions of expertise, equipment, and know-how. Understanding the processes and organizational context of generating novel and innovative science and engineering ideas is a core concern of science policy. Science policy topics include weapons development, health care and environmental monitoring.\nScience policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve science. A large and complex web of factors influences the development of science and engineering that includes government science policymakers, private firms (including both national and multi-national firms), social movements, media, non-governmental organizations, universities, and other research institutions. In addition, science policy is increasingly international as defined by the global operations of firms and research institutions as well as by the collaborative networks of non-governmental organizations and of the nature of scientific inquiry itself.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The concepts of security sector governance and reform (SSG/R, or SSG and SSR) generally refer to a process in Western-based international development and democratization to amend the security sector of a state towards good governance and its principles, such as freedom of information and the rule of law.The objective of security sector reform (SSR) is to achieve good security sector governance (SSG)\u2014where security actors are effective and accountable to their people. For example, SSR might guide decision-making on what form should the oversight of armed forces take or how transparent will intelligence agencies be according to legislation. Different nomenclature of the same overall framework include security system reform (SSR), security sector reconstruction (SSR) and justice and security sector reform (JSSR).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A social welfare model is a system of social welfare provision and its accompanying value system. It usually involves social policies that affect the welfare of a country's citizens within the framework of a market or mixed economy.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Social services are a range of public services intended to provide support and assistance towards particular groups, which commonly include the disadvantaged. They may be provided by individuals, private and independent organisations, or administered by a government agency. Social services are connected with the concept of welfare and the welfare state, as countries with large welfare programs often provide a wide range of social services. Social services are employed to address the wide range of needs of a society. Prior to industrialisation, the provision of social services was largely confined to private organisations and charities, with the extent of its coverage also limited. Social services are now generally regarded globally as a 'necessary function' of society and a mechanism through which governments may address societal issues.The provision of social services by governments is linked to the belief of universal human rights, democratic principles, as well as religious and cultural values. The availability and coverage of social services varies significantly within societies. The main groups which social services is catered towards are: families, children, youths, elders, women, the sick and the disabled. Social services consists of facilities and services such as: public education, welfare, infrastructure, mail, social work, food banks, universal health care, police, fire services, public transportation and public housing.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In public policy, a sunset provision or sunset clause is a measure within a statute, regulation or other law that provides that the law shall cease to have effect after a specific date, unless further legislative action is taken to extend the law. Most laws do not have sunset clauses and therefore remain in force indefinitely, except under systems in which desuetude applies.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Transaction Man: The Rise of the Deal and the Decline of the American Dream is a non-fiction book which chronicles the role of corporations in relation to the American economy and shifts in public policy by Nicholas Lemann, who is a veteran journalist and a The New Yorker staff writer.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Tripartism is an economic system of neo-corporatism based on a mixed economy and tripartite contracts between employers' organizations, trade unions, and the government of a country. Each is to act as a social partner to create economic policy through cooperation, consultation, negotiation, and compromise. In Tripartism, the government has a large role in the economy and engages in negotiations between labor unions and business interest groups to establish economic policy.Tripartism became a popular form of economic policy during the economic crisis of the 1930s. Tripartism was supported by a number of different political movements at this time, including: Catholic social teaching, fascism, and democratic political movements. Tripartism is a prominent economic policy in Europe, particularly where Christian Democratic parties influenced by Catholic social teaching have held power; it is a core part of the Nordic model seen in the economic systems of Scandinavia and the Benelux that were put in place by social democratic governments. An example is the national income policy agreement in Finland. Tripartite agreements are an important component in practical labor law, since they cover not only wages, but also issues such as policies on benefits, vacation, work hours and worker safety.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Tripartite Consultation (International Labour Standards) Convention, 1976, officially the Convention concerning tripartite consultations to promote the implementation of international labour standards is an International Labour Organization Convention, which governs the process for implementation of measures regarding ILO conferences. It requires tripartite consultation before ratification, implementing legislation or denouncement of conventions. As of November 2021, the convention had been ratified by 156 member states.  The convention is also known as convention number 144 on the List of International Labour Organization Conventions.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ukrainian World (Ukrainian: \u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0421\u0432\u0456\u0442, romanized: Ukrainskyi Svit) is a general social term, a figure of language to denote some associative connection with Ukrainian culture.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential is published by the Union of International Associations (UIA). It is available online since 2000, and was previously available as a CD-ROM and as a three-volume book.The Encyclopedia was started in 1972 and now comprises more than 100,000 entries and 700,000 links, as well as hundreds of pages of introductory notes and commentaries. The Encyclopedia collects information on problems, strategies, values, concepts of human development, and various intellectual resources.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The public sector (also called the state sector) is the part of the economy composed of both public services and public enterprises.\nPublic sectors include the public goods and governmental services such as the military, law enforcement, infrastructure, public transit, public education, along with health care and those working for the government itself, such as elected officials. The public sector might provide services that a non-payer cannot be excluded from (such as street lighting), services which benefit all of society rather than just the individual who uses the service. Public enterprises, or state-owned enterprises, are self-financing commercial enterprises that are under public ownership which provide various private goods and services for sale and usually operate on a commercial basis.\nOrganizations that are not part of the public sector are either part of the private sector or voluntary sector. The private sector is composed of the economic sectors that are intended to earn a profit for the owners of the enterprise. The voluntary, civic, or social sector concerns a diverse array of non-profit organizations emphasizing civil society.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Public sector consulting usually refers to the branch of management consulting that works with local and federal governments as well as government agencies. Several major management consulting firms (e.g.: McKinsey, BCG, Booz&Co, Monitor, PA Consulting Group) do public sector engagements as part of their overall business.\nLike management consulting, the goal of public sector consulting is to help organizations improve their performance, primarily through the analysis of existing problems and the development of plans for improvement.\nPublic sector consulting covers a wide range of areas, including:\n\nEducation\nDefense\nHealthcare\nEnvironmental policy\nEnergy\nEconomics & strategic planning\nTechnology\nTransportation\nWelfare, Government Aid and EconomicsConsultants are usually brought in as experts or facilitators on a given project.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of countries by public sector, calculated as the number of public sector employees as a percentage of the total workforce. Information is based mainly on data from the OECD and the ILO. If a source has figures for more than one year, only the most recent figure is used (with notes for exceptional circumstances).\nIn the former Eastern Bloc countries, the public sector in 1989 accounted for between 70% to over 90% of total employment. In China a full 78.3% of the urban labor force were employed in the public sector by 1978, the year the Chinese economic reform was launched, after which the rates dropped. Jin Zeng estimates the numbers were 56.4% in 1995 and 32.8% in 2003, while other estimates are higher.In OECD countries, the average public sector employment rate was 21.3% in 2013.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Ethics in the public sector is a broad topic that is usually considered a branch of political ethics. In the public sector, ethics addresses the fundamental premise of a public administrator's duty as a \"steward\" to the public. In other words, it is the moral justification and consideration for decisions and actions made during the completion of daily duties when working to provide the general services of government and nonprofit organizations. Ethics is defined as, among others, the entirety of rules of proper moral conduct corresponding to the ideology of a particular society or organization (Eduard). Public sector ethics is a broad topic because values and morals vary between cultures. Despite the differences in ethical values, there is a growing common ground of what is considered good conduct and  correct conduct with ethics. Ethics are an accountability standard by which the public will scrutinize the work being conducted by the members of these organizations. The question of ethics emerges in the public sector on account of its subordinate character.\nDecisions are based upon ethical principles, which are the perception of what the general public would view as correct. Ensuring the ethical behavior in the public sector requires a permanent reflection on the decisions taken and their impact from a moral point of view on citizens. Having such a distinction ensures that public administrators are not acting on an internal set of ethical principles without first questioning whether those principles would hold to public scrutiny. It also has placed an additional burden upon public administrators regarding the conduct of their personal lives. Public sector ethics is an attempt to create a more open atmosphere within governmental operations.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In aviation, an Aeronautical Information Publication (or AIP) is defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization as a publication issued by or with the authority of a state and containing aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air navigation. It is designed to be a manual containing thorough details of regulations, procedures and other information pertinent to flying aircraft in the particular country to which it relates.  It is usually issued by or on behalf of the respective civil aviation administration.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Australian Parliamentary Handbook (officially the Parliamentary Handbook of the Commonwealth of Australia), is the official record of the Parliament of Australia. The handbook is published once during each three-year Parliament by the Parliamentary Library of Australia, within the Department of Parliamentary Services, under the authority of the Parliament.\nThe first edition of the Handbook was published in 1915, and was titled Biographical Handbook and Record of Elections for the Parliament of the Commonwealth. This followed a resolution of the Joint Library Committee ordering the publication of a handbook, giving political biographies of all members of both Houses since Federation in 1901, \"with other information likely to be useful.\" Since 1915 there have been 30 editions of the Handbook. An edition of the Handbook has been published after every federal election since 1917, except for those of 1928 (when there was another election the following year), 1940 and 1943 (due to wartime printing restrictions), 1946 and 1949 (for unknown reasons) and 1954 (another very short Parliament). The edition published in 1976 was described as a \"supplement to the 19th edition,\" published in 1975.\nUntil the election of the Whitlam Labor government in 1972, the Handbook was officially titled the Commonwealth Parliamentary Handbook. Whitlam's desire to replace the phrase \"Commonwealth of Australia\" with the word \"Australia\" in all official usages led to the renaming of the Handbook's 18th edition in 1973 as the Australian Parliamentary Handbook. The Fraser Liberal government renamed the Handbook Parliamentary Handbook of the Commonwealth of Australia.\nFor many years the Handbook was the only readily accessible source of statistical information about elections to the Australian Parliament. Since the 1970s, however, these have been published separately by the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC) and are now easily accessible at the AEC website (current elections only) or at Adam Carr's Election Archive (all elections since 1901).\nThe modern Handbook contains full biographies of all Members and Senators, details of the Ministry and Shadow Ministry, membership of all Parliamentary committees, statistical information on the composition of the Parliament, summaries of recent election results, the text of the Australian Constitution, results of referendums to change the Constitution, and historical information including the names and career details of all Members and Senators since 1901.\nThe Handbook is now available in an online edition.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Budget Memorandum (Dutch: Miljoenennota, literally \"Millions Bill\") is a general explanation by the Government of the Netherlands of the expected revenues and expenses in the National Budget for a year.\nAfter the king has given the Speech from the throne on Prinsjesdag (every third Tuesday in September), the Finance Minister offers the suitcase with the National Budget and the Budget Memorandum to the president of the House of Representatives.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A government circular is a written statement of government policy. It will often provide information, guidance, rules, and/or background information on legislative or procedural matters.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Government comics include informational material produced in comic book-format by governments and their affiliated bodies. These works fulfill a wide variety of purposes often seen in government publications, primarily educating the public about government programs or lifestyle choices the government wants to encourage. Richard L. Graham examines and dissects the United States' government comics in Government Issue: Comics for the People, 1940s-2000s.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Historical Status of China's Tibet is a book published in 1997 in English by China Intercontinental Press, the propaganda press for the government of the People's Republic of China. The book presents the Chinese government's official position on the history of Tibet and claims that Tibet has been under the sovereignty of China since the Yuan dynasty.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Households below average income is an annual publication on poverty statistics in the United Kingdom. The data is based on the Family Resources Survey.\nPoverty is defined as having an equivalised household income below the 60% median line.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Publications of minutes and proceedings, often known as journals,  of legislatures are often kept for record-keeping. Unlike government gazettes which publish government notices and the like for general public dissemination, journals of these bodies merely records their proceedings and are not necessarily meant for the general public.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Mahe Nao was a monthly literary magazine published by the Department of Publications of the Government of Pakistan.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The New South Wales General Standing Orders was the first compilation of government orders and notices intended to inform colonists of the law as it stood in 1802 after the arrival of the First Fleet. It was the first book to be printed in Australia.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Official Journal of the European Union (the OJEU) is the official gazette of record for the European Union (EU). It is published every working day in all of the official languages of the member states of the EU. Only legal acts published in the Official Journal are binding.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Project Sidewinder (officially Project Sidewinder: Chinese Intelligence Services and Triads Financial Links in Canada; sometimes called Operation Sidewinder) is a declassified study conducted by a  Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) joint task force. It controversially argues Chinese intelligence and Triads have been working together on intelligence operations in Canada.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser was the first newspaper printed in Australia, running from 5 March 1803 until 20 October 1842. It was a semi-official publication of the government of New South Wales, authorised by Governor King and printed by George Howe. On 14 October 1824, under the editorship of Robert Howe, it ceased to be censored by the colonial government.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Western Australia an official handbook for The Information of Commercial Men, Migrants, and Tourists was a government publication that was produced by the government in the 1890s and 1920s in Western Australia.\n\n1891/1892 edition: - The 1891/1892 edition\n1900 edition - The edition was produced for the Paris Exhibition\n1912 edition - 1925 edition: -Western Australia (1925), An official handbook for the information of commercial men, migrants, and tourists, Simpson, Govt. Print, retrieved 9 October 2021 The contents were arranged:\nPhysical features and history\nState's awakening\nWestern Australia today\nClimate\nLand and its characteristics\nGrowth of land settlement\nAgriculture generally\nWheat farming\nDairying and allied industries\nFruit growing\nViticulture and wine-making\nPastoral\nForestry\nMining\nFish and fisheries\nPearls and pearlshell\nOur great North-West\nSecondary industries\nWater conservation\nPerth the capital city\nPorts, Communication by land water and air\nEducation\nWestern Australia for the migrant\nTourist resorts\nAborigines\nWildflowersSimilar titles in the same era included non governmental items with very close sounding items:\nA handbook to Western Australia and its gold-fields : being a guide to the resources (agricultural, mineral and miscellaneous) of the colony, and a collection of hints to the intending immigrant", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Civil Service Commission regulates recruitment to the United Kingdom Civil Service, providing assurance that appointments are on merit after fair and open competition, and hears appeals under the Civil Service Code. The commission is independent of Government and the Civil Service.\nThe Civil Service Commission was established by Gladstone through an order in council on 21 May 1855 following publication of the Northcote\u2013Trevelyan Report by Charles Trevelyan and Stafford Northcote that advocated the decoupling of appointments of senior civil servants from ministers to ensure the impartiality of the Civil Service.Following a report of the Committee on Standards in Public Life, \"Defining the Boundaries within the Executive: Ministers, special advisers and the permanent Civil Service\" in 2003, the appointment of the First Civil Service Commissioner is made by Government after consultation with the leaders of the main opposition parties. They are then appointed by the Queen under Royal Prerogative. The First Civil Service Commissioner is appointed for a fixed term of five years, although another Commissioner may act as an interim First Commissioner when necessary.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Common Recruitment Examination (Chinese: \u7d9c\u5408\u62db\u8058\u8003\u8a66) is an examination for the recruitment of civil servants in Hong Kong.  It consists of three 45-minute papers, namely Use of English (UE), Use of Chinese (UC) and Aptitude Test (AT). Candidates' results in the UE and UC papers are classified as 'Level 2', 'Level 1' or 'Fail', with 'Level 2' being the highest.  Results in the AT paper are classified as pass or fail.  'Level 2' and 'Level 1' results of the two language papers and the pass result of the AT paper are of permanent validity.  All three papers are in multiple-choice format.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Concours or EU concours is a recruitment competition and examination to select staff to all institutions of the European Union.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Judicial Appointments Board for Scotland is an advisory non-departmental public body of the Scottish Government responsible for making recommendations on appointments to certain offices of the judiciary of Scotland. It was established in June 2002 on a non-statutory, ad hoc, basis by the Scottish Government, and was given statutory authority by the Judiciary and Courts (Scotland) Act 2008.\nAll recommendations are made to the First Minister, who must consult the Lord President of the Court of Session before making a recommendation to the monarch in relation to full-time, permanent, judiciary, or before any appointments are made by Scottish Ministers to temporary or part-time judicial office.\nThe board does not make recommendations for, or have any in role in the appointment of, justices of the peace, whose appointments are made by Scottish Ministers on the recommendation of Justice of the Peace Advisory Committees for each sheriffdom.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Clandestine HUMINT asset recruiting refers to the recruitment of human agents, commonly known as spies, who work for a foreign government, or within a host country's government or other target of intelligence interest for the gathering of human intelligence. The work of detecting and \"doubling\" spies who betray their oaths to work on behalf of a foreign intelligence agency is an important part of counterintelligence.\nThe term spy refers to human agents that are recruited by case officers of a foreign intelligence agency.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A regent (from Latin regens: ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state pro tempore (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy, or the throne is vacant and the new monarch has not yet been determined. The rule of a regent or regents is called a regency. A regent or regency council may be formed ad hoc or in accordance with a constitutional rule. Regent is sometimes a formal title granted to a monarch's most trusted advisor or personal assistant. If the regent is holding their position due to their position in the line of succession, the compound term prince regent is often used; if the regent of a minor is their mother, she would be referred to as queen regent.\nIf the formally appointed regent is unavailable or cannot serve on a temporary basis, a regent ad interim may be appointed to fill the gap.\nIn a monarchy, a regent usually governs due to one of these reasons, but may also be elected to rule during the interregnum when the royal line has died out. This was the case in the Kingdom of Finland and the Kingdom of Hungary, where the royal line was considered extinct in the aftermath of World War I. In Iceland, the regent represented the King of Denmark as sovereign of Iceland until the country became a republic in 1944. In the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569\u20131795), kings were elective, which often led to a fairly long interregnum. In the interim, it was the Roman Catholic primate (the archbishop of Gniezno) who served as the regent, termed the interrex (Latin: ruler 'between kings' as in ancient Rome). In the small republic of San Marino, the two captains regent, or capitani reggenti, are elected semi-annually (they serve a six-month term) as joint heads of state and of government.\nFamous regency periods include that of the Prince Regent, later George IV of the United Kingdom, giving rise to many terms such as Regency era and Regency architecture. Strictly this period lasted from 1811 to 1820, when his father George III was insane, though when used as a period label it generally covers a wider period. Philippe II, Duke of Orl\u00e9ans was Regent of France from the death of Louis XIV in 1715 until Louis XV came of age in 1723; this is also used as a period label for many aspects of French history, as R\u00e9gence in French, again tending to cover a rather wider period than the actual regency. For a period of a month and a half, the Second French Empire was a regency. The Emperor departed with his army, giving his political powers to his wife who essentially carried out all his roles and even sent him orders. He would never be able to return to France, and the empire ended as a regency two days after his defeat and imprisonment at the Battle of Sedan. The equivalent Greek term is epitropos (\u03b5\u03c0\u03af\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2), meaning overseer.\nAs of 2022, Liechtenstein (under Alois, Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein) is the only country with an active regency. In 2016, at the age of 96, Prem Tinsulanonda became the oldest regent of any nation, when he became the regent for Rama X of Thailand. Previously this record was held by Prince Regent Luitpold of Bavaria.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Regency Acts are Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed at various times, to provide a regent in the event of the reigning monarch being incapacitated or a minor (under the age of 18). Prior to 1937, Regency Acts were passed only when necessary to deal with a specific situation. In 1937, the Regency Act 1937 made general provision for a regent, and established the office of Counsellor of State, a number of whom would act on the monarch's behalf when the monarch was temporarily absent from the realm or experiencing an illness that did not amount to legal incapacity. This Act, as modified by the Regency Acts of 1943 and 1953, forms the main law relating to regency in the United Kingdom today.\nAn example of a pre-1937 Regency Act was the Act of 1811 which allowed Prince George (later King George IV) to act as regent while his father, King George III, was incapacitated.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Gonghe Regency (Chinese: \u5171\u548c; pinyin: G\u00f2ngh\u00e9) was an interregnum period in Chinese history from 841 BC to 828 BC, after King Li of Zhou was exiled by his nobles during the Compatriots Rebellion, when the Chinese people rioted against their old corrupt king. It lasted until the ascension of King Li's son, King Xuan of Zhou.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The R\u00e9gence (French pronunciation: \u200b[\u0281e\u0292\u0251\u0303s], Regency) was the period in French history between 1715 and 1723 when King Louis XV was considered a minor and the country was instead governed by Philippe d'Orl\u00e9ans (a nephew of Louis XIV of France) as prince regent.\nPhilippe was able to take power away from the Duke of Maine (illegitimate son of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan) who had been the favourite son of the late king and possessed much influence. From 1715 to 1718 the Polysynody changed the system of government in France, in which each minister (secretary of state) was replaced by a council. The syst\u00e8me de Law was also introduced, which transformed the finances of the bankrupted kingdom and its aristocracy. Both Cardinal Dubois and Cardinal Fleury were highly influential during this time.\nContemporary European rulers included Philip V of Spain, John V of Portugal, George I of Great Britain, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, and Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia, the maternal grandfather of Louis XV.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Regency Act 1705 (4 Ann. c.8) was an Act of Parliament of the Parliament of England.\nThe Act was passed at a time when Parliament was anxious to ensure that a Protestant succeeded to the throne on the death of Queen Anne. The Act was conceived by the Whig Junto, mainly by John Somers, and seen through the House of Lords by Lord Wharton. Lord Cowper later claimed the Act was designed \"to put it [the succession] in such a method as was not to be resisted but by open force of arms and a public declaration for the Pretender\".The Act required privy counsellors and other officers, in the event of Anne's death, to proclaim as her successor the next Protestant in the line of succession to the throne, and made it high treason to fail to do so. If the next Protestant successor was abroad at the death of Anne, seven great Officers of State named in the Act (and others whom the heir-apparent thought fit to appoint), called \"Lords Justices,\" would form a regency. The heir-apparent would name these others through a secret instrument which would be sent to England in three copies and delivered to the Hanoverian Resident, the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Lord Chancellor. The Lords Justices were to have the power to give royal assent to bills, except that they would be guilty of treason if they amended the Act of Uniformity 1662.\nThe Act also made it treason to say in writing than Anne was not the lawful queen, or that James the Pretender had any right to inherit the Crown. It was praemunire to say so in speech. The Act also confirmed the clauses in the Parliament Act 1695 which stipulated that Parliament would continue to sit should the Sovereign die \"for and during the term of six months and no longer, unless the same be sooner prorogued or dissolved by such person to whom the Crown of this realm of Great Britain shall come\".The Act received Royal Assent in March 1706, but came into force retrospectively from the beginning of that session of Parliament (hence it is dated 1705). Lord Halifax at the end of the session of Parliament was sent to Hanover to present a copy of the Act to the heir apparent, Sophia, Electress of Hanover.The Act was replaced only two years later by the Succession to the Crown Act 1707.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Regency Act 1830 (1 Will.4 c.2) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed to cater for the event that King William IV died while the next person in line to the throne was not yet aged 18. It provided for a regency until the new monarch reached the age of 18, and also would have enabled a posthumous child of King William IV to replace Queen Victoria on the throne. However, the Act never came into force, because William was not survived by a legitimate child and Victoria became queen at the age of 18 in 1837.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A regency council (Greek: \u0391\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, German: Regentschaft) ruled the Kingdom of Greece in 1833\u20131835, during the minority of King Otto. The council was appointed by Otto's father, King Ludwig I of Bavaria, and comprised three men: Josef Ludwig von Armansperg, Georg Ludwig von Maurer, and Carl Wilhelm von Heideck. The first period of the regency saw major reforms in administration, including the establishment of an autocephalous Church of Greece. The regency's authoritarianism and distrust of the Greek political parties, especially the Russian Party, which was associated with the period of Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias and was particularly opposed to the Church reforms, led to a quick eroding of its popularity. Armansperg was the council's chairman, but increasingly clashed with the other two regents, who in turn aligned with the French Party under Ioannis Kolettis. The main domestic event of the early period was the arrest and sham trial of Theodoros Kolokotronis, a hero of the Greek War of Independence and the de facto leader of the Russian Party, in 1834. This rallied the opposition against the regency, helped provoke a major uprising in the Mani Peninsula, and fatally undermined the prestige of Maurer and Heideck versus Armansperg. The conflict was resolved in Armansperg's favour in July 1834, when Maurer was replaced by Egid von Kobell. Following Otto's coming of age in June 1835, the council was dissolved, but Armansperg remained in charge of the government as Prime Minister.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Regency era of British history officially spanned the years 1811 to 1820, though the term is commonly applied to the longer period between c.\u20091795 and 1837. King George III succumbed to mental illness in late 1810 and, by the Regency Act 1811, his eldest son George, Prince of Wales, was appointed Prince Regent to discharge royal functions. When George III died in 1820, the Prince Regent succeeded him as George IV. In terms of periodisation, the longer timespan is roughly the final third of the Georgian era (1714\u20131837), encompassing the last 25 years or so of George III's reign, including the official Regency, and the complete reigns of both George IV and his brother William IV. It ends with the accession of Queen Victoria in May 1837 and is followed by the Victorian era (1837\u20131901).\nAlthough the Regency era is remembered as a time of refinement and culture, that was the preserve of the wealthy few, especially those in the Prince Regent's own social circle. For the masses, poverty was rampant and most town and city dwellers lived in slums, a state of affairs severely aggravated by the combined impact of war, economic collapse, mass unemployment, a bad harvest in 1816 (the \"Year Without a Summer\") and an ongoing population boom. Political response to the crisis included the Corn Laws, the Peterloo Massacre and the Representation of the People Act 1832. Led by William Wilberforce, there was increasing support for the abolitionist cause during the Regency era, culminating in passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807 and the Slavery Abolition Act 1833.\nThe longer timespan recognises the wider social and cultural aspects of the Regency era, characterised by the distinctive fashions, architecture and style of the period. The first 20 years to 1815 were overshadowed by the Napoleonic Wars. Throughout the whole period, the Industrial Revolution gathered pace and achieved significant progress by the coming of the railways and the growth of the factory system. The Regency era overlapped with Romanticism and many of the major artists, musicians, novelists and poets of the Romantic movement were prominent Regency figures such as Jane Austen, William Blake, Lord Byron, John Constable, John Keats, John Nash, Ann Radcliffe, Walter Scott, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, J. M. W. Turner and William Wordsworth.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The regency government of the Kingdom of England of 1422 to 1437 ruled while Henry VI was a minor.  Decisions were made in the king's name by the Regency Council, which was made up of the most important and influential people in the government of England, and dominated by the king's uncle Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (brother of the king's father and predecessor, Henry V) and Bishop (Cardinal from 1426) Henry Beaufort (Gloucester's half-uncle).\nThe individuals who constituted the Regency Council as at 9 December 1422 were (Griffiths 1981, p. 23):\n\nAlthough the nominal leadership of the regency lay with John, Duke of Bedford (Gloucester's older brother), he spent most of his time ruling the English territories in France. Gloucester thus took the post of Lord Protector of the Realm in order to rule England while Bedford was absent. In practice, however, he was forced to share power with Cardinal Henry Beaufort, who held the position of Lord Chancellor and led a regency council composed of England's prominent magnates. Much of the period was marked by quarrels and disputes between Gloucester and the cardinal. Tensions between both parties could be seen in events such as the Parliament of Bats.\nThe Council soon split along lines of opposition and support to the continuation of the war in France. Gloucester had always been fervently in favour of finishing the war his brother had started in France and seeing it through to victory at any price. However, in the face of a resurgent French army led by Joan of Arc and the crowning of the Dauphin as Charles VII in 1429, it became clear that the French were gaining the upper hand and slowly expelling the English from their country. A peace party emerged led by Cardinal Beaufort, who saw the war as a drain on resources and unwinnable.\nHowever, for most of the period the regency council was able to govern effectively and fairly. The splits became most evident towards the end. In 1432, Anne of Burgundy died; she was the younger sister of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. Anne had been the wife of John, Duke of Bedford, and their marriage was instrumental in maintaining the alliance between England and Burgundy against France. However, following her death, Bedford married Jacquetta of Luxembourg, which the Duke of Burgundy disapproved of and Burgundy made peace with France. With the loss of the alliance with Burgundy, Bedford became convinced that peace was the only solution, but at a conference arranged in Arras in 1435, the English delegation refused to give up their claim to the French throne. Bedford died just after the conference and was replaced with Richard, Duke of York who did not favour the peace policy.\nWhen Henry finally came of age in 1437, he took over at just about the worst time possible, when splits about the war and rivalries between the various nobles were at their deepest. The Crown had suffered huge war debts, and there was general lack of leadership in the French territories which seemed to be slipping slowly but surely out of English hands.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Yugoslav regency was a three-member governorship headed by Prince Regent Paul of Yugoslavia in place of Peter II until coming of age. It was in effect between November 1934 and 27 March 1941.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Anagrafe nazionale della popolazione residente (Italian for National register office for the resident population), also known by the acronym ANPR, is the national register office of Italy. It is maintained by the Ministry of the Interior of Italy.\nIt was created by article 62 of decree 82/2005 (Code for Digital Administration, or Codice dell\u2019Amministrazione Digitale).The local register offices held by each of Italy's roughly 8,000 Comuni are due to gradually merge into ANPR.\nThe decision to set up a single centralized database was motivated by several needs:\n\navoiding duplication of communication between different bodies within the public administration;\nguaranteeing greater certainty and quality to the register data, through univocal national standards;\nautomating and supplanting written communications between administrations, for example in the cases of residence changes, emigration, immigration, censuses, and so on.The merging of 7,903 municipal registry offices into ANPR has been completed on the 18th January 2022, representing a total of 67,379,385 citizens (61,517,542 resident and 5,861,843 abroad).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A register office or The General Register Office, much more commonly but erroneously registry office (except in official use), is a British government office where births, deaths, marriages, civil partnership, stillbirths and adoptions in England, Wales and Northern Ireland are registered. It is the licensed local of civil registry.\nIn Scotland, The General Register Office for Scotland (GROS) was in service until 2011, when this department was transferred to National Records of Scotland.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Regulatory science is the scientific and technical foundations upon which regulations are based in various industries \u2013 particularly those involving health or safety. Regulatory bodies employing such principles in the United States include, for example, the FDA for food and medical products, the EPA for the environment, and the OSHA for work safety.\n\"Regulatory science\" is contrasted with regulatory affairs and regulatory law, which refer to the administrative or legal aspects of regulation, in that the former is focused on the regulations' scientific underpinnings and concerns \u2013 rather than the regulations' promulgation, implementation, compliance, or enforcement.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "An advanced electronic signature (AdES) is an electronic signature that has met the requirements set forth under EU Regulation No 910/2014 (eIDAS-regulation) on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the European Single Market.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Animal testing regulations are guidelines that permit and control the use of non-human animals for scientific experimentation. They vary greatly around the world, but most governments aim to control the number of times individual animals may be used; the overall numbers used; and the degree of pain that may be inflicted without anesthetic.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Associated Signature Containers (ASiC) specifies the use of container structures to bind together one or more signed objects with either advanced electronic signatures or timestamp tokens into one single digital container.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A ban is a formal or informal prohibition of something. Bans are formed for the prohibition of activities within a certain political territory. Some bans in commerce are referred to as embargoes. Ban is also used as a verb similar in meaning to \"to prohibit\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Bootleggers and Baptists is a concept put forth by regulatory economist Bruce Yandle, derived from the observation that regulations are supported both by groups that want the ostensible purpose of the regulation, and by groups that profit from undermining that purpose.For much of the 20th century, Baptists and other evangelical Christians were prominent in political activism for Sunday closing laws restricting the sale of alcohol. Bootleggers sold alcohol illegally, and got more business if legal sales were restricted. Yandle wrote that \"Such a coalition makes it easier for politicians to favor both groups. ... the Baptists lower the costs of favor-seeking for the bootleggers, because politicians can pose as being motivated purely by the public interest even while they promote the interests of well-funded businesses. ... [Baptists] take the moral high ground, while the bootleggers persuade the politicians quietly, behind closed doors.\"", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A Central Equipment Identity Register (CEIR) is a database of mobile equipment identifiers (IMEI \u2013 for networks of GSM standard, MEID \u2013 for networks of CDMA standard). Such an identifier is assigned to each SIM slot of the mobile device.\nLists of IMEIs may be the:\n\nWhite \u2013 for devices that are allowed to register in the cellular network,\nBlack \u2013 for devices that are prohibited to register in the cellular network,\nGrey \u2013 for devices in intermediate status (when it is not yet defined in which of the lists - black or white - the device should be placed).Depending on the rules of mobile equipment registration in a country the CEIR database may contain other lists or fields beside IMEI. For example, the subscriber number (MSISDN), which is bound to the IMEI, the ID of the individual (passport data, National ID, etc.) who registered IMEI in the database, details of the importer who brought the device into the country, etc.\nOriginally abbreviation CEIR stood for IMEI Database, created and provided by GSM Association. It was proposed to blacklist the IMEIs of stolen or lost phones. It was assumed that any MNO would be able to receive this list to block the registration of such devices on their network. Thus, it turns out that a stolen phone, once blacklisted by the GSMA CEIR, cannot be used on a large number of cellular networks, which means that the theft of mobile devices will become meaningless. However, it soon became clear that the MNOs on their initiative were not going to do this because if many phones stopped working in their networks, but works in another, it puts them at a disadvantage and can lead to an outflow of subscribers. It became clear that the blocking of stolen devices should be introduced simultaneously in all mobile networks of the country by legislative measures at the initiative of the communications regulator. In this case, as a rule, a national IMEI database is created, which contains general lists of blocked IMEIs. Since the registration in the cellular operator's network is directly blocked by a network node called EIR (Equipment Identity Register), the system that contains the national IMEI base became known as Central EIR (CEIR). To avoid confusion the database of GSM Association was renamed to IMEI Database - IMEI DB (it was in 2003-2008, see \u201cDocument History\u201d at IMEI Database File Format Specification). Also sometimes a common IMEI database for several EIRs is called SEIR (Shared EIR).\nIn each country, the CEIR can interact with IMEI DB differently. National CEIR may not communicate with IMEI DB at all. Firstly, it is separately decided whether CEIR will send information about its blacklist to IMEI DB (which IMEIs are placed in it or removed from there). Secondly, upon receipt of the blacklist from IMEI DB, the regulator decides from which countries it will receive it (IMEI DB stores the information exactly who blacklisted the IMEI). For example, you can get a list from neighboring countries, from countries in your region, from around the world.\nIn addition to the blacklist, the GSMA is developing a list of IMEIs allocated to manufacturers for use in their devices. The manufacturer for each new device model gets at least one TAC (Type Allocation Code) allocated by GSMA, consisting of 8 digits, to which he can add a 6-digit serial number to obtain the IMEI. Thus, with one TAC, a manufacturer can release up to 1 million devices with a unique IMEI. Usually, CEIR receives a list of allocated TACs from the GSMA, since if the first 8 digits of the IMEI of a device are not in this list, this is a sign that it is counterfeit.\nIf the central database of identifiers does not work with GSM networks, but with CDMA, then for the same purposes it is necessary to interact with another worldwide database that contains MEIDs \u2013 MEID Database.A system that directly blocks the registration of a mobile device on a cellular network \u2013 EIR. Each MNO must have at least one EIR, to which IMEI check requests (CheckIMEI) are sent when registering a device on the network. A typical EIR and CERI interaction scheme: \n\nThe CEIR accumulates black, white, and grey lists using various data sources and verification methods.\nThese lists are periodically transmitted to all EIRs.\nEIR uses them when processing every CheckIMEI request to determine whether to allow the device on the network or not.EIR can transmit some data to the CEIR database too. Usually, changes in a grey list \u2013 new IMEIs on the network that are not in any list \u2013 are transmitted from EIR to CEIR.\nIn addition to synchronizing lists across multiple networks, the main function of CEIR is to implement the scenarios of changes at these lists. This usually requires interaction with various IT systems (databases) of other organizations and/or with subscribers. \u0415xamples of such scenarios:\n\nWhitelisting the IMEI of devices imported by the legal entity\nWhitelisting the IMEI of devices manufactured domestically\nWhitelisting the IMEI of devices imported by individual\nBlacklisting the IMEI of stolen/lost devices\nBinding IMEI to the subscriber's number and, vice versa, unbinding IMEI from the subscriber.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Code enforcement, sometimes encompassing law enforcement, is the act of enforcing a set of rules, principles, or laws (especially written ones) and ensuring observance of a system of norms or customs. An authority usually enforces a civil code, a set of rules, or a body of laws and compel those subject to their authority to behave in a certain way.\nIn the United States, those employed in various capacities of code enforcement may be called Code Enforcement Officers, Municipal Regulations Officers, or with various titles depending on their specialization.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, various names are used, but the word Warden is commonly used for various classes of non-police enforcement personnel (such as Game Warden, Traffic Warden, Park Warden).\nIn Canada and some Commonwealth Countries, the term Bylaw Enforcement Officer is more commonly used, as well as Municipal Law Enforcement Officer or Municipal Enforcement Officer.\nIn Germany order enforcement offices are established under the state's laws and local regulations under different terms like Ordnungsamt (order enforcement office), Ordnungsdienst (order enforcement service), Gemeindevollzugsdienst (municipal code enforcement office), Polizeibeh\u00f6rde (police authority), Stadtwacht (municipal guard/municipal watch) or Stadtpolizei (city police) for general-duty bylaw enforcement units.\nVarious persons and organizations ensure compliance with laws and rules, including:\n\nBuilding inspector, an official who is charged with ensuring that construction is in compliance with local codes.\nFire marshal, an official who is both a police officer and a firefighter and enforces a fire code.\nHealth inspector, an official who is charged with ensuring that restaurants meet local health codes.\nPolice forces, charged with maintaining public order, crime prevention, and enforcing criminal law.\nZoning enforcement officer, an official who is charged with enforcing the zoning code of a local jurisdiction, such as a municipality or county.\nParking enforcement officer, an official who is charged with enforcing street parking regulations.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In United States pharmaceutical regulatory practice, a Complete Response Letter (CRL), or more rarely, a 314.110 letter, is a regulatory action by the Food and Drug Administration in response to a New Drug Application, Amended New Drug Application or Biologics License Application, indicating that the application will not be approved in its present form. CRLs replaced approvable letters in 2018.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Edict on Maximum Prices (Latin: Edictum\tde Pretiis Rerum Venalium, \"Edict Concerning the Sale Price of Goods\"; also known as the Edict on Prices or the Edict of Diocletian) was issued in 301 AD by Roman Emperor Diocletian.\nThe Edict was probably issued from Antioch or Alexandria and was set up in inscriptions in Greek and Latin. It exists only in fragments found mainly in the eastern part of the empire, where Diocletian ruled. The reconstructed fragments have been sufficient to estimate many prices for goods and services for historical economists (although the Edict attempts to set maximum prices, not fixed ones).\nThe Edict on Maximum Prices is still the longest surviving piece of legislation from the period of the Tetrarchy. The Edict was criticized by Lactantius, a rhetorician from Nicomedia, who blamed the emperors for the inflation and told of fighting and bloodshed that erupted from price tampering.\nBy the end of Diocletian's reign in 305, the Edict was for all practical purposes ignored. The Roman economy as a whole was not substantively stabilized until Constantine's coinage reforms in the 310s.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Similar to an embedded journalist, an embedded inspector is paid by the regulator to observe regulated practices at the place of regulated activity. The inspector can work for his entire inspection career at the same regulated facility.\nThis term is commonly employed in modern British parlance, but the principles are global. Examples include:\n\nOffice for Nuclear Regulation\nBritish Transport Police", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The packaging and labeling of food is subject to regulation in most regions/jurisdictions, both to prevent false advertising and to promote food safety.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The International Health Regulations (IHR), first adopted by the World Health Assembly in 1969 and last revised in 2005, are a legally binding rules that only apply to the WHO that is an instrument that aims for international collaboration \"to prevent, protect against, control, and provide a public health response to the international spread of disease in ways that are commensurate with and restricted to public health risks and that avoid unnecessary interference with international traffic and trade\". The IHR is the only international legal treaty with the responsibility of empowering the World Health Organization (WHO) to act as the main global surveillance system.In 2005, following the 2002\u20132004 SARS outbreak, several changes were made to the previous revised IHRs originating from 1969. The 2005 IHR came into force in June 2007, with 196 binding countries that recognised that certain public health incidents, extending beyond disease, ought to be designated as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC), as they pose a significant global threat. Its first full application was in response to the swine flu pandemic of 2009.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "International regulation is regulation that occurs at the international level, often exercised by international organizations. An advantage of international regulation is that it allows localities and the individuals in them to be held accountable for the impact that their actions (e.g. pollution) have on other localities.\nA series of powerful international regulatory regimes have arisen especially in fields dealing with risk, such as banking, accountancy and the actuarial profession. In banking, the Basel Accords regulate a wide range of bank behavior, such as capital adequacy, the requirement to have capital reserved against risk. In accountancy, the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) have replaced many national accounting standards to enable international comparability of reporting of accounts. The International Actuarial Association is working on standardization of international practice.\nAlthough there is no international government to issue regulations, negotiations between industry bodies and national governments have often succeeded in orchestrating regulatory regimes that are obeyed across most nations.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Meta-regulation is a form of regulation that encourages self-regulation of firms. In contrast to traditional forms of regulation, where decisions concerning rules are decided by the regulator, meta-regulation has firms create their own rules while observing and monitoring those rules. The advantages of self-regulation are that devolved structures of regulation allow for greater learning in complex and uncertain environments. Firms with the potential for catastrophic failure such as finance, oil drilling, mining, manufacturing, etc. often desire effective regulation to prevent such failures because of cost and damaged public relations.\nMeta-regulation is said to have the advantage of fostering norms of reflexivity among institutions, as they are forced to conscientiously consider optimal levels of regulation and elucidate the reasoning to regulators. In an ideal world of meta-regulation the motivations for both regulators and regulates become the same by diffusing the norms of safety and stability. Meta-regulation in practice has been critiqued as relying too heavily on notions of consensus and rationality (see Simon, 2017)\nSources on Meta-regulation:", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Noise regulation includes statutes or guidelines relating to sound transmission established by national, state or provincial and municipal levels of government. After the watershed passage of the United States Noise Control Act of 1972, other local and state governments passed further regulations.\nA noise regulation restricts the amount of noise, the duration of noise and the source of noise. It usually places restrictions for certain times of the day.Although the United Kingdom and Japan enacted national laws in 1960 and 1967 respectively, these laws were not at all comprehensive or fully enforceable as to address generally rising ambient noise, enforceable numerical source limits on aircraft and motor vehicles or comprehensive directives to local government.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Olive oil regulation and adulteration are complex issues overseen and studied by various governmental bodies, non-governmental organizations, and private researchers across the world.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The pathetic dot theory or the New Chicago School theory was introduced by Lawrence Lessig in a 1998 article and popularized in his 1999 book, Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace. It is a socioeconomic theory of regulation. It discusses how lives of individuals (the pathetic dots in question) are regulated by four forces: the law, social norms, the market, and architecture (technical infrastructure).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In United States pharmaceutical regulatory practice, the PDUFA date is the colloquial name for the date by which the Food and Drug Administration must respond to a New Drug Application or a Biologics License Application. It is part of the regime established by the Prescription Drug User Fee Act to ensure funding of the Food and Drug Administration's drug approval activities in return for adhering to a largely fixed timetable of regulatory actions.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Performance-based regulation (PBR) is an approach to utility regulation designed to strengthen utility performance incentives.  Thus defined, the term PBR is synonymous with incentive regulation.  The two most common forms of PBR are award-penalty mechanisms (\u201cAPMs\u201d) and multiyear rate plans (\u201cMRPs\u201d).  Both involve mathematical formulas that can lower regulatory cost at the same time that they encourage better performance.  This constitutes a remarkable potential advance in the \u201ctechnology\u201d of regulation. Economic theorists whose work has supported the development of PBR include Nobel prize-winning economist Jean Tirole.\nImplementation of applicable methods of incentive regulation represents a complex problem for regulatory authorities. Therefore, this problem should be analyzed though different aspects, taking into consideration parameters, such as incentive\u2019s mechanism defined by regulatory authorities, enabling thus the development of regulated activity and increase of efficiency and productivity.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Professional conduct is the field of regulation of members of professional bodies, either acting under statutory or contractual powers.Historically, professional conduct was wholly undertaken by the private professional bodies, the sole legal authority for which was of a contractual nature. These bodies commonly established codes of conduct and ethical codes for the guidance of their members.\nIn certain areas, where the public interest is considered to be heavily engaged, legislation has been enacted, either replacing professional regulation by statutory legislation, or by a form of supervision of the professional body by a statutory body.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Regulation of electronic cigarettes varies across countries and states, ranging from no regulation to banning them entirely. For instance, e-cigarettes were illegal in Japan, which forced the market to use heat-not-burn tobacco products for cigarette alternatives. Others have introduced strict restrictions and some have licensed devices as medicines such as in the UK. However, as of February 2018, there is no e-cigarette device that has been given a medical license that is commercially sold or available by prescription in the UK.:\u200a46\u200a As of 2015, around two thirds of major nations have regulated e-cigarettes in some way. Because of the potential relationship with tobacco laws and medical drug policies, e-cigarette legislation is being debated in many countries. The companies that make e-cigarettes have been pushing for laws that support their interests. In 2016 the US Department of Transportation banned the use of e-cigarettes on commercial flights. This regulation applies to all flights to and from the US. In 2018, the Royal College of Physicians asked that a balance is found in regulations over e-cigarettes that ensure product safety while encouraging smokers to use them instead of tobacco, as well as keep an eye on any effects contrary to the control agencies for tobacco.The legal status of e-cigarettes is currently pending in many countries. Many countries such as Brazil, Singapore, Uruguay, and India have banned e-cigarettes. Canada-wide in 2014, they were technically illegal to sell, as no nicotine-containing e-cigarettes are not regulated by Health Canada, but this is generally unenforced and they are commonly available for sale Canada-wide. In 2016, Health Canada announced plans to regulate vaping products. In the US and the UK, the use and sale to adults of e-cigarettes are legal.:\u200aUS\u200a:\u200aUK\u200a The revised EU Tobacco Products Directive came into effect May 2016, providing stricter regulations for e-cigarettes. It limits e-cigarette advertising in print, on television and radio, along with reducing the level of nicotine in liquids and reducing the flavors used. It does not ban vaping in public places. It requires the purchaser for e-cigarettes to be at least 18 and does not permit buying them for anyone less than 18 years of age.:\u200a39\u200a The updated Tobacco Products Directive has been disputed by tobacco lobbyists whose businesses could be impacted by these revisions. As of August 8, 2016, the FDA extended its regulatory power to include e-cigarettes, e-liquid and all related products. Under this ruling the FDA will evaluate certain issues, including ingredients, product features and health risks, as well their appeal to minors and non-users. The FDA rule also bans access to minors. A photo ID is now required to buy e-cigarettes, and their sale in all-ages vending machines is not permitted in the US. As of August 2017, regulatory compliance deadlines relating to premarket review requirements for most e-cigarette and e-liquid products have been extended from November 2017 to August 8, 2022, which attracted a lawsuit filed by the American Heart Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, the Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, and other plaintiffs. In May 2016 the FDA used its authority under the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act to deem e-cigarette devices and e-liquids to be tobacco products, which meant it intended to regulate the marketing, labelling, and manufacture of devices and liquids; vape shops that mix e-liquids or make or modify devices were considered manufacturing sites that needed to register with FDA and comply with good manufacturing practice regulation. E-cigarette and tobacco companies have recruited lobbyists in an effort to prevent the FDA from evaluating e-cigarette products or banning existing products already on the market.In February 2014 the European Parliament passed regulations requiring standardization and quality control for liquids and vaporizers, disclosure of ingredients in liquids, and child-proofing and tamper-proofing for liquid packaging. In April 2014 the FDA published proposed regulations for e-cigarettes. In the US some states tax e-cigarettes as tobacco products, and some state and regional governments have broadened their indoor smoking bans to include e-cigarettes. As of April 2017, 12 US states and 615 localities had prohibited the use of e-cigarettes in venues in which traditional cigarette smoking was prohibited. In 2015, at least 48 states and 2 territories had banned e-cigarette sales to minors.E-cigarettes containing nicotine have been listed as drug delivery devices in a number of countries, and the marketing of such products has been restricted or put on hold until safety and efficacy clinical trials are conclusive. Since they do not contain tobacco, television advertising in the US is not restricted. Some countries have regulated e-cigarettes as a medical product even though they have not approved them as a smoking cessation aid. A 2014 review stated the emerging phenomenon of e-cigarettes has raised concerns in the health community, governments, and the general public and recommended that e-cigarettes should be regulated to protect consumers. It added, \"heavy regulation by restricting access to e-cigarettes would just encourage continuing use of much unhealthier tobacco smoking.\" A 2014 review said regulation of the e-cigarette should be considered on the basis of reported adverse health effects.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Regulator shopping is the choosing of a government or state regulating agency or body that imposes on the choosing entity   regulatory treatment more favorable than that which would be obtained from another regulating agency or body that also has the authority to regulate the choosing entity. Regulator shopping may be an example of a \"race to the bottom\" practice.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A regulatory impact analysis or regulatory impact assessment (RIA) is a document created before a new government regulation is introduced. RIAs are produced in many countries, although their scope, content, role and influence on policy making vary.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Regulatory law refers to secondary legislation, including regulations, promulgated by an executive branch agency under a delegation from a legislature. It contrasts with statutory law promulgated by the legislative branch, and common law or case law promulgated by the judicial branch.\nRegulatory law also refers to the law that governs conduct of administrative agencies (both promulgation of regulations, and adjudication of applications or disputes), and judicial review of agency decisions, usually called administrative law. Administrative law is promulgated by the legislature (and refined by judicial common law) for governing agencies.\nThe administrative agencies create procedures to regulate applications, licenses, appeals and decision making. In the United States, the Administrative Procedure Act is responsible for all federal agency policies.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Sakigake (\u3055\u304d\u304c\u3051, lit. \"pathfinder\", \"harbinger\") is a drug designation by the Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency, the pharmaceuticals regulator of Japan. It was designed to provide easier access to novel advanced treatments. It is analogous to the Regenerative Medicine Advanced Therapy designation in the United States and the Advanced Therapy Medicinal Product designation in the European Union.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The regulation of science refers to use of law, or other ruling, by academic or governmental bodies to allow or restrict science from performing certain practices, or researching certain scientific areas.\nScience could be regulated by legislation if areas are seen as harmful, immoral, or dangerous. For these reasons science regulation may be closely related to religion, culture and society.\nScience regulation is often a bioethical issue related to practices such as abortion and euthanasia, and areas of research such as stem-cell research and cloning synthetic biology.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A secure signature creation device (SSCD) is a specific type of computer hardware or software that is used in creating an electronic signature. To be put into service as a secure signature creation device, the device must meet the rigorous requirements laid out under Annex II of Regulation (EU) No 910/2014 (eIDAS), where it is referred to as a qualified (electronic) signature creation device (QSCD). Using secure signature creation devices helps in facilitating online business processes that save time and money with transactions made within the public and private sectors.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Sewage disposal regulation and administration describes the governance of sewage treatment and disposal.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The regulation of sport is usually done by a sport governing body for each sport, resulting in a core of relatively invariant, agreed rules. People responsible for leisure activities often seek recognition and respectability as sports by joining sports federations such as the International Olympic Committee, or by forming their own regulatory body.  In this way sports evolve from leisure activity to more formal sports: relatively recent newcomers are BMX cycling, snowboarding, wrestling,  etc. Some of these activities have been popular but uncodified pursuits for different lengths of time. Indeed, the formal regulation of sport is a relatively modern and increasing development. This method promotes a sport globally, in a very successful way. It also promotes the universality of each sport, by ensuring that the same gameplay rules are being practiced worldwide, using a standardized/homogenous international gameplay rule system (sanctioned by the respective international sports governing bodies) that is applied uniformly on all member associations and recognized leagues. Examples are FIFA in association football and FIBA in basketball, which have regulated international gameplay rules that are even practiced within US sports leagues today, despite not practicing them historically (which therefore meant that many US sports leagues weren't recognized by international governing bodies in the past, until they began to adopt international rules). In the sport of basketball the defender/defense cannot call foul.\nFormula One motor racing is an example of strict and changing regulation, where the regulating body appears to control rather than to simply define the sport. There have been major changes in the rules of F1 recently, almost on an annual basis, and more are planned. Sometimes this is done for safety reasons, sometimes to make the racing more interesting as a spectator sport, and sometimes to promote competition through involvement of smaller teams. Some changes make overtaking more probable for example or reduce the probability of an overwhelming technical advantage by any one team. Although heavily regulated, most people agree that the sport has thereby greatly benefitted, not least through dramatic leaps in safety.\nThe degree of organisation can vary from national or worldwide  competitions for the sport, or it can occur in a  purely ad hoc, spontaneous way. A sport may be played individually (e.g. time trialling in cycling) or in a team,  or just for recreation and well being (e.g. swimming).\nSome challenging situations have had to be dealt with when  there is an overlap of the regulation of the sport  with other forms of regulation, e.g. safety (There have been serious losses of life in football audiences, through stand collapses or poor crowd management), or simple laws of the land (Some inadvertent or otherwise physical interchanges occur between participants: when is it acceptable for the sport regulating authority alone to investigate and if necessary punish these? Can there be economic or public relations pressures affecting these issues?)\nThe broadcasting of sports events is also highly regulated, with contracts limiting who can show footage.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A tariff or tariff schedule is a special type of contract between a regulatory agency, such as a public utilities commission or a government such as a municipality, and a business, to provide a product or service to the public, often in exchange for being granted an exclusive franchise to provide the tariffed product or service within an exclusive area.\nTariffs have generally been required for providers of public utilities such as water, natural gas, electricity, telephone, and cable television. They have also generally been required for such businesses as moving companies, taxicabs, and tow truck operators. In most cases, the company wanting to offer the service would obtain a franchise, granting them the exclusive right to provide the tariffed product or service to a specific area either permanently or for a specific number of years (with the right to renew).\nThe company intending to provide the product or service would write a legal proposal describing exactly what product(s) or service(s) were to be provided and the price(s) to be charged for them. This proposal would then be submitted to (\"filed with\") a regulatory agency such as a public utilities commission, or, in some cases, a municipality such as a county, city, town, or township, for approval. The proposal is a type of contact between the regulatory  agency and the business providing the product of services. If the contract is approved (either with or without changes) it is considered a tariff, and the company will be permitted to provide the tariffed goods or services at the rates specified in the tariff. In many cases the granting of a tariff also granted the exclusive privilege to provide the product(s) or service(s) within a specific geographic area.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Trade regulation is a field of law, often bracketed with antitrust (as in the phrase \u201cantitrust and trade regulation law\u201d), including government regulation of unfair methods of competition and unfair or deceptive business acts or practices. Antitrust law is often considered a subset of trade regulation law. Franchise and distribution law, consumer protection law, and advertising law are sometimes considered parts of trade regulation law.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Trans fat regulation,  that aims to limit the amount of \"trans fat\" \u2014 fat containing trans fatty acids \u2014 in industrial food products, has been enacted in many countries.  These regulations were motivated by numerous studies that pointed to significant negative health effects of trans fat.  It is generally accepted that trans fat in the diet is a contributing factor in several diseases, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Vehicle regulations are requirements that automobiles must satisfy in order to be approved for sale or use in a particular country or region. They are usually mandated by legislation, and administered by a government body. The regulations concern aspects such as lighting, controls, crashworthiness, environment protection and theft protection, and might include safety belts or automated features.\n\nGovernment regulation in the automotive industry directly affects the way cars look, how their components are designed, the safety features that are included, and the overall performance of any given vehicle. As a result, these regulations also have a significant effect on the automotive business by generally increasing production costs while also placing limitations on how cars are sold and marketed. Automotive regulations are designed to benefit the consumer and protect the environment, and automakers can face stiff fines and other penalties if they are not followed.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Wage regulation refers to attempts by a government to regulate wages paid to citizens.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Religion in politics covers various topics related to the effects of religion on politics. Religion has been claimed to be \"the source of some of the most remarkable political mobilizations of our times\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In world politics, Jewish state is a characterization of Israel as the nation-state and sovereign homeland of the Jewish people.Modern Israel came into existence on 14 May 1948 as a polity to serve as the homeland for the Jewish people. It was also defined in its declaration of independence as a \"Jewish state\", a term that also appeared in the United Nations Partition Plan for British Palestine in 1947.  The related term of \"Jewish and democratic state\" dates from a 1992 legislation by Israel's Knesset.\nSince its establishment, Israel has passed many laws which reflect on the Jewish identity and values of the majority (about 75% in 2016) of its citizens. However, the secular-versus-religious debate in Israel in particular has focused debate on the Jewish nature of the state; another aspect of the debate is the status of minorities in Israel, most notably that of the Arab-Israeli population.\nIn pre-modern times, the religious laws of Judaism defined a number of prerogatives for a Halakhic state. However, when Theodor Herzl wrote Der Judenstaat (lit.\u2009'The Jewish State') in 1896 which birthed the Jewish movement of Zionism, he envisioned a state based on European models, which included religious institutions under the aegis of the state. In order to avoid alienating the Ottoman Sultan, there was no explicit reference to a Jewish state by the Zionist Organization that he founded. The phrase \"national home\" was used intentionally instead of \"state\".The 1942 Biltmore Program of the Zionist Organization explicitly proposed \"that Palestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth\". In 1946, the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, also known as the Grady\u2013Morrison Committee, noted that the demand for a Jewish state went beyond the obligations of either the Balfour Declaration or the British Mandate, and had been expressly disowned by the chairman of the Jewish Agency as recently as 1932.The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, which brought the British Mandate to an end in 1948, referred to a \"Jewish state\" and an \"Arab state\" in its plans for land allotment.\nThe term Jewish state has been in common usage in the media since the establishment of Israel, and the term has also been used interchangeably with Israel. George W. Bush used the term in his speeches and in an exchange of letters with Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon in 2004. Barack Obama has also used the phrase, for instance in a speech in September 2010 to the United Nations General Assembly. The Israeli government under prime minister Ehud Olmert made the recognition of Israel as a Jewish state by the State of Palestine a pre-condition in the peace negotiations, as did the government of his successor, Benjamin Netanyahu. However, Palestinians regard the demand for Jewish-state recognition as a trap\u2014a new demand that did not come up during years of negotiations in the 1990s or in peace treaties reached with Egypt and with Jordan. The Palestine Liberation Organization recognized the State of Israel as part of the Oslo Accords in 1993. Palestinians regard acceptance of the demand as giving up their right of return.On 19 July 2018, with a vote of 62 to 55 (2 abstained), the Knesset adopted a new Basic Law that defines Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Philosophy of religion is \"the philosophical examination of the central themes and concepts involved in religious traditions\". Philosophical discussions on such topics date from ancient times, and appear in the earliest known texts concerning philosophy. The field is related to many other branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.The philosophy of religion differs from religious philosophy in that it seeks to discuss questions regarding the nature of religion as a whole, rather than examining the problems brought forth by a particular belief-system. It can be carried out dispassionately by those who identify as believers or non-believers.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Most measures of religiosity, such as church attendance and affiliation, are positively correlated with the authoritarian personality cluster, which includes submission to authority, conventionality, and intolerance of out-groups. The correlation is especially strong between religious fundamentalism (defined as belief in an \"inerrant set of religious teachings\") and authoritarianism, both of which are characterized by low openness to experience, high rigidity, and low cognitive complexity. In particular, authoritarianism \"is positively associated with a religion that is conventional, unquestioned, and unreflective\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Religion and peacebuilding refer to the study of religion's role in the development of peace. \nNathan C. Funk and Christina J. Woolner categorize these approaches into three models. The first is \u201cpeace through religion alone\u201d. This proposes to attain world peace through devotion to a given religion. Opponents claim that advocates generally want to attain peace through their particular religion only and have little tolerance of other ideologies. \nThe second model, a response to the first, is \u201cpeace without religion\u201d. Critics claim that it is overly simplistic and fails to address other causes of conflict as well as the peace potential of religion. It is also said that this model excludes the many contributions of religious people in the development of peace. Another critique claims that both approaches require bringing everyone into their own ideology.\nThe third and final approach is known as \u201cpeace with religion\u201d. This approach focuses on the importance of coexistence and interfaith dialogue. Gerrie ter Haar suggests that religion is neither inherently good nor bad for peace, and that its influence is undeniable. Peace with religion, then, emphasises promoting the common principles present in every major religion.\nA major component of religion and peacebuilding is faith-based non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Douglas Johnston points out that faith-based NGOs offer two distinct advantages. The first is that since faith-based NGOs are very often locally based, they have immediate influence within that community. He argues that \u201cit is important to promote indigenous ownership of conflict prevention and peacebuilding initiatives as early in the process as possible.\u201d The second advantage Johnston presents is that faith-based NGOs carry moral authority that contributes to the receptivity of negotiations and policies for peace.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A religious exemption is a legal privilege that exempts members of a certain religion from a law, regulation, or requirement. Religious exemptions are often justified as a protection of religious freedom, and proponents of religious exemptions argue that complying with a law against one's faith is a greater harm than complying against a law that one otherwise disagrees with due to a fear of divine judgment. Opponents of religious exemptions argue that they mandate unequal treatment and undermine the rule of law.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Religious naturalism combines a naturalist worldview with ideals, perceptions, traditions, and values that have been traditionally associated with many religions or religious institutions. \"Religious naturalism is a perspective that finds religious meaning in the natural world and rejects the notion of a supernatural realm.\" The term religious in this context is construed in general terms, separate from the traditions, customs, or beliefs of any one of the established religions.Areas of inquiry include attempts to understand the natural world and the spiritual and moral implications of naturalist views. Understanding is based on knowledge obtained through scientific inquiry, and insights from the humanities and the arts. Religious naturalists use these perspectives when they respond to personal and social challenges (e.g. finding purpose, seeking justice, coming to terms with mortality) and concerning the natural world.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Religious symbolism in the United States military includes the use of religious symbols for military chaplain insignia, uniforms, emblems, flags, and chapels; symbolic gestures, actions, and words used in military rituals and ceremonies; and religious symbols or designations used in areas such as headstones and markers in national cemeteries, and military ID tags (\"dog tags\").\nSymbolism sometimes includes specific images included or excluded because of religious reasons, choices involving colors with religious significance, and \"religious accommodation\" policies regarding the wear of \"religious apparel\" and \"grooming\" (such as \"unshorn\" hair and beards worn for religious reasons) with military uniforms. Additionally, military chaplains themselves are sometimes regarded as \"symbols of faith\" for military personnel who face challenges to their faith and values.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Religious uniformity occurs when government is used to promote one state religion, denomination, or philosophy to the exclusion of all other religious beliefs.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Sacralism is the confluence of church and state wherein one is called upon to change the other. It also denotes a perspective that views church and state as tied together instead of separate entities so that people within a geographical and political region are considered members of the dominant ecclesiastical institution.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A secular state is an idea pertaining to secularity, whereby a state is or purports to be officially neutral in matters of religion, supporting neither religion nor irreligion. A secular state claims to treat all its citizens equally regardless of religion, and claims to avoid preferential treatment for a citizen based on their religious beliefs, affiliation or lack of either over those with other profiles.Although secular states have no state religion, the absence of an established state religion does not mean that a state is completely secular or egalitarian. For example, some states that describe themselves as secular have religious references in their national anthems and flags, or laws that benefit one religion or the other.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "State atheism is the incorporation of positive atheism or non-theism into political regimes. It may also refer to large-scale secularization attempts by governments.  It is a form of religion-state relationship that is usually ideologically linked to irreligion and the promotion of irreligion to some extent. State atheism may refer to a government's promotion of anti-clericalism, which opposes religious institutional power and influence in all aspects of public and political life, including the involvement of religion in the everyday life of the citizen. In some instances, religious symbols and public practices that were once held by religion were replaced with secularized versions. State atheism can also exist in a politically neutral fashion, in which case it is considered as non-secular.The majority of communist states followed similar policies from 1917 onwards. The Soviet Union (1922\u20131991) had a long history of state atheism, whereby those seeking social success generally had to profess atheism and to stay away from houses of worship; this trend became especially militant during the middle of the Stalinist era which lasted from 1929 to 1939. In Eastern Europe, countries like Belarus, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Russia, and Ukraine experienced strong state atheism policies. East Germany and Czechoslovakia also had similar policies. The Soviet Union attempted to suppress public religious expression over wide areas of its influence, including places such as Central Asia. Either currently or in their past, China, North Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Cuba are or were officially atheist.\nIn contrast, a secular state purports to be officially neutral in matters of religion, supporting neither religion nor irreligion. In a review of 35 European states in 1980, 5 states were considered 'secular' in the sense of religious neutrality, 9 considered \"atheistic\", and 21 states considered \"religious\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Theocracy is a form of government in which one or more deities of some type are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries who manage the day-to-day affairs of the government.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Zuism (Icelandic: Z\u00faismi) is an Icelandic group established in the 2010s which claimed to be a modern Pagan new religious movement based on the Sumerian religion.After registering as a religious group in 2013 with three members, the group experienced significant surge in membership in 2015, under new management, when it announced that the government church funds to the Zuist Church would be reimbursed to every member. At its peak, the Church had around 3000 members. In the late 2010s, the Church underwent a significant decline after facing a number of legal troubles, including being prosecuted for fraud.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A black operation or black op is a covert or clandestine operation by a government agency, a military unit or a paramilitary organization; it can include activities by private companies or groups. Key features of a black operation are that it is secret and it is not attributable to the organization carrying it out. Such secrecy is often needed for deniability, due to the sometimes illegal or unethical nature of such operations.A single such activity may be called a black bag operation; that term is primarily used for covert or clandestine surreptitious entries into structures to obtain information for human intelligence operations. Such operations are known to have been carried out by the FBI, CIA, KGB, Mossad, MI6, ASIS, COMANF, DGSE, AISE, CNI, MSS, R&AW, DGFI, SVR, FSB and the intelligence services of other nations.The main difference between a black operation and one that is merely secret is that a black operation involves a significant degree of deception, to conceal who is behind it or to make it appear that some other entity is responsible (e.g. false flag operations).\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A black project is a highly classified, top-secret military or defense project that is not publicly acknowledged by government, military personnel, or contractors. Examples of United States military aircraft developed as black projects include the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk stealth attack aircraft and the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit stealth bomber, both of which were highly classified and publicly denied until they were ready to be announced to the public. In the United States, the formal term for a black project is special access program (SAP). The money that funds these projects is called the black budget.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Central Monitoring System, abbreviated to CMS, is a centralized telephone interception provisioning system installed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT), an Indian Government owned telecommunications technology development centre, and operated by Telecom Enforcement Resource and Monitoring (TERM) Cells. The CMC system is going to be set up in each major state collocated with the TERM Cells.  Telecom operators in India are required by law to give access to their networks to law enforcement agencies.\n\nThe Indian Government set up the Centralized Monitoring System (CMS) to automate the process of government-approved Lawful Interception & Monitoring of telecommunications. The Cabinet Committee on Security  approved the project of CMS with government funding of INR 400 Crores. Pilot trials have been completed and the system is anticipated to be progressively implemented from the end of the financial year.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Dishfire (stylised DISHFIRE) is a covert global surveillance collection system and database run by the United States of America's National Security Agency (NSA) and the United Kingdom's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) that collects hundreds of millions of text messages on a daily basis from around the world. A related analytic tool is known as Prefer.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "FIRSTFRUITS is a United States counterintelligence program and database that tracks unauthorized disclosures of intelligence material in the news media. The project's goal is to reduce losses of collection capability due to journalists. The database was created by the US Central Intelligence Agency, but then transferred to US National Security Agency. The database has thousands of unofficial and negative articles and authors. Maintenance of the program was outsourced to third parties like Booz Allen Hamilton. The program became known through whistleblower Edward Snowden.Joseph J. Brand, a senior US National Security Agency (NSA) official, was a leading advocate of a crackdown on leaks from whistleblowers in the US. In 2001 the NSA created a department and staffed it with \"leak trackers.\" The CIA hired a contractor \"to build [a] foreign knowledge database\". The program was funded by the CIA. The name played on the phrase \"the fruits of our labor\".According to Brand, \"Adversaries know more about SIGINT sources and methods today than ever before,\". Brand noted some disclosures came from the U.S. government's own official communications; and other secrets were acquired by foreign spies. But \"most often these disclosures occur through the media.\" Brand listed four \"flagrant media leakers\" in his presentation: The Washington Post, The New York Times, The New Yorker, and The Washington Times. Journalist tracked in the database include Bill Gertz, Seymour Hersh, James Bamford, James Risen, Vernon Loeb, John C. K. Daly, and Barton Gellman.Journalist in the database are tracked by the intelligence agency with regular reports going to the Federal Bureau of Investigation and Department of Justice for possible prosecution.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Karma Police (usually capitalised as KARMA POLICE) is the code name for an Internet mass surveillance and data collection programme operated by the United Kingdom's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ).\nIn 2015, documents obtained by The Intercept from U.S. National Security Agency whistleblower Edward Snowden revealed that GCHQ had carried out the KARMA POLICE operation since about 2008. The KARMA POLICE operation swept up the IP address of Internet users visiting websites. The program was established with no public scrutiny or oversight. KARMA POLICE is a powerful spying tool in conjunction with other GCHQ programs, because IP addresses could be cross-referenced with other data. The goal of the program, according to the documents, was \"either (a) a web browsing profile for every visible user on the internet, or (b) a user profile for every visible website on the internet.\"Karma Police was apparently named after the Radiohead song \"Karma Police\", which includes the lyric \"This is what you\u2019ll get when you mess with us\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Law Enforcement Information Exchange is a database which is maintained by the Naval Criminal Investigative Service. Eugene R. Fidell described the database as constituting domestic spying.\nAccording to the NCIS website,The Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS) launched the Law Enforcement Information Exchange (LInX) initiative in 2003.  LInX is designed to enhance information sharing between local, state, and federal law enforcement in areas of strategic importance to the Department of the Navy.  LInX provides participating law enforcement partner agencies with secure access to regional crime and incident data and the tools needed to process it, enabling investigators to search across jurisdictional boundaries to help solve crimes and resolve suspicious events.  LInX is designed to facilitate cooperation and sharing.  Ownership and control of the data remains with the agency that provided it.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "MUSCULAR (DS-200B), located in the United Kingdom, is the name of a surveillance program jointly operated by Britain's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) and the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) that was revealed by documents released by Edward Snowden and interviews with knowledgeable officials. GCHQ is the primary operator of the program. GCHQ and the NSA have secretly broken into the main communications links that connect the data centers of Yahoo! and Google. Substantive information about the program was made public at the end of October 2013.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Operation Anarchist was a joint operation between the American National Security Agency and British Government Communications Headquarters to monitor advanced weapons systems in the Middle East, with a particular focus on Israel. Begun in 1998, it was publicly exposed in January 2016 as a result of documents released by Edward Snowden. It has been called the worst intelligence breach in Israel's history.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Operation Legacy was a British Colonial Office (later Foreign Office) programme to destroy or hide files, to prevent them being inherited by its ex-colonies. It ran from the 1950s until the 1970s, when the decolonisation of the British Empire was at its height.MI5 or Special Branch agents vetted all secret documents in the colonial administrations to find those that could embarrass the British government\u2014for instance by showing racial or religious bias. They identified 8,800 files to conceal from at least 23 countries and territories in the 1950s and 1960s, and destroyed them or sent them to the United Kingdom. Precise instructions were given for methods to be used for destruction, including burning and dumping at sea. Some of the files detailed torture methods used against opponents of the colonial administrations, such as during the Mau Mau Uprising.As decolonisation progressed, British officials were keen to avoid a repeat of the embarrassment that had been caused by the overt burning of documents that took place in New Delhi in 1947, which had been covered by Indian news sources. On 3 May 1961, Iain Macleod, who was Secretary of State for the Colonies, wrote a telegram to all British embassies to advise them on the best way to retrieve and dispose of sensitive documents. To prevent post-colonial governments from ever learning about Operation Legacy, officials were required to dispatch \"destruction certificates\" to London. In some cases, as the handover date approached, the immolation task proved so huge that colonial administrators warned the Foreign Office that there was a danger of \"celebrating Independence Day with smoke.\"Academic study of the end of the British Empire has been assisted in recent years by the declassification of the migrated archives in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) 141 series. After the UK government admitted in 2011 that it had secret documents related to the Mau Mau Uprising, it began to declassify documents and by November 2013 some 20,000 files had been declassified. These documents can now be accessed at the National Archives in Kew, London.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Operation Socialist is the code name given by the British signals and communications agency Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) to an operation in which GCHQ successfully breached the infrastructure of the Belgian telecommunications company Belgacom between 2010 and 2013. The operation's existence was first revealed in documents leaked by the former National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden. GCHQ used a method called Quantum Insert attack embedded in fake LinkedIn pages targeting Belgacom engineers.  The breach was conducted under the code name 'OP Socialist'. The main target of the clandestine infiltration was to gain access to Belgacom's GRX Operator to enable GCHQ to obtain roaming data for mobile devices and execute what is generally referred to as Man-in-the-middle attack against targets.\nWhen the first anomalies were detected in 2012, Belgacom's security team were unable to identify their cause. Only in 2013 malware disguised as legitimate Microsoft software had been identified as the source of problems.According to the leaked documents GCHQ probed Belgacom's infrastructure for years.  According to the leaked documents 'Operation Socialist' has been qualified by the head of the GCHQ's Network Analysis Centre as a success.Snowden subsequently described Operation Socialist as the \"first documented example to show one EU member state mounting a cyber attack on another\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "PRISM is a code name for a program under which the United States National Security Agency (NSA) collects internet communications from various U.S. internet companies. The program is also known by the SIGAD US-984XN. PRISM collects stored internet communications based on demands made to internet companies such as Google LLC under Section 702 of the FISA Amendments Act of 2008 to turn over any data that match court-approved search terms. Among other things, the NSA can use these PRISM requests to target communications that were encrypted when they traveled across the internet backbone, to focus on stored data that telecommunication filtering systems discarded earlier, and to get data that is easier to handle.PRISM began in 2007 in the wake of the passage of the Protect America Act under the Bush Administration. The program is operated under the supervision of the U.S. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISA Court, or FISC) pursuant to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA). Its existence was leaked six years later by NSA contractor Edward Snowden, who warned that the extent of mass data collection was far greater than the public knew and included what he characterized as \"dangerous\" and \"criminal\" activities. The disclosures were published by The Guardian and The Washington Post on June 6, 2013. Subsequent documents have demonstrated a financial arrangement between the NSA's Special Source Operations (SSO) division and PRISM partners in the millions of dollars.Documents indicate that PRISM is \"the number one source of raw intelligence used for NSA analytic reports\", and it accounts for 91% of the NSA's internet traffic acquired under FISA section 702 authority.\" The leaked information came after the revelation that the FISA Court had been ordering a subsidiary of telecommunications company Verizon Communications to turn over logs tracking all of its customers' telephone calls to the NSA.U.S. government officials have disputed criticisms of PRISM in the Guardian and Washington Post articles and have defended the program, asserting that it cannot be used on domestic targets without a warrant. Additionally claiming the program has helped to prevent acts of terrorism, and that it receives independent oversight from the federal government's executive, judicial and legislative branches. On June 19, 2013, U.S. President Barack Obama, during a visit to Germany, stated that the NSA's data gathering practices constitute \"a circumscribed, narrow system directed at us being able to protect our people.\"", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Psychic driving was a psychiatric procedure of the 1950s and 1960s in which patients were subjected to a continuously repeated audio message on a looped tape to alter their behaviour. In psychic driving, patients were often exposed to hundreds of thousands of repetitions of a single statement over the course of their treatment. They were also concurrently administered muscular paralytic drugs such as curare to subdue them for the purposes of exposure to the looped message(s). The procedure was pioneered by Dr. D. Ewen Cameron, and used and funded by the CIA's Project MKUltra program in Canada.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Royal Concierge is the codename of a secret GCHQ program that watches the bookings made at select hotels worldwide.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Sentry Eagle, the National Initiative Protection Program, is a compartmented program of the National Security Agency's (NSA) Central Security Service (CSS) and the US Strategic Command Joint Functional Component Command - Network Warfare (JFCC-NW). Its existence was revealed during the 2013 global surveillance disclosure by Edward Snowden.\nThe program's efforts to protect America's cyberspace includes efforts to plan, synchronize, and attack an adversary's cyberspace through Computer Network Attack (CNA). The combination of those efforts are referred to as NSA/CSS's and JFCC-NW's core Computer Network Operations (CNO).\nThe CNO capabilities include SIGINT, Computer Network Exploitation (CNE), Information Assurance, Computer Network Defense (CND), Network Warfare, and Computer Network Attack (CNA).\nSentry Eagle includes six sub-programs:\n\nSentry Hawk (for activities involving computer network exploitation, or spying)\nSentry Falcon (computer network defense)\nSentry Osprey (cooperation with the CIA and other intelligence agencies)\nSentry Raven (breaking encryption systems)\nSentry Condor (computer network operations and attacks)\nSentry Owl (collaborations with private companies)", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "STATEROOM is the code name of a highly secretive signals intelligence collection program involving the interception of international radio, telecommunications and internet traffic. It is operated out of the diplomatic missions of the signatories to the UKUSA Agreement and the members of the ECHELON network including Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom, Canada and the United States.In almost a hundred U.S. embassies and consulates worldwide, Stateroom operations are conducted by the Special Collection Service (SCS), a unit that is jointly operated by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Security Agency (NSA).According to documents leaked by Edward Snowden, the true mission of Stateroom personnel is generally not revealed to the rest of the diplomatic staff at the facilities where they are assigned.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Tempora is the codeword for a formerly-secret computer system that is used by the British Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ). This system is used to buffer most Internet communications that are extracted from fibre-optic cables, so these can be processed and searched at a later time. It was tested from 2008 and became operational in late 2011.Tempora uses intercepts on the fibre-optic cables that serve as the backbone of the Internet to gain access to large amounts of Internet users' personal data, without any individual suspicion or targeting. The intercepts are placed in the United Kingdom and overseas, with the knowledge of companies owning either the cables or landing stations.The existence of Tempora was revealed by Edward Snowden, a former American intelligence contractor who leaked information about the program to former Guardian journalist Glenn Greenwald in May 2013 as part of his revelations of government-sponsored mass surveillance programs. Documents Snowden acquired showed that data collected by the Tempora program is shared with the National Security Agency of the United States.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "TURBINE is the codename of an automated system which in essence enables the automated management and control of a large network of implants (a form of remotely transmitted malware on selected individual computer devices or in bulk on tens of thousands of devices).\nThe NSA has built an infrastructure which enables it to covertly hack into computers on a mass scale by using automated systems that reduce the level of human oversight in the process. As quoted by The Intercept, TURBINE is designed to \"allow the current implant network to scale to large size (millions of implants) by creating a system that does automated control implants by groups instead of individually.\" The NSA has shared many of its files on the use of implants with its counterparts in the so-called Five Eyes surveillance alliance \u2013 the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.\nAmong other things due to TURBINE and its control over the implants the NSA is capable of:\n\nbreaking into targeted computers and to siphoning out data from foreign Internet and phone networks\ninfecting a target's computer and exfiltrating files from a hard drive\ncovertly recording audio from a computer's microphone and taking snapshots with its webcam\nlaunching cyberattacks by corrupting and disrupting file downloads or denying access to websites\nexfiltrating data from removable flash drives that connect to an infected computerThe TURBINE implants are linked to, and relies upon, a large network of clandestine surveillance \"sensors\" that the NSA has installed at locations across the world, including the agency's headquarters in Maryland (Fort George G. Meade) and eavesdropping bases used by the agency in Misawa, Japan (Misawa Air Base) and Menwith Hill, England (RAF Menwith Hill). Codenamed as TURMOIL, the sensors operate as a sort of high-tech surveillance dragnet, monitoring packets of data as they are sent across the Internet. When TURBINE implants exfiltrate data from infected computer systems, the TURMOIL sensors automatically identify the data and return it to the NSA for analysis. And when targets are communicating, the TURMOIL system can be used to send alerts or \"tips\" to TURBINE, enabling the initiation of a malware attack. To identify surveillance targets, the NSA uses a series of data \"selectors\" as they flow across Internet cables. These selectors can include email addresses, IP addresses, or the unique \"cookies\" containing a username or other identifying information that are sent to a user's computer by websites such as Google, Facebook, Hotmail, Yahoo, and Twitter, unique Google advertising cookies that track browsing habits, unique encryption key fingerprints that can be traced to a specific user, and computer IDs that are sent across the Internet when a Windows computer crashes or updates.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "AUSKey was a piece of software designed as an alternate, more secure authentication method for businesses and users of Australian Government websites. The software was developed by Verizon Business, and launched by the Australian Tax Office in April 2010 to replace client certificates. In January 2020, it was announced that AUSKey would be retired and superseded in March that year by the newly released myGovID. On April 1, 2020 AUSKey was retired. AUSKey was available primarily as a browser extension for Firefox, Chrome, and Safari, as well as a special Firefox based web browser designed for use with a USB flash drive. AUSKey was available in two flavours, the \"administrator\" and \"standard\" types, designed for organisation administrators and users respectively.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Automated System for Customs Data (ASYCUDA) is a computerized system designed by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) to administer a country's customs. In 2004 there were more than 50 operational projects with expenditures exceeding US$7 million. It is the largest technical cooperation programme of the UNCTAD, covering over 80 countries and 4 regional projects.\nThere are three generations of ASYCUDA in use: ASYCUDA version 2.7, ASYCUDA++  and ASYCUDA World. They were built using different paradigms and solutions available at conception. ASYCUDA World is the most recent version. Cape Verde adopted use of ASYCUDA World in January 2016.UNCTAD's aim was to build a computer system to assist customs authorities (or their local equivalents) all over the world to automate and control their core processes and obtain timely, accurate and valuable information to support government projections and planning.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "BlueTrace is an open-source application protocol that facilitates digital contact tracing of users to stem the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. Initially developed by the Singaporean Government, BlueTrace powers the contact tracing for the TraceTogether app. Australia, New Zealand, and the United Arab Emirates have already adopted the protocol in their gov apps, and other countries were considering BlueTrace for adoption. A principle of the protocol is the preservation of privacy and health authority co-operation.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "CalWIN is an online, real-time computer program that supports the administration of welfare in California. These include CalWORKs (TANF), CalFresh (food stamps), Medi-Cal (Medicaid), General Assistance/General Relief, Foster Care, and case management functions for employment services. It facilitates accounting and management reports, interfaces with the California state government, and satisfies the US federal mandate for the Statewide Automated Welfare System (SAWS).\nCalWin stands for either California Work Opportunity and Responsibility to Kids Information Network or California Welfare Information Network.:\u200a30\u200a", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "careFIJI is a mobile software application developed by the Government of Fiji to assist the Ministry of Health and Medical Services in combating the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in Fiji. The mobile app is available on Google Play and the App Store.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Civic application is application software aiming at users' activation to participate in public good development through this application. In civil societies, civic applications are created to enhance public good, civic engagement, and generally social capital.\nCivic applications can for example aim at:\n\ndevelopment of engaged citizenship,\nstrengthening of local communities,\ngrowth of democracy,\nsupporting entrepreneurship,\nprotection of nature and a common living space, etc.Civic applications are to some extent often social networking services, but what distinguishes them is the civic goal, the mission funding its existence.\nInteraction between the user and the application is what differentiates civic applications from any IT service (website, portal) speaking about any citizen's topics, where interaction is not necessary and if exists often takes form of commenting under articles.\nCivic application can be accessed from a server via an Internet browser (online) or using mobile devices, such as mobile phones or tablets (mobile), less often from user's local drive (offline).\nNon-Governmental Organisations and public national institutions are noticing the value of the civic apps and invite people working in Information Technology domain to participate in their development (e.g. in Greater Portland, Chicago, Boston, Boulder, Washington D.C, Seattle and other American cities as part of the Code For America initiative). Very often they are created as part of \"hackatons\", IT development  competitions.Civic applications are part of a greater concept of civic technologies, which encompass variety of civic applications, together with any software tools and platforms, enabling its development or hosting, and the software supporting local and national governments in performing their public functions.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Computer Online Forensic Evidence Extractor (COFEE) is a tool kit, developed by Microsoft, to help computer forensic investigators extract evidence from a Windows computer. Installed on a USB flash drive or other external disk drive, it acts as an automated forensic tool during a live analysis. Microsoft provides COFEE devices and online technical support free to law enforcement agencies.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Coronavirus Australia is an app released by the Australian Government designed to allow users to access information about the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. The app was developed by Delv Pty Ltd for the Department of Health and released on 29 March 2020. Since release the app has been downloaded over a million times and ranked first in the Apple App Store's \"Health and Fitness\" category. Due to the short development period of two weeks, the app initially served primarily as an aggregate of links to official government websites. Shortly after an update was released adding a voluntary \"isolation registration\" form that collected the location, name, age, mobile phone number, isolation start date, and various other details about users who were self isolating.On 14 April 2020 a separate contact tracing app, COVIDSafe, was announced based on Singapore's TraceTogether app and BlueTrace protocol.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "COVID Tracker Ireland is a digital contact tracing app released by the Irish Government and the Health Service Executive on 7 July 2020 to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in Ireland. The app uses ENS and Bluetooth technology to determine whether a user have been a close contact of someone for more than 15 minutes who tested positive for COVID-19. On 8 July, the app reached one million registered users within 36 hours after its launch, representing more than 30% of the population of Ireland and over a quarter of all smartphone users in the country. As of August 2021, over 3,030,000 people have downloaded the app.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application, abbreviated as COCOA, is a COVID-19 application for smartphones provided by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan. The application uses Bluetooth to detect and record suspected close contacts between users. If the contact is diagnosed with COVID-19, the user will be notified. After receiving the notification, the user can consider self-isolation or go to a medical institution for treatment.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "COVIDSafe is a digital contact tracing app announced by the Australian Government on 14 April 2020 to help combat the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The app is based on the BlueTrace protocol, originally developed by the Singaporean Government, and was first released on 26 April 2020. The app is intended to augment traditional contact tracing by automatically tracking encounters between users and later allowing a state or territory health authority to warn a user they have come within 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) with an infected person for 15 minutes or more.  The app will be decommissioned on 16 August 2022, having found only 2 confirmed cases during its lifespan and costing $21 million dollars.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Diia (Action) (Ukrainian: \u0414\u0456\u044f, lit.\u2009'Action'; also an acronym for Ukrainian: \u0414\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0432\u0430 \u0456 \u042f, romanized: Derzhava i Ya, lit.\u2009'State and Me') is a mobile app, a web portal and a brand of e-governance in Ukraine.Launched in 2020, the Diia app allows Ukrainian citizens to use digital documents in their smartphones instead of physical ones for identification and sharing purposes. The Diia portal allows access to over 50 governmental services. Eventually, the government plans to make all kinds of state-person interactions available through Diia.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "This is a partial list of State of California enterprise computing systems:", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Fabasoft eGov-Suite is an application software product for document and records management for the public sector. For example, the software is used to implement eGovernment in the Federal Republic of Austria.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Flame-Sim is a fire department training simulation software package that is targeted toward fire departments to assist their training efforts for fireground operations. This training is generally focused on the reinforcement of both the department specific and National Fire Protection Association (and National Incident Management System) standard operating procedures and guidelines for improving tactical decisions during a real structure fire.  In general terms, the software is a computer-based training tool for handling communication and activity on a fireground.\nFlame-Sim is developed by Flame-Sim, LLC, which is located in Hoffman Estates, Illinois.  The company was established in 2007 with the intent on creating a training platform for firefighters to train in a virtual environment.  In June, 2008, they released Flame-Sim 1.0.  This was subsequently updated with new features and environments in October, 2009.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Government off-the-shelf (GOTS) is a term for software and hardware government products that are ready to use and which were created and are owned by a government agency.Typically GOTS products are developed by the technical staff of the government agency for which it is created. It is sometimes developed by an external entity but with funding and specification from the agency. Because agencies can directly control all aspects of GOTS products, these are sometimes preferred for government purposes.\nGOTS software solutions can normally be shared among government agencies without additional cost. GOTS hardware solutions are typically provided at cost (i.e., R&D costs are not recouped).\nThe government pays for all the development and maintenance costs of GOTS products. GOTS products run the risk of becoming obsolescent when the government cannot afford those costs. Since GOTS products are created by the government for government use, this limits the number of users, which is another factor that can lead to obsolescence.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "HALRIS (Haryana Land Record Information System) is a Visual Basic/Microsoft SQL Server based software system used by the Haryana government for the computerisation of land records in its tehsils. It was developed by National Informatics Centre - Haryana State unit. The project was inaugurated on 1 November 2003 by Hon\u2019ble Chief Minister Ch. Om Prakash Chautala in Sirsa District on the occasion of Haryana Day. HALRIS has been implemented in all Tehsils and subtehsils of Haryana.\nNow the HALRIS System has been upgraded and called WebHalris. All the tehsils of Haryana State are now on WebHalris.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Integrated Case Management System (ICMS Singapore) is an internet-based system by the State Courts of Singapore. ICMS enables all criminal proceedings within the State Courts of Singapore to be conducted in an electronic environment using digital documents.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Interactive Scenario Builder (Builder) is a modeling and simulation, three-dimensional application developed by the Advanced Tactical Environmental Simulation Team (ATEST) at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) that aids in understanding radio frequency (RF) and electro-optical/infrared (EO/IR) propagation.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "IPL Information Processing Limited, commonly known as IPL, is a privately owned European software services company headquartered in Bath, UK, providing business consultancy, technical consultancy, IT solutions and support services. The firm was founded in 1979 and employs 278 staff. For the year ended 30 September 2014, the company posted a turnover of \u00a327.3m.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Local Economic Assessment Package (also known as \u201cEDR-LEAP\u201d or \u201cLEAP Model\u201d) is a web-based, interactive database and software tool used by local and regional agencies in the US to improve strategies for economic development.  It provides local economic performance measures, and benchmarks for comparison of economic development factors against competing regions.  It works by incorporating elements of economic base analysis as well as gap analysis and business cluster analysis to identify needs for improvement and paths for economic growth.\nThe LEAP Model was originally developed for the Appalachian Regional Commission.  Its theory and applications are discussed in peer-reviewed journal articles.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "myGovID is application software designed to allow users to authenticate with Australian Government websites and services. The app, developed by the Australian Tax Office and Digital Transformation Agency first launched in October 2019, with a public beta being performed earlier that year in June. myGovID was created to unify the various authentication methods employed by departments across federal and local governments, most notably AUSKey. The app allows users to verify their identity using biometrics such as fingerprints or facial recognition.As of January 2021, the iOS version of the MyGovID app has a 1.7 / 5 rating on the Apple App Store and a 2.6 / 5 rating on the Google Play Store, with an overwhelming number of one star reviews in both app stores. Common issues raised in customer reviews are that the app has poor security (it is possible to register an account using commonly available information such as a drivers licence number, and it is possible to register multiple accounts for the same individual), the app refuses to recognise government-issued ID, does not permit changing most details, and has poor user interface / functionality.On 1 April 2020, the Tax Office disabled its legacy AUSKey and \"Manage ABN Connections\" login methods in favour of myGovID. The subsequent traffic spike caused minor outages during the day.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "MySejahtera is a mobile application developed by the Government of Malaysia to facilitate contact tracing efforts in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia. The main goal is quick identification of persons who may have come into close contact with anyone who has tested positive for COVID-19.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "NemHandel is a Danish e-invoicing infrastructure, developed by the National IT and Telecom Agency and launched in 2007. NemHandel is based on open standards (including the Universal Business Language, Reliable Asynchronous Secure Profile (RASP), and UDDI), open source components, and digital certificates. It was launched as part of a Danish Government Globalisation initiative in 2005 under the auspices of Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen.\nThe public sector in Denmark receives more than 15 million electronic invoices every year from approximately 150,000 suppliers. Non-electronic invoices for a public sector institution will be rejected. There are more than 30,000 public sector e-invoicing end points. An end point can be everything from a municipality to a kindergarten or even a department within a public sector institution. End points are addressed via Global Location Numbers or via Company Registration Numbers (called CVR-numbers in Denmark).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "NRLMSISE-00 is an empirical, global reference atmospheric model of the Earth from ground to space. It models the temperatures and densities of the atmosphere's components. A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag. This model has also been used by astronomers to calculate the mass of air between telescopes and laser beams in order to assess the impact of laser guide stars on the non-lasing telescopes.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "NZ COVID Tracer is a mobile software application that enables a person to record places they have visited, in order to facilitate tracing who may have been in contact with a person infected with the COVID-19 virus. The app allows users to scan official QR codes at the premises of businesses and other organisations they visit, to create a digital diary. It was launched by New Zealand's Ministry of Health on 20 May 2020, during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. It can be downloaded from the App Store and Google Play.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The NZ Pass Verifier is a free mobile app developed by the New Zealand Ministry of Health for businesses and organisations to scan and verify their customers' My Vaccine Pass certificates. The app was launched on 23 November 2021 for use on smartphones.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Online Business Licensing Service  (OBLS) is a one-stop portal for businessmen to apply for all the required Singapore government licences in a single online transaction. The service routes all applications to various government agency for processing.\nThe World Bank has ranked Singapore first in the Ease of Doing Business Index. The OBLS system contributes to this ranking.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "SafeEntry is a national check-in system which enables the logging of visitors at various locations during the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore, allowing health authorities to track and isolate confirmed clusters. It is being used in tandem with TraceTogether, the national contact tracing platform in Singapore.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "SafePass is a digital contact tracing app used as a response against the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "SCISYS PLC was a pan-European computer software and services company based in the United Kingdom and Germany. The company was formed in 1980 as Science Systems and was acquired by CGI in 2019.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Sentinel is a software case management system developed by the US FBI with the aim to replace digital and paper processes with purely digital workflows during investigations. There was a previous failed project called Virtual Case File.\nThe project started in 2006 with a $425 million budget. After several delays, new leadership, a slightly bigger budget, and adoption of agile software development method, Sentinel was completed under budget and was in use agency-wide on July 1, 2012.An audit of the program in 2014, two years after completion, revealed ongoing issues with Sentinel's search function, with only 42 percent of surveyed FBI employees indicating that they often found results they needed. In spite of this, the audit was broadly positive, and found that most FBI employees reported that Sentinel enhanced their ability to enter and share case information.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "SIMDIS is a software toolset developed by Code 5770 at the US Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) that provides 2D and 3D interactive graphical and video displays of live and postprocessed simulation, test, and operational data. SIMDIS is a portmanteau of simulation and display.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Standard Procurement System (SPS) is a software suite providing front-office business services to Acquisition professionals in the United States Department of Defense.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "StaySafe.ph or Stay Safe is a digital contact tracing app launched by the Philippine government as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines. The mobile app was developed and published by MultiSys Technologies Corporation.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "TraceTogether is a digital system implemented by the Government of Singapore to facilitate contact tracing efforts in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore. The main goal is quick identification of persons who may have come into close contact with anyone who has tested positive for COVID-19. The system helps in identifying contacts such as strangers encountered in public one would not otherwise be able to identify or remember. Together with SafeEntry, it allows the identification of specific locations where a spread between close contacts may occur.\nReleased on 20 March 2020, the system initially consisted only of an app by the same name. However, this was later supplemented by a physical token mainly intended for elderly and children who may not own a smartphone, or those who prefer not to use the app. The app was the first main COVID-19 tracking app released in the world and its development encouraged the development of similar apps in other countries.The app has raised significant concerns about the privacy of those who use the app, especially due to a lack of decentralised report processing and access to the data by police. However, the app states it has several features to ensure users' privacy, such as regularly rotating users' IDs and storing limited data. Despite the concerns over privacy, the app was slowly adopted by the population of the Singapore, eventually reaching a 92% adoption rate in May 2021. The app is now also mandated for specific groups of people and those attempting to enter certain venues and events.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Veterans Health Information Systems and Technology Architecture (VISTA) is a health information system deployed across all veteran care sites in the United States. VISTA provides clinical, administrative, and financial functions for all of the 1700+ hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Health Administration VISTA consists of 180 clinical, financial, and administrative applications integrated within a single transactional database (see figure 1).\nThe Veterans Health Administration (VHA) is the largest integrated national healthcare delivery system in the United States, providing care for nearly 9 million veterans by 180,000 medical professionals.VISTA received the Computerworld Smithsonian Award for best use of Information Technology in Medicine, and continues to the present day to receive the highest physician satisfaction scores in national Electronic Health Record (EHR) surveys.  In 2014 and again in 2016  national surveys of over 15,000 physician users of EHRs rated VISTA with the highest overall satisfaction rating in the U.S. Over 65% of all physicians trained in the U.S. rotate through the VHA and use VISTA, making VISTA the most familiar EHR in the U.S.In May, 2018, the VA awarded a contract to Cerner Corp to replace VistA with the commercial off-the-shelf EHR, Cerner Millenium. Pilot implementations took place in the fall of 2020, and by November, 24 million veteran health records had been migrated to the new platform. The projected completion for migration of all VA sites is 2028.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A 21-gun salute is the most commonly recognized of the customary gun salutes that are performed by the firing of cannons or artillery as a military honor. As naval customs evolved, 21 guns came to be fired for heads of state, or in exceptional circumstances for heads of government, with the number decreasing with the rank of the recipient of the honor. While the 21-gun salute is the most commonly recognized, the number of rounds fired in any given salute will vary depending on the conditions. Circumstances affecting these variations include the particular occasion and, in the case of military and state funerals, the branch of service, and rank (or office) of the person to whom honors are being rendered.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "An audience is a formal meeting that takes place between a head of state and another person at the invitation of the head of state. Often, the invitation follows a request for a meeting from the other person. Though sometimes used in republics to describe meetings with presidents, the term is more usually associated with monarchs and popes.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Typical of British heraldry, a cap of maintenance, known in heraldic language as a chapeau gules turned up ermine, is a ceremonial cap of crimson velvet lined with ermine, which is worn or carried by certain persons as a sign of nobility or special honour. It is worn with the high part to the fore, the tapering tail behind. It may substitute for the torse (a twisted roll of fabric) in the heraldic achievement of a person of special honour granted the privilege by the monarch. It thus appears in such cases on top of the helm and below the crest. It does not, however, feature in the present royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, which shows the royal crest upon the royal crown, itself upon the royal helmet.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A ceremonial mace is a highly ornamented staff of metal or wood, carried before a sovereign or other high officials in civic ceremonies by a mace-bearer, intended to represent the official's authority. The mace, as used today, derives from the original mace used as a weapon. Processions often feature maces, as on parliamentary or formal academic occasions.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Ceremonial maces in the British Isles began as lethal weapons of medieval knights in England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, evolving into ceremonial objects carried by sergeants-at-arms. In the United Kingdom, they now represent the monarch's authority in parliaments and councils, and a royal mace is used at the State Opening of Parliament and British coronations. In the Republic of Ireland, the Great Mace of Dublin is still in use.\nSome British universities and Trinity College Dublin also have their own maces for ceremonial purposes.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "There were two types of soldiers serving in the Bundeswehr (Federal Defence Forces): regular units and conscripts. Consequently, there were also two types of oaths. Conscripts recited a pledge, since their service was compulsory and not unconditionally voluntary. Regular soldiers recited an oath in its true sense.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ceremony of the Flags (French: C\u00e9r\u00e9monie des drapeaux) (abbreviated as C of Fs) is a Canadian military music event usually held by unit of the Royal Canadian Navy. Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada, had started it in 1965. The display originated from the Sunset Ceremony that was held after the introduction of the Canadian Flag on Parliament Hill in 1965. The ceremony is also derived from the historical Beating Retreat that originated in the United Kingdom and a military tattoo. The first ceremony was held in 1967 in honor of Canada's centennial year celebrations. On Feb 15 1967, local cadet units and the HMCS Carleton Band performed during the first ceremony on Parliament Hill. It was the first ever flag day.   For the most part, the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets perform the ceremony annually, with the most prominent one being held at CSTC HMCS Quadra. In years past, naval youth cadet organizations from Australia, Sweden, South Korea, and the United Kingdom have been participants. The minimum requirement to perform the ceremony is 30 by 60 metres. This ceremony is performed once each year (Feb 15) to honor the canadian flags.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ceremony of the Keys is held in Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh, at the start of the British monarch's week-long residence there in July. Soon after the monarch's arrival, in the forecourt of the Palace, the Queen or King is symbolically offered the keys to the city of Edinburgh by the Lord Provost:\nWe, the Lord Provost and the members of the City of Edinburgh Council, welcome Your Majesty to the capital city of your Ancient and Hereditary Kingdom of Scotland and offer for your gracious acceptance the Keys of Your Majesty's good City of Edinburgh.\nThe monarch returns the keys, saying:\n\nI return these keys, being perfectly convinced that they cannot be placed in better hands than those of the Lord Provost and Councillors of my good City of Edinburgh.\nA Ceremony of the Keys is also held at the start of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland when the Lord High Commissioner, as the Monarch's representative, receives the keys from the Lord Provost.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ceremony of the Keys event is a re-enactment of the locking of the gates to the old Town and garrison of Gibraltar.\nDuring the 18th and 19th centuries, the sea came up to the defensive walls and there were four outer gates through which the town could be entered. Four keys locked these entrances to the town. The ceremony's origins date from the Great Siege of Gibraltar, which started in 1779 when French and Spanish troops attempted to capture Gibraltar. The keys were kept by the Governor who would hand them to the Port (Gate) Sergeant each evening at sunset, so that the four land entrances could be locked shut. The Gate Sergeant with an escort consisting of several armed soldiers, fife and drums would then march to each of the four gates in turn. He would be challenged by the sentry at the gate with the same words as used in London. Once all the gates were locked, the keys would be returned to the Governor at The Convent. In the morning, the Port Sergeant would once again collect the keys to open the town.\nDuring the Great Siege, the Governor, General Sir George Augustus Eliott, reputedly would carry the keys with him everywhere; it was rumoured he slept with them under his pillow at night.\nThe ceremony was reinstituted in 1933 and is currently performed twice a year (in April and October) by the Royal Gibraltar Regiment and visiting British units and bands. In the modern version of the ceremony, at the firing of the sunset gun, the Governor of Gibraltar symbolically hands the keys of the fortress to the Port Sergeant. The Port Sergeant, accompanied by an armed escort, marches away to symbolically lock the gates of the fortress for the night before returning the keys to the Governor. The party is also accompanied by drums and fifes, to sound a warning for aliens to leave before the gates are closed. The Ceremony is held only at one of the four gates, Grand Casemates Gates (the old Waterport Gates) at Casemates Square. At official dinners at the Governor's residence, the Keys are piped in by the Port Sergeant who hands them to the Governor declaring the fortress to be locked and safe, these are then placed on a cushion on the table where they remain during the meal.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ceremony of the Keys is an ancient ritual, held every evening at the Tower of London, when the main gates are locked for the night. It is said to be the oldest extant military ceremony in the world, and is the best-known ceremonial tradition of the Tower.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A change of command is a military tradition that represents a formal transfer of authority and responsibility for a unit from one commanding or flag officer to another. The passing of colors, standards, or ensigns from an outgoing commander to an incoming one ensures that the unit and its soldiers is never without official leadership, a continuation of trust, and also signifies an allegiance of soldiers to their unit's commander.\nGreat symbolism is attached to the ceremonial aspects of a change of command. An inspection and review of soldiers, gun salutes, as well as a military band will often be incorporated into the ceremony.For a Command Sergeant Major, the transferred item might be a saber during a Change of Responsibility, while for a Chaplain, the item might be the passing of a Clerical Stole.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A circlet is a piece of headwear that is similar to a diadem or a corolla. The word 'circlet' is also used to refer to the base of a crown or a coronet, with or without a cap. Diadem and circlet are often used interchangeably, and 'open crowns' with no arches (as opposed to 'closed crowns') have also been referred to as circlets. In Greek this is known as stephanos, and in Latin as corona aperta, although stephanos is associated more with laurel wreaths and the crown of thorns said to have been placed on the head of Jesus.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Confederation Boulevard (French: Boulevard de la Conf\u00e9d\u00e9ration) is a \"ceremonial and discovery route\" in Canada's National Capital Region, running through Parliament Hill and encompassing downtown areas in Ottawa and Gatineau. Some of Canada's most important institutions and landmarks lie along its route. During state visits, Confederation Boulevard is toured by foreign dignitaries. On Canada Day, much of Confederation Boulevard is closed to cars. Confederation Boulevard is an initiative of the National Capital Commission (NCC).The route's name commemorates Canadian Confederation.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A consort crown is a crown worn by the consort of a monarch for their coronation or on state occasions. \nUnlike with reigning monarchs, who may inherit one or more crowns for use, consorts sometimes had special crowns made uniquely for them and which were worn by no other later consort.\nAll British queens consort in the 20th century, Alexandra of Denmark, Mary of Teck and Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, wore their own specially made consort crowns, made in 1902, 1911 and 1937 respectively; (each went on to outlive her respective husband but, as a dowager, retained the title, crown and other privileges of a queen until death). Previous English and British queens consort had used the crown of Mary of Modena, wife of King James II, until Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, the consort of King William IV, who had a special new consort crown created for her. \nIn Imperial Russia, there were no unique consort crowns, because the Lesser Imperial Crown was intended to be used for coronation of all empresses consort, and after that, they did not wear crowns.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A coronation crown is a crown used by a monarch when being crowned. In some monarchies, monarchs have or had a number of crowns for different occasions, such as a coronation crown for the moment of coronation and a state  crown for general usage in state ceremonial.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Coronation Day is the anniversary of the coronation of a monarch, the day a king or queen is formally crowned and invested with the regalia.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Coronation of Bokassa I as the Emperor of Central Africa took place on 4 December 1977 at a sports stadium in Bangui, the capital of the Central African Empire. It was the only coronation in the history of the Empire\u2014a short-lived one-party state and self-proclaimed monarchy\u2014which was established in 1976 by Jean-B\u00e9del Bokassa, military dictator and president for life of the Central African Republic.\nThe coronation\u2014which was almost an exact copy of the coronation of Napoleon as Emperor of the French in 1804\u2014and related events were marked by luxury and pomp. Despite substantial material support from France, expenses amounted to over US$20 million ($90 million today) and caused serious damage to the state, leading to a huge outcry in Africa and around the world. After the coronation, Bokassa stayed in power for less than two years. In September 1979, Operation Caban took place in his absence. As a result, the monarchy was abolished and the country became a republic again.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A coronet is a small crown consisting of ornaments fixed on a metal ring. By one definition, a coronet differs from other kinds of crowns in that a coronet never has arches, and from a tiara in that a coronet completely encircles the head, while a tiara does not.  By a slightly different definition, a crown is worn by an emperor, empress, king or queen; a coronet by a nobleman or lady. See also diadem.\nIn other languages, this distinction is not made as usually the same word for crown is used irrespective of rank (Krone in German, kroon in Dutch, krona in Swedish, couronne in French, etc.)\nThe main use is now actually not on the head (indeed, many people entitled to a coronet never have one made; the same even applies to some monarchs' crowns, as in Belgium) but as a rank symbol in heraldry, adorning a coat of arms.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Court uniform and dress were required to be worn by those in attendance at the royal court in the 19th and early 20th centuries.\nSpecifically, court uniform was worn by those holding particular offices associated with the government, the Civil Service, the Royal Household, or similar national institutions. A range of office-holders were entitled to wear it, with different grades of uniform specified for different grades of official. It is still worn today on state occasions by certain dignitaries both in the UK and abroad.\n\nCourt dress, on the other hand, is a stylized form of clothing deriving from fashionable eighteenth-century wear, which was directed to be worn at court by those not entitled to a court uniform. For men, it comprised a matching tailcoat and waistcoat, breeches and stockings, lace cuffs and Cravat, cocked hat and a sword. For women, a white or cream evening gown was to be worn, together with a train and other specified accoutrements. Male court dress is still worn today as part of the formal dress of judges and Queen's Counsel, and is also worn by certain Lord Mayors, parliamentary officials, and high sheriffs of counties. Formerly, female court dress was required wear for debutantes being presented at court, but it ceased to be regularly worn after the Second World War, as afternoon presentations largely replaced evening courts.Precise descriptions, both of court uniform and of court dress, were laid down in an official publication called Dress Worn at Court, which was published by the Lord Chamberlain's Office. The 1937 edition remains authoritative for those rare circumstances in which court uniform or court dress are still required.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A courtesy call is a call or visit made out of politeness. It is usually done between two parties of high position such as a government official to meet and briefly discuss about important or concerning matters.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A crown is a traditional form of head adornment, or hat, worn by monarchs as a symbol of their power and dignity. A crown is often, by extension, a symbol of the monarch's government or items endorsed by it. The word itself is used, particularly in Commonwealth countries, as an abstract name for the monarchy itself, as distinct from the individual who inhabits it (that is, The Crown). A specific type of crown (or coronet for lower ranks of peerage) is employed in heraldry under strict rules. Indeed, some monarchies never had a physical crown, just a heraldic representation, as in the constitutional kingdom of Belgium, where no coronation ever took place; the royal installation is done by a solemn oath in parliament, wearing a military uniform: the King is not acknowledged as by divine right, but assumes the only hereditary public office in the service of the law; so he in turn will swear in all members of \"his\" federal government.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Crown of Norway is the crown of the King of Norway and was made in Stockholm in 1818 by goldsmith Olof Wihlborg. The crown is a corona clausa (closed model) consisting of a ring carrying eight hoops made of gold and surmounted by a monde of blue enamel and an amethyst cross on top of it. The crown is decorated with many pearls and gemstones including amethysts, chrysoprases, a topaz and an alexandrite. Its front is adorned with a huge green tourmaline, a gift of the Brazilian consul in Stockholm to King Charles III Johan. Its splendid colours and its richly elaborated ornaments make the crown typical of the Empire period. Although the goldsmith work was carried out by Olof Wihlborg, it is not known who designed the crown.\nThe Crown has a height of 24.5 cm, a diameter of 18.5 cm by 20.7 cm and a weight of 1500 grams.\nThe Crown has been used at four coronations and has had a prominent place at two benedictions. It has also been placed on the coffin of the deceased monarch since King Carl Johan's death in 1844.\nThe Royal Regalia of Norway is a collective term for three crowns, two orb and sceptres, the sword of state, the anointment horn, and a marshal's baton. When Carl III Johan of Norway (Charles XIV John of Sweden) came to the throne in 1818, it was clear he would be crowned in Trondheim as prescribed by the Norwegian Constitution. None of the medieval Norwegian crowns or other regalia had survived, so the King himself ordered and paid for the items. The coronation of King Haakon VII and Queen Maud in 1906 was the last to be held before the coronation requirement was removed from the Constitution. However, both the King's Crown and the Queen's Crown were placed on the altar during the Service of Consecration and Blessing for King Harald V and Queen Sonja in 1991.\nThe Regalia are kept in Nidaros Cathedral and are on display there.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Danish Crown Regalia are the symbols of the Danish monarchy. They consist of three crowns, a Sceptre (symbolizing supreme authority), Globus cruciger (an orb symbolizing the earthly realm surmounted by a cross),  the Sword of state and an Ampulla (symbolizing anointing of monarchs).\nThe Danish Royal Regalia are kept in the treasury at Rosenborg Castle. The oldest of these is Christian III's sword of state from 1551. They further include King Christian IV's diamond; pearl- and gold-embroidered saddles; objects carved from ivory and rock-crystal; lapidary pieces of precious stones, and brooches in the form of fantastic animals.\nDuring the time of the elective monarchs, the clergy and nobility placed the crown on the king's head at the coronation ceremony.\nAfter the introduction of absolutism in 1660, the crowning of the king was replaced by anointment, for which the king arrived in the church wearing the crown and was consecrated to his calling by being anointed with oil. For the anointing of Christian V, a new crown was made along with the Throne Chair of Denmark of narwhal teeth (supposedly the mythical unicorn's horn) and three silver lions, the latter created by Ferdinand K\u00fcblich (1664-1687). This was inspired by the biblical description of King Solomon's throne, which was said to be composed of unicorn's horn and gold and guarded by twelve golden lions.With the 1849 Constitution, anointing was discontinued and since then the regalia have only been used on the occasion of a deceased monarch's Castrum doloris ('camp of woe') where the crown is placed on the coffin, the other regalia laid at casket's foot, and the casket surrounded by the three lions. The lions were formerly also displayed in Parliament during the annual opening session, but this tradition was discontinued almost 100 years ago.  They were also displayed before the throne in the throne room of Christiansborg Palace when the Danish kings granted audiences on particularly formal occasions.The crown jewels refer to four sets (parures) of jewellery owned by the state for an incumbent queen and is still worn by the  Queen of Denmark.The royal regalia, which symbolised the monarch's authority to rule, includes the crown of King Christian IV, which is a fine example of Renaissance guildwork, the better known crown of King Christian V and a smaller crown for the king's consort. The Royal Collection has other important items and jewels, as well as precious prayer-books, and items belonging to the Order of the Elephant and the Order of the Dannebrog (such as the large diamond and pearl star of the Order of the Elephant worn on the coronation mantle).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Delhi Durbar (lit. \"Court of Delhi\") was an Indian imperial-style mass assembly organized by the British at Coronation Park, Delhi, India, to mark the succession of an Emperor or Empress of India. Also known as the Imperial Durbar, it was held three times, in 1877, 1903, and 1911, at the height of the British Empire. The 1911 Durbar was the only one that a sovereign, George V, attended. The term was derived from the common Mughal term durbar.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Demise of the Crown is the legal term in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth realms for the transfer of the Crown upon the death of the monarch.  The Crown transfers automatically to the monarch's heir.  The concept evolved in the kingdom of England, and was continued in Great Britain and then the United Kingdom.  The concept also became part of the constitutions of the British colonies, and was continued in the constitutions of the Commonwealth realms, until modified within those realms.\nOriginally, the demise of the Crown in England had significant legal effects:  individuals who had been appointed to office by the deceased monarch lost their positions;  if Parliament was  sitting, it automatically dissolved;  and actions in the royal courts automatically discontinued and had to be re-started.  Almost all of these legal effects have been abolished by statutes of the British Parliament and the parliaments of the Commonwealth realms, so that the demise of the Crown no longer has much legal significance.\nAlthough the concept of the demise of the Crown originally was based on the monarch's death, it was used in 1936 to describe the transfer of the Crown to George VI upon the abdication of Edward VIII.\nOther monarchies use different terminologies for the end of a reign.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A state banquet is an official banquet hosted by the head of state in his or her official residence for another head of state, or sometimes head of government, and other guests.  Usually as part of a state visit or diplomatic conference, it is held to celebrate diplomatic ties between the host and guest countries. Depending on time of the day, it may be referred to as a state dinner or state lunch. The size varies, but the numbers of diners may run into the hundreds.\nIn the Western world, state banquet protocol traditionally prescribe formal wear white tie or morning dress events that comprise military honor guards, a four or five course meal, musical entertainment, and ball room dancing. There are normally short speeches and toasts made by the host and principal guest.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The diplomatic corps (French: corps diplomatique) is the collective body of foreign diplomats accredited to a particular country or body.\nThe diplomatic corps may, in certain contexts, refer to the collection of accredited heads of mission (ambassadors, high commissioners, nuncios and others) who represent their countries in another state or country. As a body, they usually only assemble to attend state functions like a coronation, inauguration, national day or State Opening of Parliament, depending on local custom. They may also assemble in the royal or presidential palace to give their own head of state's New Year greeting to the head of state of the country in which they are based.\nThe term is sometimes confused with the collective body of diplomats from a particular country\u2014the proper term for which is diplomatic service. The diplomatic corps is not always given any formal recognition by its host country, but can be referenced by official orders of precedence.\nIn many countries, and especially in Africa, the heads and the foreign members of the country offices of major international organizations (United Nations agencies, the European Union, the International Committee of the Red Cross, agencies of the African Union, etc.) are considered members\u2014and granted the rights and privileges\u2014of the diplomatic corps.\nDiplomatic vehicles in most countries have distinctive diplomatic license plates, often with the prefix or suffix CD, the abbreviation for the French corps diplomatique.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "An enthronement is a ceremony of inauguration, involving a person\u2014usually a monarch or religious leader\u2014being formally seated for the first time upon their throne.  Enthronements may also feature as part of a larger coronation rite.\nIn a general sense, an enthronement may also refer to a ceremony marking a monarch's accession, generally distinguished from a coronation as no crown or other regalia is physically bestowed upon the one being enthroned, although regalia may be present at the ceremony.\nEnthronements occur in both church and state settings, since the throne is seen as a symbol of authority, both secular and spiritual.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Narendra Modi, parliamentary leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party, started the first tenure of his prime ministership, after his swearing-in as the 14th Prime Minister of India on 26 May 2014. 45 other ministers were also sworn in along with Modi. The ceremony was noted by media for being the first ever swearing-in of an Indian Prime Minister to have been attended by the heads of all SAARC countries.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Flag Raising Ceremony is a traditional military ceremony of the People's Liberation Army of China which is done publicly on Tiananmen Square in the capital of Beijing. The People's Republic of China with the leader of Mao Zedong started this in 1954. The ceremony is conducted by the PLA's Beijing Garrison Honor Guard Battalion, which is part of the 1st Guard Division, Central Theater Command. It is done daily precisely at sunrise, with notable ceremonies taking place on National Day of the People's Republic of China in October and New Year's Day in January to honor the Chinese flag.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Graphics and Calligraphy Office (GCO) is a unit of the Social Office at the White House, the official residence of the president of the United States. Located in the East Wing, the Graphics and Calligraphy Office coordinates and produces all non-political social invitations, place cards, presidential proclamations, letters patent, military commissions, and official greetings.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Great Father and Great Mother (French: Bon P\u00e8re, Grand-M\u00e8re, Spanish: Gran Padre, Gran Madre) were titles used by European colonial powers in North America along with the United States during the 19th century to refer to the U.S. President, the King of Great Britain, the King of Spain, or the King of France during interactions with indigenous peoples. The expansion to Great White Father may have been popularized by western adventure novels.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Gro\u00dfer Wachaufzug (\"Grand Guard Mounting\") was a military ceremony and guard mounting in Berlin, the capital Germany, held on certain occasions at the Neue Wache. The building has been the center of guard duties performed since 1931.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Guard mounting, changing the guard, or the changing of the guard, is a formal ceremony in which sentries performing ceremonial guard duties at important institutions are relieved by a new batch of sentries. The ceremonies are often elaborate and precisely choreographed. They originated with peacetime and battlefield military drills introduced to enhance unit cohesion and effectiveness in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "\"Hail, America\" is a regal concert march composed by George Drumm. It is known for its fanfare and trio sections performed during the presidential entrance at state dinners, but is not to be confused with Hail to the Chief, the president's arrival march. It has also been used as the honors music for the President-elect of the United States.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A half-arch is the piece of gold, silver or platinum, usually decorated with jewels, that links the circlet (circular base) of a hoop crown to the monde at the top of the crown.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The handover ceremony of Hong Kong in 1997 officially marked the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to the People's Republic of China. It was an internationally televised event with the ceremony commencing on the night of 30 June 1997 and finishing on the morning of 1 July 1997.  The ceremony was held at the new wing of the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre (HKCEC) in Wan Chai.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Holy Crown of Hungary (Hungarian: Szent Korona), also known as the Crown of Saint Stephen, named in honour of Saint Stephen I of Hungary, was the coronation crown used by the Kingdom of Hungary for most of its existence; kings have been crowned with it since the twelfth century. The Crown was bound to the Lands of the Hungarian Crown (sometimes the Sacra Corona meant the Land, the Carpathian Basin, but it also meant the coronation body, too). No king of Hungary was regarded as having been truly legitimate without being crowned with it. In the history of Hungary, more than fifty kings were crowned with it, up to the last, Charles IV, in 1916. The only kings who were not so crowned were Wladyslaw I, John Sigismund Z\u00e1polya and Joseph II.\nThe enamels on the crown are mainly or entirely Byzantine work, presumed to have been made in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey) in the 1070s. The crown was presented by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas to King G\u00e9za I of Hungary; both are depicted and named in Greek language on enamel plaques in the lower crown. the Holy Crown of Hungary is one of the two known Byzantine crowns to survive, the other being the slightly earlier Monomachus Crown, which is also in Budapest, in the Hungarian National Museum. However, the Monomachus Crown may have had another function, and the Holy Crown has probably been remodelled, and uses elements of different origins.  The date assigned to the present configuration of the Holy Crown varies, but is most commonly put around the late 12th century.  The Hungarian coronation insignia consists of the Holy Crown, the sceptre, the orb, and the mantle. The orb has the coat-of-arms of Charles I of Hungary (1310\u20131342).  In popular tradition the Holy Crown was thought to be older, dating to the time of the first King Stephen I of Hungary, crowned in 1000/1001.\nIt was first called the Holy Crown in 1256. During the 14th century, royal power came to be represented not simply by a crown, but by just one specific object: the Holy Crown. This also meant that the Kingdom of Hungary was a special state: they were not looking for a crown to inaugurate a king, but rather, they were looking for a king for the crown; as written by Crown Guard P\u00e9ter R\u00e9vay. He also depicts that \"the Holy Crown is for the Hungarians what the Lost Ark is for the Jewish people\".Since 2000, the Holy Crown has been on display in the central Domed Hall of the Hungarian Parliament Building.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The honors music for a person, office or rank is music played on formal or ceremonial occasions in the presence of the person, office-holder, or rank-holder, especially by a military band. The head of state in many countries is honored with a prescribed piece of music; in some countries the national anthem serves this purpose, while others have a separate royal, presidential, or, historically, imperial anthem. Other officials may also have anthems, such as the vice-regal salute in several Commonwealth realms for the Governor-General, Governor, or Lieutenant Governor. Ruffles and flourishes may be played instead of, or preceding, honors music.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "An Imperial Crown is a crown used for the coronation of emperors.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Imperial Crown of Austria (German: \u00d6sterreichische Kaiserkrone) is a crown formerly in use by the monarchs of the Habsburg monarchy. The crown was originally made in 1602 in Prague by Jan Vermeyen as the personal crown of Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, and therefore is also known as the Crown of Emperor Rudolf II (German: Rudolfskrone). The crown was used as a private crown of the Holy Roman Emperors and Kings of Hungary and Bohemia from the House of Habsburg. In 1804 it became the official crown of the newly constituted Austrian Empire. After 1867 it remained the imperial crown of the Cisleithanian part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until 1918.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty was an annual rite of the emperors of China during the Qing dynasty (1636\u20131912). It was first organized in 1681 by the Kangxi Emperor at the imperial hunting grounds at Mulan (modern-day Weichang Manchu and Mongol Autonomous County, near what would become the summer residence of the Qing emperors at Chengde. Starting in 1683 the event was held annually at Mulan during the autumn, lasting up to a month. The Qing dynasty hunt was a synthesis of earlier Chinese and Inner Asian hunting traditions, particularly those of the Manchus and Mongols. The emperor himself participated in the hunt, along with thousands of soldiers, imperial family members, and government officials.\nThe Manchu emperors of the Qing dynasty used the hunt as a military exercise to train their troops in the traditional martial skills of archery and horsemanship. The hunt was also a bonding ritual intended to emphasize the shared Inner Asian martial traditions of the Manchu and Mongol soldiers of the Eight Banners who were selected to participate (Han Chinese troops were excluded from the hunt). The event provided an opportunity for Qing emperors to leave the confines of the Forbidden City in Beijing and return to the forests \"north of the wall\", closer to their ancestral homelands, where they could hunt and live as their ancestors did. As the Manchus grew accustomed to living in Chinese cities, Qing emperors expanded and ritualized the imperial hunt as a sort of invented tradition, using it to preserve the traditional Manchu way of life. The Qianlong Emperor made it a key element of his effort to halt the steady decline of military discipline within the Eight Banners during his reign.\nEach year, for the duration of the hunt, Mulan served as a temporary capital and a venue for diplomatic activities. The Qianlong Emperor required the leaders of Inner Asian tributary states to join in the hunt on a rotating basis, and he frequently received foreign emissaries there rather than in the imperial palace at Beijing. To facilitate the continued operation of the imperial government in the emperor's absence, many government officials accompanied the emperor to Mulan, where they lived and worked in a tent city replicating the layout of the Forbidden City, exchanging correspondence regularly with Beijing and Chengde.\nAltogether, the Kangxi, Qianlong, and Jiaqing Emperors participated in 91 hunts during their reigns. As an important element of Qing military culture, and an embodiment of Manchu identity, the Qing imperial hunt featured regularly in the official artwork and poetry of the Qing dynasty. It was the subject of several paintings by Giuseppe Castiglione, the Italian Jesuit who served as a court painter to Qianlong. Images of the hunt, much like images commemorating victories in battle and other military subjects, were regularly commissioned by the imperial court as a form of propaganda, portraying Qing emperors as exemplars of traditional martial (wu) values.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Investiture (from the Latin preposition in and  verb vestire, \"dress\" from vestis \"robe\"), is a formal installation or ceremony that a person undergoes, often related to membership in Christian confraternities, as well as Christian knighthoods or damehoods, in addition to government offices.\nIn an investiture, a person may receive an outward sign of their membership, such as their decoration (as with chivalric orders) or a scapular (as with confraternities); they may be given the authority and regalia of a high office. Investiture can include formal dress and adornment such as robes of state or headdress, or other regalia such as a throne or seat of office. An investiture is also often part of a coronation rite or enthronement.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The investiture of the Prince of Wales is the ceremony formally acknowledging a new Prince of Wales. The prince is presented and invested with the insignia of his rank and dignity, in the manner of a coronation. An investiture is purely ceremonial, as the title is created via letters patent.\nInvestitures fell into abeyance and the revival of investing the Prince of Wales in 1911 was largely due to the instigation of David Lloyd George, a Welsh politician. A similar ceremony was also held in 1969 for Queen Elizabeth II's eldest son and heir-apparent, Prince Charles.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The kirking of the parliament is a modern ceremony, adapted from those performed in the original Parliament of Scotland which was founded in the Middle Ages and adjourned in 1707.  It was re-introduced as a multi-faith service to coincide with the opening of the Scottish Parliament which was devolved from the United Kingdom Parliament and reconvened in 1999. It takes place every 4 years.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "To kiss hands is a constitutional term used in the United Kingdom to refer to the formal installation of Crown-appointed British government ministers to their office.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Frank William Thomas Charles Lascelles (30 July 1875 \u2013 23 May 1934) was a British pageant master and artist, known as the \"man who staged the Empire.\"", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The levee (from the French word lever, meaning \"getting up\" or \"rising\") was traditionally a daily moment of intimacy and accessibility to a monarch or leader, as he got up in the morning. It started out as a royal custom, but in British America it came to refer to a reception by the sovereign\u2019s representative, which continues to be a tradition in Canada with the New Year's levee; in the United States a similar gathering was held by several presidents.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of the Trooping the Colour ceremony from 1890 to the present. The first Trooping of the Colour took place on Horse Guards Parade on 4 June 1805. In 1895 two Troopings were performed on two consecutive days by different battalions of the Scots Guards at Windsor Castle and Horse Guards Parade.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Lying in state is the tradition in which the body of a deceased official is placed in a state building, either outside or inside a coffin, to allow the public to pay their respects. It traditionally takes place in the principal government building of a country, state, or city. While the practice differs among countries, a viewing in a location other than the principal government building may be referred to as lying in repose.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Magatama (\u52fe\u7389, less frequently \u66f2\u7389) are curved, comma-shaped beads that appeared in prehistoric Japan from the Final J\u014dmon period through the Kofun period, approximately 1000 BCE to the 6th century CE. The beads, also described as \"jewels\", were made of primitive stone and earthen materials in the early period, but by the end of the Kofun period were made almost exclusively of jade. Magatama originally served as decorative jewelry, but by the end of the Kofun period functioned as ceremonial and religious objects. Archaeological evidence suggests that magatama were produced in specific areas of Japan and were widely dispersed throughout the Japanese archipelago to the Southern Koreanic kingdoms via trade routes.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Mechouar or meshwar (Arabic: \u0645\u0634\u0648\u0631, romanized: mashwar, meshwar; Spanish: mexuar; French: m\u00e9chouar) is a type of location, typically a courtyard within a palace or a public square at the entrance of a palace, in the Maghreb (western North Africa) or in historic al-Andalus (Muslim Spain and Portugal). It can serve various functions such as a place of assembly or consultation (Arabic: michawara), an administrative area where the government's affairs are managed. It was the place where the sultan historically held audiences, receptions and ceremonies. The name is sometimes also given to a larger area encompassesing the palace, such as the citadel or royal district of a city.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Menus-Plaisirs du Roi (French pronunciation: \u200b[m\u0259ny plezi\u0281 dy \u0281wa]) was, in the organisation of the French royal household under the Ancien R\u00e9gime, the department of the Maison du Roi responsible for the \"lesser pleasures of the King\", which meant in practice that it was in charge of all the preparations for ceremonies, events and festivities, down to the last detail of design and order.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A military funeral is a memorial or burial rite given by a country's military for a soldier, sailor, marine or airman who died in battle, a veteran, or other prominent military figures or heads of state. A military funeral may feature guards of honor, the firing of volley shots as a salute, drumming and other military elements, with a flag draping over the coffin.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A military funeral in the United States is a memorial or burial rite conducted by the United States Armed Forces for a Soldier, Marine, Sailor, Coast Guardsman, Airman, or Guardian who died in battle, a veteran, or other prominent military figures or a president. A military funeral may feature guards of honor, the firing of volley shots as a salute, drumming and other military elements, with a flag draping over the coffin.\nIn the United States, the United States Army Military District of Washington (MDW) is responsible for providing military funerals. \"Honoring Those Who Served\" is the title of the program for instituting a dignified military funeral with full honors to the nation's veterans.\nAs of January 1, 2000, Section 578 of Public Law 106-65 of the National Defense Authorization Act mandates that the United States Armed Forces shall provide the rendering of honors in a military funeral for any eligible veteran if requested by his or her family. As mandated by federal law, an honor guard detail for the burial of an eligible veteran shall consist of no fewer than two members of the Armed Forces. One member of the detail shall be a representative of the parent armed service of the deceased veteran. The honor guard detail will, at a minimum, perform a ceremony that includes the folding and presenting of the flag of the United States to the next of kin and the sounding of Taps which will be played by a lone bugler, if available, or by audio recording. Today, there are so few buglers available that the United States Armed Forces often cannot provide one. However, federal law allows Reserve and National Guard units to assist with funeral honors duty when necessary.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Garrison Sergeant Major William Daran Gillduff Mott,  is a former British Army soldier who was one of the army's most senior warrant officers between 2002 and 2015.Mott was brought up in Overpool, Cheshire, before enlisting into the 1st Battalion, Welsh Guards in April 1979. He saw operational tours in Northern Ireland and during the Falklands War in 1982. He served at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst as a colour sergeant, company sergeant major, and regimental sergeant major, before becoming Garrison Sergeant Major (GSM) at HQ Northern Ireland. He became GSM HQ London District in late 2002 and oversaw his first Trooping the Colour parade as GSM in June 2003. He was subsequently in charge of organising, choreographing and overseeing all major state ceremonial occasions. From 2003 he was also a pivotal figure in organising the repatriation ceremonies for British soldiers killed in action during operations in the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan.\nMott was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2007 Birthday Honours. In the 2012 Diamond Jubilee Honours he was appointed Member of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO) for his personal service to the monarch during the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Mott was granted Freedom of the City of London in November 2013. He retired from the army in June 2015 following Trooping the Colour, during which the Welsh Guards marked the centennial year of their foundation.In February 2014, Mott publicly warned that cuts to the British defence budget were threatening to undermine the future spectacle of state ceremonial events in the United Kingdom.As of March 2022 Garrison Sergeant Major is currently employed by Valley Forge Military Academy and is the acting Commandant of Cadets. Alongside working with the department of admissions and directing ceremonial drill.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A New Year's lev\u00e9e is a social event on New Year's Day hosted by the Governor General of Canada, the lieutenant governors, military establishments, municipalities, and other institutions.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "An oath of allegiance is an oath whereby a subject or citizen acknowledges a duty of allegiance and swears loyalty to a monarch or a country. In modern republics, oaths are sworn to the country in general, or to the country's constitution. For example, officials in the United States, take an oath of office that includes swearing allegiance to the United States Constitution. However, typically in a constitutional monarchy, such as in the United Kingdom, Australia and other Commonwealth realms, oaths are sworn to the monarch. Armed forces typically require a military oath.\nIn feudal times, a person would also swear allegiance to his feudal superiors. To this day the oath sworn by freemen of the City of London contains an oath of obedience to the Lord Mayor of the City of London.\nOaths of allegiance are commonly required of newly naturalized citizens (see Oath of Citizenship), members of the armed forces, and those assuming public (particularly parliamentary and judicial) offices. Clergy in the Church of England are required to take an Oath of Supremacy acknowledging the authority of the British monarch.\nA typical example of an oath of allegiance is that sworn by Members of Parliament in the Netherlands:\n\nI swear (affirm) allegiance to the King, to the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and to the Constitution. I swear (affirm) that I will faithfully perform the duties my office lays upon me. So help me God almighty! (This I declare and affirm)\nIn many Commonwealth realms, all that is required is an oath to the monarch, and not the constitution or state. There have been moves in some of the realms to make the oath of citizenship sworn by new citizens refer to the country rather than the monarch. However, the oaths sworn by judges, members of parliament, etc., have not been changed. All of these moves have not succeeded as the Queen is the personification of the Canadian, British, or Australian state (or that of any other Commonwealth realm). Allegiance sworn to the monarch is the same as to the country, its constitution or flag. The European Court of Human Rights ruled in 1999 that the oath of allegiance to a reigning monarch is \"reasonably viewed as an affirmation of loyalty to the constitutional principles supporting the workings of representative democracy.\"\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A Papal Mass is the Solemn Pontifical High Mass celebrated by the Pope. It is celebrated on such occasions as a papal coronation, an ex cathedra pronouncement, the canonization of a saint, on Easter or Christmas or other major feast days.\nUntil the 1960s, there were numerous special ceremonials that were particular to the pope. Many have fallen out of use; some were last celebrated by Pope Pius X (reigned 1903\u20131914) or  Pope Paul VI (reigned 1963\u20131978).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Papal regalia and insignia are the official items of attire and decoration proper to the Pope in his capacity as the head of the Roman Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Papal slippers (Italian: pantofole papali) are a historical accoutrement worn by the Pope. The papal slippers were a form of episcopal sandals worn by bishops. However, unlike the (rarely seen) episcopal sandals, which change with the liturgical colour, the papal slippers were always red.Usually elaborate, papal slippers were made by hand with red satin, red silk, and gold thread; they featured an embroidered cross garnished with rubies and the soles were made of leather. Until the first half of the 20th century, it was customary for pilgrims having an audience with the Pope to kneel and kiss one of his slippers.The pope traditionally wore the slippers inside the papal apartments, while red leather papal shoes were worn outdoors. Pope Paul VI discontinued the use of the papal slippers but continued to wear the red outdoor papal shoes, which were abandoned by Pope John Paul II in favour of cordovan brown leather walking shoes made in his native Poland.Pope Benedict XVI restored the use of the red outdoor papal shoes, similar to those worn by Paul VI. However, it would seem that the papal slippers were not restored as photographs of Benedict showed him wearing red shoes inside the confines of the Vatican. The Pope was reported (perhaps erroneously) to have been wearing red slippers upon his arrival in Scotland on 16 September 2010.Pope Francis has since, once again, discontinued the use of the shoe. He wears simple black dress shoes.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The papal tiara is the crown worn by popes of the Catholic Church for centuries, until 1978 when Pope John Paul I declined a coronation, opting instead for an inauguration. The tiara is still used as a symbol of the papacy. It features on the coat of arms of the Holy See and of the Vatican City State, though not on the pope's personal coat of arms since Pope Benedict XVI replaced the tiara on his official coat of arms with a traditional bishop's mitre. A tiara is used to crown a  statue of Saint Peter in St. Peter's Basilica every year on his feast day.Popes commissioned tiaras from jewelers or received them as gifts, with a number remaining in the possession of the Holy See. In 1798, French troops occupied Rome and stole or destroyed all but one of the papal tiaras held by the Holy See. Since then popes have used or received as gifts more than twenty tiaras. Several were never worn by a pope, notably those presented as gifts since the last papal coronation in 1963.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The privileged bodies of the United Kingdom are those institutions and corporations which enjoy the historic right to present an address to the British Sovereign in person.In modern times this right is exercised on significant occasions in the life of the monarch and at a ceremony specially organised for the purpose.  A senior representative of each body delivers each loyal address and, after each has been read, the monarch responds and receives parchment copies of each.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The promissione ducale (Latin: promissio domini ducis) was an oath of office sworn by the incoming Doge of Venice. It contained not only an oath of allegiance to the Republic of Venice, but also spelled out the constitutional limitations to the Doge's power, which he swore to abide by.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The crown for the Queen consort of Norway was made in 1830 for D\u00e9sir\u00e9e Clary's coronation. It did not take place, and was first used in 1860, for the coronation of Louise of the Netherlands.\nIt was made in Stockholm and, though it is unknown by whom, probably by Marc Giron, the royal jeweller, some have speculated it may have been by Erik Lundberg, or, perhaps is a combination of both's work, and the design is probably based on the Swedish queen's crown.\nIt is made of silver-gilt and gold, and is decorated with a number of multicoloured gems and pearls, including violet (Amethysts), yellow (Citrine and Topaz) and green (chrysoprase). It weighs approx 530g.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The feudal holder of the Manor of Scrivelsby in Lincolnshire, England, has, since the Norman Conquest in 1066, held the manor from the Crown by grand serjeanty of being The Honourable The King's/Queen's Champion. Such person is also the Standard Bearer of England. The current Queen's Champion is a member of the Dymoke family, which has included many Champions.\nThe next and 35th Champion will be the 34th Lord of the manor of Scrivelsby, Thornton and Dalderby and patron of the living of Scrivelsby-cum-Dalderby, Francis John Fane Marmion Dymoke, DL (b. 19 January 1955), a chartered accountant. He will gain the title of King's Champion at the coronation of Prince Charles. He served as High Sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1999.His eldest son and heir apparent is Henry Francis Marmion Dymoke (born 1984).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Sweden's regalia are kept deep in the vaults of the Royal Treasury (Swedish: Skattkammaren), underneath the Royal Palace in Stockholm, in a museum that is open to the public. The crowns and coronets have not been worn by Swedish royalty since 1907, but they are still displayed at weddings, christenings and funerals.\nPrior to 1907, the crowns and coronets were worn along with royal mantles by the king and other princes at the monarch's coronation, during the opening of the Riksdag, and displayed on other occasions. After the death of Oscar II (the last to be crowned) in 1907, the practice of wearing the crowns at the opening of the Riksdag ceased and the crowns were no longer worn. After this, the crown of the King and his sceptre were simply displayed on cushions on either side of the silver throne while the king's mantle was draped over it. The old opening of state lasted until 1974.\nAmong the oldest priceless objects are the sword of Gustav Vasa and the crown, orb, sceptre and key of King Erik XIV.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A riderless horse or riderless motorcycle (which may be caparisoned in ornamental and protective coverings, having a detailed protocol of their own) is a single horse or a motorcycle, without a rider, without keys, without a license plate and with boots reversed in the stirrups, which sometimes accompanies a funeral procession. The horse or the motorcycle follows the caisson carrying the casket. A riderless horse/motorcycle can also be featured in military parades to symbolize either fallen soldiers or deceased athletes. In Australia for example, it is traditional for either a riderless horse or a riderless motorcycle known as the 'Lone Charger' to lead the annual Anzac Day marches.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Royal Ceremonies of the Twelve Months (Thai: \u0e1e\u0e23\u0e30\u0e23\u0e32\u0e0a\u0e1e\u0e34\u0e18\u0e35\u0e2a\u0e34\u0e1a\u0e2a\u0e2d\u0e07\u0e40\u0e14\u0e37\u0e2d\u0e19, RTGS: phraratchaphithi sip song duean, also known by Pali/Sanskrit loanwords as phraratchaphithi thawathotsamat, \u0e1e\u0e23\u0e30\u0e23\u0e32\u0e0a\u0e1e\u0e34\u0e18\u0e35\u0e17\u0e27\u0e32\u0e17\u0e28\u0e21\u0e32\u0e2a) is a historical description of the annual royal ceremonies undertaken throughout the year by the monarchy of Siam (now Thailand). They are described in the Palace Law of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (14th\u201318th centuries), and mentioned in the 15th-century Thawathotsamat epic poem.The ceremonies received renewed interest from the monarchy and aristocracy during the middle Rattanakosin period. During the reign of King Mongkut (Rama IV, 1851\u20131868), Prince Mahamala wrote an epic poem about the ceremonies, titled Khlong Phraratchaphithi Thawathotsamat (\u0e42\u0e04\u0e25\u0e07\u0e1e\u0e23\u0e30\u0e23\u0e32\u0e0a\u0e1e\u0e34\u0e18\u0e35\u0e17\u0e27\u0e32\u0e17\u0e28\u0e21\u0e32\u0e2a), which was first published in book form in 1920. Mongkut's successor King Chulalongkorn (Rama V, r. 1868\u20131910) wrote and published, in prose,  a treatise on the ceremonies titled Phraratchaphithi Sip Song Duean in 1888. The kings, as well as Chulalongkorn's successor King Vajiravudh (Rama VI, 1910\u20131925) modified and updated many of the ceremonies.The practices ceased following the abolition of absolute monarchy in 1932, but some ceremonies were revived during the reign of King Bhumibol Adulyadej, especially with the re-popularisation of the monarchy during the 1960s\u20131970s. The Royal Ploughing Ceremony is one of the few royal ceremonies that are still held annually today.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In modern heraldry, a royal cypher is a monogram or monogram-like device of a country's reigning sovereign, typically consisting of the initials of the monarch's name and title, sometimes interwoven and often surmounted by a crown. Such a cypher as used by an emperor or empress is called an imperial cypher. In the system used by various Commonwealth realms, the title is abbreviated as 'R' for 'rex' or 'regina' (Latin for \"king\" and \"queen\"). Previously, 'I' stood for 'imperator' or 'imperatrix' (Latin for \"emperor\" and \"empress\") of the Indian Empire.Royal cyphers appear on some government buildings, impressed upon royal and state documents, and are used by governmental departments.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "St Andrew's Cathedral (also known as St Andrew's Anglican Cathedral) is a cathedral church of the Anglican Diocese of Sydney in the Anglican Church of Australia. The cathedral is the seat of the Anglican Archbishop of Sydney and Metropolitan of New South Wales (currently the Most Reverend Kanishka Raffel from 28 May 2021). The position of Dean of Sydney has been held by the Very Reverend Sandy Grant since 9 December 2021.\nThe St Andrew's has an Evangelical ministry, holding services every day, including a weekly healing service. There is a cathedral choir of men and boys who sing during term time, as well as a company of bell ringers. The notable pipe organ has been restored and is regularly used for recitals and concerts.\nDesigned primarily by Edmund Blacket on foundations laid by James Hume, the cathedral was built from 1837 to 1868, and was ready for services and consecrated in 1868, making it the oldest cathedral in Australia.\nSt Andrew's is one of the city's finest examples of Gothic Revival architecture. Joan Kerr described the cathedral as \"a perfect example of the colonial desire to reproduce England in Australia in the mid nineteenth century\".The cathedral is located at 1400 George Street in the Sydney central business district of the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales. St Andrew's is owned by the Anglican Church Property Trust. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 3 September 2004; is listed on the City of Sydney local government heritage register; and is listed on the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Narendra Modi, parliamentary leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party, started his tenure after his swearing-in as the 16th Prime Minister of India on 30 May 2019. Several other ministers were also sworn in along with Modi. The ceremony was noted by media for being the first ever swearing-in of an Indian Prime Minister to have been attended by the heads of all BIMSTEC countries.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The \"Song of Happiness\" or \"Warm Welcome Music\" (Korean: \ub530\ub73b\ud55c \ud658\uc601\uc758 \uc74c\uc545) is the entrance music of the leaders of North Korea. It has been played for all three of the past leaders, Kim Il-sung, Kim Jong-il and Kim Jong-un, whenever they enter or leave a public event. Generally during their entrance, the crowd chants cheers of manse (Korean:\ub9cc\uc138), similar to the Japanese banzai salute.\nWhen appearing at musical performances, separate brass bands of the Korean People's Army performed the piece during the time of Kim Jong-il and early-Kim Jong-un. Nowadays however, the entrance music is generally played by the ensemble performing, with all of the musicians looking directly at the leader whilst standing. The piece has also been used to welcome dignitaries to Pyongyang for significant occasions, such as Moon Jae-in for the September 2018 inter-Korean summit, and Xi Jinping for the North Korea-China summit in 2019.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "State and official visits to the United Kingdom are formal visits by the head of state of one country to the United Kingdom, during which the British Sovereign acts as official host of the visitor. It is a royal event that involves all the assets in the Civil Service, the Royal Household and the Household Division. It also involves other members of the Royal family and is centred in London, the national capital. Invitations for state visits are sent by the Royal Household with supervision by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.\nState visits do not formally occur between the United Kingdom and the 14 other Commonwealth realms, as the realms all share a common monarch and head of state. Visits conducted by the monarch to another Commonwealth realm are also not considered a state visits but rather royal visits. In addition, official visits to the United Kingdom by another Commonwealth realm are typically performed by their respective governor general, who in that capacity are usually in the country for an audience with the Queen.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A state crown is the working crown worn or used by a monarch on recurring state occasions such as when opening Parliament in Britain, as opposed to the coronation crown with which they would be formally crowned.\nSome state crowns might however be used during parts of the coronation ceremony. In isolated cases, individual monarchs sometimes chose to use their state crown instead of the official coronation crown for the crowning, but those cases were exceptions rather than the norm.\nSome states where there was no ceremonial coronation only had state crowns, or neither as in Belgium.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A state funeral is a public funeral ceremony, observing the strict rules of protocol, held to honour people of national significance. State funerals usually include much pomp and ceremony as well as religious overtones and distinctive elements of military tradition. Generally, state funerals are held in order to involve the general public in a national day of mourning after the family of the deceased gives consent. A state funeral will often generate mass publicity from both national and global media outlets.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A state occasion or act of state is an official state ceremony usually marking an important event or honouring a person. Characteristics of a state occasion are a grand ceremony, a representative framework and the presence of high state officials, such as heads of state and government.\nWhen honouring a deceased person it typically takes the form of a state funeral, although it can also be a separate ceremony which takes place before or after the actual funeral. Acts of state honouring deceased persons, but which are not actual funerals themselves, are found in a number of European countries and at the European Union level.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The State of the Nation (Luxembourgish: Lag vun der Natioun, French: l'\u00e9tat de la Nation, German: Lage der Nation) is a speech made annually by the Prime Minister of Luxembourg to the national legislature, the Chamber of Deputies.  It covers the economic, social, and financial state of the country, and is followed by a debate in the Chamber on those issues.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The State of the Union address, also known as the State of the European Union  or SOTEU, is the annual speech addressed by the President of the European Commission to the European Parliament plenary session in September. The State of the Union address of the European Union was instituted by the Lisbon Treaty (with the 2010 Framework Agreement on relations between the European Parliament and the European Commission - Annex IV(5)), in order to make political life of the Union more democratic and transparent than it previously had been.\nThe Framework Agreement thus also foresees that the President of the European Commission sends a letter of intent to the President of the European Parliament and the Presidency of the Council of the European Union that sets out in detail the actions the European Commission intends to take by means of legislation and other initiatives until the end of the following year. The address is then followed by a plenary debate  on the political situation of the Union, the so-called State of the Union debate.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The State Opening of Parliament includes a State Procession, a formal display of the Sovereign, dignified by a sizeable entourage made up of Great Officers of State, members of the Royal Family and of the Royal Household. The State Procession is now confined to the interior of the Palace of Westminster, but in earlier centuries it followed an outdoor route to and from Westminster Abbey.\nThe State Opening of Parliament is one of the few occasions when a State Procession is to be seen; the Coronation Procession is another.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A state visit is a formal visit by a head of state to a foreign country, at the invitation of the head of state of that foreign country, with the latter also acting as the official host for the duration of the state visit. Speaking for the host, it is generally called a state reception. State visits are considered to be the highest expression of friendly bilateral relations between two sovereign states, and are in general characterised by an emphasis on official public ceremonies.\nLess formal visits than a state visit to another country with a lesser emphasis on ceremonial events, by either a head of state or a head of government, can be classified (in descending order of magnitude) as either an official visit, an official working visit, a working visit, a guest-of-government visit, or a private visit.In parliamentary democracies, while heads of state in such systems of government may formally issue and accept invitations, they do so on the advice of their heads of government, who usually decides on when the invitation is to be issued or accepted in advance.\nQueen Elizabeth II is the most travelled head of state in world history, having made 261 official overseas visits and 96 state visits to 116 countries by the time of her Diamond Jubilee in 2012. Although she is sovereign of each of the Commonwealth realms, in practice, she usually performs full state visits as Queen of the United Kingdom, while the relevant governor-general undertakes state visits for his or her respective country on the sovereign's behalf. However, the Queen has occasionally made some state and official visits representing one of her other Commonwealth realms.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "State and official visits to the United States are formal visits by the head of state (state visit) or chief of government (official visit) from one country to the United States, during which the president of the United States acts as official host of the visitor. State visits are considered to be the highest expression of friendly bilateral relations between the United States and a foreign state and are, in general, characterized by an emphasis on official public ceremonies.\nThe first visit of a foreign state to the United States was the state visit of the then-independent Kingdom of Hawaii in 1874; this was followed by the state visit of Brazil in 1876. Since then, numerous heads of state and government have been formally received by the President of the United States in Washington. In addition to, and more frequently than, state and official visits, the United States also receives foreign dignitaries on official working visits, which are primarily functional trips that occur with less or no ceremony.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The substitute king ritual was an ancient Mesopotamian religious rite of human sacrifice, documented most clearly in Assyria, which was performed to safeguard the king from danger perceived to come from evil omens. These omens were generally thought to arise from certain astronomical events such as eclipses. During the course of the ritual the king symbolically abdicates his throne and a substitute is placed there in his stead for a period of up to 100 days. Though he possessed no real power, the substitute king would live and hold court at the palace and enjoy the wealth and prestige of the king. Simultaneously the real king would go into hiding, accessible only to his closest advisors. Throughout the ritual many exorcistic rites were performed in order to transfer the danger arising from the evil omens from the real king onto the substitute. At the end of this time the substitute is put to death and the real king, having successfully transferred his doomed fate onto the scapegoat, returns to his throne.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The swearing-in ceremony of Imran Khan, the 22nd Prime Minister of Pakistan, was held at the President House in Islamabad on 18 August 2018. Following the conclusion of the ceremony, Khan proceeded to the Prime Minister's Office, where he was presented a guard of honour by contingents of all three armed forces of Pakistan.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The three-volley salute is a ceremonial act performed at military funerals and sometimes also police funerals. The custom originates from the European dynastic wars, in which the fighting ceased so that the dead and wounded could be removed. After this was accomplished, three shots were fired into the air to signal that the battle could resume.It should not be confused with the 21-gun salute (or 19-gun or 17-gun, etc.) which is fired by a battery of artillery pieces.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Trooping the Colour is a ceremony performed every year in London, United Kingdom, by regiments of the British Army. Similar events are held in other countries of the Commonwealth. Trooping the Colour has been a tradition of British infantry regiments since the 17th century, and since 1748 has marked the official birthday of the British sovereign, although its roots go back much earlier.\nEach year, one of the five Foot Guards regiments of the Household Division is selected to troop (carry) its colours through the ranks of guards. The colours were once used on the battlefield as a rallying point.\nDuring the ceremony, the Queen travels down the Mall from Buckingham Palace to Horse Guards Parade in a royal procession with a sovereign's escort of Household Cavalry (mounted troops or horse guards). After receiving a royal salute, she inspects her troops of the Household Division and the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery.\nThe entire Household Division assembly then conducts a march past the Queen. Parading with its guns, the King's Troop takes precedence as the mounted troops perform a walk-march and trot-past. Music is provided by the massed bands of the Foot Guards and the mounted Band of the Household Cavalry, together with a Corps of Drums, and occasionally pipers, totalling approximately 400 musicians.\nReturning to Buckingham Palace, the Queen watches a further march-past from outside the gates. Following a 41-gun salute by the King's Troop in Green Park, the royal family make an appearance on the palace balcony for a Royal Air Force flypast.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "United States military music customs are the traditional, regulatory, and statutory provisions that guide performances by United States military bands during drill and ceremony and state occasions.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "\"Veni Creator Spiritus\" (Come, Creator Spirit) is a traditional Christian hymn believed to have been written by Rabanus Maurus, a ninth-century German monk, teacher, and archbishop. When the original Latin text is used, it is normally sung in Gregorian Chant. It has been translated and paraphrased into several languages, and adapted into many musical forms, often as a hymn for Pentecost or for other occasions that focus on the Holy Spirit.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Viceregal throne is the former throne of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (the title of the Viceroy of Ireland). A set of thrones, one for the Lord Lieutenant (pronounced 'Lord Lef-tenant') and one for his consort, the Vicereine, were used on state occasions in Dublin Castle. The set were photographed on a da\u00efs in St Patrick's Hall in an image in the Lawrence Collection, now owned by the National Library of Ireland.\nIn 1938, the Throne, minus the crown which used to decorate its top, and with the Irish coat of arms stitched into the fabric on the chair, was used in the inauguration of Douglas Hyde as President of Ireland. The former Viceregal Throne was used in all Irish presidential inaugurations on the da\u00efs during the ceremony in St. Patrick's Hall in Dublin Castle from 1938 to 2004.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Vigil of the Princes refers to two occasions when male members of the British royal family \"stood guard\" during the lying in state of one of their relatives during or as part of a British state funeral or ceremonial funeral.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Waterloo ceremony is an annual event in which the Duke of Wellington pays a symbolic rent for his residence to the reigning monarch. The ceremony takes place at Windsor Castle each year on the 18th of June, which is the anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Windsor uniform is a type of formal dress worn at Windsor Castle by male members of the British royal family (and some very senior courtiers).\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Devonshire White Paper or Devonshire Declaration was a document written in 1923 by the colonial secretary Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire, regarding the status of settlers and natives in the Kenya Colony, and East Africa more broadly. The paper stated that whenever the interests of the native Africans clashed with those of Asian, European, or Arab settlers, those of the Africans should prevail. The Declaration blocked the move towards self-government advocated by the colonialists, and in its place advocated a policy of trusteeship, whereby the imperial state would protect the interests of Africans. Although the Paper had little effect on the welfare of native Africans, it nonetheless set a precedent for future conflict resolution between the various groups living in the colony.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The International Policy Statement of Canada is a policy statement, released on April 19, 2005, declaring Canada's intentions, attitudes, and plans to increase its global engagement in international security and foreign relations. Specifically, Canada's International Policy Statement focuses on diplomacy, development, defence, and commerce. According to the statement, Canada's defensive involvement will increase interaction with; rising global powers, fragile and failed states, putting emphasis on protection. The section on Canadian defence also includes combating the threat of global terrorism, renewing attention to peace operations, and expanding the defence of North America. The International Policy Statement's main development goal focuses on global poverty reduction. The commerce section outlines Canada's efforts to become a more active member of the global economy and the plan to cut and eventually cancel the national debt. Canada's interest in becoming a bigger part of the international community is motivated by past events such as its lack of influence in the Cold War and the recent rise in global Terrorism.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Langkawi Declaration on the Environment was a declaration issued by the assembled Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations on the issue of environmental sustainability.  It was issued on October 21, 1989 at Langkawi, Malaysia, during the tenth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM).\nThe declaration covers a wide range of topics related to the environment, blaming 'past neglect in managing the natural environment and resources'. It lists what the Heads of Governments perceived to be the main environmental problems: the greenhouse effect, damage to the ozone layer, acid rain, marine pollution, land degradation, and species extinction. These, the declaration affirmed, were issues that transcended national borders, and hence required the involvement of international organisations, such as the Commonwealth, to coordinate strategies to solve them.A key agreement in the formulation of the agreement was the pledge by developed countries not to connect future international development aid to commitment to environmental sustainability or introduce trade barriers. This, the developing countries argued, would prevent economic growth (described as a 'compelling necessity'), and hence reduce their ability to develop sustainable natural environments. In exchange, the developing countries conceded to the Commonwealth's developed members (particularly Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom), their interest in protecting the environment.Amongst the commitments made by members in the Langkawi Declaration were:\nSupport the development of an international sustainable development funding mechanism.\nSupport the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and recommend the Commonwealth's own report on climate change.\nPromote energy efficiency.\nPromote afforestation and sustainable forest management in developing countries, and the conservation of virgin forest to protect biodiversity.\nRestrict non-sustainable fisheries, including banning tangle nets and pelagic driftnet fishing, as part of a general trend amongst international organisations.\nPrevent dumping of toxic or hazardous materials in the oceans or in developing countries.\nPromote public awareness of environmental risks and issues.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A government policy statement is a declaration of a government's political activities, plans and intentions relating to a concrete cause or, at the assumption of office, an entire legislative session. In certain countries they are announced by the head of government or a minister of the parliament. In constitutional monarchies, this function may be fulfilled by the Speech from the Throne.\nIn Germany and Austria, the Chancellor submits a government policy statement (Regierungserkl\u00e4rung) at the beginning of the session of the Bundestag (in Austria: Nationalrat), in which they announces the intended policies of the government during the next legislative session. The statement is not legally binding, but is a significant constitutional commitment for the parliament and the government. During the legislative period the federal government, through the Chancellor and the ministers, can give statements to the parliament through the chancellor or the ministers concerning current political themes. It cannot however be obliged to give such statements.\nIn Belgium, the federal government holds its policy statement (Beleidsverklaring) on the second Wednesday in October; its northern region of Flanders states its September Declaration (Septemberverklaring) on the fourth Monday of September. In the Netherlands, every third Tuesday in September is Prinsjesdag: the king holds the Speech from the throne (Troonrede) and the government will state its policy and budget plans in the Budget Memorandum (Miljoenennota) for the next year. When a new government coalition has been formed after elections, the Prime Minister will make a similar statement (Regeringsverklaring) for the four year legislative period it intends to run the country.\nIn Sweden, the Prime Minister holds the government's statement (Regeringsf\u00f6rklaring) at the start of their government's legislative session and at the start of each parliamentary year.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Second Phase of the Revolution (Persian: \u06af\u0627\u0645 \u062f\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0646\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0628) or \"Second Step of the Revolution\" is a statement that was issued by the supreme leader of Iran, Sayyid Ali Khamenei to the country, particularly to the youth, and was published in February 2019, on the occasion of the fortieth anniversary of the victory of the Iranian Revolution.In \"The second phase of the revolution\", also known as \"The second phase\" or \"The second step\",  Khamenei expresses the achievements of the last forty years. He presents recommendations toward the goal of \"a great Jihad for the sake of making a great Islamic Iran\". Khamenei clarifies the issue of \"the second step\" towards Islamic revolution ideals in seven sections.A part of this statement speech which is addressed to (young) people by Seyyed Ali Khamenei, is as follows:\n\"Dear ones! ... Many of what we have seen and experimented, your generation has not experienced and seen yet. We have seen and you will see. The decades ahead are your decades, and it is you who should protect your revolution while you are qualified and full of motivation, and move it closer to its great ideal: that is, the emergence of a new Islamic civilization and the preparation for the rising of the great sun of wilayat ...\"\nIn another section of \"the second phase of the revolution\" statement, it mentions that: (the Islamic revolution) transmitted the spirit and belief of \"we can do it\" to everybody; and also thanks to the enemies\u2019 sanctions which taught everybody to rely on  its domestic capacities, and likewise it unfolded an origin of great blessings.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A signing statement is a written pronouncement issued by the President of the United States upon the signing of a bill into law. They are usually printed along with the bill in United States Code Congressional and Administrative News (USCCAN).  The statements begin with wording such as \"This bill, which I have signed today\" and continue with a brief description of the bill and often several paragraphs of political commentary.During the administration of President George W. Bush, there was a controversy over the President's use of signing statements, which critics charged was unusually extensive and modified the meaning of statutes. The practice predates the Bush administration, however, and was also used by the succeeding Obama administration.  In July 2006, a task force of the American Bar Association stated that the use of signing statements to modify the meaning of duly enacted laws serves to \"undermine the rule of law and our constitutional system of separation of powers\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Spanish Requirement of 1513 (Requerimiento) was a declaration by the Spanish monarchy, written by the Council of Castile jurist Juan L\u00f3pez de Palacios Rubios, of Castile's divinely ordained right to take possession of the territories of the New World and to subjugate, exploit and, when necessary, to fight the native inhabitants. \nThe Requerimiento (Spanish for \"requirement\" as in \"demand\") was read to Native Americans to inform them of Spain's rights to conquest. The Spaniards thus considered those who resisted as defying God's plan, and so used Catholic theology to justify their conquest.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A written ministerial statement is, in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, a statement by a Minister that puts the day-to-day business of government in the public domain. Written statements can be accessed by the public in Hansard.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "School Council (Burmese: \u1000\u103b\u1031\u102c\u1004\u103a\u1038\u1000\u1031\u102c\u1004\u103a\u1005\u102e; abbreviated as SC) is a feature in public schools and education colleges in Myanmar. It is the system of teacher-student joint council with House system under the control of the government, in which all the students and teachers of a school or an education college have to participate, and the principal take the highest position. The School Councils are formed under the order and regulation of Myanmar government's Ministry of Education, Department of Basic Education. A School Council comprises five houses. Secretary is the highest position that a student can be elected. Vice-chairman is the highest position that a teacher can be elected. The highest position; the chairman is only for the headmaster/headmistress or the principal.The School Council had been mandatorily formed since Ne Win's reign with various structures in each school. In June and July 2013, school councils were reorganized, with many activities and the aim to build Democracy inside classes and schools.In the first week of a new academic year, students are allocated to five Houses (Burmese: \u1021\u101e\u1004\u103a\u1038), either randomly or by drawing lots or by the management of the teacher.\nEach of the houses has a colour and the formal name named after a king or a hero. But there is no specific uniform for houses. The houses are often called informally by their colours colloquially. \nMembers of each of the five houses usually have to do duties, such as sweeping, on each weekdays that their house is assigned.\nUsually, the houses have to compete with one another in many aspects. The flags of the houses are flied on the right  side of the bar attached to the flag pole, with the flag of house that has highest score at the highest position and the flag of house that has lowest score at the lowest position.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A student council (also known as a student union or associated student body) is an administrative organization of students in different educational institutes ranging from elementary schools to universities and research organizations around the world. These councils exist in most public and private K-12 school systems in different countries. Many universities, both private and public, have a student council as an apex body of all their students' organisations. Student councils often serve to engage students in learning about democracy and leadership, as originally espoused by John Dewey in Democracy and Education (1917).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A student court is a type of judicial system occasionally seen in student governments. Student courts vary in size and functions, but they are most often engaged in conflict resolution and interpretation of student bylaws and constitutions.  Names of student courts vary, with the body variously referred to as the \"Student Court,\" \"Judicial Council\", the \"Judicial Board\", the \"Supreme Court,\" or others. Typically, however, student governments only possess legislative and executive branches. Student courts are a less-common feature of student governments.\nThe methods of selection for student courts also vary: at some institutions, the elected student body president nominates and appoints student court members with the consent of the elected student representative assembly; at others, a search committee interviews potential members who are subsequently nominated and officially appointed; at still other institutions, the sitting members of the student court actually participate in the process of nominating and selecting new court members.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The International Association of Dental Students (IADS) is a non-governmental organization representing interests of dental students worldwide. It was founded in August 1951 in Copenhagen, Denmark, and currently has more than 200,000 students from 60 countries.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The International Federation of Medical Students' Associations (IFMSA) is a non-governmental organization representing associations of medical students. It was founded in May 1951 and currently maintains 133 member organisations from 123 countries around the globe.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The International Pharmaceutical Students' Federation (IPSF) is a non-governmental, non-political and non-religious organisation that represents pharmaceutical students, pharmacy students and recent graduates from all over the world. It was founded in 1949 and it is the oldest faculty-based student organisation. IPSF represents over 500,000 individuals in more than 100 countries with 127 different representative pharmacy student member organisations.\nEvery pharmaceutical student, pharmacy student and recent graduates up to four years after receiving their degree may become a member of the Federation individually, or via a representative organisation of pharmacy students.\nThe Federation has engaged in the following areas: pharmacy education, public health, professional development, advocacy, cultural awareness, and partnerships developing pharmacists worldwide.\nThe IPSF Team is entirely student-run and is composed of more than 150 volunteers.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Lyceum Central Student Government, also known as the LYCESGO, is the highest student governing body of Lyceum of the Philippines University-Cavite Campus, located at General Trias, Cavite. It is composed of eight officers and their respective committees. Its principal concern is the promotion of welfare and protection of student rights.\nLYCESGO promotes and upholds academic freedom in pursuit of the goal of academic excellence. It advances and carries on the tradition of enlightened nationalism as a basic element of a truly responsive LPU education.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Student Choice Initiative (\"SCI\" or the \"Initiative\") was a 2019 policy of the Government of Ontario, under Premier Doug Ford, that took effect in Fall 2019 for the 2019-2020 academic year. The SCI provided post-secondary students to opt out of certain ancillary fees that post-secondary institutions collected on behalf of student groups, such as some student union dues. These applied to both universities and colleges. The Initiative was first struck down by the court in December 2019. Since then, the SCI has not been in effect, and the Government lost a court appeal in August 2021.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Student Federation of the University of Ottawa (French: F\u00e9d\u00e9ration \u00c9tudiante de l'Universit\u00e9 d'Ottawa; also known as the SFUO) was the official students' union representing undergraduate students of the University of Ottawa from 1969 to 2018.\nThe Student Federation of the University of Ottawa was a bilingual entity, and its French-language name and acronym (F\u00c9UO) had equal standing. It was a not-for-profit organization, incorporated under the Corporations' Act of Ontario.\nOn August 9, 2018, La Rotonde, the university's French-language newspaper, reported that the Ottawa Police Service was investigating members of the SFUO and its executive for fraud. Subsequently, on August 10, the university announced it was withholding their funding until an audit into the allegations could be completed.\nOn September 25, 2018, the University of Ottawa provided the Federation with a 90-day notice of termination of their contract, citing insufficient progress and further allegations of workplace misconduct, internal conflict, and improper governance. The announcement noted that, as of December 24, 2018, the Federation would no longer be recognized as the official representative of students, and invited students who wished to establish successor organizations to come forward.\nA referendum was held in February 2019 to determine whether the SFUO would be reinstated as the official undergraduate student union, or whether a new organization - the University of Ottawa Students' Union (UOSU) - would take its place. On February 11, 2019, the University of Ottawa announced that the University of Ottawa Students' Union had won the referendum to become the official undergraduate student union.The SFUO offices closed on April 10, 2019. An equitable court receiver has been appointed to officially dissolve the federation.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Student Government Program (SGP) is the Philippines' program for pupil governments in elementary schools and student governments in secondary schools of the Department of Education, under the Office of the Undersecretary for Administration. It is the foremost co-curricular student organization authorized to implement pertinent programs, projects, and activities in Philippine schools as mandated by the Department of Education.\nThe Philippines has a complex student union with different names such as student government, the term used in all public secondary schools and some of the universities and/or colleges and student council for most of the colleges/universities.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The student government president (sometimes called \"student body president,\" \"student council president\" or \"school president\") is generally the highest-ranking officer of a student union. While a student government group and a class president are very similar to each other in some ways, the main difference between them is that while a class president represents a specific grade within the school, the student government president represents the school's entire student body (hence why they're sometimes called \"student body president\" or \"school president\").", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Students' Society of McGill University (SSMU) is the accredited representative of the undergraduate student body at the downtown campus of McGill University.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The United States Student Association (USSA) is an American student organization. Founded in 1947, it is known as the oldest and largest student association in the U.S.\nUSSA was formed by a merger of the National Student Association and the National Student Lobby; and it later absorbed the National Student Educational Fund.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The University of Toronto Students' Union (UTSU), legally known as the Students' Administrative Council of the University of Toronto, Inc., is the representative student government of full-time undergraduate students at the University of Toronto - St. George campus. It is Canada's second largest student union and the third largest in North America.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Wisconsin Association of School Councils (WASC) is a \"statewide organization of public, private, and parochial elementary, middle, junior, and senior high school student leadership groups dedicated to the continuation and expansion of leadership development and student responsibilities in Wisconsin.\" It is a non-profit, student-led, student-run youth leadership and advocacy organization.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Adverse possession, sometimes colloquially described as \"squatter's rights\", is a legal principle in the Anglo-American common law under which a person who does not have legal title to a piece of property\u2014usually land (real property)\u2014may acquire legal ownership based on continuous possession or occupation of the property without the permission (licence) of its legal owner. The possession by a person is not adverse if they are in possession as a tenant or licensee of the legal owner.\nIn general, a property owner has the right to recover possession of their property from unauthorised possessors through legal action such as ejectment. However, in the English common law tradition, courts have long ruled that when someone occupies a piece of property without permission and the property's owner does not exercise their right to recover their property for a significant period of time, not only is the original owner prevented from exercising their right to exclude, but an entirely new title to the property \"springs up\" in the adverse possessor. In effect, the adverse possessor becomes the property's new owner. Over time, legislatures have created statutes of limitations that specify the length of time that owners have to recover possession of their property from adverse possessors. In the United States, for example, these time limits vary widely between individual states, ranging from as low as three years to as long as 40 years.Although the elements of an adverse possession action are different in every jurisdiction, a person claiming adverse possession is usually required to prove non-permissive use of the property that is actual, open and notorious, exclusive, adverse and continuous for the statutory period.Personal property, traditionally known as 'chattel', may also be adversely possessed, but owing to the differences in the nature of real and chattel property, the rules governing such claims are rather more stringent, and favour the legal owner rather than the adverse possessor. Claims for adverse possession of chattel often involve works of art.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A public holiday, national holiday, or legal holiday is a holiday generally established by law and is usually a non-working day during the year.\nSovereign nations and territories observe holidays based on events of significance to their history, such as the National Day. For example, Australians celebrate Australia Day.\nThey vary by country and may vary by year. With 36 days a year, Nepal is the country with the highest number of public holidays but it observes six working days a week. India ranks second with 21 national holidays, followed by Colombia and the Philippines at 18 each. Likewise, China and Hong Kong enjoy 17 public breaks a year.  Some countries (e.g. Cambodia) with a longer, six-day workweek, have more holidays (28) to compensate.The public holidays are generally days of celebration, like the anniversary of a significant historical event, or can be a religious celebration like Diwali. Holidays can land on a specific day of the year, be tied to a certain day of the week in a certain month or follow other calendar systems like the Lunar Calendar.\nThe French Journ\u00e9e de solidarit\u00e9 envers les personnes \u00e2g\u00e9es (Day of solidarity with the elderly) is a notable exception. This holiday became a mandatory working day although the French Council of State confirmed it remains a holiday.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In the canon law of the Catholic Church, the computation of time, also translated as the reckoning of time (Latin: supputatio temporis), is the manner by which legally-specified periods of time are calculated according to the norm of the canons on the computation of time. The application of laws frequently involves a question of time: generally three months must elapse after their promulgation before they go into effect; some obligations have to be fulfilled within a certain number of days, or weeks, or months. Hence the need of the rules for the computation of time. With the Code of 1917 and the reformed Code of 1983, the legislator has formulated these rules with a clearness and precision that they never had before.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A contractual term is \"any provision forming part of a contract\". Each term gives rise to a contractual obligation, the breach of which may give rise to litigation. Not all terms are stated expressly and some terms carry less legal gravity as they are peripheral to the objectives of the contract.\nThe terms of a contract are the essence of a contract, and tell the reader what the contract will do. For instance, the price of a good, the time of its promised delivery and the description of the good will all be terms of the contract.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Escheat  is a common law doctrine that transfers the real property of a person who has died without heirs to the crown or state. It serves to ensure that property is not left in \"limbo\" without recognized ownership.  It originally applied to a number of situations where a legal interest in land was destroyed by operation of law, so that the ownership of the land reverted to the immediately superior feudal lord.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Naturalization (or naturalisation) is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen of a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done automatically by a statute, i.e., without any effort on the part of the individual, or it may involve an application or a motion and approval by legal authorities. The rules of naturalization vary from country to country but typically include a promise to obey and uphold that country's laws and taking and subscribing to an oath of allegiance, and may specify other requirements such as a minimum legal residency and adequate knowledge of the national dominant language or culture. To counter multiple citizenship, some countries require that applicants for naturalization renounce any other citizenship that they currently hold, but whether this renunciation actually causes loss of original citizenship, as seen by the host country and by the original country, will depend on the laws of the countries involved.\nThe massive increase in population flux due to globalization and the sharp increase in the numbers of refugees following World War I created many stateless persons, people who were not citizens of any state. In some rare cases, laws for mass naturalization were passed. As naturalization laws had been designed to cater for the relatively few people who had voluntarily moved from one country to another (expatriates), many western democracies were not ready to naturalize large numbers of people. This included the massive influx of stateless people which followed massive denationalizations and the expulsion of ethnic minorities from newly created nation states in the first part of the 20th century.\nSince World War II, the increase in international migrations created a new category of migrants, most of them economic migrants. For economic, political, humanitarian and pragmatic reasons, many states passed laws allowing a person to acquire their citizenship after birth, such as by marriage to a national \u2013 jus matrimonii \u2013 or by having ancestors who are nationals of that country, in order to reduce the scope of this category. However, in some countries this system still maintains a large part of the immigrant population in an illegal status, albeit with some massive regularizations. Examples include Spain under Jos\u00e9 Luis Rodr\u00edguez Zapatero's government, and Italy under Silvio Berlusconi's government.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In United States securities law, a quiet period is a period of time in which companies refrain from communicating with investors to avoid unfairly disclosing material, non-public information to certain investors when the company has not yet publicly communicated this information.When a company is raising capital from the public, the quiet period has \"historically [meant], a quiet period of time extended from the time a company files a registration statement with the SEC until SEC staff declared the registration statement effective. During that period, the federal securities laws limited what information a company and related parties can release to the public.\" This is also called the cooling-off period or waiting period. Under the rules of the Securities Act of 1933, as modified June 29, 2005, electronic communications, including electronic road shows and information located on or hyperlinked to an issuer's website are also governed. The rules changes of June 29, 2005, also included various changes which \"liberalize permitted offering activity and communications to allow more information\" for certain qualifying organizations.The quiet period also means the period starting late in the third month of each quarter and ending on the day a public company announces its quarterly results.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In criminal law, the right to a speedy trial is a human right under which it is asserted that a government prosecutor may not delay the trial of a criminal suspect arbitrarily and indefinitely. Otherwise, the power to impose such delays would effectively allow prosecutors to send anyone to jail for an arbitrary length of time without trial.\nAlthough it is important for the protection of speedy trial rights for there to be a court in which a defendant may complain about the unreasonable delay of the trial, it is also important that nations implement structures that avoid the delay.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The term of a patent is the maximum time during which it can be maintained in force. It is usually expressed in a number of years either starting from the filing date of the patent application or from the date of grant of the patent. In most patent laws, annuities or maintenance fees have to be regularly paid in order to keep the patent in force. Thus, a patent may lapse before its term if a renewal fee is not paid in due time.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, under current patent law, the term of patent, provided that maintenance fees are paid on time, is 20 years from the filing date of the earliest U.S. or international (PCT) application to which priority is claimed (excluding provisional applications).The patent term in the United States was changed in 1995 to bring U.S. patent law into conformity with the World Trade Organization's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) as negotiated in the Uruguay Round. As a side effect, it is no longer possible to maintain submarine patents in the U.S., since the patent term now depends on the priority date, not the issue date.\nDesign patents have a shorter term than utility patents.  Design patents filed on or after May 13, 2015 have a term of 15 years from issuance. Design patents filed prior to May 13, 2015 have a term of 14 years from issuance.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Time immemorial (Latin: Ab immemorabili) is a phrase meaning time extending beyond the reach of memory, record, or tradition, indefinitely ancient, \"ancient beyond memory or record\". The phrase is used in legally significant contexts as well as in common parlance.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A waiting period is the period of time between when an action is requested or mandated and when it occurs.In the United States, the term is commonly used in reference to gun control, abortion and marriage licences, as some U.S. states require a person to wait for a set number of days after buying or reserving a firearm from a dealer before actually taking possession of it, a woman waiting for an abortion and individuals making applications on marriage licences.Waiting periods are also used for new insurance policies, particularly health insurance, and also flood insurance. Incidents which occur during this time are not claimable. The term may also refer to the time between the making of a claim and the payment of it, also called the elimination period.\nIn business finance, a waiting period or quiet period is the time in which a company making an initial public offering (IPO) must be silent about it, so as not to inflate the value of the stock artificially. It is also called the cooling-off period.\nOther things potentially subject to waiting periods include marriage, divorce, abortion access for women, and merger proceedings.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A veto is a legal power to unilaterally stop an official action. In the most typical case, a president or monarch vetoes a bill to stop it from becoming law. In many countries, veto powers are established in the country's constitution. Veto powers are also found at other levels of government, such as in state, provincial or local government, and in international bodies.\nSome vetoes can be overcome, often by a supermajority vote: in the United States, a two-thirds vote of the House and Senate can override a presidential veto. Some vetoes, however, are absolute and cannot be overridden. For example, in the United Nations Security Council, the permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) have an absolute veto over any Security Council resolution. \nIn many cases, the veto power can only be used to prevent changes to the status quo. But some veto powers also include the ability to make or propose changes. For example, the Indian president can use an amendatory veto to propose amendments to vetoed bills.\nThe executive power to veto legislation one of the main tools that the executive has in the legislative process, along with the proposal power. It is  most commonly found in presidential and semi-presidential systems. In parliamentary systems, the head of state often has either a weak veto power or none at all. But while some political systems do not contain a formal veto power, all political systems contain veto players, people or groups who can use social and political power to prevent policy change.The word \"veto\" comes from the Latin for \"I forbid\". The concept of a veto originated with the Roman offices of consul and tribune of the plebs. There were two consuls every year; either consul could block military or civil action by the other. The tribunes had the power to unilaterally block any action by a Roman magistrate or the decrees passed by the Roman Senate.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Bonus Bill of 1817 was legislation proposed by John C. Calhoun to earmark the revenue \"bonus,\" as well as future dividends, from the recently-established Second Bank of the United States for an internal improvements fund. Proponents of the bill stressed the nearly universally accepted need for improvements and brushed off strict constructionists with their own arguments in favor of \"implied powers.\" Although President James Madison approved of the need and stated goals of improvements, he vetoed the bill as unconstitutional because he found no expressed congressional power to fund roads and canals in Article I, Section 8, of the United States Constitution. His veto message represented an important explication by the \"Father of the Constitution.\"", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998), is a legal case in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the line-item veto as granted in the Line Item Veto Act of 1996 violated the Presentment Clause of the United States Constitution because it impermissibly gave the President of the United States the power to unilaterally amend or repeal parts of statutes that had been duly passed by the United States Congress. The decision of the Court, in a six-to-three majority, was delivered by Justice John Paul Stevens.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A Frankenstein veto occurs when an American state Governor selectively deletes words from a bill, stitching together the remainder (\u00e0 la Victor Frankenstein) to form a new bill different from that passed by the legislature. \nIn 2008, the state Constitution of Wisconsin was amended to place certain restrictions on the Frankenstein veto. With those changes, the governor of Wisconsin still has far greater veto powers than any other governor in the United States of America.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, a heckler's veto is a situation in which a party who disagrees with a speaker's message is able to unilaterally trigger events that result in the speaker being silenced.\nIn the legal sense, a heckler's veto occurs when the speaker's right is curtailed or restricted by the government in order to prevent a reacting party's behavior. The common example is the termination of a speech or demonstration in the interest of maintaining the public peace based on the anticipated negative reaction of someone opposed to that speech or demonstration. \nThe term heckler's veto was coined by University of Chicago professor of law Harry Kalven. Colloquially, the concept is invoked in situations where hecklers or demonstrators silence a speaker without intervention of the law.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Homestead Act of 1860 in the United States would have made land available for 25 cents per acre. This act was passed by the United States Congress, but was ultimately vetoed by President James Buchanan.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha, 462 U.S. 919 (1983), was a United States Supreme Court case ruling in 1983 that the one-house legislative veto violated the constitutional separation of powers.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Jus exclusivae (Latin for \"right of exclusion\"; sometimes called the papal veto) was the right claimed by several Catholic monarchs of Europe to veto a candidate for the papacy. Although never formally recognized by the Catholic Church, the French monarch, the Spanish monarch, and the Holy Roman Emperor (which later became the Emperor of Austria) claimed this right at various times, making known to a papal conclave, through a crown-cardinal, that the monarch deemed a particular candidate for the papacy objectionable.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The legislative veto describes features of at least two different forms of government, monarchies and those based on the separation of powers, applied to the authority of the monarch in the first and to the authority of the legislature in the second.\nIn the case of monarchy, legislative veto describes the right of the ruler to nullify the actions of a legislative body, for example, the French monarch's claim to the right to veto actions of the National Assembly at the start of the French Revolution.In a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature, it refers to the authority of the upper chamber, like Canada's Senate, to reject legislation or certain prescribed categories of legislation.In the case of representative governments that divide their executive and legislative functions, legislative veto refers to the power of a legislature, or one house of a bicameral legislature, to nullify an action of the executive authority. The practice was common for several decades in the United States at the federal level until the Supreme Court ruled the practice unconstitutional in 1983 in Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha.In Germany, the term refers to the authority of the Bundesrat, which represents the German states, to nullify certain categories of legislation enacted by the Bundestag, the nation's legislature.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The legislative veto was a feature of dozens of statutes enacted by the United States federal government between approximately 1930 and 1980, until held unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1983. It is a provision whereby Congress passes a statute granting authority to the President and reserving for itself the ability to override, through simple majority vote, individual actions taken by the President pursuant to that authority.It has also been widely used by state governments.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The liberum veto (Latin for \"free veto\") was a parliamentary device in the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a form of unanimity voting rule that allowed any member of the Sejm (legislature) to force an immediate end to the current session and to nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session by shouting either Sisto activitatem! (Latin: \"I stop the activity!\") or Nie pozwalam! (Polish: \"I do not allow!\"). The rule was in place from the mid-17th century to the late 18th century in the Sejm's parliamentary deliberations. It was based on the premise that since all Polish noblemen were equal, every measure that came before the Sejm had to be passed unanimously. The liberum veto was a key part of the political system of the Commonwealth, strengthening democratic elements and checking royal power and went against the European-wide trend of having a strong executive (absolute monarchy).\nMany historians hold that the liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system, particularly in the 18th century, when foreign powers bribed Sejm members to paralyze its proceedings, and the Commonwealth's eventual destruction in the partitions of Poland and foreign occupation, dominance and manipulation of Poland. Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the \"liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy\". In the period of 1573\u20131763, about 150 sejms were held, about a third failing to pass any legislation, mostly because of the liberum veto. The expression Polish parliament in many European languages originated from the apparent paralysis.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Line Item Veto Act Pub.L. 104\u2013130 (text) (PDF) was a federal law of the United States that granted the President the power to line-item veto budget bills passed by Congress, but its effect was brief as the act was soon ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Clinton v. City of New York.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The line-item veto, also called the partial veto, is a special form of veto power that authorizes a chief executive to reject particular provisions of a bill enacted by a legislature without vetoing the entire bill. Many countries have different standards for invoking the line-item veto if it exists at all. Each country or state has its own particular requirement for overriding a line-item veto.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In United States government, the line-item veto, or partial veto, is the power of an executive authority to nullify or cancel specific provisions of a bill, usually a budget appropriations bill, without vetoing the entire legislative package. The line-item vetoes are usually subject to the possibility of legislative override as are traditional vetoes.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, the term \"veto\" is used to describe an action by which the president prevents an act passed by Congress from becoming law. This article provides a summary and details of the bills vetoed by presidents.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Maysville Road veto occurred on May 27, 1830, when United States President Andrew Jackson vetoed a bill that would allow the federal government to purchase stock in the Maysville, Washington, Paris, and Lexington Turnpike Road Company, which had been organized to construct a road linking Lexington, Kentucky, to Maysville on the Ohio River (Maysville being located approximately 66 miles/106 km northeast of Lexington), the entirety of which would be in the state of Kentucky. Its advocates regarded it as a part of the national Cumberland Road system. Congress passed a bill in 1830 providing federal funds to complete the project. Jackson vetoed the bill on the grounds that federal funding of intrastate projects of this nature was unconstitutional. He declared that such bills violated the principle that the federal government should not be involved in local economic affairs. Jackson also pointed out that funding for these kinds of projects interfered with paying off the national debt.Proponents of internal improvements, such as the development of roads and bridges, argued that the federal government had an obligation to harmonize the nation's diverse, and often conflicting, sectional interests into an \"American System.\" Jackson's decision was heavily influenced by his Secretary of State Martin Van Buren. Some authors have described the motives behind the veto decision as personal, rather than strictly political. The veto has been attributed to a personal grudge against Henry Clay, a political enemy and resident of Kentucky, as well as to preserve the trade monopoly of New York's Erie Canal, in Van Buren's case.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ninetieth Minnesota State Senate v. Dayton, (903 N.W.2d 609), was a 2017 Minnesota Supreme Court case where the Court ruled that Governor Mark Dayton's line item vetoes of appropriations for the Minnesota Senate and Minnesota House of Representatives were a lawful exercise of his authority granted by the Minnesota Constitution. The Court also ruled that since the state legislature had access to other funding to continue operating as a fully functioning and independent branch of government, the governor's vetoes did not effectively abolish the legislature and thereby violate Article III of the state constitution. The Court also ruled that the judicial branch did not have the constitutional authority to order funding without a corresponding budgetary appropriation. The Supreme Court's ruling overturned an earlier ruling by a Ramsey County District Court judge. The case marked the first time in which the Minnesota Supreme Court was asked to resolve a lawsuit brought by one branch of government against another.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work  is a book written by political science professor George Tsebelis in 2002. It is a game theory analysis of political behavior. In this work Tsebelis uses the concept of the veto player as a tool for analysing the outcomes of political systems. His primary focus is on legislative behaviour and outcomes.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A pocket veto is a legislative maneuver that allows a president or other official with veto power to exercise that power over a bill by taking no action (keeping it in their pocket), thus effectively killing the bill without affirmatively vetoing it. This depends on the laws of each country; the common alternative is that if the president takes no action a bill automatically becomes law.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Pocket Veto Case (also known as Bands of the State of Washington v. United States and Okanogan, Methow, San Poelis, Nespelem, Colville, and Lake Indian Tribes v. United States), 279 U.S. 655 (1929), was a 1929 United States Supreme Court decision that interpreted the US Constitution's provisions on the pocket veto.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Rivers and Harbors Bill was a bill passed by Congress in 1846 to provide $500,000 to improve rivers and harbors. When the Senate passed the Rivers and Harbors Bill 34 to 16 on July 24, 1846, opponents lobbied for a presidential veto. It was vetoed by President James K. Polk on August 3. The bill would have provided for federally funded internal improvements on small harbors, many of them on the Great Lakes. Polk believed that this was unconstitutional because the bill unfairly favored particular areas, including that which had no foreign trade.\nPolk believed that these problems were local and not national. Polk feared that passing the Rivers and Harbors Bill would encourage legislators to compete for favors for their home districts, a type of political corruption that would spell doom to the virtue of the republic. In this regard he followed his hero, Andrew Jackson, who authored the Maysville Road veto in 1830 on similar grounds. Henry Clay and his Whig Party, by contrast, supported the bill because they believed the national government had a responsibility to promote trade commerce and economic modernization.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Scottish Militia Bill 1708 (known formerly as the Scotch Militia Bill) was a bill that was passed by the House of Commons and House of Lords of the Parliament of  Great Britain in early 1708. However, on 11 March 1708, Queen Anne withheld royal assent on the advice of her ministers for fear that the proposed militia would be disloyal. This was due to the sudden appearance of a Franco-Jacobite invasion fleet en route to Scotland which gave ministers second thoughts, at the last minute, about allowing it to reach the statute books. It was the last occasion on which the royal veto was used.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Smiley v. Holm, 285 U.S. 355 (1932), was a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States involving a governor's power to veto a congressional redistricting proposal passed by a state's legislature. In an opinion by Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes, the Court unanimously held that the U.S. Constitution did not prohibit Minnesota's governor from vetoing that state's redistricting map.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Texas Seed Bill was a 1887 United States federal law designed to send $10,000 to purchase seed grain for farmers after a horrendous drought happened in Texas.  The law was vetoed by President Grover Cleveland and his veto ultimately killed the law from ever being passed. In his veto message, Cleveland argued:\n\nI can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution, and I do not believe that the power and duty of the general government ought to be extended to the relief of individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit. A prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should, I think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that, though the people support the government, the government should not support the people.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The United Nations Security Council veto power is the power of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) to veto any \"substantive\" resolution. They also happen to be the nuclear-weapon states (NWS) under the terms of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). However, a permanent member's abstention or absence does not prevent a draft resolution from being adopted. This veto power does not apply to \"procedural\" votes, as determined by the permanent members themselves. A permanent member can also block the selection of a Secretary-General, although a formal veto is unnecessary since the vote is taken behind closed doors.\nThe veto power is controversial. Supporters regard it as a promoter of international stability, a check against military interventions, and a critical safeguard against United States domination. Critics say that the veto is the most undemocratic element of the UN, as well as the main cause of inaction on war crimes and crimes against humanity, as it effectively prevents UN action against the permanent members and their allies.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, the president can use the veto power to prevent a bill passed by the Congress from becoming law.  Congress can override the veto by a two-thirds vote of both chambers. \nAll state and territorial governors have a similar veto power, as do some mayors and county executives. In many states and territories the governor has additional veto powers, including line-item, amendatory and reduction vetoes. Veto powers also exist in some, but not all, tribal governments.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A vetocracy is a dysfunctional system of governance whereby no single entity can acquire enough power to make decisions and take effective charge. Coined by American political scientist Francis Fukuyama, the term points to an excessive ability or willingness to use the veto power within a government or institution (without an adequate means of any override). Such limitations may point to a lack of trust among members or hesitance to cede sovereignty.\nSome institutions which have been hampered by perceptions of vetocratic limitations (and even responsible for their downfall) include the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Articles of Confederation, the Confederate States of America, and the League of Nations. The present-day United Nations Security Council has been criticized for its inability to take decisive action due to the exclusive rights of veto power of permanent members. Fukuyama has argued that the United States was facing such a crisis under the republic's first constitution, the Articles of Confederation.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Wright v. United States  was the name of several US Supreme Court cases.\nThe most significant was the case of 1938 (302 U.S. 583), which partly overruled the court's earlier decision in the Pocket Veto Case.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A government simulation or political simulation is a game that attempts to simulate the government and politics of all or part of a nation. These games may include geopolitical situations (involving the formation and execution of foreign policy), the creation of domestic political policies, or the simulation of political campaigns. They differ from the genre of classical wargames due to their discouragement or abstraction of military or action elements.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The 3rd Millennium is a 1997 simulation strategy game by Cryo Interactive.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "1000 Days of Syria is a hypertext-based historical fiction game centered on the first 1000 days of the Syrian Civil War. Created in 2014 by Mitch Swenson, it is considered to be one of the first examples of an electronic literature newsgame.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Arsenal of Democracy is a grand strategy wargame that is based on Hearts of Iron II - Armageddon and its Europa Engine. It is developed by BL-Logic, a development studio made up by fans of the Hearts of Iron series and active members of the modding community. Arsenal of Democracy was announced on September 8, 2009 and released on February 23, 2010.As in other games in the grand strategy Hearts of Iron series, Arsenal of Democracy allows for the player take control of and manage nearly any World War II and early Cold War era nation-state including its political, diplomatic, espionage, economic, military, and technological aspects.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Balance of Power is a computer strategy game of geopolitics during the Cold War, created by Chris Crawford and published in 1985 on the Macintosh by Mindscape, followed by ports to a variety of platforms over the next two years.\nIn the game, the player takes the role of the President of the United States or General Secretary of the Soviet Union. The goal is to improve the player's country's standing in the world relative to the other superpower. During each yearly turn, random events occur that may have effects on the player's international prestige. The player can choose to respond to these events in various ways, which may prompt a response from the other superpower. This creates brinkmanship situations between the two nations, potentially escalating to a nuclear war, which ends the game.\nCrawford was already well-known, especially for Eastern Front (1941). His 1984 announcement that he was moving to the Macintosh platform to work on a new concept generated considerable interest. It was widely reviewed after its release, including an extremely positive review in The New York Times Magazine. It was praised for its inventive non-action gameplay that was nevertheless exciting and distinct.  It has been named by Computer Gaming World as one of the most innovative computer games of all time.\nBalance of Power was successful on the Mac, and combined with ports it ultimately sold over a quarter million units.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Balance of Power: The 1990 Edition is a sequel to the computer strategy game Balance of Power.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Capitol Hill is an educational game developed by American studio Amazing Media and published by The Software Toolworks in 1993 for Windows and Macintosh. The game lets the players be a representative from a US state and learn about the U.S. Congress by joining committees as well as meeting with foreign aides.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Cardinal of the Kremlin is a 1991 video game based on the 1988 Tom Clancy novel of the same name. It was developed by Capstone Software and published by IntraCorp for Amiga and DOS.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Chancellor of the Exchequer is a 1983 business simulation video game published by Mach-Ina Strategy Games for the Atari 8-bit family", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Commander in Chief, also known as Geo-Political Simulator, is a government simulation game that allows a player to simulate being a nation's head of government. Players have a large amount of control over their nation, although this varies based on the form of government the player's nation has. The English version was released on July 25, 2008, and has also been released in French, German, Spanish and Russian. The French version has been named Mission-Pr\u00e9sident.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Conflict: Middle East Political Simulator, often known as ConfMEPS or simply Conflict, is a turn-based government simulation game designed by David J. Eastman and published by Virgin Mastertronic in 1990 for DOS, Atari ST and Amiga (with extended graphics). The game is available for free download at abandonware sites.The game is set in 1997. The Prime Minister of Israel has just been assassinated, leaving the player to run the country as the new Prime Minister. The player's objective is to cause the defeat of the neighbouring four states, either by invasion (not necessarily by Israel, as the other states can and do invade each other) or political destabilisation.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Crisis in the Kremlin is a 1991 strategy video game with managerial aspects in which the player acts as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 2017. The player assumes the role of the reformist Mikhail Gorbachev, the nationalist Boris Yeltsin, or the hardliner Yegor Ligachyov. Actual jokes recorded by the KGB can be found in the gameplay, depicting the concerns of the Soviet people in a humorous light. The game was developed and released at a time when the Soviet Union was collapsing and breaking apart with the game's events making reference to that. Indeed, the Soviet Union dissolved in the same year as the game's release. A remake and spiritual successor of the game was published in 2017 on the game platform Steam.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Crusader Kings is a grand strategy game developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Strategy First and Paradox Interactive in April 2004. An expansion called Deus Vult was released in October 2007. A sequel using the newer Clausewitz Engine, Crusader Kings II, was released in February 2012, and another sequel, Crusader Kings III, was released on September 1, 2020.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Crusader Kings II is a grand strategy video game developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive. Set in the Middle Ages, the game was released on February 14, 2012, as a sequel to 2004's Crusader Kings. On October 18, 2019, the game became free to play. A sequel, Crusader Kings III, was released on September 1, 2020. Crusader Kings II stood out from earlier Paradox games in that it attracted a more widespread audience, contributing to the growth of the company.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Crusader Kings II: Holy Fury is a DLC for the grand strategy video game Crusader Kings II, developed by the Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive. Holy Fury mainly focused around improvements to religion and the ability to create randomly generated worlds.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Crusader Kings II: Sons of Abraham is a downloadable content pack developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive for the grand strategy wargame Crusader Kings II. The expansion pack created more events and interactions with the Christian, Islamic and Jewish religions within the game. There were concerns by the production staff that elements included such as the ability to expel Jews from the player-held lands and the ability to create the Kingdom of Israel could lead to criticism. Game critics were mostly positive of the game, with praise directed at the new gameplay elements introduced.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Crusader Kings II: Sunset Invasion is a DLC for the 2012 grand strategy video game Crusader Kings II, developed by the Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive, which adds a fictional Aztec invasion of Europe to the game.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Crusader Kings II: Sword of Islam is a downloadable content pack developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive for the grand strategy wargame Crusader Kings II. It allows the player to play as Muslim characters within the main game for the first time, and introduces a number of events and gameplay elements for those characters, such as decadence and polygamy.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Crusader Kings III is a grand strategy role-playing video game set in the Middle Ages, developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive as a sequel to Crusader Kings (2004) and Crusader Kings II (2012). The game was released on PC on 1 September 2020 and on the Xbox Series X/S and PlayStation 5 on 29 March 2022.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "CyberJudas is a presidential simulation video game for MS-DOS-compatible computers, and is the sequel to Shadow President. CyberJudas contains many of the same cyberpunk/dark science fiction elements of the original game, but adds themes of espionage and treason.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Darkest Hour: A Hearts of Iron Game is a grand strategy wargame that is based on Paradox Interactive's Europa Engine.\nIn Darkest Hour, as is the case with other Hearts of Iron titles, the player can take control of almost any country that existed in the game's timeframe, which spans from 1914 to 1920 or 1933\u20131964 depending on the scenario. Management of the state includes its political, diplomatic, espionage, economic, military, and technological aspects. The game was released on 5 April 2011.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Democracy is a government simulation game that was first developed by Positech Games in 2005, with a sequel released in December 2007, a third game in 2013 and a fourth in 2022. The player plays as if they are the president or prime minister of a democratic government. The player must introduce and alter policies in seven areas \u2013 tax, economy, welfare, foreign policy, transport, law and order and public services. Each policy has an effect on the happiness of various voter groups, as well as affecting factors such as crime and air quality. The player has to deal with \"situations\", which are typically problems such as petrol protests or homelessness, and also has to make decisions on dilemmas that arise each turn.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Divinity: Dragon Commander is a real-time strategy video game developed by Larian Studios as part of the Divinity series of fantasy role-playing games. The game features a hybrid of gameplay styles and has single-player, competitive multiplayer and cooperative multiplayer modes.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "East vs. West \u2013 A Hearts of Iron Game is a cancelled grand strategy wargame that was to be set during the Cold War era between 1946\u20131991.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "eRepublik is a free-to-play, web browser-based massively multiplayer online game developed by Romanian studio eRepublik Labs which was launched outside of beta phase on 14 October 2008 and is accessible via the Internet. The game is set in a mirror world (called the New World) where players, referred to as citizens, join in local and national politics where they can help formulate national economic and social policies as well as initiating wars with their neighbours and/or tread the path of a private citizen working, fighting and voting for their state. It was developed by Alexis Bonte and George Lemnaru. eRepublik is programmed in PHP using Symfony framework and runs in most modern browsers. eRepublik has spawned a number of similar games due to the commercial success.On 30 May 2017 it was announced that Stillfront Group has acquired eRepublik Labs.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Europa Universalis II is a grand strategy game developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Strategy First, based on world history spanning a timeline between 1419 through 1820. It was released on December 11, 2001.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Europa Universalis III is a grand strategy video game developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive. The game was released for Microsoft Windows in January 2007, and was later ported to OS X by Virtual Programming in November 2007.The player controls a nation and handles matters concerning war, diplomacy, trade, and economy. The original game without expansions starts in 1453, right after the Fall of Constantinople, and continues to 1789, just past the beginning of the French Revolution. The expansion Napoleon's Ambition extends the end game year forward to 1821, whereas the expansion In Nomine moves the starting year back to 1399, making it the longest as far as gameplay time in the series thus far.\nEuropa Universalis III was the first to use Paradox's new 3D engine, Clausewitz Engine, that required user systems to meet the Pixel Shader 2.0 specification. The map has 1,700 land and sea provinces encompassing most of the world, with 250 playable historical nations. The game also uses elements of other Paradox games such as Crusader Kings, Victoria, and Hearts of Iron II.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Europa Universalis IV is a grand strategy video game in the Europa Universalis series, developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive as a sequel to Europa Universalis III (2007). The game was released on 13 August 2013. It is a strategy game where players can control a nation from the Late Middle Ages through the early modern period (11 November 1444 to 3 January 1821 AD), conducting trade, administration, diplomacy, colonization, and warfare.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Floor 13 is a strategy video game published by Virgin Games in 1991. The game set in the United Kingdom, where the player is the director of a secret governmental agency involved in clandestine domestic operations; the headquarters is hidden on the thirteenth floor of a bank building in London Docklands, hence the title. A follow-up, Floor 13: Deep State, was released in November 2020.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Floor 13: Deep state is a strategy video game published by Humble Games in 2020. The game set in the United Kingdom, where the player is the director of a secret governmental agency involved in clandestine domestic operations; the headquarters is hidden on the thirteenth floor of a city building near London Docklands, hence the title. The game was developed by the same team that produced Floor 13 in November 1991. The game is self described as a \"dynamic document-driven dystopia\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "For the Glory is a grand strategy wargame that is based on Europa Universalis II and Paradox's Europa Engine. It was developed by Crystal Empire Games, a studio composed of members of the Europa Universalis II modification \"Alternative Grand Campaign / Event Exchange Project\" (AGCEEP) team, and published by Paradox Interactive. It was announced on September 4, 2009 and was released November 10/11, 2009. The game is available for Windows.\nIn For the Glory, the player chooses from over 190 nations spanning the 1000 province globe to guide a single nation from 1399 to 1819, managing its economy, military, political alliances, scientific development, exploration and colonization, religious affairs, and internal stability. It features over 10,000 historically accurate events and rulers.The game's reviews praised its immersive experience in the history of the period, its improved graphics, and its enhanced interfaces (when compared to its Europa Universalis II start point). However, some reviews described multiplayer stability issues, laborious management, and irritating sound effects.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A Force More Powerful is a 1999 feature-length documentary film and a 2000 PBS  series written and directed by Steve York about nonviolent resistance movements around the world. Executive producers were Dalton Delan and Jack DuVall. Peter Ackerman was the series editor and principal content advisor.\nInstitutional support for the film included funding from the United States Institute of Peace and the Albert Einstein Institution.The film played in festivals worldwide and was broadcast nationally on United States television network PBS in September 2000. It was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Historical Program.The series explores six successful nonviolent movements in the 20th century, including Mohandas Gandhi's leadership of the Indian Independence movement, the Civil Rights Movement, the boycotts in the Eastern Cape Province as part of the Anti-Apartheid movement in South Africa, the Danish resistance to Nazi Occupation, the Polish Solidarity Movement, and the Chilean democracy movement to oust Augusto Pinochet.A Force More Powerful is also the name of the companion book to the PBS series, authored by DuVall and Peter Ackerman,.  In the Acknowledgments section of the book, the authors name Steve York as their most-cited source. The book was published with Palgrave Macmillan and has been recognized as an important resource for peace education.In 2006, the team behind the film, TV series and book released a nonviolent video game developed by Breakaway Games with the same title. The video game was designed to teach the waging of conflict using nonviolent methods. Ivan Marovi\u0107, one of the leaders of the Serbian student movement called Otpor!, was one of the designers. A turn-based strategy game, it consists of ten pre-built scenarios and an editing system that will allow players to create scenarios of their own.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Geopolitique 1990 is a 1983 video game published by Strategic Simulations.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Great Britain Ltd (also known as GBLtd) is a British nation-simulation game originally released in 1982 for the BBC Micro and ZX Spectrum. The game was written and published by Simon W Hessel.\nThe game provides a simple government simulation, allowing the player to manage the British economy and compete in elections every 5 years.  The player takes on the role of leader of one of the major parties, managing variables such as tax rates and welfare payments, which each year results in changes to key economic indicators such as inflation and unemployment.\nThese changes also impact the player's popularity, making it easier or harder to win subsequent elections.  After winning an election, the player is allowed another 5 years to manage the economy before another election is held.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Hearts of Iron II is a grand strategy computer war game for the PC based upon its predecessor, Hearts of Iron, which was developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive.\nIt takes place in the time period from 1 January 1936 (1933 with an expansion) through 30 December 1947 (1964 with the expansion), and allows the player to assume control of any one of over 175 nations of the time and guide its development through the years before, during and after the Second World War. It was developed by Paradox Interactive and released in 2005. The lead game programmer was Johan Andersson.\nA sequel, Hearts of Iron III, was released in August 2009.\nArsenal of Democracy, a grand strategy wargame based on Hearts of Iron II, was released in February 2010. Iron Cross, a Hearts of Iron II expansion, was released on October 7, 2010, and Darkest Hour, a stand-alone strategy game based on Hearts of Iron II, was released on April 5, 2011.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Hearts of Iron III is a grand strategy video game developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive. The Microsoft Windows version of the game was released on August 7, 2009, while the Mac OS X version was released on December 7, 2009. A grand strategy wargame that focuses on World War II, it is the sequel to 2005's Hearts of Iron II and the third main installment in the Hearts of Iron series.\nInitially, the game received a mixed reception, largely because of the large number of bugs present in the game at release. After several patches, the game's reception improved. In December 2009, it had an average score of 77 on Metacritic. A sequel, Hearts of Iron IV, was released on June 6, 2016.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Hearts of Iron IV, also known as HOI4, is a grand strategy computer wargame developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive. It was released worldwide on 6 June 2016. It is the sequel to 2009's Hearts of Iron III and the fourth main installment in the Hearts of Iron series. Like previous games in the series, Hearts of Iron IV is a grand strategy wargame that focuses on World War II. The player may take control of any nation in the world in either 1936 or 1939 and lead them to victory or defeat against other countries.\n\nBy May 2018, the game had sold a total of 1 million copies worldwide.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Hegemony III: Clash of the Ancients is the third installment in the Hegemony strategy video game series, which was developed by the Canadian studio Longbow Games and released for Windows on August 25, 2015.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Hidden Agenda is a 1988 strategy video game intended to simulate the conditions of a post-revolutionary Central American country. The player takes the part of the newly elected president of the fictional country of Chimerica, which has recently been liberated from the rule of the corrupt dictator Farsante and his ruling clique. It is considered a forerunner of the Games for Change movement, alongside other early Macintosh games including Chris Crawford's Balance of Power.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Qing Lian Zhan Shi (Chinese: \u6e05\u5ec9\u6218\u58eb, literally \"The Incorruptible Warrior\") is a Chinese video game. The player takes on the role of protagonist who battles corrupt government officials as well as their children and mistresses. The game received financial sponsoring from the Chinese Communist Party Disciplinary Committee of the Haishu district in Ningbo city.\nJust weeks after its launch, the game attracted so many users that its servers crashed and it had to be taken offline for upgrades.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Kremlingames is an indie game development cooperative founded in 2014. They specialize in making geopolitical strategy games in which the player is given the opportunity to rewrite the history of the Soviet Union (USSR) and other countries. The studio is co-owned by Maxim Chornobuk and Vasiliy Kostylev, with other members contributing to important decisions.Kremlingames has created several games including Crisis in the Kremlin (2017), Ostalgie: The Berlin Wall and China: Mao's Legacy, in which players control the Soviet Union, one of the many Eastern Bloc nations or several other socialist states, and the People's Republic of China (PRC), respectively.Kremlingames is a bilingual developer, releasing games in both Russian and English. Their games tend to revolve around managing a country politically and economically during the Cold War. Their most recent game is titled Collapse: A Political Simulator.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Masters of the World, also known as Geo-Political Simulator 3, is the third installment of the Geo-political simulator series. This government simulation game, like its predecessors, puts the player in the role of any nation's head of state or head of government. French, German, Spanish, Italian, Japanese, and Russian versions of the game were also released.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "NationStates (formerly Jennifer Government: NationStates) is a multiplayer government simulation browser game created and developed by Max Barry. Based loosely on the novel Jennifer Government, the game was publicly released on 13 November 2002 with the site originally founded as an independent vehicle publicising the novel one week before its release. NationStates continues to promote books written by Barry, but has developed to be a sizeable online community, with a large accompanying forum board. Since its release, over 7.9 million user-created nations have been created, with around 259,122 being active as of 30 June 2022.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "No Greater Glory: The American Civil War is a 1991 video game published by Strategic Simulations.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Not For Broadcast is a full motion propaganda simulator developed by British video game studio NotGames and published by tinyBuild. The game released with its first episode in early access on 30 January 2020. The full game, including the third and final episode, was released worldwide on 25 January 2022.The game takes place in an unnamed European country (resembling the United Kingdom) in the mid-1980s, where a new far-left progressive political party named Advance has won a surprise landslide election victory and begins to handle the country in an authoritarian dystopian fashion. The player takes the role of Alex Winston, a studio director in a national television station, having to produce a live broadcast, play adverts, censor swear words, and avoid interference in an effort to keep the viewership high.On early access release, Not For Broadcast received positive reviews, with praise going to its gameplay and mechanics while being criticised for confusing political storytelling.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "PeaceMaker is a video game developed by ImpactGames, and published in February 2007 for Windows, Mac OS and Android. It is a government simulation game which simulates the Israeli\u2013Palestinian conflict. Labelled as a serious game, it is often pitched as \"a video game to promote peace\".\nThe game was originally a university project started in 2005 by a small team from the Carnegie Mellon University. After graduating, two of the members founded a game development company in order to finish the project.Peacemaker players can choose to represent either the leader of Israel or the Palestinian Authority. They have to deal with events presented using real world pictures and footage. They have to react and make social, political, and military decisions that their position entails within a gameplay system similar to turn-based strategy. The goal of the game is to solve the conflict with the two-state solution.PeaceMaker was well received by both the gaming and general press and won several awards. Critics praised its gameplay and the accuracy of the conflict representation. It is seen as an important game for the serious game movement and is becoming a flagship of the genre. Its educational value allows for a better understanding of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and promotes peace.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Political Animals is a 2016 government simulation game developed by Philippine-based studio Squeaky Wheel and released by British independent publisher Positech Games, the latter which also made the Democracy video game series. The game focuses on implementing policies and dealing with scandals, in order to secure votes and win an election, which is the main goal.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Political Machine 2008 is a government simulation game from Stardock and the second game in The Political Machine series, in which the player leads a campaign to elect the President of the United States. The player accomplishes this goal by traveling from state to state and engaging in a variety of activities to either raise money or raise poll numbers. It is the sequel to The Political Machine released in 2004. The Political Machine 2008 features new candidates such as Barack Obama and John McCain. The game focuses on much more current issues and the constant need for money.The game features three more scenarios, election in the American Civil War, an election taking place in an alternative European Union, and an alien world.\nThe developers said that they would add new content into the game before November 4 (the election) and update the issues as they changed in importance. New candidates were also planned once minor bugs were ironed out.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Political Machine 2012 is a government simulation game from Stardock and the third game in The Political Machine series, in which the player leads a campaign to elect the President of the United States. The player accomplishes this goal by traveling from state to state and engaging in a variety of activities to either raise money or raise poll numbers.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Political Machine 2016 is a government simulation game from Stardock and the fourth game in the Political Machine series, in which the player leads a campaign to elect the President of the United States. The player accomplishes this goal by traveling from state to state and engaging in a variety of activities to either raise money or raise poll numbers. An early access version of the game was released on Steam on November 17, 2015, with the full game releasing on February 4, 2016.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Political Machine 2020 is a government simulation game from Stardock and the fifth game in the Political Machine series, in which the player leads a campaign to elect the President of the United States. The player accomplishes this goal by traveling from state to state and engaging in a variety of activities to either raise money or raise poll numbers. The game was released on March 3, 2020.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Political Machine is a government simulation game from Stardock and the first game in the Political Machine series, in which the player leads a campaign to elect the President of the United States. The player accomplishes this goal by traveling from state to state and engaging in a variety of activities to either raise money or raise poll numbers.\nEach game starts with the selection of a pre-created candidate or creation of a fictional candidate from one of the two major American political parties, the Republican Party and the Democratic Party.\nHeadquarters and fundraisers are possible, the effectiveness of which depends on various factors.\nWhen enough money is accumulated the player can \"invest\" it in advertisements (either through newspapers, radio, or TV media). The effectiveness of these ads are determined by several factors. For instance, an ad supporting tax cuts will work better with Republican Texas than with Democratic Massachusetts.\nA key factor in the game is the concept of \"Stamina\" and \"Turns.\" In each turn, representing one week, a candidate has a set amount of stamina to engage in activities. For example, establishing or upgrading a campaign HQ costs more stamina than creating a newspaper ad.\nA sequel, The Political Machine 2008, was released on June 16, 2008, with new characters introduced, such as Barack Obama and John McCain. A second sequel, The Political Machine 2012, was released on July 31, 2012, with new characters introduced, such as Mitt Romney and Rick Santorum. A third sequel, The Political Machine 2016, was released on February 4, 2016, with new characters introduced, such as Bernie Sanders and Carly Fiorina. A fourth sequel, The Political Machine 2020, was released in March 2020.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Pork Barrel is a 1979 video game developed by George Blank and published by Ramware for the TRS-80.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Power Politics (game) is a Government simulation game published by Mindscape who obtained it from Will Vinton's Cineplay Interactive. Vinton was famous for Claymation featuring the California Raisins.\nVersion I featured the 1992 United States Presidential election.\nVersion II was re-branded as The Doonesbury Election Campaign, essentially the same game, but starring the characters from the Doonesbury comic strip.Power Politics III (2004) featuring then current candidates, stronger graphics and online competitions.\nThe game simulated the real world so well that the Associated Press printed its \"simulated\" results predicting a victory by Bill Clinton in the 1992 elections. George Magazine ran a feature article on it in their premier edition.\nWhile it is a worthwhile and challenging simulation for gamers, Power Politics also found its way into classrooms in over 400 colleges and universities, including George Washington University of Washington DC as a tool for teaching the realities and complexities of political campaign management. The game won numerous awards for content, quality and creativity.\nA player can campaign for one of thirty previous presidential candidates in an attempt to create an alternate history.\nA player can create a political candidate with specified strengths and weaknesses, defining how liberal or conservative the candidate will be; select positions on the important issues; set the schedule; determine what type of advertising campaign will be run and how much to spend on it. Selecting a running mate is part of the game simulation.\nPlayers can also do \u201cwhat-if\u201d scenarios just to test how candidates would have done against different opponents from different eras and political climates, rather than the one in which the candidate really lived. The historical cut-off is the 1960 campaign, the first in which television was an important factor. FDR vs JFK\u201d or \u201cAdlai Stevenson vs H. Ross Perot\u201d would not work because FDR and Stevenson were candidates before 1960. Similarly pitting JFK against Lyndon Johnson would not work because they were from the same party. However a JFK vs Bob Dole or Jimmy Carter vs George HW Bush would work because they were real candidates, from 1960 and after.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "President is a 1987 game released by Kevin Toms for the Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "President Elect is a turn-based, political simulation game, first released by Strategic Simulations for the Apple II in 1981, followed by a Commodore 64 port in 1984.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "President Forever 2008 + Primaries  is a political simulation game that incorporates realism mixed with fiction. It simulates  United States presidential elections and primary elections in 1960, 1980, 1992, 2000, 2004, and 2008. President Forever 2008 was developed and released by TheorySpark, a developer specializing in political games, on October 12, 2006. The game is an updated version of the original President Forever.\nPlayers must win enough Electoral College votes to win the election, or for smaller parties or candidates a successful campaign may require as little as achieving 5% nationally. The player is responsible for all aspects of their chosen candidate's campaign, from planning and buying advertising to recruiting high-profile and grassroots supporters.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Rats is a survival horror text adventure for the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum computers. It is based on the 1974  novel  The Rats by James Herbert. The game was programmed by GXT (Five Ways Software), and published by Hodder & Stoughton, who were the publishers of James Herbert's book The Rats. An Amstrad CPC version was planned, but was never released.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Rebel Inc. is a strategy video game developed and released by Ndemic Creations for iOS in 2018. Later the game was ported to Android and Windows; the version of the game for personal computers was released under the name Rebel Inc: Escalation. The goal of the game is to stabilize a region of a country without letting the rebels take over the government.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Rise of Prussia is a grand strategy wargame developed by AGEOD and published by Paradox Interactive. It was announced on April 24, 2009 and was released on March 9, 2010. The game covers the European campaigns of the Seven Years\u2019 War (1756\u20131763).\nA remastered version of the game, Rise of Prussia Gold, released on May 8, 2013. This edition featured fixes and improvements to the original game while adding three new scenarios that expand the length of the game.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Rulers of Nations, also known as Geo-Political-Simulator 2, is the second installment of the Geo-Political series. This government simulation game, like its predecessor, puts the player in the role of any nation's head of state. French, German, Spanish, Italian, and Russian versions of the game will also be released.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Sengoku: Way of the Warrior is a grand strategy computer game developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Shadow President is a geopolitical simulation video game released in 1993 for the PC by DC True containing elements of cyberpunk and dark science fiction.\nThe game has a sequel called CyberJudas.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Storm: Frontline Nation is a turn-based strategy video game developed by the Swedish developer Colossai Studios, and published by SimBin Studios. The game takes place in modern-day Europe and North Africa. Gameplay elements involve diplomacy, large-scale strategy and small-scale tactical warfare.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "SuperPower is a 2002 political simulation computer game. SuperPower was designed by GolemLabs and published by DreamCatcher Interactive, debuting on March 28, 2002 for Microsoft Windows. SuperPower 2 was released in 2004.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "SuperPower 2 is a real-time strategy wargame developed by Canadian based GolemLabs and published by DreamCatcher Interactive in 2004, following SuperPower. It was released between October 11 and November 19, 2004 in North America and Europe, respectively.  On April 18, 2014, Nordic Games officially released SuperPower 2 on the Steam Store.\nPlayers may join a game as any of the 193 nations recognized by the United Nations at the time of its development. All standard games start in the year 2001, with the player taking control of their nation. They then must work toward their predefined goals, such as achieving world peace, balancing their nation's resources, or conquering the world, or, if they did not set any predefined goals, they have the opportunity to work toward developing their nation's infrastructure, increasing their military strength through new unit designs and development, and encouraging the economic and cultural growth of their nation.\nAny nation not controlled by a player is considered an AI nation. If there are predefined objectives, the player will attempt to reach this objective to win the game. The AI will have their own objectives, which they will try to reach as well. If and when the player and the AI have conflicting goals, it is up to the player, and occasionally the AI, to decide if diplomacy is the way to go, or if war is the answer to their problems.\nBecause SuperPower 2 is a real-time game, there is no preset end date. This means that a single game can, in theory, run indefinitely.\nSuperPower 2 was released in English, French, German, Spanish, Korean, Chinese and Russian.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Supreme Ruler is a computer strategy game in which a player controls a region's government and attempts to conquer a fictional world of fragmented states.  The game simulates raising funds through taxes and spending on agriculture, government services, and the military.  Up to 9 regions play at once, either human hotseat or AI controlled, and all actions are resolved simultaneously at the end of each turn.  The design of Supreme Ruler was influenced by earlier nation-state simulations such as Sumer, though the concept is taken further with the addition of multiplayer, military battles, and a more sophisticated design.\nThe game was created by George Geczy and produced and published by JMG Software International, released for the TRS-80 microcomputer system in October 1982.  An updated and expanded version, Supreme Ruler Plus, was released in May 1983.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Supreme Ruler 1936 is a grand strategy computer wargame developed by BattleGoat Studios set in the World War II era. First announced in March 2013,  It is a sequel to Supreme Ruler: Cold War. The game was released on May 9, 2014.\nIn the game, players will attempt to control a country during the time of the Second World War.\nSupreme Ruler 1936 generally operates as a real time strategy game, though players are able to pause the game or change the game speed.  The military element of the game is played through battalion-sized units represented on the game map, that can be controlled and given orders using the mouse individually or through groupings.  Optionally players may leave unit initiative turned on, which will allow the AI to control military units for the player.\nThe player may also use Cabinet Ministers to assist with the operation of their regions, through the use of a Minister-priorities system and an in-game alerts system.\nThe main focus of the game are on four campaigns, each taking place from the perspective of either Germany, Japan, Italy, and the United Kingdom. Scenarios depict key moments in the war, such as Operation Barbarossa, Case Blue, and even alternate history scenarios such as Operation Sea Lion.\nMultiplayer is available in LAN or Internet play for up to 16 players.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Supreme Ruler 2010 is a computer wargame in which a player controls all aspects of a region's government and attempts to unite a world of fragmented states in the year of 2010.\nThe game was produced by BattleGoat Studios and released by Strategy First on May 10, 2005.\nOfficial support for Supreme Ruler 2010 ended in August 2006 with the release of the 6th update.  The final version of the game was 4.6.1.\nA sequel, Supreme Ruler 2020, was released on June 17, 2008 by publisher Paradox Interactive.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Supreme Ruler 2020 is a grand strategy wargame developed by BattleGoat Studios and published by Paradox Interactive. The game was released on June 17, 2008 and is a sequel to Supreme Ruler 2010. In the game, the player controls all aspects of a region's government attempts to unite a world of fragmented states.  On December 23, 2008 BattleGoat Studios released an expansion pack for the game titled Global Crisis.  A Gold Edition of the game containing both the core game and the expansion pack was released on September 18, 2009.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Supreme Ruler The Great War is a grand strategy video game developed by BattleGoat Studios. It is the sixth installment in the Supreme Ruler series and was released on August 1, 2017. The game is the sequel to Supreme Ruler Ultimate.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Supreme Ruler Ultimate is a grand strategy video game developed by BattleGoat Studios. It is the fifth installment in the Supreme Ruler series and was released on October 17, 2014. The game is the sequel to Supreme Ruler 1936. It is essentially a compilation release, streamlining Supreme Ruler 2020, Supreme Ruler Cold War, and Supreme Ruler 1936 into one game, using the same UI as 1936, as well as adding additional features and gameplay.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Supreme Ruler: Cold War was developed by BattleGoat Studios and was announced August 19, 2010 by Paradox Interactive at the 2010 Gamescom video gaming convention held in Cologne, Germany and released on July 19, 2011. It is set during the Cold War Era from the end of World War II to the early 1990s. The main Campaign allows the player to be the head of either the U.S. or the USSR, while the Sandbox game mode can be played from any nation's point of view.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Tropico is a construction and management simulation video game developed by PopTop Software and published by Gathering of Developers in April 2001. Feral Interactive has developed and published a number of the games in the series for Mac OS X. The games see the player taking the role of \"El Presidente\", who rules a fictional island country in the Caribbean named Tropico during the Cold War era and beyond.\nThe game is tongue-in-cheek in its presentation of semi-democratic banana republics, using a great deal of humor while still referencing such topics as totalitarianism, electoral fraud, and the interventions of powerful companies (United Fruit is implied) and the Cold War superpowers (the United States and Soviet Union).  This is similar to the previous 8bit Game Dictator by DK'Tronics, except in Dictator the success is measured by the amount you put away in your Swiss bank account, which is an offshore bank account.Tropico features Latin-styled Caribbean music, largely performed by Daniel Indart. The game won the Original Music Composition category in the 2002 Interactive Achievement Awards.\nTropico has several expansion packs and new editions, including Tropico: Paradise Island, plus a combined copy of the original and Paradise Island titled Tropico: Mucho Macho Edition (released on June 27, 2002). A sequel, Tropico 2: Pirate Cove, was released on April 8, 2003. The third game in the series Tropico 3, was released in the autumn of 2009. A fourth game, Tropico 4, was released on August 26, 2011, and a fifth game, Tropico 5, was released on May 23, 2014. Tropico 6 was released on March 29, 2019.The game was re-released in the three-game pack Tropico Reloaded, packing the original game, the expansion pack Tropico: Paradise Island, and the sequel Tropico 2: Pirate Cove into one release. It is available both digitally on Steam and GOG.com, and on disc.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Tropico 3 is a video game developed by Haemimont Games and published by Kalypso Media. Like the previous games in the series, Tropico 3 is a construction and management simulation as well as a political simulation game, with emphasis on city building. As a thematic sequel to Tropico  (unlike the pirate-themed sequel, Tropico 2), the game attempts to return to the roots of the series, which puts the player into the shoes of \"El Presidente\" \u2013 a ruler governing over an island banana republic.\nThe OS X version of the game was released on January 26, 2012, by Feral Interactive.Feral Interactive released a redesigned version of Tropico 3 to iPad on December 18, 2018, under the name Tropico or known as Tropico Mobile, with an iPhone version following on April 30, 2019. An Android version of the game was released on September 5, 2019.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Tropico 4 is a city management and political manipulation game. The game was developed by Haemimont Games and published by Kalypso Media. Like the first and third games in the series, it centers on a customizable main character titled \"El Presidente\" \u2013 the ruler who runs the island banana republic. The Mac OS X version of the game (Tropico 4: Gold Edition, which includes the Modern Times expansion pack) was released by Feral Interactive on July 25, 2013, as well as DLC packs Dash for Growth and Captain of Industry. The State of Emergency DLC pack was released by Feral on April 3, 2014.For the first time in the series, Tropico 4 includes support for Facebook and Twitter.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Tropico 5 is a construction and management simulation video game developed by Haemimont Games. It was released for Microsoft Windows in May 2014, with versions for Linux, OS X and Xbox 360 released later in 2014 as well as versions for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One released in April 2015 and May 2016 respectively.\nFor the first time in the Tropico series the game features cooperative and competitive multiplayer for up to four players. The players are able to build cities on the same island, allowing the choice of working with one another, or against.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Tropico 6 is a construction, management and  political simulation game in the Tropico series, developed by Limbic Entertainment, published by Kalypso Media, and announced at E3 2017. Originally intended for a 2018 release, Tropico 6 was released on Microsoft Windows, macOS and Linux in March 2019, and for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in September 2019. It was released for the Nintendo Switch in November 2020, and on PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S in March 2022.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Victoria II is a grand strategy game developed by the Swedish game company Paradox Development Studio and published by Paradox Interactive. It was announced on August 19, 2009, and released on August 13, 2010. It is a sequel to Victoria: An Empire Under The Sun.\nVirtual Programming published the Mac OS X version of the game on September 17, 2010, which is available on the App Store. The game was localized for Russia by 1C Company and Snowball Studios.Like its predecessor, Victoria II allows for the player to take control of and manage a 19th-century state, including its political, diplomatic, economic, military, and technological aspects. The game has many historical aspects to it, such as the ability to colonize places that, at the time, were not under the control of any European power, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, North and Western Canada, and Asia. The time frame of the game is 1836\u20131936.\nIn 2021 Paradox announced a sequel, Victoria 3, which is yet to be released.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Victoria 3 is an upcoming grand strategy video game to be published by Paradox Interactive, and is a sequel to the 2010 game Victoria II. It was announced on 21 May 2021 at Paradox Interactive's 2021 convention, PDXCON: Remixed.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun is a grand strategy videogame by Paradox Entertainment (now known as Paradox Interactive), released in 2003. It covers primarily its namesake the Victorian period (1837-1901) and beyond, specifically 1836-1920 for the main game, and extends until 1936 if the expansion is installed. The game runs on a modified version of the Europa Engine, and the lead game programmer was Johan Andersson. It was later ported to Macintosh by Virtual Programming.\nUnlike previous Paradox Games, which either focused on diplomacy or war, Victoria focuses on internal management, covering the industrialization and social/political changes in a country. The game itself gives a lot of importance to the economy of a country, having a complex market system which is described as being one of the best economic simulators ever made. Fans of Paradox's games have noted this one for being the deepest game Paradox had yet made, making it quite popular with the Paradox fanbase. However, Victoria received largely indifferent reviews on release, averaging only 60.4% on GameRankings. Critics cited reasons such as the game's steep learning curve and its relatively dated graphics. A sequel, Victoria II was released in August 2010, and another sequel, Victoria 3, was announced in May 2021.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Yes, Your Grace is a role-playing strategy video game developed by Brave at Night and published by No More Robots. It was officially released for Microsoft Windows and macOS on March 6, 2020, for Nintendo Switch and Xbox One on June 26, 2020, and for Xbox Series X/S as one of its launch titles on November 10, 2020. Yes, Your Grace focuses around managing a small kingdom, where the player must manage a finite amount of resources. The game went through a multi-year development cycle, where it was heavily influenced by winter conditions in Poland. It received generally positive reviews from critics.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, a Form 1099-OID is a tax form intended to be submitted to the Internal Revenue Service by the holder of debt instruments (such as bonds, notes, or certificates) which were discounted at purchase to report the taxable difference between the instruments' actual value and the discounted purchase price. Like other 1099 forms, it is normally filled out by a payer of income \u2014 for example, the issuer or seller of a discounted bond \u2014 and sent both to tax authorities and the recipient of the income.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "2017 IORA Summit was held on March 5\u20137, 2017 in Jakarta Convention Centre, Indonesia, between the members of the Indian Ocean Rim Association. It was the first IORA Summit and the 20th IORA meeting, previous meetings were only minister level. Leaders attending the summit included President of South Africa Jacob Zuma and President of Sri Lanka Maithripala Sirisena. China and Japan also attended the summit as dialogue partners. Some 12,000 security personnel, both the police and military, were deployed to secure the event.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Absolute democracy is a hypothetical form of government presenting an extreme of power exercised directly by citizens.\nIt should not to be confused with power democracy as found in the Swiss political system (in which elective activities for the adjustment of social/political matters are more frequent than in other democracies).Absolute democracy presents a risk that the interests of the majority will be prioritized while the needs of any minorities may be ignored. Although democracy in general strives to make the people content, absolute democracy lacks protections to allow the minority to be heard or acknowledged.\nAs Francis Devine explains in \"Absolute Democracy or Indefeasible Right: Hobbes Versus Locke\", there was a tension in American politics between absolute democracy and liberalism. Devine explains liberalism as, \"the insistence that certain basic human freedoms are beyond abridgment\".\nAbsolute democracy lacks protections commonly seen in modern democratic systems. For example, in an absolute democracy there is no requirement for a \"supermajority\" to vote on any issue (i.e., every issue can be decided by a bare 50% vote). A requirement for a supermajority would be a limit on democracy, while absolute democracies are noted for their lack of such limits. As a result, policies may not be stable or long term, because everything is under scrutiny from the voters and may be overturned with a simple majority vote.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Administrative Council (Polish: Rada Administracyjna) was a part of Council of State of the Congress Poland. Introduced by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815, it was composed of 5 ministers, special nominees of the King and the Namestnik of the Kingdom of Poland. The Council executed King's will, ruled in the cases outside the ministers competence and prepared projects for the Council of State.\nThe Council decided to revolt during the November Uprising in 1830 against Tsar Nicholas I, and transformed itself into governing Executive Commission.The Council was reformed after the death of namestnik J\u00f3zef Zaj\u0105czek in 1826, after the fall of November Uprising in 1831, after the liquidation of Council of State in 1841, after the reforms of Aleksander Wielopolski in 1863 and after the fall of January Uprising. It was liquidated on 15 June 1867.\nThe Council was reformed:\n\nafter the death of namestnik J\u00f3zef Zaj\u0105czek in 1826\nafter the fall of the November Uprising in 1831\nafter the liquidation of the Council of State in 1841\nafter the reforms of Aleksander Wielopolski in 1863\nafter the fall of the January Uprising", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Al-Kadhimi Government is the current government of Iraq (as of December 2021), led by Prime Minister Mustafa Al-Kadhimi. It was formed on 6 May 2020 after extensive negotiations.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Assistant Deputy Director of National Intelligence for Open Source (ADDNI/OS) is a senior-level position within the Office of the Director of National Intelligence, responsible for developing strategic direction, establishing policy and managing fiscal resources for Open Source Intelligence, providing oversight for the DNI Open Source Center, as well as document and media exploitation for the United States Intelligence Community.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Astana Club is a global issues dialogue platform based on Chatham House rules and convened by Nursultan Nazarbayev.The club has partnered with international think tanks the Institute of World Economy and Politics, the Carnegie Endowment, the German Council on Foreign Relations, the China Institute of Contemporary International Relations, and the Russian International Affairs Council.Club participants include scholars, businesspersons and former members of the U.S. Congress.The Astana Club inaugural meeting was keynoted by OSCE PA Secretary General Spencer Oliver.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "An auditor general, also known in some countries as a comptroller general or comptroller and auditor general, is a senior civil servant charged with improving government accountability by auditing and reporting on the government's operations.\nFrequently, the institution headed by the auditor general is a member of the International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Latin brocard aut simul stabunt aut simul cadent (or simul simul for short), meaning they will either stand together, or fall together, is used in law to express those cases in which the end of a certain situation automatically brings upon the end of another one, and vice versa.\nThe first use of this expression in the mass media, which made it known to the non-specialists, was in occasion of one of the first crises between fascist Italy and the Vatican concerning the Concordat. Pope Pius XI is believed to have pronounced the sentence to express the fact that challenging the Concordat would have swept away the whole Lateran treaty, reopening the Roman question.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency, BRSA (Turkish: Bankac\u0131l\u0131k D\u00fczenleme ve Denetleme Kurumu, BDDK) is an independent agency in Turkey whose task is to regulate and supervise the banking system in the country. It aims to \"provid[e] reliability and stability in financial markets\", \"ensur[e] the efficient running of the credit system\", and protect consumer rights.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Basic People's Congress Arabic: \u0645\u0624\u062a\u0645\u0631 \u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u064a (Mu'tamar sha\u02bfbi as\u0101si ) was the smallest administrative division in Libya under the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from 1977 to 2011. Geographically it corresponded approximately to the level of a township or borough.\nDuring Muammar Gaddafi's rule, political caucuses and committees of the Basic People's Congress operated at this level.  Representatives from the Basic People's Congresses regulated operations at the higher shabiyah (district) level.In July 2013 the shabiyat and Basic People's Congress system was replaced with a new baladiyat system of ninety-nine first-level administrative divisions.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Basic Peoples Congress, or Fundamental Popular Council (Arabic: \u0645\u0624\u062a\u0645\u0631 \u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u064a, romanized: Mu'tamar sha\u02bfbi as\u0101si), was the smallest unit of government in Muammar Gaddafi's Libya. It governed the equivalent of a municipality, and that geographic district was also called a Basic Peoples Congress.The congress consisted of every man and woman who had attained the age of majority. The actual congress met at three scheduled meetings per year or as called upon by necessity. The first meeting was usually devoted to a detailed agenda for the next two meetings. At the second meeting the Basic People's Congress discussed issues relating to the local business, while at the third meeting seats on committees were filled, representatives elected and policy at the national and international level were discussed. Day-to-day management and oversight was provided by the people's committee appointed by the congress. The next political level up was the district congresses and then above that was the General People's Congress at the top.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Basque Government (Basque: Eusko Jaurlaritza, Spanish: Gobierno Vasco) is the governing body of the Basque Autonomous Community of Spain. The head of the Basque government is known as the Lehendakari. The Lehendakari is appointed by the Basque Parliament every four years, after a regional election. Its headquarters are located in the Lakua district of Vitoria-Gasteiz in \u00c1lava.\nThe first Basque Government was created after the approval of the first Basque Statute of Autonomy on 1 October 1936, in the midst of the Spanish Civil War. It was headed by Jos\u00e9 Antonio Aguirre (EAJ-PNV) and was supported by a coalition of all the parties that fought the Nationalist forces in the Civil War: those comprising the Popular Front (PSOE, PCE, EAE-ANV and other parties that sided with the Second Spanish Republic). After the defeat of the Republic, the Basque Government survived in exile, chaired by Jes\u00fas Mar\u00eda Leizaola after the death of Aguirre in 1960. This first Basque Government was formally disbanded after the approval of the current Statute of Autonomy in 1979, after the death of caudillo Francisco Franco.\nUpon approval of the new Statute, the new Basque Government was created (1980), superseding the Basque General Council. Carlos Garaikoetxea was the first lehendakari of the new Government.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Benefits Agency (BA) was an executive agency of the United Kingdom Department of Social Security (subsequently the Department for Work and Pensions) which was set up in 1991 to \"help create and deliver an active modern social security service, which encourages and enables independence and aims to pay the right money at the right time\". The BA was merged with the Employment Service in April 2001 to form Jobcentre Plus.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Border Five (Border 5; B5) is an informal forum on customs and border management policy issues with participation from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States. The participating authorities are:\nDepartment of Home Affairs (Australia)\nCanada Border Services Agency\nThe New Zealand Customs Service\nThe United Kingdom UK Border Force\nUS Department of Homeland Security", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The budget-maximizing model is a stream of public choice theory and rational choice analysis in public administration inaugurated by William Niskanen. Niskanen first presented the idea in 1968, and later developed it into a book published in 1971. According to the budget-maximizing model, rational bureaucrats will always and everywhere seek to increase their budgets in order to increase their own power, thereby contributing strongly to state growth and potentially reducing social efficiency.\nThe bureau-shaping model has been developed as a response to the budget-maximizing model. Niskanen's inspiration could also have been Parkinson's law sixteen years earlier (1955).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A \"burn notice\" is an official statement issued by an intelligence agency to other agencies. It states that an asset or intelligence source is unreliable for one or several reasons, often fabrication, and must be officially disavowed. This is essentially a directive for the recipient to disregard or \"burn\" all information derived from that individual or group.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Busan Port Authority is the governing body of the South Korean port of Busan. They are responsible for the maritime and seaport trade and is the leading seaport in the country.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Business-to-government (B2G), also known as business-to-administration (B2A), refers to trade between the business sector as a supplier and a government body as a customer.\nPublic-sector organizations generally post tenders in the form of requests-for-proposals, requests-for-information, requests-for-quotations, and sources-sought, to which private suppliers respond. Business-to-government networks provide a platform for businesses to bid on government opportunities that are presented as solicitations, in the form of requests-for-proposals, through a reverse auction.\nB2G includes the segment of business-to-business marketing known as public sector marketing, which encompasses marketing products and services to various government levels\u2014local and national\u2014through integrated marketing communications techniques such as strategic public relations, branding, marketing communications, advertising, and web-based communications.\nGovernment agencies typically have pre-negotiated standing contracts vetting the vendors/suppliers and their products and services for set prices. These can be local or national contracts and some may be grandfathered in by other entities. For example, in the United States, California's MAS Multiple Award Schedule will recognize the federal government contract holder's prices on a General Services Administration Schedule.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Krag-Juel-Vind-Frijs cabinet was the government of Denmark from 6 November 1865 to 28 May 1870.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The H\u00f8rring cabinet was formed on 7 August 1897 and consisted entirely of members of the party H\u00f8jre. It was created following Tage Reedtz-Thott's resignation as Council President, when Hugo Egmont H\u00f8rring of the conservative party H\u00f8jre became the leader of the new Danish cabinet, replacing the Cabinet of Reedtz-Thott.\nThe cabinet was replaced by the Sehested cabinet on 27 April 1900.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Moltke I cabinet was the government of Denmark from 22 March 1848 to 15 November 1848. It was also referred to as the March Cabinet.\nIn March 1848, Copenhagen was full of rumours that Schleswig and Holstein had rebelled against Denmark, and the National Liberals took advantage of the situation by arranging protest demonstrations against King Frederick VII and his politics. On 21 March, King Frederick responded by dismissing his ministers and asking Carl Emil Bardenfleth to form a new government. Bardenfleth failed to reach a compromise with the National Liberals, however, and so did Peter Georg Bang whom the king had asked to take his place. On the morning of 22 March the king begged Adam Wilhelm Moltke, the leader of the previous cabinet, to lead a government of responsible ministers, effectively ending the absolute monarchy. Moltke quickly managed to put a government together, the Cabinet of Moltke I.\nIt was replaced by the Cabinet of Moltke II on 15 November 1848.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Estrup cabinet was the government of Denmark from 11 June 1875 to 7 August 1894. It replaced the Fonnesbech Cabinet and was succeeded by the Reedtz-Thott Cabinet on 7 August 1894. It is the longest sitting government in Danish history.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Moltke II cabinet was the government of Denmark from 16 November 1848 to 13 July 1851. It was also referred to as the November Cabinet.\nIt was replaced by the Moltke III cabinet on 13 July 1851.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Monrad cabinet was the government of Denmark from 31 December 1863 to 11 July 1864, and was in power in the beginning of the Second Schleswig War.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Estrup cabinet was the government of Denmark from 7 August 1894 to 23 May 1897. It replaced the Estrup cabinet and was succeeded by the H\u00f8rring cabinet on 23 May 1897.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Scavenius Cabinet was the government of Denmark from 9 November 1942 to 5 May 1945. It replaced the Buhl I Cabinet, which fell due to the Telegram Crisis in November 1942, when the Germans demanded changes to the Danish government. The Germans wanted nonpolitical ministers and Nazi ministers in the new government, however only the first demand was met. \nFollowing the August Rebellion in 1943, the Germans put forward more demands, which the Danish authorities refused. The government therefore filed a resignation request for the King on 29 August 1943, who refused to accept it. The government de facto ceased to function, though still formally in power. The Board of Permanent Secretaries was established, where the ministries and directors of the ministries managed the country. Only after the liberation of 5 May 1945, were the resignation accepted, and the Scavenius Cabinet and Board of the Heads of Department were replaced by the Buhl II Cabinet.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Cabinet of Tokelau (also called the Council of the Ongoing Government of Tokelau) is the chief executive body of Tokelau.\nThe Council currently consists of:Cabinet ministers", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Cabinet of Vilhelm Buhl II, also popularly known as the Liberation Cabinet (Danish: Befrielsesregeringen), was the government of Denmark from May 5, 1945 until November 7 same year. It got its alternative name because it was the first government after the liberation from the Nazi German occupation during World War II.\nIt comprised 18 ministers, about evenly split between the former Danish unity government, and members of the Frihedsr\u00e5det and other resistance groups.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The California State Relief Administration (SRA), created in 1935, was the successor to the State Emergency Relief Administration (SERA), created in 1933. The agencies were responsible for distributing state and federal funds to improve conditions in California during the Great Depression, and administered unemployment relief.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "California Technical Bulletin 117 (TB 117) is a California fire safety law, first implemented in 1975. It has recently been updated as a Technical Bulletin 117-2013. The law requires fabric to pass a smoldering test. The test exposes fabrics and foams to burning cigarettes for 45 minutes. The ignition and char level are measured, with the goal being that the cigarette extinguishes without the fabric or foam igniting.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The term capitalist republic is sometimes used to refer to a republican form of government existing under a capitalist economic system. The term is typically employed by socialist critics of capitalism, to distinguish between capitalist republics and socialist republics. More rarely, the term has also been used in self-description.\nIn On New Democracy, Mao Zedong distinguished his vision of a New Democratic Republic from a capitalist republic, which he characterized as an \"old European-American form\" of government that was \"out of date\".A capitalist republic was the goal of Sean Murray in the Irish Republicanism movement in the 1930s.  At a meeting in Rathmines, Murray advocated a capitalist republic for Ireland, taking what commentators have described as a \"stages\" approach in moving from national freedom towards a socialist state. Murray advocated first the achievement of national freedom, to form a capitalist republic, followed by a transition from a capitalist republic to a socialist republic.Other Republicans, such as Gilmore and O'Donnell, sought the same goal by reversing the stages, arguing that the uprooting of capitalism through struggle will consequently lead to national independence.  Mike Milotte has noted that although Murray advocated a capitalist republic, \"by avoiding the prefix its precise class nature was obscured\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Career Commendation Medal is awarded by the Central Intelligence Agency for exemplary service significantly above normal duties that had an important contribution to the Agency's mission.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Career Intelligence Medal is awarded by the Central Intelligence Agency for a cumulative record of service which reflects exceptional achievements that substantially contributed to the mission of the Agency.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Cyril George Fox Cartwright (18 April 1911 \u2013 23 April 1943) was a British Colonial Service administrator. He died during the Japanese occupation of the Gilbert Islands.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The National Toxicology Program (NTP) and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) established the NTP Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction in 1998 as an environmental health resource to the public and regulatory and health agencies.  The Center provides evaluations of the potential for adverse effects on reproduction and development caused by chemicals to which humans might be exposed.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Central Statistics Office (CSO; Irish: An Phr\u00edomh-Oifig Staidrimh) is the statistical agency responsible for the gathering of \"information relating to economic, social and general activities and conditions\" in Ireland, in particular the National Census which is held every five years. The office is answerable to the Taoiseach and has its main offices in Cork.The Director General of the CSO is P\u00e1draig Dalton.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Chancellor of Florence held the most important position in the bureaucracy of the Florentine Republic. Though the chancellor was not officially a member of the Republic's elected political government, unlike the gonfaloniere or the nine members of the signoria, the role was roughly equivalent to the head of the civil service in some countries today, and its holder could still wield considerable political influence. Holders included some of the most famous scholars, political thinkers and humanists of the Renaissance.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Chief Military Prosecutor Office (Polish: Naczelna Prokuratura Wojskowa) - the highest organizational unit of the military part of the prosecutor's office in Poland in the hierarchy, existing until April 4, 2016. The last deputy of the Military Prosecutor's Office was Colonel Tadeusz Cie\u015bla.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Chief Secretary (Manx: Ard-scrudeyr) is the head of the Isle of Man Civil Service. The current Chief Secretary is Will Greenhow.\nThe Chief Secretary is responsible for the function of the Chief Secretary's Office (Manx: Oik yn Ard-scrudeyr) and provides advice and guidance to the Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Second Christensen Cabinet was the government of Denmark from 24 July 1908 to 12 October 1908.\nIt was replaced by the Neergaard I Cabinet on 12 October 1908.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Chukyo Metropolis proposals (\u4e2d\u4eac\u90fd\u69cb\u60f3 and ja:\u5c90\u961c\u611b\u77e5\u65b0\u9996\u90fd\u69cb\u60f3) are proposed transformations of the Aichi prefecture into a metropolis.  Aichi's prefectural governor, Hideaki Omura, formed the Chukyo Isshin no Kai (ja:\u4e2d\u4eac\u7dad\u65b0\u306e\u4f1a) or Chukyo Metropolitan Area Renewal Association in 2012.  The latter plan is an alternate that also incorporates Gifu prefecture in the Metropolis.\n\nThe metropolis would require Nagoya city to be dissolved and reorganized into wards under metropolitan authority.  The concept has parallels with Tokyo's past and Osaka's proposed reorganization.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Civil Aviation Accident and Incident Investigation Commission (Spanish: Comisi\u00f3n de Investigaci\u00f3n de Accidentes e Incidentes de Aviaci\u00f3n Civil, CIAIAC) is the Spanish national agency responsible for air accident investigation. It is a division of the Ministry of Public Works and Transport. The CIAIAC investigates all the accidents and incidents of civil aircraft that take place in Spanish territory.\nThe CIAIAC also maintains detailed statistics of all the air accidents and incidents in Spain.\nThe headquarters of the CIAIAC are in Latina, Madrid.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Civil Aviation Authority (Spanish: Autoridad Aeron\u00e1utica Civil) is the civil aviation authority of Panama. Its headquarters are in Building 805 of the former Albrook Air Force Station. Decree No. 147of August 23, 1932 established the agency. Since July 2014, its Director General has been Alfredo Fonseca Mora.The Junta de Investigaci\u00f3n de Accidentes investigates aviation accidents and incidents.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Civil Rights Cold Case Records Review Board is an independent agency tasked with examining unsolved murders of African Americans between 1940 and 1979.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Civil Service Yearbook is an annual reference guide to the Civil Service and non-departmental public bodies. It is currently only available as an Online Edition at civilserviceyearbook.com.\nThe book was first published in 1972 and replaced the British Imperial Calendar. It was published annually by TSO until 2010 when the 47th Edition was published. An online version was made available starting with the 34th Edition in 1999.Publication resumed in 2012 with the 48th Edition being published by Dandy Booksellers. The final print edition (54th Edition) was published in August 2018.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A civilian dictatorship is a form of government different from military dictatorships where the ruling dictator does not derive their power from the military. Among civilian dictatorships, dominant-party dictatorships tend to outlast personalistic dictatorships.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Coconstitutionalism is where two institutional cultures exist in a complex semi-autonomous relationship to each other. The model of asymmetrical devolution that has emerged in democratic Spain has been called \"coconstitutional\" in that it is neither a federal nor a unitary model of government: autonomous nation-regions exist alongside and within the Spanish nation-state in a relatively dynamic relationship.\nSimilarities to federalism are marked although a key difference lies in the legal status of a federal-state versus a notionally unitary coconstitutional one: in a federation, it is the states who legally transfer powers to the federal government (bottom up) whereas in a unitary state power is devolved from the nation-state down to the regions (top down) and can in theory be revoked. But in the case of Spain any such move by a future Spanish government could rekindle the Spanish Civil War, the truth is such a move would probably require a constitutional amendment. Certainly a statue of autonomy (Spanish, Estatuto de autonom\u00eda) cannot be abrogated nor modified save by an initiative of an autonomous regional Parliament\u2014that being, of course, unlikely.Since 1997, the UK government has pursued a similar coconstitutional model of devolution with regard to its nation-regions.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A color-tagged structure is a structure which has been classified by a color to represent the severity of damage or the overall condition of the building. The exact definition for each color may be different in different countries and jurisdictions.A \"red-tagged\" structure has been severely damaged to the degree that the structure is too dangerous to inhabit. Similarly, a structure is \"yellow-tagged\" if it has been moderately damaged to the degree that its habitability is limited (only during the day, for example). A \"green-tagged\" structure may mean the building is either undamaged or has suffered slight damage, although differences exist at local levels when to use a green tag.\nTagging is performed by government building officials, or, occasionally during disasters, by engineers deputized by the building official. Natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods and mudslides are among the most common causes of a building being red-, yellow- or green-tagged. Usually, after such incidents, the local government body responsible for enforcing the building safety code examines the affected structures and tags them as appropriate.\nIn some areas of the United States, buildings are marked with a rectangular sign that is red with a white border and a white \"X\".  Such signs provide the same information as \"red-tagging\" a building. Tagging structures in these ways can warn firefighters and others about hazardous buildings before the buildings are entered.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Commercial Affairs Department (CAD) is a staff department of the Singapore Police Force (SPF). The department was first established in 1984 as the Commercial Crime Department (CCD), it is the white-collar crimes unit of the SPF.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Communal Council is the body responsible for the civil administration of the four quartiers of the Principality of Monaco. Because Monaco is both a nation and a city, the council chooses the mayor of Monaco and his/her officers. It consists of fifteen members, elected by direct universal suffrage to four-year terms, and a mayor, selected by the members. It meets every three months. The main responsibilities of the City Council and the Mayor concern the social and cultural spheres. These responsibilities include support for daycares, home care for seniors, and the Academy of music, as well as organization of elections, granting of marriage licenses, and encouraging engagement in the life of the city.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A community college district is type of special-purpose district in some U.S. states.  Each district consists of part of a state and operates the public community college system in its district.\nSome states, like Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin, do not have community college districts.  Instead, the community colleges there are administered by state-administered college systems like the West Virginia Community and Technical College System and the Wisconsin Technical College System.  In some other states, counties or groups of counties operate community colleges. For example, Maryland has a board of community college trustees in each county or, for counties that have formed a multi-county region to operate community colleges, region.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Community Courts of Eritrea are the foundation of the judicial system in Eritrea. The courts typically hear cases regarding minor infractions, typically involving sums of less than approximately $7,300 (100 thousand nakfa).\nIndividual cases are heard by an individual magistrate. Defense counsels are permitted to present cases but are typically appointed by the court because defendants are rarely able to meet the cost of private representation.Community magistrates are elected from the communities which they will serve. These courts are supervised by the Ministry of Justice. The community courts tend to promote out-of-court settlements and have a small (2.9%) appeal rate.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Community governance is a governance is the system of rules, practices and processes by which international bodies, constitutional bodies, statutory bodies, regulatory bodies and autonomous bodies are directed and controlled to achieve proper regulation and development of the world, nation, province, urban area and rural area. To successfully achieve regulation and development , all of the international bodies, constitutional bodies, statutory bodies, regulatory bodies and autonomous bodies are directed and controlled to identify and map the community's assets, capacities, and abilities in order to properly understand a community's strengths and weaknesses i.e. physical, economic, political, social, among others. Through this, it fills the gaps that are created by larger governmental structures and market lags that are not dealt with at state and federal levels.\nCommunity governance is a broad term and  includes public governance, global governance, governance as a process, governance analytical framework, land governance, regulatory governance, landscape governance, environmental governance, health governance, internet governance, block chain governance, information technology governance, participatory governance, multi level governance, security sector governance, collaborative governance and meta governance. \n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A confessional state is a state which officially recognises and practices a particular religion, usually accompanied by a public cultus, and at least encourages its citizens to do likewise.\nOver human history, many states have been confessional states. This is especially true in countries where Christianity, Islam and Buddhism were the religions of the state. The idea of religious pluralism in modern terms is relatively recent, and until the beginning of the 20th century, many if not most nations had state religions enshrined in their respective constitutions or by decree of the monarch, even if other religions were permitted to practice.\nHowever, there are many examples of large multicultural empires that have existed throughout time where the religion of the state was not imposed on subjected regions. For instance, the Mongol Empire, where Tengrism was the religion of the court, but not imposed on those ruled by the Mongols, the Achaemenid Empire and the Roman Empire before Constantine I, where regional clergies and practices were allowed to dominate as long as offerings were made to Roman Gods and tribute paid to Rome.\nReligious minorities are accorded differing degrees of tolerance under confessional states; adherents may or may not have a set of legal rights, and these rights may not be accessible in practice. For example, in medieval Europe Jewish people suffered various degrees of official and unofficial discrimination; during the same period in Islamic states, non-Muslims or dhimmi were legally inferior to Muslims but accorded certain protections.\nIn Europe, the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia institutionalized the principle of cuius regio, eius religio\u2014that rulers of a state had the right to determine the religion of its subjects. This was in an effort to curb the religious warfare that had wracked Europe after the Protestant Reformation.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Consell de Cent (Catalan pronunciation: [kun\u02c8s\u025b\u028e d\u0259 \u02c8sen], meaning in English \"Council of One Hundred\") was a governmental institution of Barcelona. It was established in the 13th century and lasted until the 18th century.\n\nIts name derives from the number of its members: one hundred (Catalan: cent).\nIn 1249, James I created the fundamental structure of the municipal government of Barcelona: a board of advice of 4 members, helped by 8 counselors and an assembly of probi homines (leaders), all them members of the m\u00e0 major (Catalan for senior hand, or the upper class formed by wealthy merchants).\nAfter several modifications, by the year 1265, the municipal organization gained its more permanent structure: the municipal authority rested on 3 counselors elected by a Council of one hundred individuals.\nIn year 1335, Peter III the Ceremonious permitted the Consell de Cent to use the royal insignia of the four (red) bars.\nThe importance of the Consell de Cent in the history and the government of the Principality of Catalonia is supported by many examples. For instance, in year 1464 it proclaimed  Peter V of Aragon (known as Peter the Constable of Portugal) as count of Barcelona. Another example is the rejection by the Consell de Cent of Martin the Humane's foundation on January 10, 1401, of the General Medical School in Barcelona with the same prerogatives as the University of Montpellier, because they felt this encroached on their municipal jurisdiction. This ultimately led to the creation of the University of Barcelona in 1450.\nIn the last decades of the 17th century it was represented in the Confer\u00e8ncia dels Tres Comuns (in Catalan: Conference of the Three Commons). The Consell de Cent was abolished by Philip V of Spain with the Decretos de Nueva Planta upon his occupation of Barcelona after the Siege of Barcelona in 1714. Since that moment, the new government of the city was controlled directly by the monarchy.\nA main street in the city of Barcelona, the Carrer (street) del Consell de Cent, is named after this institution (before 1978 it was known as Calle del Consejo de Ciento, in Spanish).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Constituency Development Funds (CDFs) are central government funds given to members of parliament for expenditure on their constituencies, also called electoral districts. CDFs were first adopted in India. After introduction in Kenya in 2003, CDFs spread to other African countries and across the world.:1\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Gibraltar's first Constitution was passed in 1950. A complete list of the different constitutions follows.\n\nGibraltar Constitution Order 1950\nGibraltar Constitution Order 1964\nGibraltar Constitution Order 1969\nGibraltar Constitution Order 2006", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Constitution of Mozambique is the basic law governing Mozambique. It was adopted on December 21, 2004 and amended in 2007.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Constitution of the Democratic Republic of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe (Portuguese: Constitui\u00e7\u00e3o da Rep\u00fablica Democr\u00e1tica de S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 e Pr\u00edncipe) was first approved on 5 November 1975. There were revisions in 1980, 1987 and 1990.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A constitutional dictatorship is a form of government in which dictatorial powers are exercised during an emergency. The dictator is not absolute and the dictator's authority remains limited by the constitution.\nThe Roman Republic made provision for a dictator who could govern unchecked for a stipulated period of time. Unlike other magistrates, a dictator was not subject to review of his actions at the conclusion of his term.Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States during the American Civil War, exercised extraordinary powers to preserve the Union. Lincoln's dictatorial actions included directly ordering the arrest and detention of dissenters and the suspension of the right to writs of habeas corpus. However, Lincoln remained subject to Congressional oversight, judicial review, and periodic elections.\nThe Weimar Republic, which succeeded Imperial Germany after the First World War, adopted a constitutional provision that expressly enabled the president to rule by decree, without consultation with the legislative branch. That provision was used by Chancellor Hitler to consolidate his powers upon his selection by President Hindenburg.\nUS President Franklin D. Roosevelt also exercised extraordinary powers in response to the Great Depression and the Second World War. Roosevelt's actions included violating the US Constitution's Contract Clause, the closing of banks, and a moratorium on foreclosures. Later, meeting a perceived threat by Japanese nationals and Japanese-Americans, Roosevelt ordered their relocation to internment camps.\nIn the 21st century, John Yoo, attorney and legal theorist, has offered a theory of the unitary executive for massive authority of the US President, in his capacity as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Yoo provided the intellectual foundation for many of the actions undertaken by the George W. Bush administration in the aftermath of the attacks of September 11, 2001.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Consular corps (from French: Corps consulaire and commonly abbreviated CC) is a concept analogous to diplomatic corps, but concerning the staff, estates and work of a consulate.\n\"While ambassadors and diplomatic staff are devoted to bettering all categories of the bilateral relationship with the host country, the consular corps is in charge of looking after their own foreign nationals in the host country.\"", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Swedish Consumer Agency (Swedish: Konsumentverket) is a Swedish government agency that answers to the Ministry of Finance. Its director general is also designated Consumer ombudsman (Konsumentombudsmannen, KO).\nThe agency, with a staff of around 120 located in Karlstad, provides the Swedish general public with consumer affairs assistance, acting in the collective interest of consumers. It is active in the fields of advertising and contract terms, consumer information and product safety. The task of resolving individual consumer disputes, however, is handled by the National Board for Consumer Complaints.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Corporative federalism is a system of federalism not based on the common federalist idea of relative land area or nearest spheres of influence for governance, but on fiduciary jurisdiction to corporate personhood in which groups that are considered incorporated members of their own prerogative structure by willed agreement can delegate their individual effective legislature within the overall government.\nThe Austro-Hungarian Empire had a version of corporative federalism and gave its number of different ethnicities their own individual rights within their own assemblies instead of by relation to the territory of the empire.Part of corporative federalism's philosophical underpinnings as a form of jurisdiction rests within the auspices of demographics as polities as much as they are constituencies of a federative structure. Theories adding philosophic backing to its own conceptualizations from such ideas as diplomatic recognition and the sovereign state's right to exist as if it extended beyond territorial nation-state in an international structure, to an intranational structure of the voluntary association of those with similar social world views being codified legal frameworks to themselves, within their own sphere of interaction, under a federal government of a particular nation state and relying on infrastructural power for implementation.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Appearance of Corruption is a principle of law mentioned in or relevant to several SCOTUS decisions related to campaign finance in the United States, while the basis of the principle 'corruption' refers to dishonest or illegal behavior for personal gain. Corruption has existed since ancient times, and there are a series of factors that cause the appearance of it. On the other hand, corruption adversely affects these factors. In the process of fighting against the appearance of corruption, both the government and different organizations take steps to prevent it.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Council of Judges and Prosecutors (Turkish: H\u00e2kimler ve Savc\u0131lar Kurulu), HSK; previously named as Supreme Board of Judges and Prosecutors (Turkish: H\u00e2kimler ve Savc\u0131lar Y\u00fcksek Kurulu) is the disciplinary body of the legal system of the Republic of Turkey and the national council of the judiciary of Turkey. It was established under the 1982 Constitution of Turkey and significantly amended by the Turkish constitutional referendum, 2010 (including an expansion from 7 members to 22). After  2017 constitutional referendum, members are reduced to 13.\nThe Council currently consists of the thirteen members: seven appointed by the Parliament from high courts and lawyers, and four by the President from civil and administrative judges and prosecutors, the Minister of Justice, and the Ministry Undersecretary. The three branches \u2014the legislative, executive, and judicial\u2014 of state as well as practicing lawyers are represented in the Council. Thus, the shaping of the judicial body, through the appointments, is carried out by all the authorities together.\nAidul Fitriciada Azhari, the chairman of the Judicial Commission of Indonesia, praised the Supreme Board's efforts during the 2016 Turkish purges as a positive example of external oversight of a judicial system.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Council of Ministers (Portuguese: Conselho de Ministros, pronounced [k\u00f5\u02c8se\u028eu d\u0268 mi\u02c8ni\u0283t\u027eu\u0283] or [k\u00f5\u02c8s\u0250\u028eu d\u0268 m\u0268\u02c8ni\u0283t\u027eu\u0283]) is a collegial executive body within the Government of Portugal. It is presided over by the Prime Minister, but the President of Portugal can take on this role at the Prime Minister's request. All senior ministers are members of the Council of Ministers, and when the prime minister finds it applicable, state secretaries can also attend its meetings.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A Council of Notables is a political body comprising persons of note in a community who are chosen by the governing authority in the region for their special knowledge, experience, skills, status or accomplishments. Such councils have existed in many regions and countries throughout the world. \"Whether in village, province, or capital, there is, a conclave of local authorities of whose opinion the ruler \u2014 be it conqueror, governor, or sovereign \u2014 is bound to take account, though he is not bound to obey their decisions.\"A Council of Notables was one of many political bodies established by the French in colonial Cameroun between the First and Second World Wars. Each of the colony's nine administrative areas had its own Council. These local government institutions comprised the people whom the French deemed to be the elite of the region. The colonial commissioner chose the members of each council from lists supplied by local officials.By establishing these bodies, the colonial regime hoped to reign in some of Cameroun's nationalist and pro-independence sentiment. The Councils were expected to uphold and support French policies. Other duties included acting as liaisons between the administration and local populations and alerting the regime as to the status of local projects such as tax collection and the construction of road and rail. In return, the Council members received a cut of taxes collected, exemption from some obligations, and a stipend for supervising road construction.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Council of State of Geneva (French: Conseil d'\u00c9tat de Gen\u00e8ve) is the executive organ of the R\u00e9publique and Canton of Geneva, in Switzerland.  Geneva has a seven-member Conseil d'\u00c9tat.\nThe last elections were held on 28 March 2021.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Council of State of the Canton of Vaud (French: Conseil d'\u00c9tat du Canton de Vaud) is the executive organ of the Canton of Vaud, in Switzerland.  Vaud has a seven-member Conseil d'\u00c9tat. The responsibilities of the Council of State is to run the administration, submit laws and decrees to the Grand Council, observe a budget and adopt regulations or directives. Essentially, the Cantons define their own structure within federal regulations. Switzerland consists of twenty-six cantons in which each can influence the federal government. Vaud is a part of these cantons, and it is the central area connected to high trafficked communication routes in Switzerland. Guy Parmelin, a former swiss president, is from the Canton of Vaud, and was first elected into their government in 2015.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Council on Education for Public Health (CEPH) is an independent agency recognized by the U.S. Department of Education to accredit schools of public health and public health programs offered in settings other than schools of public health. These schools and programs prepare students for entry into careers in public health. The primary professional degree is the Master of Public Health (M.P.H.) but other master's and doctoral degrees are offered as well such as the Doctor of Public Health (DrPH).\nThe Council is a private, nonprofit corporation directed by a 10-member board. As an independent body, the board is solely responsible for adopting criteria by which schools and programs are evaluated, for establishing policies and procedures, for making accreditation decisions and for managing the business of the corporation.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Daily Compilation of Presidential Documents collection is composed of the Daily Compilation of Presidential Documents and its predecessor, the Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents*. Since 1993, it has been published by the Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) under the authority of the Federal Register Act (44 U.S.C. Ch. 15; 1 CFR part 10).\nThis FDsys collection integrates material from the weekly publication dating from 1993, with Daily Compilation material as published from January 20, 2009 forward. The website is updated frequently, as information is released by the White House press office to Federal Register editors. Documents appearing in the Compilation of Presidential Documents collection are edited for accuracy and annotated with additional information to provide an authoritative record of the Presidency. It includes such material as:\nProclamations\nExecutive orders\nSpeeches\nPress conferences\nCommunications to Congress and Federal agencies\nStatements regarding bill signings and vetoes\nAppointments and nominations\nReorganization plans\nResignations\nRetirements\nActs approved by the President\nNominations submitted to the Senate\nWhite House announcements\nPress releases", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Danish Medicines Agency (L\u00e6gemiddelstyrelsen) is an agency under the Danish Ministry of Health and Prevention.\nThe purpose of the agency is to ensure that medicinal products used in Denmark are of satisfactory quality, are safe to use and that they have the desired effect.  It supervises companies manufacturing and distributing medicinal products. This is done through administering the Danish legislation on medicinal products, reimbursement, pharmacies, medical devices and euphoriants. The Agency takes part in the Danish innovation system Biopeople at the University of Copenhagen.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Danish Patent and Trademark Office (DKPTO) is the patent office of Denmark. As of 2013, its Director General was Jesper Kongstad. Sune Stampe S\u00f8rensen succeeded Jesper Kongstad in October 2017.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A debt limit or debt ceiling is a legislative mechanism restricting the total amount that a country can borrow or how much debt it can be permitted to take on. Several countries have debt limitation restrictions.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Delegation of the European Union to Canada is located in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. It was established to facilitate relations between the European Union and Canada. It opened in 1976 and was originally located at 45 O'Connor Street before moving to a new location at 150 Metcalfe Street.\nThough not officially an embassy, the head of the mission is given rank and courtesy title of ambassador within Canadian law. The Delegation has three sections: Economic and Trade; Political and Public Affairs; and Administration.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Delegation of the European Union to Moldova (Romanian: Delega\u021bia Uniunii Europene \u00een Republica Moldova) was established to facilitate relations between Moldova and the European Union. It is located in Moldova's capital, Chi\u0219in\u0103u.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Department of Civil Aviation of Lao PDR is the civil aviation authority of Laos. The agency, a division of the Ministry of Public Works and Transport, has its headquarters on the property of the Wattay International Airport in Sikhodtabong District, Vientiane.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The mission of the Department of Essential Drugs and Medicines of the World Health Organization is \"to help save lives and improve health by closing the huge gap between the potential that essential drugs have to offer and the reality that for millions of people \u2013 particularly the poor and disadvantaged \u2013 medicines are unavailable, unaffordable, unsafe or improperly used.\"\nThe EDM provides \"global guidance on essential drugs and medicines, and working with countries \u2013 at their request \u2013 to implement national drug policies to ensure equity of access to essential drugs, drug quality and safety, and rational use of drugs.\"", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Department of National Museums is a non-ministerial government department in Sri Lanka responsible for maintaining the National Museums. There are other museum in the country run by the \tDepartment of Archaeology and the Central Cultural Fund, Sri Lanka.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Department of Social Security (DSS) was a governmental agency in the United Kingdom from 1988 to 2001. The old abbreviation is still often used informally. Advertisements for rented accommodation used to describe prospective tenants who would be paying their rent by means of Housing Benefit, or the \"Housing Element\" of Universal Credit, as \"DSS\" tenants. However, because of many changes within the benefit system, which is managed by the Department for Work and Pensions, the \"DSS\" tenants phrase has become outdated and is rarely used.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Deputy assistant secretary is a title borne by government executives in certain countries, usually senior officials assigned to a specific assistant secretary.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Deputy minister is a title borne by politicians or officials in certain countries governed under a parliamentary system. A deputy minister is positioned in some way \u2018under\u2019 a minister, who is a full member of Cabinet, in charge of a particular standing policy portfolio, and typically oversees an associated civil service department. Depending on the jurisdiction, a \"Deputy minister\" may be a Cabinet minister who regularly acts as and for a more senior cabinet minister (rare except in the case of \"Deputy Prime Minister\"), a junior minister assigned to assist a cabinet minister, an elected member of the governing party or coalition assigned to assist a specific cabinet minister \u2018from the back benches\u2019 (i.e., not part of the Cabinet, Government or Ministry) or a non-elected head of a civil service department taking political direction from a Cabinet minister.\n\nBangladesh: A Deputy minister is junior to a Minister of a Department of State (portfolio minister) and of similar standing to a Parliamentary Secretary.\nCanada: The Deputy minister is the senior civil servant in a government department. He or she takes political direction from an appointed minister of the Crown.\nEast Timor: The Government, which comprises the Prime Minister, Ministers and Secretaries of State, may include one or more Deputy Prime Ministers and Deputy Ministers.\nJapan: A Deputy Minister assists the work of the Cabinet of Japan.\nNetherlands: A State Secretary is the title of a junior member of the Cabinet of the Netherlands.\nSouth Africa: A Deputy Minister is secondary to cabinet ministers. The Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet also has deputy shadow ministers.\nSri Lanka: A Deputy ministers are junior ministers ranking below that of cabinet minister and State Minister. It is similar to the pre-1972 post of Parliamentary Secretary.\nTanzania: The Deputy ministers  are junior ministers, and are usually not members of the government's cabinet", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic and is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. Recognised only by Turkey, Northern Cyprus is considered by the international community to be part of the Republic of Cyprus. \nThe president is head of state and the prime minister is head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of the Republic. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The prime minister must control a majority of parliament in order to govern. The office of the deputy prime minister is not a permanent position, existing only at the discretion of the prime minister.\nUnlike analogous offices in some other nations, such as a vice presidency, the deputy prime minister possesses no special constitutional powers under the Constitution of Northern Cyprus as such, though they will always have particular responsibilities in government. They do not assume the duties and powers of the prime minister in the latter's absence, illness, or death. The deputy prime minister does not automatically succeed the prime minister when the latter is incapacitated, or resigns from the leadership of his or her party. The designation of someone to the role of deputy prime minister may provide additional practical status within the cabinet, enabling exercise of de facto, if not de jure, power.\nIn a coalition government, such as the \u00d6zg\u00fcrg\u00fcn cabinet between the National Unity Party and Democratic Party, the appointment of the leader of the smaller party (in this case, Serdar Denkta\u015f, leader of the Democratic Party) as deputy prime minister is done to give that person more authority within the cabinet to enforce the coalition's agreed-upon agenda. The deputy prime minister usually deputises for the prime minister at official functions. The current Erh\u00fcrman cabinet has Kudret \u00d6zersay as the deputy prime minister, receiving the seniority as the leader of the second biggest party (People's Party) of the 4-party coalition.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A diplomatic cable, also known as a diplomatic telegram (DipTel) or embassy cable, is a confidential text-based message exchanged between a diplomatic mission, like an embassy or a consulate, and the foreign ministry of its parent country. A diplomatic cable is a type of dispatch. Other dispatches may be sent as physical documents in a diplomatic bag.\n\nThe term cable derives from the time when the medium for such communications was telegraphs travelling along international submarine communications cables, though over time they have progressed into other formats and pathways. The term cablegram is also sometimes used. Due to the importance and sensitive nature of the subject matter, diplomatic cables are protected by the most elaborate security precautions to prevent unfettered access by the public or unauthorized interception by foreign governments. Generally digital in format, they are always encrypted, frequently by unbreakable one time pad ciphers using key material distributed using diplomatic couriers.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Diplomatic service is the body of diplomats and foreign policy officers maintained by the government of a country to communicate with the governments of other countries. Diplomatic personnel obtains diplomatic immunity when they are accredited to other countries. Diplomatic services are often part of the larger civil service and sometimes a constituent part of the foreign ministry.\nSome intergovernmental organizations, such as the European Union, and some international non-state organizations, such as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, may also retain diplomatic services in other jurisdictions. For non-state organizations, the reciprocation of diplomatic recognition by other jurisdictions is difficult, as diplomacy tends to establish the concept of recognition upon an assumed sovereignty over geographical territory; the SMOM, in this case, receives diplomats at its headquarters in Rome, as all permanent missions to the SMOM are jointly accredited as permanent missions to the Holy See. In relation, many more non-state international organizations, such as the IFRC/ICRC, maintain permanent non-voting observer status to intergovernmental bodies such as the United Nations General Assembly, appointing individual representatives to the observer office.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Direct colonial rule is a form of colonialism that involves the establishment of a centralized foreign authority within a territory, which is run by colonial officials. According to Michael W. Doyle of  Harvard University, in a system of direct rule, the native population is excluded from all but the lowest level of the colonial government. Ugandan academic Mahmood Mamdani classifies direct rule as centralized despotism: a system where natives were not considered citizens.The opposite of direct colonial rule is indirect rule, which integrates pre-established local elites and native institutions into the government.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Disaggregated sovereignty refers to the need for broad strategic cooperation on critical issues requiring the ceding of sovereignty from several sovereign entities to new institutions without creating a centralized authority or \"government.\" Some people argue that this is the de facto situation of global governance and actually more desirable than the creation of a single world government.\nThe idea was first invoked in 2004 by the political theorist Anne-Marie Slaughter in her 2004 book, A New World Order, which discussed the numerous, interwoven networks of national officials working together across borders on a variety of issues and threats, such as the coalition of nations that came together after the September 11 terrorist attacks, the G8 and G20, and the environmental agencies of the US, Canada, and Mexico working within the NAFTA framework to create an environmental enforcement network. Slaughter provides other examples such as judges of one nation citing decisions from other countries in areas such as free speech, privacy rights, and bankruptcy.\nA common and imperfect analogy is often made to the European Union as an example of how states can cede sovereignty to create regional governance. Traditional concepts of sovereignty emphasize separation into territorially independent groups. Disaggregated sovereignty focuses on the mutual obligation and positive capacity to participate collectively through multiple institutions to address global and regional problems. Criticisms of the idea of disaggregated sovereignty note that an international legal patchwork creates a larger area for states to manipulate the balances of freedoms and responsibilities, particularly in regards to mass surveillance. The expansion of international law, instead, challenges the rule of law by creating so many overlapping laws that responsibilities can be shifted and disavowed.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Distinguished Career Intelligence Medal is awarded by the Central Intelligence Agency for an individual's cumulative record of service reflecting a pattern of increasing levels of responsibility or increasingly strategic impact and with distinctly exceptional achievements that constitute a major contribution to the mission of the Agency.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Dominican Postal Institute (Spanish: Instituto Postal Dominicano, INPOSDOM) is the Dominican institution charged with postal services for the Dominican Republic. It was established on November 15, 1985 by Law 307. \nApart from postal services, INPOSDOM offers email services for all citizens of the Dominican Republic.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) is an agency within the Liberian government charged with fighting drug-related crimes. The DEA is supervised by the Ministry of Justice and is charged with fighting drug trafficking at the country's borders, arresting traffickers and dealers, and destroying illegal drugs. The DEA is not responsible for overseeing commerce in legal drugs and other pharmaceuticals; such substances are within the purview of the Pharmaceutical Board of Liberia.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Dual control is the situation in which a national government agrees to share control of its country with representatives of foreign governments, called controllers, because it is indebted to them.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Dubai Financial Services Authority (DFSA) is the financial regulatory agency of the special economic zone, the Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC), In Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It is distinct from the UAE's federal Securities and Commodities Authority, whose jurisdiction covers the wider UAE outside the boundaries of the DIFC. It operates only within the special economic zone and is tasked with providing a regulatory environment of international standards.\nThe DFSA's regulatory mandate includes asset management, banking and credit services, securities, collective investment funds, custody and trust services, commodities futures trading, Islamic finance, insurance, an international equities exchange, and an international commodities derivatives exchange. In addition to regulating financial and ancillary services, the DFSA is responsible for supervising and enforcing anti-money laundering (AML) and counter-terrorist financing (CTF) requirements applicable in the DIFC. The DFSA has also accepted a delegation of powers from the DIFC Registrar of Companies (RoC) to investigate the affairs of DIFC companies and partnerships where a material breach of DIFC Companies Law is suspected and to pursue enforcement remedies available to the Registrar.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "An \u00e9chevin (Luxembourgish: Sch\u00e4ffe; German: Sch\u00f6ffe), sometimes translated as alderman, is a member of the administration of a Luxembourgian commune.  Together, they form the coll\u00e8ge \u00e9chevinal (German: Sch\u00f6ffenrat), which helps the mayor run the administration.  In most communes, \u00e9chevins have designated roles within the administration, adopting separate briefs as in a cabinet.\n\u00c9chevins are elected by the commune's council, and represent the make-up of the governing coalition.  Formally, \u00e9chevins of cities are named by the Grand Duke, whilst those of other communes are named by the Minister for the Interior.  \u00c9chevins must be members of the communal council and hold Luxembourgian nationality.\nMost communes have two \u00e9chevins, but more-populous ones are allowed more if granted that right by Grand Ducal decree: communes with 10,000 to 19,999 inhabitants may have 3 \u00e9chevins, communes with 20,000 or more may have 4 \u00e9chevins, and Luxembourg City may have up to six.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of Bahrain in Washington, D.C. is the diplomatic mission of the  Kingdom of Bahrain to the United States. It is located at 3502 International Drive, Northwest, Washington, D.C., in the North Cleveland Park neighborhood. The ambassador as of 2021 was Shaikh Abdullah bin Rashid bin Abdullah Al Khalifa.\nThe embassy also operates a Consulate-General in New York City which serves as a permanent Bahraini mission to the United Nations. As of 2019, the permanent representative was Jamal Fares Alrowaiei.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of Benin in Moscow is the diplomatic mission of Benin in the Russian Federation. It is located at 7 Uspensky Lane (Russian: \u0423\u0441\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0443\u043b\u043e\u043a, 7) in the Tverskoy District of Moscow.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of Denmark in London, or formally the Royal Danish Embassy, is the diplomatic mission of Denmark in the United Kingdom. It occupies a large, modern building designed by Danish architect Arne Jacobsen which it shares with the Embassy of Iceland, completed in 1977. The Royal Danish Embassy houses the Danish-UK Chamber of Commerce founded in 1989, and also hosts the Representation of the Faroes in London since 2002.In 2006 there were protests outside the embassy following the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy; a number of people were later arrested in connection with the protest.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of Jordan in Washington, D.C. is the diplomatic mission of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan to the United States.  It is located at 3504 International Drive Northwest, Washington, D.C., in the Cleveland Park neighborhood.The Ambassador is Dina Kawar.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Montenegrin Embassy inTirana (Montenegrin: Ambasada Crne Gore u Tirani) is Montenegro's diplomatic mission to Albania. It is located at Rr. Jul Varibova 11.\nThe current Ambassador of Montenegro to Albania is \u017deljko Perovi\u0107.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Montenegrin Embassy in Ljubljana (Montenegrin: Ambasada Crne Gore u Ljubljani) is Montenegro's diplomatic mission to the Slovenia. It is located at  Njego\u0161eva cesta 14.\nThe current Ambassador of Montenegro to the Slovenia is Ranko Milovi\u0107.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Serbian Embassy in Berlin is Serbia's diplomatic mission to Germany. It is located at Taubert Stra\u00dfe 18, DE-14193 in Berlin, Germany.\nThe current Serbian ambassador to Germany is Du\u0161an Crnogor\u010devi\u0107.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of Serbia (Serbian: \u0410\u043c\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u0421\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0458\u0435 \u0443 \u041b\u043e\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0443) in London is the diplomatic mission of Serbia in the United Kingdom. The building is part of a single group of Grade I listed buildings at 25\u201436 Belgrave Square.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Serbian Embassy in Paris (French: Ambassade de Serbie \u00e0 Paris, Serbian: \u0410\u043c\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u0421\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0458\u0435 \u0443 \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0443) is Serbia's diplomatic mission to France. It is located at Rue Leonard de Vinci 5, 75016,  in Paris, France. The current ambassador is Nata\u0161a Mari\u0107.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of Serbia in Vienna (German: Botschaft der Republik Serbien in der Republik \u00d6sterreich, Serbian: \u0410\u043c\u0431\u0430\u0441\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u0420\u0435\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0435 \u0421\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0458\u0435 \u0443 \u0420\u0435\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0438 \u0410\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0458\u0438) is Serbia's diplomatic mission to Austria. It is located at \u00d6lzeltgasse 3, in Vienna, Austria.\nThe current Serbian ambassador to Austria is Neboj\u0161a Rodi\u0107.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of Switzerland (German: Schweizerische Botschaft im Vereinigten K\u00f6nigreich, French: Ambassade de Suisse au Royaume-Uni, Italian: Ambasciata di Svizzera nel Regno Unito) in London is the diplomatic mission of Switzerland in the United Kingdom. It consists of a large nineteenth-century building with a modern addition and is located halfway between Montagu Square and Bryanston Square. There is a commemorative stone at the entrance to the embassy marking its rebuilding in 1970.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the Turkey in Rome (Turkish: T\u00fcrkiye Cumhuriyeti Roma B\u00fcy\u00fckel\u00e7ili\u011fi) is Turkey's diplomatic mission to Italy. It is located at Via Palestro, 28, Rome. \nThe current ambassador is Murat Esenli.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Emerge California is a non-profit organization and affiliate of Emerge America, created by Andrea Dew Steele, that seeks to identify and help more women and minorities in California be elected to public office. It was praised in 2017 by Hillary Clinton in an email, as a group that has impressed her since the 2016 election at helping get Democrats elected to office.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Empresa Metropolitana de Servicios y Administraci\u00f3n del Transporte or EMSAT (Metropolitan Transport Services and Administration Company) is the transportation government agency of the municipality of Quito, the capital of Ecuador.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Agenzia nazionale per le nuove tecnologie, l'energia e lo sviluppo economico sostenibile (ENEA) (Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development) is an Italian Government-sponsored research and development agency. The agency undertakes research in areas which will help to develop and enhance Italian competitiveness and employment, while protecting the environment. ENEA is an acronym that stands for Energia Nucleare ed Energie Alternative (\"Atomic Energy and Alternative Energy\").\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of Ethiopia in Washington, D.C. is the main diplomatic mission of Ethiopia to the United States. The chancery is located at 3506 International Drive Northwest, Washington, D.C., in the Cleveland Park neighborhood.Ethiopia additionally maintains a Consulate-General in Los Angeles and St. Paul, Minnesota.\nThe Ambassador of Ethiopia to the United States is Fitsum Arega.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Executive Council of Z\u00fcrich (German: Regierungsrat des Kantons Z\u00fcrich) is the executive organ of the canton of Z\u00fcrich, in Switzerland.  Z\u00fcrich has a seven-member Executive Council.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Family Responsibility Office (FRO) is an office of the Government of Ontario responsible for collecting, distributing, and enforcing court-ordered child (and spousal) support payments in the province. It was established during Marion Boyd's two-year run as Attorney General of Ontario.\nThe FRO operates under the auspices of the Ministry of Community and Social Services and executive director Trevor Sparrow.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Federal banking is the term for the way the Federal Reserve of the United States distributes its money.  The Reserve (often called with the abbreviation \"Fed\") operates twelve banking districts around the country which oversee money distribution within their respective districts.  The twelve cities which are home to the Reserve Banks are Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Richmond, Atlanta, Dallas, Saint Louis, Cleveland, Chicago, Minneapolis, Kansas City, and San Francisco.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Federal Institute of Metrology (METAS) is the Swiss national metrology organization. It is part of the Federal Department of Justice and Police.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Financial Supervisory Authority (Swedish: Finansinspektionen, FI) is the Swedish government agency responsible for financial regulation in Sweden.  It is responsible for the oversight, regulation and authorisation of financial markets and their participants.  The agency falls under the Swedish Ministry of Finance and regulates all organisations that provide financial services in Sweden.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The First Circuit Court of the Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China (\u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u6700\u9ad8\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u9662\u7b2c\u4e00\u5de1\u56de\u6cd5\u5ead) is a circuit court created in December 2014 and opened on January 28, 2015, in Shenzhen, China. It has jurisdiction in the provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, and Hainan.Differing from a circuit court in a common law jurisdiction, the First Circuit is part of a pilot program to establish circuit courts of the Supreme People's Court outside Beijing, the seat of the national government, with the same level of jurisdiction of the supreme court, i.e. cases decided by the circuit courts are deemed finally decided by the supreme court itself. The pilot program is carried out in an effort to avoid local influences.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A fiscal council is an independent body set up by a government to evaluate its expenditure and tax policy. Typically, councils are staffed by economists and statisticians who do not have the ability to set policy, but provide advice to governments and the public on the economic effects of government budgets and policy proposals. Some fiscal councils also provide economic forecasting. Fiscal councils evaluate government's fiscal policies, plans and performance publicly and independently, against macroeconomic objectives related to the long-term sustainability of public finances, short-to-medium-term macroeconomic stability, and other official objectives.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Food and Agriculture Policy Decision Analysis (FAPDA) initiative, led by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation's Agricultural Development Economics Division, aims at promoting evidence-based decision making. FAPDA collects and disseminates information on food and agriculture policy decisions through a freely accessible web-based tool. It has been gathering information since 2008 from more than 80 countries. Between 2008 and 2016, more than 9000 policy decisions have been gathered on this web-based tool, which allows for policy trend identification and the analysis. At the country level, FAPDA focuses on developing information on policy trends and stability indicators for more transparent and effective policy-making.\nUsers can directly access and retrieve information by country or region, date and policy category. Ad hoc reports can also be produced on selected countries, type of policy or specific topic. They classify policies based on the Food and Agriculture Policy Classification that uses three categories: producer-oriented, consumer-oriented, and trade-oriented and macroeconomic policies, each with their own sub-categories. In August 2016, the tool was updated to include information on policy frameworks as well. Policy frameworks in the tool are classified according to the following broad categories: national socio-economic development, food security and nutrition, agriculture and rural development, social protection, natural resources, trade and markets, disaster risk reduction and management, and gender. This policy classification remains widely used, despite some criticisms, mostly for lack of mutual exclusivity of classes and the fact that the classification of policy frameworks is still incomplete", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Fourth Conference of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (b) with the Workers of the National Republics of the Regions was held on Joseph Stalin's initiative in Moscow between June 9\u201312, 1923.\nIt was attended by members and candidate members of the Central Committee of the R.C.P.(B.) and 58 representatives of various national republics and regions. Stalin presented his report on Practical Measures for Implementing the Resolution on the National Question Adopted by the Twelfth Party Congress while twenty Party organisations of the national republics and regions gave reports from their own localities. The Control Commission also gave its report Mirs\u00e4yet Soltan\u011f\u00e4liev, who was denounced for \"anti-party\" and \"anti-Soviet\" activity.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Vivian Fox-Strangways  (born 29 July 1898, died 21 November 1974) was a British officer (Colonel, British Army), Resident Commissioner of the partly occupied by Japan Gilbert and Ellice Islands, from 1941 to 1946.\nBecause of the Pacific War, Fox-Strangways was seconded into the army with the rank of major and was located on Tulagi in the British Solomon Islands. From December 1941 to August 1942, being on Ocean Island at the administrative centre of the colony, Cyril George Fox Cartwright was acting Resident for Fox-Strangways. Therefore, the effective resident mandate of Fox-Strangways was from August 1942 to November 1945 \u2014 when his office and headquarters was in Funafuti (Ellice Islands), until on 22 November 1943, he could land on Betio islet, at the end of Battle of Tarawa, where he began to establish the administrative centre of the colony on Tarawa, first on Betio islet and subsequently on Bairiki islet. The provisional headquarters of the colony stayed in Funafuti until 1946 and the rebuilding of Tarawa.Carl Henry Jones (1893 - 1958) was the U.S. commander Gilbert Islands Subarea (from 18 December 1943 to 1 October 1944). In November 1946, Fox-Strangways was replaced by Henry Evans Maude as Resident Commissioner. Fox-Strangways was transferred to Palestine.He was the brother of Walter Angelo Fox-Strangways, 8th Earl of Ilchester.\nHe was educated at Winchester College in Winchester. He fought during World War I. He was with Queen Victoria's Corps or Guides and Overseas Civil Service. He was awarded the U.S. Legion of Merit in 1944. He was appointed Commander, Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1953.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Gamla Riksarkivet (Old National Archives) is a building at Arkivgatan 3 on Riddarholmen in Stockholm, Sweden. Riksarkivet, the Swedish National Archives, were located in the building until 1968.\nThe 19th century Brick Romanesque architecture of the building is alluding to the medieval history of Riddarholmen. The plan of the building is, however, typical for public buildings of its era, the grand style central portion clearly articulated in the fa\u00e7ade together with the huge windows of the reading-room.  The building is connected to the Stenbock Palace where the archive was once started in 1863.  It is also similar in style to the Norstedt Building located just north of it.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Global Governance Group (3G) is an informal group of smaller and medium-sized countries with the aim of providing greater representation to its member countries and collectively channeling their views into the G20 process more effectively.\nThe group was founded by Singapore in 2009 and consists of 30 member countries, the current president of the UN General Assembly, the current president of the G20, two previous presidents of G20.The Chair of 3G is rotated among member states.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Gold Retirement Medallion is awarded by the Central Intelligence Agency for a career of 35 years or more with the Agency.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A governance failure refers to any failures of governance or ineffectiveness of governance processes.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A government contractor is a company (privately owned, publicly traded or a state-owned enterprise) \u2013 either for profit or non-profit \u2013 that produces goods or services under contract for the government. Some communities are largely sustained by government contracting activity; for instance, much of the economy of Northern Virginia consists of government contractors employed directly or indirectly by the federal government of the United States.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Government Executive is an American media publication based in Washington, D.C., that covers daily government business for civilians, federal bureaucrats, and military officials. Government Executive is part of GovExec, which is owned by Growth Catalyst Partners.Government Executive's first issue, published in March 1969, featured a formal portrait of Richard Nixon and the headline: \"What Government Can Expect from President Nixon\". In 1987, the magazine was acquired by the National Journal Group, which was itself acquired 10 years later by businessman David Bradley. In 1999, Bradley bought The Atlantic Monthly magazine and renamed his company Atlantic Media.In 2007, Government Executive's information technology reporting was spun off into a new publication: NextGov, which covers technology and the future of government. In 2013, the company founded Defense One, which covers emerging national security issues. In 2015, it founded Route Fifty, which covers ideas in state and local government. The four publications, plus an associated events division and the Studio 2G content marketing division, became known as Government Executive Media Group.\nIn 2020, Atlantic Media sold Government Executive Media Group to Growth Catalyst Partners, a private-equity firm.In 2021, longtime editor-in-chief Tom Shoop stepped down and was replaced by Tanya Ballard Brown, most recently of NPR.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Government formation is the process in a parliamentary system of selecting a prime minister and cabinet members.  If no party controls a majority of seats, it can also involve deciding which parties will be part of a coalition government.  It usually occurs after an election, but can also occur after a vote of no confidence in an existing government.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of the government ministries of the Republic of Liberia in the period 2003\u20132014.\nMinistry of Agriculture, Liberia\nMinistry of Commerce and Industry, Liberia\nMinistry of Education, Liberia\nMinistry of Finance and Development Planning Liberia\nMinistry of Foreign Affairs, Liberia\nMinistry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, and Development, Liberia\nMinistry of Health and Social Welfare, Liberia\nMinistry of Information, Cultural Affairs and Tourism, Liberia\nMinistry of Internal Affairs, Liberia\nMinistry of Justice, Liberia\nMinistry of Labor, Liberia\nLiberia Mines and Minerals Regulatory Authority, Liberia\nMinistry of National Defense, Liberia\nMinistry of National Security, Liberia\nMinistry of Post and Telecommunications, Liberia\nMinistry of Public Works, Liberia\nMinistry of State, Liberia\nMinistry of Transport, Liberia\nMinistry of Youth and Sports, Liberia", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Samoa has 15 government ministries, each of which is a department of the government. Each ministry is governed by a respective minister and has a Head of Department (CEO). The Prime Minister has the power to reassign and revoke ministers assignments to ministries.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Government of Japan Standard Terms of Use (Japanese: \u653f\u5e9c\u6a19\u6e96\u5229\u7528\u898f\u7d04, Hepburn: Seifu Hy\u014djun Riy\u014d Kiyaku) is a terms of use agreement for the content published online by Japanese government cabinet ministry websites. It was created in 2014. It allows the contents of cabinet ministry websites to be freely used, copied, publicly transmitted or otherwise modified, except when restricted by laws and ordinances. Version 1.0 of the terms of use agreement was created by the National Strategy office of Information and Communication Technology, Cabinet Secretariat (Japanese: \u5185\u95a3\u5b98\u623f\u60c5\u5831\u901a\u4fe1\u6280\u8853\u7dcf\u5408\u6226\u7565\u5ba4, Hepburn: Naikaku-kanb\u014d J\u014dh\u014d Ts\u016bshin Gijutsu S\u014dg\u014d Senryaku-shitsu) in 2014 to promote the reuse of government website content.Version 2.0 of the agreement was created in December 2015 and went into use starting in January 2016. Version 2.0 and later versions are compatible with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe (Portuguese: Governo de S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 e Pr\u00edncipe) is the executive branch of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe. The current government is the XVI Constitutional Government, established on 24 November 2014.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Government of the Republic of South Ossetia is the political leadership of the only partially recognized, but de facto independent, Republic of South Ossetia.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Government of Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic is the political leadership of the unrecognized, but de facto independent, Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, better known in English as Transnistria.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Government revenue or national revenue is money received by a government from taxes and non-tax sources to enable it to undertake government expenditures. Government revenue as well as government spending are components of the government budget and important tools of the government's fiscal policy. The collection of revenue is the most basic task of a government, as revenue is necessary for the operation of government and enforcement of its laws, and this necessity of revenue was a major factor in the development of the modern bureaucratic state.Government revenue is distinct from government debt and money creation, which both serve as temporary measures of increasing a government's money supply without increasing its revenue.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The governor of Aklan is the local chief executive of the province of Aklan, Philippines.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The governor of Albay (Filipino: Punong Lalawigan ng Albay; Central Bikol: Gobernador kan Albay) is the chief executive of the provincial government of Albay, Philippines. Like all local government heads in the Philippines, the governor is elected via popular vote, and may not be elected for a fourth consecutive term (although the former governor may return to office after an interval of one term). In case of death, resignation or incapacity, the vice governor becomes the governor.\nThe current governor is Noel Rosal, under Katipunan ng Nagkakaisang Pilipino. He previously served as mayor of Legazpi City, from 2001 to 2010 and from 2013 to 2022.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The governor of Antique is the local chief executive of the province of Antique, Philippines.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The governor of Laguna is the highest political office in the province of Laguna, Philippines.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The governor of the County of Machakos is the chief executive of the Kenya Devolved Government of Machakos County. The governor is the head of the executive branch of  County government of Machakos.\nThe current governor is Alfred Mutua, of Maendeleo Chap Chap. Dr. Alfred Mutua is on his final term as governor of the County.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The governor of Nueva Ecija is the local chief executive of the Central Luzon province of Nueva Ecija in the Luzon Island, Philippines.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The governor of Pangasinan is the highest political office in the province of Pangasinan, Philippines. Along with the Governor of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur and La Union, he sits in the Regional Development Council of Ilocos Region.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The governor of Quezon is the local chief executive of the Philippine province of Quezon.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The governor of Sorsogon is the local chief executive of the province of Sorsogon, Philippines. Like all local government heads in the Philippines, the governor is elected via popular vote, and may not be elected for a fourth consecutive term (although the former governor may return to office after an interval of one term). In case of death, resignation or incapacity, the vice governor becomes the governor.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "During the Classical era of Ancient Greece, many city-states had forms of government similar to a democracy, in which the free (non-slave), native (non-foreigner) adult male citizens of the city took a major and direct part in the management of the affairs of state, such as declaring war, voting supplies, dispatching diplomatic missions and ratifying treaties. These activities were often handled by a form of direct democracy, based on a popular assembly. Others, of judicial and official nature, were often handled by large juries, drawn from the citizen body in a process known as sortition.\nBy far the most significant and well-understood example is Athenian democracy in Athens. However, at least fifty-two classical Greek city-states including  Corinth, Megara, and Syracuse also had democratic regimes during part of their history.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Guam Department of Chamorro Affairs (Chamorro: Depattamenton I Kaohao Guinahan Chamorro) is an agency of the government of Guam dealing with the Chamorro people and Chamorro culture. The agency is located in the DNA Building in Hag\u00e5t\u00f1a.Chamorro Village (Chamorro: I Sengsong Chamorro), a market and a cultural attraction, is a division of the Department of Chamorro Affairs.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Gujarat Environment Management Institute (GEMI) is an Autonomous Institute under the Forests and Environment Department of Government of Gujarat. Established in 1999 and based in Gandhinagar, GEMI has been involved in the overall conservation, protection and management of environment and  has taken up various studies and research projects.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Guyana Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) is a government agency of Guyana overseeing civil aviation. Its headquarters are in Georgetown. The agency investigates aviation accidents and incidents.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Handover, in the political-historical sense, often refers to the transfer of power of former colonies (particularly those of former British colonies) to the local people. The term was also used for the transfer of the Panama Canal and the Canal Zone to Panama, and the returns of sovereignty to Iraq by the United States.\n\nThe transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong, a former British crown colony, from UK to People's Republic of China in 1997. After the Handover, Hong Kong has become a special administrative region, a first-order division. See transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong.\nThe transfer of sovereignty of Macau from Portugal to People's Republic of China in 1999, and has become a special administrative region.Also the term (especially in the media) refers to the Olympic protocol during the closing ceremonies also known like Antwerp ceremonial when the mayor of the city that organized the Games returns the Olympic flag to the president of the International Olympic Committee, who then passes it on to the mayor of the next city to host the Olympic Games.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The High Court of Justice of Suriname (Dutch: Hof van Justitie van Suriname) is the highest court of law in Suriname and is the head of the judicial branch.Whilst the High Court of Justice is the highest court of appeal, cases beyond the court can be referred on to the Caribbean Court of Justice.Iwan Rasoelbaks has been acting president of the High Court of Justice since 31 March 2014.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "These are tables of members of the Connecticut Senate.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Housing Authority of Fiji is in the business of providing homes to the people of Fiji. The authority sells fully serviced residential lots and offers residential mortgage loans for residential purposes.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A housing voucher is a voucher that can be spent on rented housing, such as Section 8 public housing in the United States, along with universal housing vouchers. The housing choice voucher programme allows families to move without the loss of housing assistance and choose a unit anywhere in the United States if they lived in the jurisdiction of public housing agency (PHA) issuing the voucher when they applied for assistance. \nThe book Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City advocates that the U.S. government issue housing vouchers to families below a certain income threshold so that they pay no more than 30 percent of their income on housing.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A hreppur (Icelandic pronunciation: \u200b[\u02c8r\u0325\u025bhp\u028fr\u0325]) is a rural municipality in Iceland. These administrative units are primarily made up of rural villages, with few or no towns, and are headed by the Hreppstj\u00f3ri [\u02c8r\u0325\u025bhp\u02ccstjou\u02d0r\u026a].\nIt is one of the oldest Icelandic administrative units, probably dating back to before 1000 AD, when a hreppur had at least twenty freeholders, although smaller units could be established if the L\u00f6gr\u00e9tta gave permission. The term (Old norse hreppr) is mentioned in the Gray Goose Laws (Gr\u00e1g\u00e1s) and the Law of Iceland (J\u00f3nsb\u00f3k).\nThe \"hreppr\" was independent of the chieftain-\u00deing structure. It collected and distributed the tithes and mandatory contributions designated for the poor, which were assigned to various households for different lengths of time according to the wealth of the household. The \"hreppr\" also took charge of an insurance system. A member who lost more than 1/4 of his herds due to disease was entitled to recover half of the loss.The use of the term \"hreppur\" is in decline as urban communities merge into new municipalities.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Idaho Department of Fish and Game (IDFG) is the Idaho state department which is responsible for preserving and managing Idaho's wildlife, including mammals, fish, birds, plants, and invertebrates.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "An identical note is a term used in diplomacy to denote terms agreed upon by two powers to coerce a third.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Illinois Veteran Grant (IVG) is a program whereby the state of Illinois provides educational benefits to certain Illinoisans who have served in the Armed Forces of the United States.\nRecipients of the IVG are provided with the full amount of tuition and fees to attend any approved public college or university in Illinois. In effect, Illinois veterans can pursue an academic degree for the cost of textbooks alone.\nVeterans who were resident in the state of Illinois at least six months before entering military service and who have completed a full year or more of federal active duty (or have served in a designated combat zone) may be eligible for the grant. Qualified applicants may use this grant at the undergraduate or graduate level for the equivalent of four academic years of full-time enrollment.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Immigration and Naturalisation Service, Dutch: Immigratie en Naturalisatiedienst (IND), is a Dutch government agency that handles the admission of foreigners in the Netherlands. It is part of the Ministry of Security and Justice. The IND processes all applications for asylum, family reunification, visas, and other residence permits.\nOn behalf of the Dutch Deputy Minister of Security and Justice (since 2022 Eric van der Burg) the IND implements the aliens policy, the aliens act (Dutch: 'Vreemdelingenwet') and the Netherlands nationality act (Dutch: 'Rijkswet op het Nederlanderschap').", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Imperial County Superior Court is the California superior court located in Imperial County. The superior court operates four courthouses throughout the county. As of 2017, the presiding judge of the court is Brooks Anderholt, and the interim court executive officer is Maria Rhinehart. The court has over 100 employees, 10 judges, and 2 subordinate judicial officers. The building is 20 feet tall and about 100 feet wide. It has a budget of approximately $13.9 million, for the 2017\u201318 fiscal year.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Indonesian order of precedence is a nominal and symbolic hierarchy of important positions within the Government of Indonesia. It has legal standing and is used to dictate ceremonial protocol at events of a national nature.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Infrastructure UK (IUK) was a division of HM Treasury within the Treasury's Public Services and Growth Directorate, which advised the UK government on the long-term infrastructure needs of the UK and provided commercial expertise to support major projects and programmes  between 2010 and 2016.Its Chief Executive was Geoffrey Spence.\nInfrastructure UK had an Advisory Council which met every quarter. In addition to the non-executive chair Paul Skinner (former Chair of Rio Tinto), the council was composed of the following members, which included private sector representatives:\n\nSir Nicholas Macpherson, Permanent Secretary, HM Treasury\nJohn Kingman, 2nd Permanent Secretary, HM Treasury\nPhilip Rutnam, Permanent Secretary, DFT\nMartin Donnelly, Permanent Secretary, BIS\nBronwyn Hill, Permanent Secretary, Defra\nPeter Schofield, Director General for Neighbourhoods, DCLG\nSimon Virley, Director General for Energy & Markets Infrastructure Group, DECC\nChris Bolt, Independent Consultant\nKeith Clarke, Chairman, Forum for the Future\nCressida Hogg, Managing Partner Infrastructure, 3i\nIan Tyler, Former Chief Executive, Balfour Beatty Plc\nJames Cameron, Chairman, Climate Change Capital\nProfessor Sir Keith Burnett, Vice Chancellor, University of Sheffield\nSteve Holliday, Chief Executive, National Grid", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Inland Revenue Department (IRD) Nepal is the department of Nepal Government under Ministry of Finance, located in Lazimpat, Kathmandu. The IRD is currently responsible for the enforcement of Tax Laws and administration of the following taxes: Income Tax, Value Added Tax, Excise Duty  and duties like Entertainment fee (Film Development Fee). \nIRD carries out the following functions:\n1. Tax Administration\n2. Tax Policy\n3. Tax Payer Services\n4. Registration, Revenue Collection\n5. Tax audit\n6. Tax Enforcement and investigation\n7. Review & Appeal\n8. Tax Refund\n9. Advance Ruling\n10. Tax Treaty and International Taxation\n11. Excises and Liquor Administration\nIRD is centrally located in Kathmandu. There are 84 field offices throughout Nepal including 1 Large Taxpayers Office,1 Medium Level Taxpayers Office, 43 Inland Revenue Offices and 39 Taxpayer Service Offices. The previous Department of Taxation was established in 1960. IRD and its district offices are totally running on functional line. Major functions include Taxpayer's Service, Audit and Collection.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Inlands Bestuur or Inlandsch Bestuur (Indonesian: pemerintahan pribumi or pangreh praja) was one of the two forms of government bureaucracy in the Dutch East Indies, in addition to Binnenlands Bestuur.\nInlands Bestuur is the executor of the Dutch Colonial administration in the regions (bureaucracy in the territory of the Bumiputra) and can also be a collaboration between the central government and the local local government.\nFor areas on the island of Java (except Batavia, there are also areas known as Vorstenlanden, or \"royal lands\", namely the Surakarta Sultanate and Yogyakarta Sultanate areas) and the island of Madura divided into several residency areas consisting of several (regentschappen) or \"regencies\"; and regional heads of regentschap bear the title of \"Bupati\" or Regent. The Bupati usually come from and are appointed from among families close to the center of power of the Bumiputra.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Institutional discrimination is discriminatory treatment of an individual or group of individuals by society or institutions, through unequal consideration of members of subordinate groups. \nThese unfair and indirect methods of discrimination are often embedded in an institution's policies, procedures, laws, and objectives.\nThe discrimination can be on grounds of gender, caste, race, ethnicity, religion, or socio-economic status.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Instituto Nacional dos Recursos Biol\u00f3gicos (INRB) is the Portuguese state-run institute for research on biological resources. It develops research in agricultural fields, veterinary, animal growth, marine biology and fishing. It provides scientific and technical support to its related sectors of activity.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Interest aggregation is the activity in which the political demands of groups and individuals are combined into policy programs, as defined by Almond, Powell, Dalton, and Strom.Interest aggregation includes those methods employed by individuals to effect change, commonly called personal interest aggregation, or by groups, to seek the support of or make demands of the government.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Interkommunalt selskap or IKS (in English: Intermunicipal company) is a type of municipal or county owned company in Norway. It resembles very closely a Municipal Enterprise (Kommunalt foretak) or County Enterprise, but the IKS requires multiple municipalities and/or counties to be owners. The form is regulated by the Municipal Act. Typical activities organised as IKS's include waterworks, archives, museums and garbage disposal.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The 5th International Socialist Congress of the Second International era was held in Paris from September 23 to 27 in Paris. It was originally supposed to be held in Germany in 1899, but difficulties with the German authorities prevented this.\nThe Congress is notable for establishing the International Socialist Bureau, the permanent organization of the International, as well as with dealing with the questions of the socialist attitude toward reformism and colonialism.\nOn reformism, the Congress specifically addressed the question of socialists entering bourgeois governments. In 1899 the socialist Alexandre Millerand had taken a ministerial position in the French government of Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, alongside the Marquis de Galliffet, who had led the suppression of the Paris Commune. Karl Kautsky proposed a compromise resolution to the effect that the entry of a socialist into a bourgeois government was not a normal but a transitional and exceptional emergency measure, and that Millerand's action was not a matter of principle but of tactics, acceptable if it had the mandate of his party. The resolution was adopted by a vote of 29\u20139 over Jules Guesde\u2019s demand for unconditional condemnation of ministerialism.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The IX Legislature of the National Assembly of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe (Portuguese: IX Legislatura da Assembleia Nacional de S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 e Pr\u00edncipe) was a legislature of the National Assembly of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe. It officially began on 11 September 2010 and ended on 15 August 2014.\nPresident: Evaristo Carvalho (until 26 November 2012), Alcino Martinho de Barros Pinto (from 28 November 2012)\nVice-President: Maria das Neves and Jos\u00e9 da Gra\u00e7a Diogo\nSecretaries: Celmira Sacramento, Deolindo da Mata, Sebasti\u00e3o Pinheiro\nVice-Secretaries: Carlos Correia and Filomena dos Prazeres", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A kommunalt foretak or KF (English: \"municipal enterprise\") is a Norwegian company type. Specifically the term relates to an undertaking owned by a municipality. An equivalent enterprise owned by a county is known as a fylkeskommunalt foretak or FKF (\"county enterprise\"). Each KF and FKF has its own separate board of directors and a managing director, but the undertakings are not limited liability companies. If more than one municipality and/or county is the owner, the company is instead classed as an interkommunalt selskap or IKS (\"intermunicipal company\"). Municipalities and counties are also permitted to own limited companies.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Korea Post is the national postal service of South Korea, under the authority of the Ministry of Science and ICT, formerly Ministry of Knowledge Economy until 2013. Korea Post is in charge of postal service, postal banking\u060c and insurance services. Its headquarters are in Sejong City.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Laborat\u00f3rio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, (LNEC) is a public institution of scientific and technological research and development in Portugal. It is one of the largest civil engineering laboratories in the world.\nLNEC acts in the different fields of civil engineering under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Economy, in cooperation with the Ministry of Education and Science regarding the definition of its strategic guidelines, as stipulated by its Organic Law, Decree Law 157/2012, of July 18.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Rhineland-Palatinate Landtag is the state diet of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate.\nArticle 79, Section 1 of the Rhineland-Palatinate constitution provides: \"The Landtag is the supreme organ of political decision-making, elected by the people. It represents the people, elects the Minister-President and confirms the cabinet, passes the laws and the budget, controls the executive and enunciates the popular will in the conduct of public affairs, in questions of European policy and according to the agreements between the Landtag and the cabinet.\"\nThe Landtag consists of 101 members.\nThe Landtag convenes in the Deutschhaus building, where also the first democratically elected parliament German history had convened, the Rhenish-German national convention of the Mainz Republic. Parts of its administration are located in the old arsenal.\nThe German flag used in the Landtag is a historical one used during the Hambacher Fest.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Latin American and the Caribbean Economic System, officially known as Sistema Econ\u00f3mico Latinoamericano y del Caribe (SELA), is an organization founded in 1975 to promote economic cooperation and social development between Latin American and the Caribbean countries. In the early 1990s, its representatives consisted of members from 28 countries and took part in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations, which led to a new global agreement on restrictions on trade and established the World Trade Organization (WTO).\nThe Latin American Council represents SELA's policy-making body and meets once a year. The main administrative body is the secretariat, located in Caracas, Venezuela.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Lawmaking is the process of crafting legislation.  In its purest sense, it is the basis of governance.  \nThis form of law making is also applied in India. It is a process which works in India on the basis of the Constitution of India.\nLawmaking in modern democracies is the work of legislatures, which exist at the local, regional, and national levels and make such laws as are appropriate to their level, and binding over those under their jurisdictions.  These bodies are influenced by lobbyists, pressure groups, sometimes partisan considerations, but ultimately by the voters who elected them and to which they are responsible, if the system is working as intended.  Even the expenditure of governmental funds is an aspect of lawmaking, as in most jurisdictions the budget is a matter of law.\nIn dictatorships and absolute monarchies the leader can make law essentially by the stroke of a pen, one of the main objections to such an arrangement.  However, a seemingly-analogous event can occur even in a democracy where the executive can make executive orders which have the force of law.  In some instance, even regulations issued by executive departments can have the force of law.  Libertarians, in particular, are known for denouncing such actions as being anti-democratic, but they have become such a salient feature of modern governance that it is hard to picture a system in which they no longer exist, because it is hard to picture the time involved in every regulation being debated prior to becoming law.  That, say libertarians, is precisely the point: if such executive orders and regulations do not stand up to legislative scrutiny, they should never be implemented.  In response to this, limits on regulatory authority have been made legislatively, and libertarians still contend for, if not the abolition of executive orders altogether, then their automatic sunset after a fixed period if not legislatively reviewed and confirmed; this policy has been adopted in some jurisdictions.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Liberal-Conservative Junta (Spanish: Triunvirato de Gobierno, lit.\u2009'Government Triumvirate') officially ruled Nicaragua between 1972 and 1974, though effective power was in the hands of strongman Anastasio Somoza.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Liberalization or Liberalisation (British English) is a broad term that refers to the practice of making laws, systems, or opinions less severe, usually in the sense of eliminating certain government regulations or restrictions. The term is used most often in relation to economics, where it refers to economic liberalization, the removal or reduction of restrictions placed upon (a particular sphere of) economic activity. However, liberalization can also be used as a synonym for decriminalization or legalization (the act of making something legal after it used to be illegal), for example when describing drug liberalization.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Dr. Walter Altherr, CDU\nPeter Anheuser, CDU\nChristian Johannes Baldauf, CDU\nHans-Artur Bauckhage, FDP\nChristine Baumann, SPD\nKurt Beck, SPD\nMichael Billen, CDU\nFranz Josef Bischel, CDU\nChristoph B\u00f6hr, CDU\nHans-Josef Bracht, CDU\nDr. Bernhard Braun, B\u00dcNDNIS 90/DIE GR\u00dcNEN\nUlla Brede-Hoffmann, SPD\nBrinkmann, Ernst-G\u00fcnter  SPD\nBurgard, Dieter  SPD\nCreutzmann, J\u00fcrgen  FDP\nDr\u00f6scher, Peter Wilhelm SPD\nEbli, Friederike SPD\nElsner, Petra SPD\nEnders, Dr. Peter CDU\nErnst, Guido Karl  CDU\nFink, Monika  SPD\nFranzmann, Rudolf  SPD\nFrisch, Lutz  CDU\nFuhr, Alexander  SPD\nGebhart, Dr. Thomas CDU\nGeis, Manfred  SPD\nGeisen, Dr. Edmund   FDP\nG\u00f6lter, Dr. Georg  CDU\nChristoph Grimm, SPD\nMarianne Grosse, SPD\nFriedel Gr\u00fctzmacher, B\u00dcNDNIS 90/DIE GR\u00dcNEN\nHelga Hammer, CDU\nKlaus Hammer, SPD\nHartloff, Jochen  SPD\nHeinrich, Heribert  SPD\nHohn, Reinhold  FDP\nH\u00f6rter, Michael  CDU\nHuth-Haage, Simone CDU\nItzek, Gerd  SPD\nJullien, Herbert  CDU\nKeller, Josef  CDU\nElke Kiltz, B\u00dcNDNIS 90/DIE GR\u00dcNEN\nKipp, Anne  SPD\nKlamm, Hannelore  SPD\nKl\u00f6ckner, Dieter SPD\nKohnle-Gros, Marlies  CDU\nWerner Kuhn, FDP\nLammert, Matthias  CDU\nLelle, Erhard  CDU\nLeppla, Ruth SPD\nLewentz, Roger  SPD\nLicht, Alexander  CDU\nMangold-Wegner, Sigrid  SPD\nReiner Marz, B\u00dcNDNIS 90/DIE GR\u00dcNEN\nJoachim Mertes, SPD\nHerbert Mertin, FDP\nElfriede Meurer, CDU\nGernot Mittler, SPD\nNorbert Mittr\u00fccker, CDU\nMargit Mohr, SPD\nNicole Morsblech, FDP\nManfred Nink, SPD\nHans J\u00fcrgen Noss, SPD\nRenate Pepper, SPD\nP\u00f6rksen, Carsten  SPD\nPresl, Fritz  SPD\nPuchtler, Frank, SPD\nRaab, Heike, SPD\nRamsauer, G\u00fcnther, SPD\nReich, Beate, SPD\nRemy, Sigurd, SPD\nR\u00f6sch, G\u00fcnter, SPD\nRosenbauer, Dr. Josef, CDU\nR\u00fcddel, Erwin, CDU\nSch\u00e4fer, Dorothea CDU\nSchiffmann, Dr. Dieter  SPD\nSchleicher-Rothmund, Barbara  SPD\nSchmidt, Dr. Gerhard  SPD\nSchmidt, Ulla  CDU\nSchmitt, Astrid  SPD\nSchmitt, Dieter  CDU\nSchmitz, Dr. Peter  FDP\nSchnabel, Heinz-Hermann  CDU\nSchneider, Christine  CDU\nSchneider-Forst, Angela Maria  CDU\nSchneiders, Herbert  CDU\nSchreiner, Gerd  CDU\nSchwarz, Franz  SPD\nSchweitzer, Harald  SPD\nSeiler, Ulrich  SPD\nSiegrist, Hildrun  SPD\nSpurzem, Anne  SPD\nStretz, Norbert  SPD\nThelen, Hedi CDU\nIse Thomas, B\u00dcNDNIS 90/DIE GR\u00dcNEN\nDr. Adolf Weiland, CDU\nMathilde Weinandy,  CDU\nThomas Weiner, CDU\nNils Wiechmann, B\u00dcNDNIS 90/DIE GR\u00dcNEN\nWalter Wirz, CDU\nF. Walter Zuber, SPD\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The LVII Legislature of the Congress of Mexico met from 1997 to 2000.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Manikongo, or Mwene Kongo, was the title of the ruler of the Kingdom of Kongo, a kingdom that existed from the 14th to the 19th centuries and consisted of land in present-day Angola, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The manikongo's seat of power was Mbanza Kongo (also called S\u00e3o Salvador from 1570 to 1975), now the capital of Zaire Province in Angola. The manikongo appointed governors for the provinces of the Kingdom and received tribute from neighbouring subjects.\nThe term \"manikongo\" is derived from Portuguese manicongo, an alteration of the KiKongo term Mwene Kongo (literally \"lord of Kongo\"). The term wene, from which mwene is derived, is also used to mean kingdom and is attested with this meaning in the Kongo catechism of 1624 with reference to the Kingdom of Heaven. The term mwene is created by adding the personal prefix mu- to this stem, to mean \"person of the kingdom\".\nMwene is attested in very early texts, notably the letters of King Afonso I of Kongo, where he writes, to Portguese kings Manuel I (in 1514) and Jo\u00e3o III concerning the moenipango (mwene Mpangu) and twice concerning the moinebata. Mani was used to mean not only \"king\" but also anyone holding authority, so provincial and sub-provincial officials also were called mani.  Afonso did not entitle himself Manikongo, but rather rei de congo (king of Kongo).Subjects were require to prostrate themselves before the Manikongo, approaching him on all fours, and when time came for the Manikongo to eat or drink, an attendant would chime two iron rods, cueing them to lay face-down so that they could not see him do so.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Maritime administrations, or flag state administrations, are the executive arms/state bodies of each government responsible for carrying out the shipping responsibilities of the state, and are tasked to administer national shipping and boating issues and laws within their territorial waters and for vessels flagged in that country, or that fall under their jurisdiction.\nThe main functions are:\n\nGovernment policy for ships and boating, marine safety in general, seaworthiness, safe construction and stability\nPolicing Dangerous goods being carried, Navigation safety, Safe manning, Certificates of Competency/licenses for crew\nHealth, safety and welfare of crew, civil search and rescue\nPrevention and combating marine pollution and response, investigation of marine accidents\nRepresents country on IMO and other International Conventions", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Masmughan (\"Chief Magian\" or \"Great one of the Magians\") was a Sasanian title that existed in the 7th century, probably equivalent to governor of a district or a region.\nThe collapse of the Sasanian Empire resulted in the rise of several independent dynasties in Tabaristan. A certain Karenid named Mardanshah, carried the title of Masmughan and held control over Damavand and Larijan including its surrounding areas. His successors would control the area until in 760 when the region was conquered by the Arabs.\nAnother Karenid named Valash appears to bear the title of Masmughan, who served as Marzban of Miyano-du-rud, near Sari between the Kalarud river limited to the east with Karatughan. Valash was later murdered in revenge by Sukhrab I, the ispahbadh of the Bavand dynasty.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The office of Mayor of Medway is the highest position in the unitary area of Medway, in Kent, England. The Office is currently held by Cllr Jan Aldous, who assumed the post on 5 May 2021.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Mayor of Podgorica (Montenegrin: \u0413\u0440\u0430\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043b\u043d\u0438\u043a \u041f\u043e\u0434\u0433\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0435, Gradona\u010delnik Podgorice) is the head of the City of Podgorica (capital of Montenegro). He acts on behalf of the City, and performs an executive function in the City of Podgorica.\nThe current mayor is Ivan Vukovi\u0107 of the Democratic Party of Socialists, elected at the 2018 City Assembly election.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The earliest recorded Mayor of Oxford in England was Laurence Kepeharm (1205\u20131207?).\n\nOn 23 October 1962 the city was granted the honour of electing a Lord Mayor. Notable figures who have been Lord Mayor of Oxford include J. N. L. Baker (1964\u201365), Air-Vice-Marshal William Foster MacNeece Foster (1966\u201367) and Olive Gibbs (1974\u201375 and 1981\u201382).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Medical Products Agency (MPA; Swedish: L\u00e4kemedelsverket) is the government agency in Sweden responsible for regulation and surveillance of the development, manufacturing and sale of medicinal drugs, medical devices and cosmetics.\nIts task is also to ensure that both patients and healthcare professionals have access to safe and effective medicinal products and that these are used in a rational and cost-effective manner.\nThe Swedish Medical Products Agency is one of the leading regulatory authorities in the EU. During the last five years, the Swedish MPA has been among the top three agencies in Europe, counting the number of approvals processes managed for central (i.e. European) approvals of medicines. The Swedish MPA also has strong representation in more than 110 working groups and committees in the scope of the Heads of Medicines Agencies (HMA) and European Medicines Agency (EMA) for regulation of medical products in Europe.\nThe Medical Products Agency is a government body under the aegis of the Swedish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs.  Its operations are largely financed through fees.  Approximately 750 people work at the agency; most are pharmacists and doctors.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Medicines and Medical Devices Agency of Serbia (Serbian: \u0410\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0458\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u043b\u0435\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0435 \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0446\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u0441\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, romanized: Agencija za lekove i medicinska sredstva; abbr. ALIMS) is a Serbian national authority responsible for regulation and surveillance of the development, manufacturing and sale of human and veterinary drugs and medical devices. Its task is also to ensure that both individual patients and healthcare professionals have access to safe and effective medicinal products.\nMedicines and Medical Devices Agency of Serbia was founded by the Serbian Law on Medicines and Medical Devices in 2004, thus replacing previously existing Medicines Bureau of Yugoslavia (established in 1948) and Institute for testing and control of medicines of Serbia (established in 1960).\nThe Medicines and Medical Devices Agency of Serbia is a government body under the aegis of the Serbian Ministry of Health. Its operations are largely financed through fees. Approximately 180 people work at the agency; most are pharmacists and doctors.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Member System, modeled on the cabinet system, was created by British authorities in Malaysia to provide self-governance. Like the Communities Liaison Committee, it drew on members of different communities, and was later described as setting a precedent for the powersharing multiracial Malayan and Malaysian cabinets post-independence.\nAt 1951, Sir Henry Gurney, the British High Commissioner in Malaya announced the members, their duty started at April 1951 until June 1955, before the election.\n3 portfolios still holding by British, they are Housing and Public Works by J. D. Mead, Industry and Social Relations, and Economic Affairs.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Miami-Dade Aviation Department (MDAD) is an agency of the Miami-Dade County government that manages airports. As of 2021 Ralph Cuti\u00e9 is the interim director of the agency. The Arts and Cultural Affairs division was created, and is managed by, Yolanda Sanchez. MDAD operates Miami International Airport, a passenger airport, and four general aviation airports. The other airports are Miami-Opa Locka Executive Airport, Miami Executive Airport, Miami Homestead General Aviation Airport, and Dade-Collier Training and Transition Airport. The executive offices are located at Miami International Airport.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Migration 5 (M5, formerly the Five Country Conference on migration) is a conference of the immigration authorities of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. The five countries work together to \"enhance the integrity, security and efficiency of their immigration and border services\" including the sharing of certain overseas visa application centres. In 2009, the Five Country Conference agreed to a data-sharing protocol which facilitates the sharing of the biometric data of up to 3000 people per year in order to assist with asylum applications.The respective authorities are:\n\n Australia: Department of Home Affairs\n Canada: Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada and the Canada Border Services Agency\n New Zealand: Immigration New Zealand\n United Kingdom: Home Office\n United States: Department of Homeland Security", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Military Intelligence  (Czech; Vojensk\u00e9 zpravodajstv\u00ed, abbreviated as VZ) is the military intelligence service of the Czech Republic with activities in such fields as Imagery Intelligence (IMINT), Human Intelligence (HUMINT), Signal Intelligence (SIGINT), Open Sources Intelligence (OSINT). The agency also procures intelligence from co-operation with two or more intelligence agencies at a time. While Military Intelligence activities are directed all around the world, most activities are focused on so called \"crisis regions\" such as the Balkans, the Middle East, Afghanistan \u2013 Pakistan, Commonwealth of Independent States and Africa. In the past, Military Intelligence has cooperated with several intelligence agencies such as Security Information Service, Office for Foreign Relations and Information, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Police of the Czech Republic, General Customs Directorate.Czech Military Intelligence also predicted the annexation of Crimea and development of Ukraine. Military Intelligence also reported that Russia is trying to change the internal political situation in post-Soviet states where the most successful change was in Ukraine.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A minister delegate (French: Ministre d\u00e9l\u00e9gu\u00e9) is a minister in the Government of France in charge of a specific issue within a ministry. They are placed under the authority of a specific cabinet minister or that of the Prime Minister. According to protocol, a minister delegate ranks between a minister and a secretary of state.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Minister of Industry, Trade and Supply of Jordan is a Cabinet Minister responsible for overseeing internal and external trade.Alongside this position, the Minister also holds the position of Chairman of the Board of Directors of several government institutions including Jordan Civil Service Consumer Corporation, Jordan Standards and Metrology Organization (JISMO) and the Jordan Enterprise Development Corporation (JEDCO).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Agriculture (Croatian: Ministarstvo poljoprivrede) is a ministry of the Croatian government, whose work is aimed at overseeing the development of agriculture and fisheries in Croatia. The current Agriculture Minister is Marija Vu\u010dkovi\u0107, member of the Croatian Democratic Union.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) is the government ministry responsible for the governance, management and promotion of agriculture in Liberia.  The Ministry is responsible for the oversight of agronomy, animal husbandry and other agriculture industries, the economic organization of the agriculture and food industries, and national food security.  The work of the Ministry is divided into sectors of Livestock Production, Agricultural Chemicals and Crop Production.The current Minister of Agriculture is Hon. Jeanine Milly Cooper.  Main Ministry offices are located in Monrovia.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Cooperatives (MCIC, in Gilbertese, Botaki ibukin Ioninibwai, Karaobwai ao Boboti) is a government ministry of Kiribati, headquartered in South Tarawa.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Communications (Turkmen: T\u00fcrkmenistany\u0148 Aragatna\u015fyk ministrligi) was a governmental agency in Turkmenistan responsible for telecommunications, post, Internet, television, and radio. The ministry was founded in 1991 and was abolished in connection with the creation of the Ministry of Industry and Communication of Turkmenistan on 29 January 2019.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Education (MoE) is a government ministry of Kiribati, headquartered in Bikenibeu, Tarawa, next to the King George V and Elaine Bernacchi School. As of 2018 the ministry has about 1,400 employees.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology was a cabinet-level division of the government of South Korea dealt Education and Science affairs of South Korea. It was created on February 29, 2008. This had been split into Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning and Ministry of Education.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Employment and Human Resources (MEHR) is a government ministry of Kiribati, headquartered in South Tarawa, Tarawa. He was created in October 2016, just after the revision of the Constitution of Kiribati that allows more than 10 ministries in the Cabinet.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Environment and Forestry (Indonesian: Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan) is the cabinet-level, government ministry in the Republic of Indonesia responsible for managing and conserving that nation's forests. The current Minister of Environment and Forestry is Siti Nurbaya Bakar.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development (MELAD, Gilbertese: Botaki ibukin te enwarementa, tararuan aaba ao  karikirakean te ununiki) is a government ministry of Kiribati, headquartered in Bikenibeu, South Tarawa.It was created as Ministry of Natural Resource Development in March 1978, within the Gilbert Islands colony.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Catalan: Ministeri d'Afers Exteriors) is the Andorran government ministry which oversees the foreign relations of Andorra.\nMinisters of Foreign Affairs of Andorra:\n\nAntoni Armengol (1993\u20131994)\nMarc Vila Amig\u00f3 (1994)\nManuel Mas Rib\u00f3 (1994\u20131997)\nAlbert Pintat (1997\u20132001)\nJuli Minoves Triquell (12 April 2001 \u2013 7 May 2007)\nMeritxell Mateu i Pi (2007\u20132009)\nXavier Espot Mir\u00f3 (8 June 2009 \u2013 2011)\nGilbert Saboya Suny\u00e9 (16 May 2011 \u2013 17 July 2017)\nMaria Ubach i Font (since 17 July 2017)", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Finance is a government ministry of the Republic of Liberia. As of 2018, the Liberian Finance Minister is Samuel D. Tweah, who was appointed in January 2018. The minister is appointed by the President of Liberia, with the consent of Senate of Liberia.\nThe ministry's offices are located in Broad Street in Monrovia.The ministry was led by a secretary of the treasury before 1972, and since 1972 minister of finance.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MFED, in Gilbertese, Botaki ibukin te mwane ao karikirake) is a government ministry of Kiribati, headquartered in South Tarawa.The Minister is responsible for:\nDevelopment of Fiscal and Economic Policy\nGovernment Investments\nGovernment revenue and expenditure\nEconomic Development Committee (DCC) Secretariat\nNational Development Strategy (NDS)\nDevelopment Planning and Aid Administration\nGovernment Financial and Accounting Services\nInternal Auditing\nCustoms\nTaxation\nExchange Control\nGovernment Statistics and National Census\nBanking (including Bank of Kiribati and Development Bank of Kiribati.  The World Bank, International Monetary Fund.  Asian Development Bank and other non-Government Aid Agencies)\nKiribati Insurance Corporation\nManaging Government Liabilities (Loans and Guarantees)\nProcurement Act", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Development (MFMRD, in Gilbertese, Botaki I bukin te aka sa ao karikirakean kaubwaira mai taari) is a government ministry of Kiribati, headquartered in South Tarawa.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Bahraini Ministry of Foreign Affairs was established in 1971 by an Amiri Decree which also defined its duties and responsibilities and was followed in the same year by Amiri Decree No. (4) for the Year 1971 Regulating the Diplomatic and Consular Corps. Under the decree, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs assumed the responsibility of coordinating and implementing all matters related to the state's foreign policy and its international relations with other countries and international organizations as well as looking after and protecting the interests of Bahraini citizens abroad.\nThe Ministry of Foreign Affairs has operated within the premises of the Government House (Dar Al Hukuma) until 1983, when it moved to its current own building.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and African Integration is the Benin government ministry which oversees the foreign relations of Benin.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Immigration (MFAI) is a government ministry of Kiribati. The Minister is the President of Kiribati since its creation.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Cooperation, and Francophone Affairs (Spanish: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Cooperaci\u00f3n Internacional y Francofon\u00eda) is a ministry of the Government of Equatorial Guinea. The current Minister is Sime\u00f3n Oyono Esono Angue, appointed in 2018.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Cooperation and Communities (Portuguese: Minist\u00e9rio dos Neg\u00f3cios Estrangeiros, Coopera\u00e7\u00e3o e Comunidades) is a ministry of the Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe. The current Minister is Edite Tenjua, appointed in 2020.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade of Barbados is a key Barbadian government agency responsible for regulating, maintaining, and developing Barbados's external relations and the nature of trading with foreign countries. The Ministry is also responsible for the country's representation at the United Nations and advises other Ministries and State authorities when the latter have dealings with foreign governments or institutions.  It is based on Culloden Road, in the nation's capital Bridgetown.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Health is the Moroccan Ministry in charge of implementing government policies related to citizens' health. It was established on 1955 during the establishment of the first Moroccan government after independence.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Health is a ministry responsible for providing healthcare to the citizens of Somalia.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Health and Medical Services (MHMS) (in Gilbertese, Botaki n Mwakuri ibukin te Mauri ao Katoki Aoraki) is a governmental ministry of Kiribati. It is partnered with the World Bank, Unicef, Australian Aid, UNFPA, and New Zealand Foreign Affairs and Trade.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare is a government ministry of the Republic of Liberia. \nFrom 2006 to 2015 the Health Minister was Dr. Walter Gwenigale. As of 2014, the ministry was engaged in a major public health campaign to control the Ebola virus epidemic in Liberia.\nIn June 2015 Bernice Dahn became the Health Minister.In February 2018 President George Weah appointed Wilhelmina Jallah as Health Minister.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Industry, Science, Technology and Innovation (Khmer: \u1780\u17d2\u179a\u179f\u17bd\u1784\u17a7\u179f\u17d2\u179f\u17b6\u17a0\u1780\u1798\u17d2\u1798 \u179c\u17b7\u1791\u17d2\u1799\u17b6\u179f\u17b6\u179f\u17d2\u178f\u17d2\u179a \u1794\u1785\u17d2\u1785\u17c1\u1780\u179c\u17b7\u1791\u17d2\u1799\u17b6 \u1793\u17b7\u1784\u1793\u179c\u17b6\u1793\u17bb\u179c\u178f\u17d2\u178f\u1793\u17cd) is a government ministry responsible for  industrial, science, technology, innovation policies in Cambodia. Its name was changed from the Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts in March 2020, in response to the fourth Industrial Revolution. The current minister is Cham Prasidh.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Information, Communications, Transport and Tourism Development (MICTTD) is a government ministry of Kiribati, headquartered in Betio, South Tarawa.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Infrastructure and Sustainable Energy (MISE) is a government ministry of Kiribati, as ministry of infrastructure and as ministry of energy, headquartered in South Tarawa.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Internal Affairs of Artsakh (Armenian: \u0531\u0580\u0581\u0561\u056d\u056b \u0576\u0565\u0580\u0584\u056b\u0576 \u0563\u0578\u0580\u056e\u0565\u0580\u056b \u0576\u0561\u056d\u0561\u0580\u0561\u0580\u0578\u0582\u0569\u0575\u0578\u0582\u0576) also known as the Ministry of the Interior is an official government agency of the partially recognized Republic of Artsakh, serving as the executive law enforcement body in the state. It follows an organization similar to that of the Police of Armenia.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Internal Affairs (MIA) is a government ministry of Kiribati, headquartered in South Tarawa.The minister is responsible of:\n\nLocal government\nSupport services to Island Councils\nDecentralization\nRural Development for all Islands except Line and Phoenix Islands,\nElectoral Commission and National Elections\nCommunity Development\nPolice Services Communication and Improvement Fund\nHealth Services Communication and Improvement Fund\nCultural Affairs and Museum\nVillage Bank\nOuter Island Development Program\nLiquor", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Justice (Khmer: \u1780\u17d2\u179a\u179f\u17bd\u1784\u1799\u17bb\u178f\u17d2\u178f\u17b7\u1792\u1798\u17cc, Kr\u00e2su\u014fng Y\u016dtt\u0115th\u00f4rm) provides the administrative framework for the judges and prosecutors such as their professional training and salary and duty allowances. Additionally, with regard to prosecutors, the Minister of Justice is the chief of the prosecution and has the right to issue an injunction (order) to the prosecutions of all level of courts. The General Departments of Prosecutor and Criminal Affairs of the Ministry of Justice is the staff to the Minister of Justice on any related issues.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Established in 2016, the Ministry of Justice of Kiribati is responsible for the administration of law and justice, service-related policies, prisons and the probationary system, legal aid and human rights, civil registration, elections, citizenship, customs services, and law reform. Additionally, the ministry has oversight over the Office of the Attorney General and Judiciary.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Established in 1990, the Ministry of Justice of Moldova (Ministerul Justi\u021biei) is one of the thirteen ministries of the Government of Moldova. The current justice minister is Sergiu Litvinenco. In 2020, the Moldovan Ministry of Justice asked Israel to extradite Ilan Shor, a Moldovan politician involved in bank fraud. The legal process is still ongoing.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Labour (Abrv: MOL; Thai: \u0e01\u0e23\u0e30\u0e17\u0e23\u0e27\u0e07\u0e41\u0e23\u0e07\u0e07\u0e32\u0e19, RTGS: Krasuang Raengngan), is a Thai government body responsible for the oversight of labour administration and protection, skill development, and the promotion of employment in Thailand. The ministry was founded in 1993 as the \"Ministry of Labour and Social Services\", then renamed \"Ministry of Labour\" in 2002.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry for Line and Phoenix Islands Development (MLPID, also known by the portmanteau Linnix; Gilbertese: Botaki ibukin karikirakeaia aaba n te Aono Raina ao Rawaki) is a government ministry of Kiribati, headquartered in London, Kiritimati. It focuses on the development of the Line Islands and Phoenix Islands. The ministry was founded after the 1978 Gilbertese Chief Minister election by Ieremia Tabai.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of National Defence (Portuguese: Minist\u00e9rio da Defesa Nacional) is a ministry of the Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe. It is headed by the Minister of Defence and Internal Order (Portuguese: Ministro da Defesa e Ordem Interna). The current minister is Lieutenant colonel Jorge Amado.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance (MPNI) was a British government ministry responsible for the administration and delivery of welfare benefits. It was headed by the Minister of Pensions and National Insurance.\nIt was created in 1953 as a result of the amalgamation of the Ministry of Pensions and the Ministry of National Insurance. In 1968 a departmental reorganisation saw the Ministry merged with the Ministry of Health to form the Department of Health and Social Security.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A Ministry of Petroleum or Ministry of Oil is a kind of government ministry often found in countries that are producers and exporters of petroleum.\nExamples include:\n\nMinistry of Oil, Kuwait\nMinistry of Oil, Iraq\nMinistry of Oil and Gas, Kazakhstan\nMinistry of Oil and Gas, Oman\nMinistry of Oil and Mineral Reserves, Syria\nMinistry of Petroleum, Egypt\nMinistry of Petroleum, Iran\nMinistry of Petroleum, Pakistan\nMinistry of Petroleum and Energy, Norway\nMinistry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, Saudi Arabia\nMinistry of Petroleum and Minerals, East Timor\nMinistry of Petroleum and Mining, South Sudan\nMinistry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, India", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A ministry of propaganda (also agency or department of propaganda) is the part of a government charged with generating and distributing propaganda.\nThough governments routinely engage in propaganda, ministries or departments with the word \"propaganda\" in their name have become progressively more rare since the end of World War II, after the term took on its present negative connotation. Instead of using the word \"propaganda\", governments today often use the terms \"public relations\", \"psychological operations\", \"education\", \"advertising\", or simply \"information\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Public Health (French: Minist\u00e8re de la Sant\u00e9 Publique) is the health ministry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.\nIt has a public health system based loosely on the historical Belgian colonial public health system.  The ministry is largely a policy and oversight organization, with operational functions embodied within a number of subordinate ministry organizations, including the Institute of Tropical Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Research (Institut National de Recherch\u00e9 Biom\u00e9dicale) and the Kinshasa School of Public Health.  The latter trains physicians in public health, staffs the public health infrastructure composed of Health Zones, including the Health Zone doctors who provide both public health services and partial staffing of district hospitals.\nIn November 2012, Dr. F\u00e9lix Kabange Numbi was appointed Health Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. As of 2018, the position is held by Oly Ilunga Kalenga.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MPWT or PWT, Lao: \u0e81\u0eb0\u0e8a\u0ea7\u0e87\u0ec2\u0e8d\u0e97\u0eb2\u0e97\u0eb4\u0e81\u0eb2\u0e99 \u0ec1\u0ea5\u0eb0\u0e82\u0ebb\u0e99\u0eaa\u0ebb\u0ec8\u0e87) is a government ministry of Laos. Its head office is in Vientiane.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Relations with the Parliament of Romania (Romanian: Ministerul pentru Rela\u0163ia cu Parlamentul) was one of the ministries of the Government of Romania.\nThe Ministry was dissolved on 23 December 2009.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MoSTE) was a Thai government ministry from 1992 until 2002. With the coming into effect of the Restructuring of Government Agencies Act of 2002, the ministry was reorganized into the following separate ministries:\nMinistry of Science and Technology\nMinistry of Energy\nMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Danish Ministry of Social Affairs was re-created in 2010 as a split of the Social Welfare ministry created after the 2007 Folketing elections. The split moved the section that had to do with the Ministry of the Interior off into the Ministry of the Interior and Health. The current minister is Astrid Krag.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A Ministry of Sports or Ministry of Youth and Sports is a kind of government ministry found in certain countries with responsibility for the regulation of sports, particularly those participated in by young people.\n\nThe Ministry of Youth and Sports (Nepali: \u092f\u0941\u0935\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0916\u0947\u0932\u0915\u0941\u0926 \u092e\u0928\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0932\u092f) is a government ministry of Gandaki Province that governs the development of young people and sports in the country.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Governance and Territorial Development (Spanish: Ministerio de Gobernaci\u00f3n y Desarrollo Territorial) of El Salvador is a state institution whose mission is to \"guarantee governance and provide services for the benefit of the population through preventive actions and participatory organization, integrating institutional efforts to improve the quality of life of all people\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of the Interior and Health (Danish: Indenrigs- og Sundhedsministeriet) is a former Danish ministry that has existed twice in the 21st century by combination of existing ministries.\nThe Ministry of Interior and Health was first created in 2001 under the first government of Anders Fogh Rasmussen, by combining the Ministry of the Interior (Indenrigsministeriet) and the Ministry of Health (Sundhedsministeriet). The minister was Lars L\u00f8kke Rasmussen and the permanent secretary Ib Valsborg, succeeded in 2005 by Christian Sch\u00f8nau. The ministry carried out a far-reaching consolidation of municipalities. After the 2007 Folketing elections, the ministry was disbanded, and its areas of responsibility divided between two newly created ministries, the Ministry of Welfare and the Ministry of Health and Prevention.\nThe ministry was recreated in February 2010 under Rasmussen's first government as Prime Minister, with the minister being Bertel Haarder and the permanent secretary Kristian Wendelboe. In October 2011 the Rasmussen government was succeeded by that of Helle Thorning-Schmidt, and the ministry's functions were again divided, between the Ministry of the Economy and the Interior (\u00d8konomi- og Indenrigsministeriet) and a newly created Ministry of Health and Development (Ministeriet for Sundhed og Forebyggelse).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Ministry of the State of Denmark (The Prime Minister's Office) (Danish: Statsministeriet, Faroese: Fors\u00e6tisr\u00e1\u00f0i\u00f0, Greenlandic: Naalagaaffimmi Ministereqarfik) is a Kingdom government ministry. Atypical of a Danish ministry it does not have any councils, boards or committees associated with it and its near sole responsibility is to act as the secretariat of the Prime Minister of Denmark. There is a small department under the ministry that takes care of special legal issues not covered under other ministries, among others Greenland's and Faroe Islands relation to the Danish monarchy, the mass media's contact to the State, number of ministers in the government, or Queen Margrethe II legal status as a civilian.\nThe Ministry of the State of Denmark was founded January 1, 1914, though its origin can be found in a small secretariat created in 1848, the Council of State (\"Statsr\u00e5det\") to assist the new Council President (\"konseilspr\u00e6sident\"), the name used for the Prime Minister of Denmark from 1855 to 1918.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Water Resources is a ministry within the government of Iraq.  Headed since May 2020 by Mehdi Rasheed Mehdi, it is responsible for water management, including maintenance of the extensive system of irrigation canals and dams and other related tasks.  Prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the ministry was known as the Ministry of Irrigation and employed 12,000 Iraqis, as well as 6,000 contract employees.  The ministry was divided into five separate commissions and eleven state-owned companies.  This was eventually reduced by the Coalition Provisional Authority to six Directors General.  The Ministry's budget was increased to 150 million United States dollars for 2004, compared to USD 1 million under the recent government of Saddam Hussein.  It was also retasked with flooding the southern marshlands that had been ordered drained.  On 10 May 2004, CPA administrator Paul Bremer declared the Ministry to be fully autonomous with Latif Rashid as its head at the time.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Water Supply (Nepali: \u0916\u093e\u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0932\u092f) is a government ministry of Nepal that is responsible to provide effective, sustainable and quality water supply and sanitation to the people of Nepal.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Women, Youth, Sports and Social Affais (MWYSSA) is a government ministry of Kiribati, headquartered in South Tarawa, Tarawa.\nThe ministry was created in October 2013.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) is the state health agency of the State of Minnesota in the United States. The department has four offices in Saint Paul and seven outside of the Twin Cities metropolitan area: Bemidji, Duluth, Fergus Falls, Mankato, Marshall, Rochester, and St. Cloud.\nThe agency was established in 1977 after the abolition of the state board of health, which had existed since 1872.The agency is responsible for Minnesotans' public health, including disease control and prevention, environmental health, public policy, and regulation of health care providers. Additionally, it runs an immunization program and reports on the quality of clinical care in hospitals and clinics across the state.On September 15, 2021, Minnesota Department of Health announced the release of Docket, a free mobile application that enables consumer access to the Minnesota Immunization Information Connection (MIIC) system.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Minnesota Department of Revenue (MNDOR) is an agency of the U.S. state of Minnesota. It manages and enforces the reporting, payment, and receipt of taxes owed to the state, as well as some other fees.As of 2017, the department administered more than 30 taxes totaling almost $21 billion per year. In 2017, it had more than a thousand employees and processed half a million paper individual tax returns, which is about 15% of all individual tax returns in the state. The rest were electronically filed.Its headquarters near the Minnesota State Capitol in St. Paul is named for former governor Harold Stassen.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Revolutionary Social Movement (in French: Mouvement Social R\u00e9volutionnaire MSR) was a fascist movement founded in France in September 1940. Its founder was Eug\u00e8ne Deloncle, who was previously associated with La Cagoule .\nThe MSR supported the return of Pierre Laval to the Vichy government, led by Petain, who removed Laval from the government in December 1940. The MSR collaborated with and was a factions of the Rassemblement National Populaire (RNP), which was founded in January 1941.\nA split in the RNP came after the Eastern Front opened up in July 1941, and the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism was formed. Another frontman in the RNP was Marcel D\u00e9at, who had the confidence of Laval. When he found out that Deloncle was plotting against him, he had him and his faction removed from the RNP. Deloncle also took many member of the RNP's paramilitary wing with him.\nIn October 1941, Deloncle plotted against seven Parisian synagogues with the help of a local SS officer, Hans Sommer, who provided the explosives for the attack.\nFurther splits in the MSR happened over the next year, as Deloncle became more occupied with the LVF. The other factions then coalesced around Jean Filliol, a former Cagoulard, and revolutionaries Georges Soul\u00e8s and Andr\u00e9 Mah\u00e9. A coup against the Deloncle faction was completed on May 14, 1942, which left Deloncle without a political future. He was killed two years later in a shootout with the Gestapo, which had suspected him of having obtained ties to the Allies.\nFor a time in 1942, leadership passed to Jean Fontenoy.Filiol began plotting against Laval, whose government interned him in October 1942. The remaining Soul\u00e8s faction of the MSR moved into an anti-German position but disappeared at the end of the war.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Moving Forward Act (H.R. 2) was a bill introduced in the 116th Congress. It was a $1.5 trillion infrastructure package that included money for roads, bridges, railways, school buildings, expansion of broadband internet access, and replacement of lead water pipes. The bill also promotes electric vehicles and incentivizes the development of renewable energy on public lands. Other provisions in the bill attempt to modernize the USPS, and create postal service vehicles that have zero emissions. The bill also expands certain bonds and tax credits.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A mu\u1e25\u0101fa\u1e93ah (Arabic: \u0645\u064f\u062d\u064e\u0627\u0641\u064e\u0638\u064e\u0629 [mu\u02c8\u0127a\u02d0fa\u00f0\u02e4a]; pl. \u0645\u064f\u062d\u064e\u0627\u0641\u064e\u0638\u064e\u0627\u062a mu\u1e25\u0101fa\u1e93\u0101t [mu\u0127afa\u02c8\u00f0\u02e4a\u02d0t]) is a first-level administrative division of many Arab countries, and a second-level administrative division in Saudi Arabia. The term is usually translated to \"governorate\", and occasionally to \"province\". It comes from the Arabic root \u062d-\u0641-\u0638 \u1e25-f-\u1e93 (verb: \u062d\u0641\u0638 \u1e25afa\u1e93a), which means to \"keep\" and \"guard\". The head of a mu\u1e25\u0101fa\u1e93ah is the (\u0645\u064f\u062d\u064e\u0627\u0641\u0650\u0638) mu\u1e25\u0101fi\u1e93 .", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Municipal council (Arabic: \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u0644\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0644\u062f\u064a Al-Majlis Al-Baladi) is the elected assembly of the Municipality in Jordan. The first municipal councils were established in Jordan in 1925, and were elected consistently till today.The latest amendment to the Municipalities law divided the Kingdom into 100 municipalities; 82 municipalities with 355 local councils, and 18 municipalities with none (due to their small size). Each local council consists of 5 members, including at least one woman. The highest voted for members of the local council is assigned a seat in the municipal council, whose number depends on what is assigned to each local council.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The National Board for Consumer Disputes (Swedish: Allm\u00e4nna reklamationsn\u00e4mnden, ARN) is a Swedish government agency that answers to the Ministry of Finance. The agency is headquartered in Stockholm.  Its main task is to issue non-binding recommendations on the resolution of disputes between consumers and business operators. A person can, free of charge, file complaints against a company. If the company does not follow the recommendation from ARN, the consumer has the possibility to take the matter to court.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Swedish National Board of Fisheries (Swedish: Fiskeriverket) was a Swedish government agency within the Ministry of Rural Affairs. It was located in Gothenburg and was the central government authority for fisheries in Sweden. It was established in 1948. It ceased to exist on 1 July 2011.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The National Board of Trade (Swedish: Kommerskollegium lit. \"College of Commerce\") is a government agency in Sweden that answers to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. The agency is located in Stockholm.\nThe National Board of Trade is dealing with foreign trade, the Internal Market and trade policy. The Board provides the Swedish government with analyses and recommendations. It was founded in 1651.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The National Council of Social Service (NCSS) is a statutory board under the Ministry of Social and Family Development of the Government of Singapore.\nThe organisation is the national coordinating body for Voluntary Welfare Organisations (VWOs) in Singapore.\nThe Social Service Institute and the Community Chest are part of the National Council of Social Service.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Swedish National Export Credits Guarantee Board (Swedish: Exportkreditn\u00e4mnden, EKN) is a Swedish government agency that answers to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. The agency is located in Stockholm.\nIts aim is to promote Swedish exports by issuing guarantees, functioning as insurances, by which the Government of Sweden assumes certain risks. The customers include export companies and banks.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The National Ground Water Association (NGWA), headquartered in Westerville, Ohio, is a membership-based nonprofit organization.\nFounded in 1948, the organization is composed of United States and international groundwater professionals in four membership divisions: water well contractors, scientists and engineers, manufacturers, and suppliers. The group, that includes hydrogeologists, promotes responsible water use.NGWA provides short courses, conferences, and webinars related to the science of groundwater and the groundwater industry to both its members and the general public. It publishes two peer-reviewed journals: Groundwater and  Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation, as well as a trade publication, Water Well Journal. The association also offers voluntary certification programs.\nNGWA also operates a separate nonprofit foundation, the National Ground Water Research and Educational Foundation.\nThe organization hosts Groundwater Week to bring together professionals from within the groundwater industry.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Inspectorate of Strategic Products (Swedish: Inspektionen f\u00f6r strategiska produkter) is a Swedish government agency that answers to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. The agency is located in Stockholm.\nThe agency controls the export of military equipment and dual-use products, ie products that may have both a civilian and a military use.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Swedish National Institute of Economic Research (Swedish: Konjunkturinstitutet, KI or NIER) is a government agency in Sweden responsible for economic analysis and forecasting. The NIER is publicly funded, although it does accept a small number of private commissions.  It employs over 60 people, primarily economists.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program (abbreviated as NOAA CSI), formerly the Climate Assessment and Services Division of CPO supports the NOAA Climate Service.The goals of the CSI program are: public relations regarding water resources in coastal zones, research and development for coastal regions, and inter-agency communication.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The National Property Board of Sweden (Swedish: Statens fastighetsverk, SFV) is a Swedish State administrative authority, organised under the Ministry of Finance.\nSFV is responsible for managing a portion of the real property assets owned by the State. The portfolio consists of more than 2,300 properties, or approximately 3,000 buildings; among them a number of castles, museums, theatres, historic fortifications, ministry buildings, embassies, county residences and parks.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "National Public Prosecutor's Office (Polish: Prokuratura Krajowa, sometimes also translated as State Prosecutor's Office) is the highest civil organizational unit in Poland's Prosecutor's offices. It's directed by National Public Prosecutor (Prokurator Krajowy). National Public Prosecutor is the second highest prosecutor office in Poland (after Public Prosecutor General).\nIn 2010 the National Public Prosecutor's Office was replaced by the General Public Prosecutor's Office (Prokuratura Generalna). The title \"Public Prosecutor General\", however, is still reserved for the one who supervises all other prosecutors (the difference is that he is now elected from independent candidates, and no longer a governmental minister).\nIn 2016, the National Public Prosecutor's Office was reinstated under the act of January 28, replacing the former General Public Prosecutor's Office. The office of the Public Prosecutor General is again combined with the office of the Polish Minister of Justice, while the National Public Prosecutor is the head of the National Public Prosecutor's Office and acts as the vice Public Prosecutor General.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The National Seal of Brazil is one of Brazil's national symbols, displayed on several official documents, such as graduation diplomas, consular and diplomatic papers, military conscription forms, etc. Most documents, however, feature the National Coat of Arms instead of the National Seal.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The National Team for Transportation Safety and Security was set up a few days after the disappearance of Adam Air Flight 574 on 1 January 2007, by President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, partially as a response to the high number of recent transportational accidents in Indonesia, and also as a direct response to the loss of the aircraft, along with other civil aviation accidents within Indonesia. The team is tasked to evaluate thoroughly the transport safety procedures and review the existing regulations on transportation in Indonesia. It does not, however, investigate accidents; the entity responsible for this is the National Transportation Safety Committee (Indonesian:Komite Nasional Keselamatan Transportasi), which operates under the direct auspicies of the Transportation Ministry.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Netherlands Agency for Aerospace Programmes (in Dutch language, Nederlands Instituut voor Vliegtuigontwikkeling en Ruimtevaart (NIVR)) was the official space exploration agency of the Dutch government until 2009.\nSince 1 July 2009, the space-exploration activities of the NIVR are merged into the newly formed Netherlands Space Office (NSO).\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Netherlands Space Office (NSO) is the space agency of the Netherlands.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "New diplomacy is international relations in which citizens play a greater role. Under the old diplomacy, global policymaking was more strictly the purview of governments. New diplomacy began to be observed in the 1990s amidst easing tensions in the wake of the Cold War and streamlined communication among activists in the burgeoning Internet age. New diplomacy is being used to address many issues such as human rights (e.g. the campaign to end South African apartheid and the Save Darfur campaign), humanitarian assistance, labor rights, environmental issues, and fair trade. Carne Ross, who resigned from the British Foreign Office following his country's participation in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, wrote about this phenomenon in his book, Independent Diplomat.In March 2008, the Acad\u00e9mie Diplomatique Internationale and the International Herald Tribune created the Forum for New Diplomacy featuring leading figures in politics, business and civil society in discussion with senior editors and columnists from the International Herald Tribune and The New York Times about emerging dynamics in global affairs. The Forum provides an ongoing opportunity for exploring \u201cnew diplomacy\u201d with a particular emphasis on innovative approaches to effecting change in international relations.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The New Energy to Reinvent and Diversify Fund or NERD fund was developed through State of Michigan Governor Rick Snyder's office in 2011.  Developed through a 501c4 organization, the purpose of the fund was to subsidize government expenses from unlimited anonymous corporate donations.  The fund gathered $1.3 million in 2011 and another $368,000 in 2012.  On October 21, 2013, it was announced that the NERD fund would close down.The NERD fund was used to support politically sensitive projects for the State of Michigan.  Mlive reports \"The fund has been used to upgrade an auditorium in the governor's offices, buy an alarm system for his house, pay travel expenses for his staff and cover living expenses for Detroit Emergency Manager Kevyn Orr\".  Richard Baird, who assisted with several sensitive projects at the request of Governor Snyder, was paid through the NERD fund; Baird will instead be appointed transformational manager for the Governor's office.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Northern Vietnam key economic region (Vietnamese: V\u00f9ng kinh t\u1ebf tr\u1ecdng \u0111i\u1ec3m B\u1eafc b\u1ed9) is one of the three key economic regions of Vietnam, encompassing the capital Hanoi which stands out as a political, cultural, economic, techno-scientific center driving the socio-economic development to neighboring provinces and municipalities.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Norwegian Industrial Property Office (Norwegian: Patentstyret or Patentstyrets f\u00f8rste avdeling), also known as Norwegian Patent Office (Norwegian: Patentstyret), is a government agency responsible for registration of patents, trademarks and design in Norway. The agency is subordinate to the Ministry of Trade and Industry and located in Oslo.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Office of Telecommunications (Oftel) (the telecommunications regulator) was a department in the United Kingdom government, under civil service control, charged with promoting competition and maintaining the interests of consumers in the UK telecommunications market. It was set up under the Telecommunications Act 1984 after privatisation of the nationalised operator BT.\nOftel was accused by critics such as Freeserve of having been \"captured\" by BT, and of giving the dominant operator too much freedom to leverage its monopoly status in fixed line telephony into other markets such as ADSL.On 29 December 2003, the duties of Oftel were inherited by Ofcom, which was the result of the consolidation of five separate British telecommunications, radio spectrum and broadcasting regulators.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Operation Kurukuru is an annual joint exercise of Pacific Islands Forum nations, intended to combat illegal fishing.  The first exercise took place in 2005.\nThe nations of the Pacific Forum run a Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA).  The FFA uses the resources of its member countries to run a Regional Fisheries Surveillance Centre (RFSC).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Operations Coordinating Board (OCB) was a committee of the United States Executive created in 1953 by President Eisenhower's Executive Order 10483 and tasked with oversight of United States covert operations. Eisenhower simultaneously gave secret instructions specifying additional functions for the new entity. The board, which reported to the National Security Council was responsible for integrating the implementation of  national security policies across several agencies. An important part of its mandate was to act as the president's coordinating committee for the most incendiary secret foreign policy actions, such as covert operations.The board's membership was to include the Under Secretary of State, who was to chair the board, the Deputy Secretary of Defense, the Director of the Foreign Operations Administration, the Director of Central Intelligence, and the President's Special Assistant for Psychological Warfare. Also authorized to attend were the President's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs and the Director of the United States Information Agency.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Pantarchy is a social theory proposed by Stephen Pearl Andrews in the 19th century. Andrews was considered the \"American rival of Comte,\" because of his work on an all-encompassing philosophy of universology, and his political proposals had similar scope, combining elements of the individualist anarchism of Josiah Warren, whose works Andrews had edited, with a strong belief in natural hierarchy.\nThe plan of this party proposes a NEW SPIRITUAL GOVERNMENT FOR THE WORLD, called THE PANTARCHY, which includes a NEW CHURCH and a NEW STATE, with, to use his own language, \" all other subordinate institutions, educational, informational, &c., which are universal in their scope and nature, and which can be devised and established as subservient to the collective wants of mankind.\"Andrews scheme of pantarchy was discussed in a series of \"Weekly Bulletins\" in the pages of Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly. The American Section 12 of the International Workingmen's Association adopted some of Andrews' proposals.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A park district is a form of local special-purpose district for providing public parks and recreation in or near its geographic boundaries.  Some park districts also own or maintain related cultural facilities such as monuments, zoos, sports venues, music venues, or museums.\nPark districts are prevalent in the United States.  State statutes often have a general law to provide for park districts' creation, dissolution, geographic borders, and annexation; the selection of governing boards, often referred to as park boards; and the criteria for levying property taxes on behalf of the district.  Park districts sometimes obtain additional revenue by charging admission fees for some venues and through donations or voluntary memberships in a similar way to not-for-profit organizations; in addition, sometimes a park district is assisted by a private not-for-profit organization set up specifically for the purpose of assisting the local public park system.\nPark district jurisdiction over public recreation is usually not exclusive; other local government bodies may also have their own parks.  Local government bodies besides park districts also own museums and public event venues such as arenas; in some places the main public museums are instead part of the local library district or a separate museum district.  State parks and national parks, and other related state and national areas, are controlled at the level of government that created them, rather than by any local park district.\nIllinois statute provides specifically for an administrative body known as the Chicago Park District, which is under the control of a \"chief executive officer\" appointed by the mayor of Chicago rather than a publicly elected park board as with other park districts in Illinois.In some states, such as Illinois, park districts are also authorized to have their own park police departments, independent of the other local police departments or state or national park police.In Ohio, the Ohio Revised Code section 1545 provides for general park districts, often known as \"metro parks\", in addition to \"township park districts\" allowed under ORC section 511.18.  Township park districts may be converted into \"metro parks\" by public election.  Section 1545 park districts are authorized to operate their own park police as well.  Park districts in Ohio are controlled by park commissioners appointed by a local judge, rather than by a publicly elected park board.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Passenger-carrying vehicles or PCVs are motor vehicles that are subject, in their respective jurisdictions, and/or under the respective insurance programs that define the term, to requirements beyond those typically applying to private passenger cars. Profit-making buses charging fares are those most certain to be included. Sometimes vans transporting people, or even taxis, are likewise categorized as PCVs.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Pax Praetoriana (or Pax Pretoriana) refers to the relative stability of modern South Africa and the (economically and politically) dominant foreign policy of the country towards the African continent and its encouragement of stable, accountable, democratic governments in other African states. The term Pax Nigeriana is sometimes used in relation to Nigeria's similar status. Both these terms derive from the expression Pax Romana \u2013 the Roman peace. The term Praetoriana also derives from Pretoria, the administrative capital city of South Africa.\nCritics of South African foreign policy (including political allies of the ANC such as the trade union organization COSATU), especially under former president Thabo Mbeki, point to domestic problems such as unemployment, crime and the scourge of AIDS that remain unresolved, and question the value of the ANC's policy of \"quiet diplomacy\" towards the Zimbabwean government during its current period of repressive rule.\nThe term has also been used to describe the dominant position of South Africa over its neighbors in the pre-1994 era, forcing agreements such as the Nkomati Accord between South Africa and Mozambique and a non-aggression treaty with Eswatini.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Pay to Stay was the name of a government policy in the United Kingdom whereby council tenants earning \u00a330,000 (\u00a340,000 in London) would have to pay \"market or near market rents\". The measure was due to come into effect in April 2017 with the Institute for Fiscal Studies estimating that the policy will impact upon 10% of social housing tenants. On 21 November 2016 the Housing Minister Gavin Barwell announced that the new plans for Pay to Stay would be dropped. Councils maintain the option of charging near market rates to those on incomes of \u00a360,000 or more.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Planning Authority (PA, Maltese: Awtorit\u00e0 tal-Ippjanar) is a government agency which is responsible for land use and planning in Malta.\nIt was established on 4 April 2016 from the demerger of the Malta Environment and Planning Authority, which also resulted in the creation of the Environment and Resources Authority.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Council of State of the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rada Pa\u0144stwa) was introduced by the Small Constitution of 1947 as an organ of executive power. The Council of State consisted of the President of the Republic of Poland as chairman, the Marshal and Vice-marshals of the Sejm, President of the Supreme Audit Office, and potential other members. The Council of State had the power to approve decrees issued by the Council of Ministers, exercise supreme control over the local national councils, approve promulgation of laws concerning the budget and military draft, declare a state of emergency and martial law, initiate legislation, and others.Under the 1952 Constitution of the Polish People's Republic, the office of the President of Poland was eliminated and the Council of State became a collective head of state organ. According to Article 29 of the constitution, the Council of State consisted of seventeen people: the chairman, four deputy chairmen, the secretary, and eleven other members. All were elected by the Sejm from its members during the parliament's first session after elections.  They were usually chosen from the deputies representing the Polish United Workers' Party, although occasionally other deputies were elected. In practice, the council (and the Polish state) was often represented by its chairman, who may have been referred to as the president of Poland by foreign representatives. The council ratified or renounced international agreements, appointed and recalled representatives of Poland to other states and to international organizations; it conferred orders and had the power of pardon. Some of its other constitutional functions were:\ncalling elections to the Sejm and convening its sessions,\nissuing decrees during periods between Sejm sessions (the decrees had to be later accepted by the Sejm),\ninitiating legislation,\ndetermining binding interpretations of Sejm statues.When the Sejm was not in session (in practice, for most of the year), the Council of State had the power to issue decrees that had the force of law. These decrees had to be approved by the Sejm at its next session. Due to the principles of democratic centralism, however, such approvals were usually a mere formality.\nThe Council of State institution was eliminated on 19 July 1989 by a constitutional amendment. Some of its functions were transferred to the reestablished office of the President of Poland.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Polish National Government of 1863\u201364 was an underground Polish supreme authority during the January Uprising, a large scale insurrection during the Russian partition of the former territories of the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth. It had a collegial form, resided in Warsaw and was headed by Karol Majewski. This was a normal administrative institution with many ministries and departments.During 1863\u20131864 it was a real shadow government supported by the majority of Poles who even paid taxes for it, and a significant problem for the Russian secret police (Third Section). \"It organized one of the world's earliest campaigns of urban guerrilla warfare\", according to Norman Davies. It became the prototype for the Polish Secret State during World War II.It was designed to be able to unite Poland in a national struggle, and claimed all of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lands.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In political science, political efficacy is the citizens' trust in their ability to change the government and belief that they can understand and influence political affairs. It is commonly measured by surveys and is used as an indicator for the broader health of civil society.\nThere are multiple ways in which citizens' political efficacy can be expressed: through the media, by having the right to protest, by being able to create petitions, and by having free and fair elections. The lack thereof results typically in violence and is a side effect of having low political efficacy, and therefore the feeling that a citizen is powerless in their own country.\nFeelings of efficacy are highly correlated with participation in social and political life; however, studies have not shown any relationship between public confidence in government or political leaders and voting. Political efficacy was found to polarize policy preferences. People with relatively high efficacy were found to express policy preferences that are more in line with their ideological orientation and more extreme; and people with low efficacy tend to express more moderate policy preferences. These results were in both experimental and observational studies. Efficacy usually increases with age.\nThere are two types of political efficacy: internal efficacy (the belief that one can understand politics and therefore participate in politics) and external efficacy (that the government will respond to one's demands).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A presidential sash is a cloth sash worn by presidents of many nations in the world. Such sashes are worn by presidents in Africa, Asia, Europe and, most notably, in Latin America.\nThe sash is an important symbol of the continuity of the presidency, and is only worn by the president. Its value as a symbol of the office of the head of state can be compared to that of a crown in monarchies. When the president leaves office, he or she formally presents the sash to his or her successor as part of the official inauguration ceremony.\nPresidential sashes are usually very colorful and very large and designed to resemble the nation's flag, especially those of Latin American presidents. They are usually worn over the right shoulder to the left side of the hip. The national coat of arms is also usually placed on the sash. A national order's star or chain of office can also be worn.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Prime Minister of Cuba (Spanish: Primer Ministro de Cuba), officially known as the President of the Council of Ministers (Spanish: Presidente del Consejo de Ministros de Cuba) between 1976 and 2019, is the head of government of Cuba and the chairman of the Council of Ministers (cabinet). The Prime Minister is the third-highest office in Cuba, after the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba and the President of Cuba, and the second-highest state office.\nThe office of Prime Minister was first instituted in 1940 in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution of Cuba as amended in that year. The first Prime Minister of Cuba was Carlos Saladrigas Zayas (1900\u20131957), the nephew of former President Alfredo Zayas. The prime minister was also sometimes referred to as \"Premier\". Between 1940 and 1959, Cuba saw fifteen changes of prime minister; F\u00e9lix Lanc\u00eds S\u00e1nchez exercised the role twice (1944\u20131945 and 1950\u20131951) while Fulgencio Batista held the position concurrently with that of President of Cuba for one month (April 1952) following a military coup. Fidel Castro became prime minister in 1959, replacing Jos\u00e9 Mir\u00f3 Cardona.On 2 December 1976 a new national constitution, restructuring the government, came into force. Under that constitution, the Prime Minister's post was effectively merged with that of the President, who served as chairman of both the Council of State and the Council of Ministers of Cuba.\nThe 1976 constitution created a governmental structure that partly copied that of the Soviet Union. However, unlike in the Soviet Union, where the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet and the Council of Ministers were distinct posts, the Cuban Council of State and Council of Ministers were chaired by the same person. Furthermore, unlike English and Russian, Spanish does not distinguish between the terms \"chairman/\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\" and \"president/\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442\", translating both as \"presidente\".\nOn 24 February 2019, another constitution \u2013 Cuba's current \u2013 was adopted in a referendum. Under it, the government was again re-organized, and the separate posts of President and Prime Minister were restored. Manuel Marrero was named prime minister for a 5-year term by President Miguel D\u00edaz-Canel on 21 December 2019, under the new constitutional provisions, and was approved unanimously by the National Assembly to serve the same day.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic.The president is head of state and the prime minister head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of the Republic. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The prime minister must control a majority of parliament in order to govern.\nThere have been ten prime ministers of Northern Cyprus since 1983. The premiership's precursor was a post known as the \"president of the Turkish Cypriot Communal Chamber\". The only man to occupy this post was Rauf Denkta\u015f from 29 December 1969 to 5 July 1976. There were three prime ministers before the Turkish Cypriot community's unilateral declaration of independence in 1983.\nThe incumbent prime minister, \u00dcnal \u00dcstel, took the oath on 12 May 2022.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Prime Minister of Adygea is the most senior official within the State Assembly of the Republic of Adygea, Russia. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, twelve people have served as Prime Ministers.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Principle of consent is a term used in the context of the Northern Ireland peace process and is one of the key points of the Good Friday Agreement. The principle asserts both the legitimacy of the aspiration to a United Ireland and the legitimacy of the wish of the majority of the people of Northern Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom. The doctrine also underlines the right of self-determination for the people of both jurisdictions in Ireland, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, without external interference, and only with the consensus of a majority of people in both polities.The principle of consent is now accepted by all elected parties in Ireland. It is opposed by Republican Sinn F\u00e9in, the Irish Republican Socialist Party, \u00c9ir\u00edg\u00ed and many non-aligned Irish republicans. \nArticle 1 (ii) of the Good Friday Agreement says that the participants\n\nrecognise that it is for the people of the island of Ireland alone, by agreement between the two parts respectively and without external impediment, to exercise their right of self-determination on the basis of consent, freely and concurrently given, North and South, to bring about a united Ireland, if that is their wish, accepting that this right must be achieved and exercised with and subject to the agreement and consent of a majority of the people of Northern Ireland.\"\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Procedural democracy or proceduralist democracy or proceduralism is a term used to denote the particular procedures, such as regular elections based on universal suffrage, that produce an electorally-legitimated government. Procedural democracy, with its centering of electoral processes as the basis of democratic legitimacy, is often contrasted with substantive or participatory democracy, which centers the equal participation of all groups in society in the political process as the basis of legitimacy.The term is often used to denote an artificial appearance of democracy through the existence of democratic procedures like elections when in reality power is held by a small group of elites who manipulate democratic processes to make themselves appear democratically legitimate.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A production team (simplified Chinese: \u751f\u4ea7\u961f; traditional Chinese: \u751f\u7523\u968a; pinyin: sh\u0113ng ch\u01cen du\u00ec) was formerly the basic accounting and farm production unit in the people's commune system in People's Republic of China from 1958 to 1984.\nProduction teams were largely disbanded during the agricultural reforms of 1982\u20131985. In the administrative hierarchy, the team was the lowest level, the next higher levels being the production brigade and people's commune. Typically the team owned most of the land and was responsible for income distribution. Since 1984 production teams have been replaced by  village groups.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Provisional Council of State (Polish: tymczasowa Rada Stanu; German: Provisorische Staatsrat im Koenigreich Polen) was the first government of the Kingdom of Poland, a new state created by the military authorities of Germany and Austria on some Polish lands during the First World War.\nThe Provisional Council was officially created on the basis of Act of November 5th (of 1916), and started meetings on 14 January 1917. The Council had 25 members; 10 from Austrian lands and 15 from German lands. Its president was Wac\u0142aw Niemojowski, and its vice president was J\u00f3zef Miku\u0142owski-Pomorski. J\u00f3zef Pi\u0142sudski held authority over military matters.\nThe Council demanded more autonomy from the occupying governments, including in education. After attempts by Austria and Germany to ensure that the Council would be but a puppet body, Pi\u0142sudski resigned from it, which led to the oath crisis in the Polish legions in July. In its aftermath, the entire Council disbanded on 25 August 1917.\nIt was followed by the Temporary Committee of the Provisional Council of State (Komisja Przej\u015bciowa Tymczasowej Rady Stanu) and then by the Regency Council.\nMembers of the Council were J\u00f3zef Brudzi\u0144ski, Stanis\u0142aw Bukowiecki, Stanis\u0142aw Dzierzbicki, Ludwik G\u00f3rski, J\u00f3zef Higersberger, Marian Januszajtis-\u017begota, Kazimierz Natanson, J\u00f3zef Pi\u0142sudski, Franciszek Pius Radziwi\u0142\u0142, Wojciech Rostworowski, Eustachy Sapieha, Stanis\u0142aw Chaniewski, Stanis\u0142aw Staniszewski, W\u0142adys\u0142aw Studnicki, and Artur \u015aliwi\u0144ski.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A public employment service is a government's organization which matches employers to employees.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Public expenditure tracking system (PETS) is a system that presents financial information that enables stakeholders to track the source of money and where it is being dispensed. PETS also allows the service users to reconcile incoming funds with expenditures. It is sometimes referred to as \"following the money\". PETS are increasingly used at district level in countries like Uganda and Tanzania to make budget flows transparent from local government to service delivery agents.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A redevelopment agency is a government body dedicated to urban renewal. Typically it is a municipal level city department focused on a particular district or corridor that has become neglected or blighted (a community redevelopment agency or CRA). In many cases this is the city's original downtown that has been supplanted in importance by a regional shopping center.  Redevelopment efforts often focus on reducing crime, destroying unsuitable buildings and dwellings, restoring historic features and structures, and creating new landscaping, housing and business opportunities mixed with expanded government services and transportation infrastructure.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Regional Courts of Eritrea are an intermediate system of courts of appeal in Eritrea. It has both original and appellate jurisdiction.\nIndividual cases are heard by an individual judge. Defense councils are permitted, to present cases but are typically appointed by the court, because defendants are rarely able to meet the cost of private representation.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A Register of Interests is a record kept, usually by a government body, of financial interests of its members. The register documents interests which may potentially unethically or unlawfully influence members' official duties.\nThe term is in use in most Commonwealth countries.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Regulatory colleges are legal entities in Canada charged with serving the public interest by regulating the practice of a profession. They function as professional associations that are state-sanctioned to regulate the practice of their professions within Canada. \nMost regulatory colleges are established by an acts of parliament instead of through articles of association, and usually do not require registration on order to acquire juridical personality. They are legislated as requirements to work in a given field. For example, no worker in Ontario may work in a compulsory trade without membership in the Ontario College of Trades.The specific individual Regulatory Colleges are granted specific powers and responsibilities by acts of parliament. They are charged with protecting the public by investigating incidents of misconduct by member, and expelling or charging members who engage in misconduct.Misconduct may involve willful malicious acts, but may also include not working to the standard of competence set by the college, or not following an established code of ethics, or infringing upon one of the bylaws maintained by the college.In addition to investigating misconduct, they have a duty to maintain a public register of members.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Regulatory reform concerns improvements to the quality of government regulation.\nAt the international level, the \"OECD Regulatory Reform Programme is aimed at helping governments improve regulatory quality - that is, reforming regulations that raise unnecessary obstacles to competition, innovation and growth, while ensuring that regulations efficiently serve important social objectives\".", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A republican empire is a form of government in which a country governed as a republic transitions into an empire. Examples of this process include the First French Republic, which became the First French Empire, as well as the Dutch Republic, which formed a Dutch Empire by seizing territory from Spain. The distinction between a republican empire and a more traditional monarchy is that the people are assumed to be the source of government power. In France, for example, voters were asked in an 1804 referendum whether they supported the creation of an empire.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Safe conduct, safe passage, or letters of transit, is the situation in time of international conflict or war where one state, a party to such conflict, issues to a person (usually an enemy state's subject) a pass or document to allow the enemy alien to traverse its territory without harassment, bodily harm, or fear of death. Safe conduct is only granted in exceptional circumstances. It may be given to an enemy to allow retreat under surrender terms, or for a meeting to negotiate; to a stateless person; or to somebody who for some reason would normally not be able to pass. A vanquished enemy can also be given, or offered quarter, i.e. be spared, be promised or guaranteed mercy.\nThe term 'safe conduct' is also used to mean the document authorizing this security.\nIn Islamic law, safe conduct or pledge of safety (am\u0101n) can be granted to foreigners or dhimmi residents (musta'min) while they travel or reside in Islamic-ruled lands.\nIn the early Middle Ages, during some periods of Islamic control of the Holy Land, Christian pilgrims could request letters of safe conduct from a Muslim ruler allowing them to pass through their lands to Jerusalem. An example of safe conduct in the 13th century was William Wallace's possession of letters of safe conduct, which was granted to him and his rebellion army by a few individual parties, during his war against the Kingdom of England. Another example of safe conduct in the 20th century was Lenin's \"sealed train\": a citizen of Russia, a country at war with Germany, Lenin was permitted to travel from his exile in Switzerland through Germany, without stopping, to return to Russia. It was in Germany's interest to allow this, for it was hoped that he would destabilize Russia. Another example would be the Chieu Hoi program during the Vietnam War.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The San Francisco Ethics Commission is a public agency tasked with maintaining city bylaws [clarification needed, there is no \"city\" bylaws, each Board or Commission or policy body has its own bylaws] in San Francisco, California. The commission specifically files and audits campaign finance disclosure statements, handles campaign consultant registration and regulation. They also handle lobbyist registration and regulation along with the filing of officer for statements of economic interest and the administration of the Whistleblower program. Lastly, they mitigate investigations of ethics complaints, enforce education and training and provide advice and statistical reporting.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Second Circuit Court of the Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China (\u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u6700\u9ad8\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u9662\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5de1\u56de\u6cd5\u5ead), is a circuit court created in December 2014 and opened on January 31, 2015, in Shenyang, China. It is one of the six circuit courts established by the Supreme People's Court. It has jurisdiction in the provinces of Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang.Differing from a circuit court in a common law jurisdiction, the Second Circuit is part of a pilot program to establish circuit courts of the Supreme People's Court outside Beijing, the seat of the national government, with the same level of jurisdiction of the supreme court, i.e. cases decided by the circuit courts are deemed finally decided by the supreme court itself. The pilot program is carried out in an effort to avoid local influences.The court decided its first case on March 10, 2015, ruling in favor of Lishan branch of Agricultural Bank of China in an economic dispute between the branch and Anshan City's power authority. The Court's chief judge is Junior Justice Hu Yunteng.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "After Hugo Egmont H\u00f8rring's resignation as Council President, Hannibal Sehested of the conservative party H\u00f8jre became the leader of the new cabinet, which replaced the Cabinet of H\u00f8rring. It consisted entirely of members of the party H\u00f8jre, was formed on 27 April 1900 and was called the Cabinet of Sehested. \nThe cabinet was replaced by the Cabinet of Deuntzer on 24 July 1901.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Senators by right (Dutch: senator van rechtswege, French: s\u00e9nateur de droit, German: Senator von Rechts wegen) were non-elected members of the Belgian Senate.\nIf the ruling monarch of Belgium had any children, all of them who were older than eighteen years could opt to sit in senate, as senators by right; if the current monarch had no offspring, the descendants of the branch of the royal house called on to reign were senators by right instead.Theoretically, senators by right were entitled to vote in the Senate once they reached the age of 21. However, by constitutional convention they did not use this right. Their presence was also disregarded when calculating the quorum; to reach the quorum, 36 of the 71 elected senators had to be present. Until 2013, Prince Philippe, Princess Astrid and Prince Laurent were senators by right. When Prince Philippe became King, there were no senators by right.\nAs part of the sixth Belgian state reform, the function of senators by right was abolished effective as of the May 2014 elections.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Social union is the integration of social policy among several nations or states.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Southern Mongolian Democratic Alliance (Chinese: \u5357\u8499\u53e4\u6c11\u4e3b\u8054\u76df) was created in May 1992, by Hada and other Mongol activists including Tegexi. Its major goal is the self-determination of Inner Mongolia (an autonomous region of China).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In a legislature, a special session (also extraordinary session) is a period when the body convenes outside of the normal legislative session. This most frequently occurs in order to complete unfinished tasks for the year (often delayed by conflict between political parties), such as outlining the government's budget for the next fiscal year, biennium, or other period.  Special sessions may also be called during an economic downturn in order to cut the budget. In other cases, a special session may be convened to address special topics, or emergencies such as war or natural disaster.\nWho calls a special session varies - by vote of the legislature during regular session, by the executive, or by the legislature's speaker or presiding officer.  The United Nations has both special sessions and emergency special sessions.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Standing Bureau of the Chamber of Deputies (Romanian: Biroul Permanent al Camerei Deputa\u0163ilor) consists of the President of the Chamber of Deputies, four vice-presidents, four secretaries, and four quaestors. The President of the Standing Bureau also serves as the President of the Chamber of Deputies. The President is elected, by secret ballot, for the duration of the legislative period. All the other members are elected at the beginning of each parliamentary session.The functions are distributed through the political groups respecting the proportions of the political composition of the Chamber.\nAt the moment both Chambers of Parliament are constituted (the seats are validated, the Standing Bureau is elected, the political groups elect their Bureaus). Until the procedures are completed, the session is conducted by the eldest Deputy (as President), aided by the two youngest Deputies (as Secretaries).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Standing Bureau of the Senate consists of the President of the Senate, four vice-presidents, four secretaries, and four quaestors. The President of the Standing Bureau also serves as the President of the Senate. The President is elected, by secret ballot, for the duration of the legislative period. All the other members are elected at the beginning of each parliamentary session.The functions are distributed through the political groups respecting the proportions of the political composition of the Senate.\nAt the moment both Chambers of Parliament are constituted (the seats are validated, the Standing Bureau is elected, the political groups elect their Bureaus). Until the procedures are completed, the session is conducted by the eldest Senator (as President), aided by the two youngest Senators (as Secretaries).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A standing rule is a rule that relates to the details of the administration of a society and which can be adopted or changed the same way as any other act of the deliberative assembly.  Standing rules can be suspended by a majority vote for the duration of the session, but not for longer. Examples of standing rules include wearing name badges, signing a guest register, or using recording devices.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "State-centered theory (or state-centred federalism) is a political theory which stresses the role of the government on civil society. It holds that the state itself can structure political life to some degree, but doesn't facilitate the way power is distributed between classes and other groups at a given time.\nTheory holding that the national government represents a voluntary compact or agreement between the states, which retain a dominant position. Supporters of state-centered federalism included Thomas Jefferson and the Republican Party. They saw the Constitution as an agreement among the states of which gave them the ability to self-governance.\nNational policy makers interact with economy independently, with intention of raising social welfare. This gives legitimacy to market intervention.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The State Forestry Corps (Italian: Corpo forestale dello Stato or CFS) was a national police agency in Italy. It was established on 15 October 1822 by Charles Felix of Sardinia as Amministrazione forestale per la custodia e la vigilanza dei boschi. The five Italian autonomous regions have their own corps of forestry police under regional or provincial control (Corpo forestale regionale/provinciale), which have not been disbanded.\nCFS was dissolved on December 31, 2016 and all personnel become militarized and absorbed  by the Carabinieri's Comando unit\u00e0 per la tutela forestale, ambientale e agroalimentare.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The State Intellectual Property Office of the Republic of Croatia (SIPO Croatia; Croatian: Dr\u017eavni zavod za intelektualno vlasni\u0161tvo) is a government agency responsible for registration of patents, trademarks and design in Croatia. It was established in 1991, originally under the name \"Republic Industrial Property Office\" and then \"State Patent Office\". Since 1996, its name is \"State Intellectual Property Office.\"", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A state paper is a document or file kept by a government to record discussions, options and decisions by government officials, departments and civil servants. Some states follow a thirty year rule whereby state papers on an issue may be released to academic scrutiny thirty years after an original discussion or decision.State papers are often kept in a country's National Archives, State Paper Office or Public Record Office. All files are numbered using an alphanumeric code which academics may use as a reference in footnotes of books.\nSome state papers are embargoed for reasons of national security or other sensitive reasons.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Turkmendenizderyayollary Agency (Turkmen: \u00abT\u00fcrkmende\u0148izder\u00fda\u00fdollary\u00bb agentligi/\u00ab\u0422\u04af\u0440\u043a\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0435\u04a3\u0438\u0437\u0434\u0435\u0440\u044f\u0451\u043b\u043b\u0430\u0440\u044b\u00bb \u0430\u0433\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043b\u0438\u0433\u0438) is a state agency in Turkmenistan that owns several state companies. It is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Industry and Communication of Turkmenistan. The main office is located in the city of Turkmenbashi. It is entrusted to manage state property, maintain transport security-related tasks and provide services in the field of maritime and inland waterway transport.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Statistics Estonia (Estonian: Statistikaamet) is the Estonian government agency responsible for producing official statistics regarding Estonia.  It is part of the Ministry of Finance.\nThe agency has approximately 320 employees. The office of the agency is in Tatari, Tallinn.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Statue Junction is a central location in Thiruvananthapuram, India. The Secretariat of the Indian state of Kerala is located at Statue Junction, which was where the old legislative assembly of the region used to take place. The Secretariat now holds offices for most of the Government officials.Print Arts located at statue. One of the best Printing and designing shop in Trivandrum", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "STONEGHOST or \"Stone Ghost\", is a codename for a network operated by the United States' Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) for information sharing and exchange between the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. Some sources say that New Zealand is also participating, and that Stone Ghost therefore connects, and is maintained by the defense intelligence agencies of all Five Eyes countries.Stone Ghost does not carry Intelink-Top Secret information. In the past, it was known as Intelink-C and may also be referred to as \"Q-Lat\" or \"Quad link\". It is a highly secured network with strict physical and digital security requirements. The network hosts information about military topics, and about SIGINT, foreign intelligence and national security.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A subdistrict (Chinese: \u8857\u9053 / \u8857; pinyin: ji\u0113d\u00e0o / ji\u0113; lit. 'streets and avenues / streets')' is one of the smaller administrative divisions of China. It is a form of township-level division which is typically part of a larger urban area, as opposed to a discrete town (zh\u00e8n, \u9547) surrounded by rural areas, or a rural township (xi\u0101ng, \u4e61).\nIn general, urban areas are divided into subdistricts and a subdistrict is sub-divided into several residential communities or neighbourhoods as well as into villagers' groups (\u5c45\u6c11\u533a/\u5c45\u4f4f\u533a, \u5c0f\u533a/\u793e\u533a, \u6751\u6c11\u5c0f\u7ec4).\nThe subdistrict's administrative agency is the subdistrict office (Chinese: \u8857\u9053\u529e\u4e8b\u5904; pinyin: j\u012bed\u00e0o b\u00e0nsh\u00ecch\u00f9) or simply the jiedao ban (\u8857\u9053\u529e, ji\u0113d\u00e0o b\u00e0n). Because of the influence of the literal meaning of the Chinese word for 'subdistrict' (street [\u8857\u9053, jiedao]), the term is prone to alternative translations like 'street community'.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Substantive democracy is a form of democracy in which the outcome of elections is representative of the people. In other words, substantive democracy is a form of democracy that functions in the interest of the governed. Although a country may allow all citizens of age to vote, this characteristic does not necessarily qualify it as a substantive democracy.\nIn a substantive democracy, the general population plays a real role in carrying out its political affairs, i.e., the state is not merely set up as a democracy but it functions as one as well. This type of democracy can also be referred to as a functional democracy. There is no good example of an objectively substantive democracy.The opposite of a substantive democracy is a procedural democracy, which is where the relevant forms of democracy exist but are not actually managed democratically.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Supreme Court of the Irish Free State was the state's court of final appeal. It was created in Article 64 of the Irish Free State Constitution. It was presided over by a Chief Justice. The number of judges on the court was laid down in the Courts of Justice Act 1924.Though the Irish Free State and its constitution were abolished with the commencement of a new constitution, the Constitution of Ireland on 29 December 1937, the Free State Supreme Court continued in existence as the provisional supreme court of the new state until 1961 when the new Supreme Court of Ireland, which had been created in 1937, was formally brought into being.\nThe Supreme Court of the Irish Free State met in two locations during its existence. Until 1931, while its headquarters, which had been destroyed during the Irish Civil War was being rebuilt, it met in St. Patrick's Hall in Dublin Castle. From 1931 onwards it met in the Four Courts in Dublin.\nUntil 1933, there was a right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Supreme Electoral Council (Spanish: Consejo Supremo Electoral, CSE) is the public body responsible for organizing elections in Nicaragua. \nRoberto Rivas Reyes has been president of the CSE since July 2000, though as of January 2018, vice-president Lumberto Campbell functioned as acting head of the organization. Campbell was named to the Council by the National Assembly in 2014.Previous presidents of the CSE include Mariano Fiallos Oyanguren (1984 to 1996)  and Rosa Marina Zelaya (beginning in the 1990s).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Supreme National Committee (Naczelny Komitet Narodowy, NKN) was a quasi-government for the Poles in Galicia, Austro-Hungarian Empire, from 1914 to 1917.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Supreme National Council (Polish: Rada Najwy\u017csza Narodowa) was the central civil government of Poland loyal to the Ko\u015bciuszko Insurrection. Created by Ko\u015bciuszko on 10 May 1794 in Po\u0142aniec camp, it had 8 councillors and 32 deputies.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Swedish Board of Student Finance (Swedish: Centrala studiest\u00f6dsn\u00e4mnden, CSN), is a Swedish government agency under the Ministry of Education and Research. It is in charge of administration of all matters regarding student aid in Sweden. Its seat is located in Sundsvall and its Director-General is Christina Forsberg.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Swedish Inheritance Fund (Swedish: Allm\u00e4nna arvsfonden) is a Swedish State fund, established in 1928 when the Riksdag decided to abolish the right of inheritance for cousins and more distant relatives. When a person in Sweden dies without a written will and no living spouse or close family, their property is transferred to the fund; the fund also receives money from gifts and wills. The purpose of the fund is to support non-profit organizations and other voluntary associations to help improve conditions for children, young people and the disabled. The fund is administered by the Swedish Legal, Financial and Administrative Services Agency. Applications for grants from the fund, however, are reviewed and decided by the Swedish Inheritance Fund Commission, an agency that answers to the Ministry for Health and Social Affairs.\nThe Swedish Interitance Fund receives properties from around 600 individuals each year. One of its largest additions was reported in January 2007, when the fund received 68 million kronor from the estate of 86-year-old man in a village outside Ume\u00e5 in northern Sweden, much to the surprise of his neighbours.\nThe only other country with a state-governed inheritance fund is Iceland.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Swedish Institute (Swedish: Svenska institutet, SI) is a  government agency in Sweden with the responsibility to spread information about Sweden outside the country. It exists to promote Swedish interests, and to organise exchanges with other countries in different areas of public life, in particular in the spheres of culture, education, and research.The main office of the Swedish Institute is in Gamla stan in central Stockholm.  There is also a branch abroad; the Swedish Cultural Centre in Paris (French: Centre Culturel Su\u00e9dois).  The agency has approximately 90 members of staff and its board is appointed by the Government of Sweden.\nIn early 2007 the Swedish Institute stated it was planning to set up an \"embassy\", the \"House of Sweden\", in Second Life, an Internet-based virtual world. This virtual office is not intended to provide passports or visas, but serve as a point of information about Sweden.Other Swedish embassies in foreign countries are under the direct authority and control of the Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Swedish Intellectual Property Office, formerly the Swedish Patent and Registration Office (Swedish: Patent- och registreringsverket or PRV), is a Swedish government agency based in Stockholm and S\u00f6derhamn in charge of patents, trademarks and industrial designs. The Office acts as Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) authority, i.e. International Searching Authority (ISA) and International Preliminary Examining Authority (IPEA). Peter Str\u00f6mb\u00e4ck is the current Director General of the Office.Its two-letter code is SE.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Swedish National Food Agency (Swedish: Livsmedelsverket) is a Swedish government agency that answers to the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Affairs. The agency is located in Uppsala.\nIt is the central supervisory authority for matters relating to food and drinking water. It has the task of protecting consumer interest by working for safe food of good quality, fair practices in the food trade, and healthy eating habits.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Swedish Net University Agency (Myndigheten f\u00f6r Sveriges N\u00e4tuniversitet) is a Swedish government agency coordinating IT supported higher education distance learning courses, offered by 35 different universities and university colleges in Sweden, in a project called the Swedish Net University.\nThe Swedish Net University Agency is not a university in itself, and thus does not offer distance courses or programmes of its own. The agency simply offers a database of courses and programmes available. Most of the courses are taught in Swedish, but there are also courses available in English. Like all publicly funded higher education in Sweden, there is no tuition fee.\nThe agency also supports the development of distance learning courses, and promotes the exchange of experiences in the field.\nThe office of the Swedish Net University Agency is located in H\u00e4rn\u00f6sand in northern Sweden.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property (French: Institut f\u00e9d\u00e9ral de la propri\u00e9t\u00e9 intellectuelle, IPI; German: Eidgen\u00f6ssisches Institut f\u00fcr Geistiges Eigentum, IGE; Italian: Istituto federale della propriet\u00e0 intellettuale), based in Bern, is an agency of the federal administration of Switzerland responsible for patents, trademarks, geographical indications, industrial designs and copyright.\nIt is part of the Federal Department of Justice and Police. Since 1996, it operates as an autonomous agency with control of its own budget.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Kobebe Taitai is an I-Kiribati politician, Minister for Health and Medical Services, from 2016 to 2018, then Ministry of Internal Affairs, from 2018 to 2020. He was elected for Tabiteuea North at the 2016 Kiribati general elections. He is a member of Boutokaan te Koaua.Hon. Taitai studied engineering in Brisbane. He is licensed aircraft maintenance engineer and was Chief Engineer for Air Kiribati Ltd for six years.\nHe losts his seat at 2020 Kiribati parliamentary election.\nHon. Taitai was elected Vice-President of the Kiribati National Olympic Committee in March 2015. He represents the sport of Powerlifting.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Tekeeua Tarati (born 12 April 1971 in Tamana) is an I-Kiribati politician and entrepreneur, Minister for Information, Communications, Transport and Tourism development since July 2020.Managing Director of Triple Tee Enterprises (TTT), between 2006 and 2018 he served the Kiribati Chamber of Commerce & Industry (KCCI) as Secretary, Vice-President and President (2012-2016), for maximum terms.\nWhen Matiota Kairo, the MP of Tamana, resigned in November 2018 for medical reasons, Tarati run for by-election and was elected in March 2019 at the Maneaba ni Maungatabu. He joined then the ruling party, Tobwaan Kiribati Party (TKP). In the following general election, in April 2020, he was re-elected with more than 86% of votes. He was then nominated as chairman of TKP until the presidential election of 22 June 2020.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Roy Arthur Taylor (January 31, 1910 \u2013 November 28, 1995) was a U.S. Representative from North Carolina.\nBorn in Vader, Washington, Taylor graduated from Asheville-Biltmore College, Asheville, North Carolina, 1929.\nHe graduated from Maryville College, Maryville, Tennessee, 1931.\nJ.D., Asheville University Law School, Asheville, North Carolina, 1936.\nHe was a lawyer in private practice.\nHe was in the United States Navy from 1943 to 1946.\nHe served as member of the North Carolina general assembly from 1947 to 1949 and 1951 to 1953.\nTaylor was elected as a Democrat to the Eighty-sixth Congress, by special election, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of United States Representative David M. Hall.  He was reelected to eight succeeding Congresses and served from June 25, 1960 to January 3, 1977.\nHe was not a candidate for reelection to the Ninety-fifth Congress in 1976.\nIn 1986, he received an honorary Doctor of Law from the University of North Carolina at AshevilleHe died on November 28, 1995 in Black Mountain, North Carolina, and was interred in Mountain View Memorial Gardens in the same town.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Roniti Teiwaki is an I-Kiribati politician.\nAfter the 1974 general election, he became member of the Cabinet of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands of Naboua Ratieta as Minister of Education, Training and Culture, then confirmed from March 1978 as Minister for Natural Resource Development in Ieremia Tabai\u2019s cabinet of the Gilbert Islands, after being candidate to 1978 Gilbertese Chief Minister election. He temporarily retired from politics in 1982 for working at the University of South Pacific. He was the opposition candidate to Teatao Teannaki, his brother-in-law, for 1991 Kiribati presidential election.\nHe was also an unsuccessful candidate at the 1994 Kiribati presidential election.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Temenggong or Tumenggung (Jawi: \u062a\u0645\u06a0\u0762\u0648\u06a0; Temenggung, Hanacaraka: \ua9a0\ua9b8\ua9a9\ua9bc\ua981\u200b\ua992\ua9b8\ua981\u200b; Tumenggung) is an old Malay and Javanese title of nobility, usually given to the chief of public security.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Tennessee Justice Center (TJC) is a non-profit public policy advocacy organization and law firm based in Nashville, Tennessee. It was established in 1996 to represent approximately 1.3 million Tennessee low-income families by helping shape public policy and through class action lawsuits. In 1996,  the United States Congress had ordered that federally funded legal services programs no longer pursue class actions.  Since its formation, the Tennessee Justice Center has helped thousands of poor families secure needed health care, assistance, and food aid.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Terror alert systems are standardised emergency population warning systems for describing and disseminating information about terrorism-related threats. They became more popular after the September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Texas Department of Rural Affairs (TDRA) was a state agency of Texas. Its headquarters were in Suite 220 in the Stephen F. Austin State Office Building in Austin. The department began as the Office of Community Rule Affairs (ORCA) in 2001 to assist rural communities, and was renamed in 2009.In 2011, the agency was closed and absorbed by the Texas Department of Agriculture.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Thailand Board of Investment (BOI) or The Office of the Board of Investment is an agency of the Government of Thailand.  Its mission is to promote foreign investment in Thailand by providing information, services, and incentives to interested foreign investors. The office operates under the aegis of the Prime Minister's Office. The BOI operates 14 offices in major world cities as well as regional offices throughout Thailand.According to the Bank of Thailand (BOT) foreign direct investment (FDI) in Thailand in the first half of 2016 fell by more than 90 percent in value to US$347 million. The BOT said FDI declined from US$4.2 billion in the same period in 2015 to its lowest value since 2005.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) is an agency of the government of Thailand which supports research in science and technology and its application in the Thai economy.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Three Ducal Ministers (Chinese: \u4e09\u516c; pinyin: S\u0101ng\u014dng), also translated as the Three Dukes, Three Excellencies, or the Three Lords, was the collective name for the three highest officials in Ancient China and Imperial China. These posts were abolished by Cao Cao in 208 AD and replaced with the position of Grand Chancellor.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Three Lords and Nine Ministers system (Chinese: \u4e09\u516c\u4e5d\u537f) was a central administrative system adopted in ancient China that was officially instituted in the Qin dynasty (221 BC \u2013 206 BC) and was replaced by the Three Departments and Six Ministries  (Chinese: \u4e09\u7701\u516d\u90e8) system since the Sui dynasty (AD 589\u2013618).", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Willie Tokataake  (born in Abemama) is an I-Kiribati politician, former Minister for Information, Communications, Transport and Tourism development until July 2020.Willie Tokataake (Abemama) was Minister of Education, Science and Technology in the first Teburoro Tito\u2019s cabinet from 1994 to 1998.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Minister of Tourism is the head of the governmental department that specializes in tourism, recreation and/or culture.\nThe position exists in many different countries under several names:\n\nMinistry of Tourism and Environment (Albania)\nMinistry of Tourism and Sports (Argentina)\nMinister for Tourism (Australia)\nMinister for Tourism, Major Events, Hospitality and Racing (New South Wales)\nMinister for Tourism (Western Australia)\nMinistry of Tourism (Brazil)\nMinistry of Primary Resources and Tourism (Brunei)\nBahamas Ministry of Tourism\nMinister of Tourism (Canada)\nMinistry of Tourism and Recreation (Ontario) (former ministry)\nMinistry of Tourism and Culture (Ontario)\nMinistry of Tourism (Croatia)\nMinister of Tourism (France)\nMinister of Tourism (Greece)\nCommissioner for Tourism (Hong Kong)\nMinistry of Education, Science and Culture (Iceland)\nMinistry of Tourism (India)\nMinistry of Tourism (Indonesia)\nMinistry of Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism (Iran)\nMinister for Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media (Ireland)\nMinistry of Tourism (Lebanon)\nMinister of Tourism, Arts and Culture (Malaysia)\nMinistry of Hotels and Tourism (Myanmar)\nMinistry of Tourism (Pakistan)\nMinistry of Foreign Commerce and Tourism (Peru)\nDepartment of Tourism (Philippines)\nTourism Minister of Israel\nMinistry of Tourism (Mauritius)\nMinister of Tourism (New Zealand)\nRivers State Ministry of Culture and Tourism\nMinistry of Tourism (Pakistan)\nDepartment of Tourism (South Africa)\nMinistry of Tourism (Syria)\nMinistry of Natural Resources and Tourism (Tanzania)\nMinistry of Tourism and Sports (Thailand)\nMinistry of Culture and Tourism (Turkey)\nMinister for Tourism and Heritage (United Kingdom)\nParliamentary Under Secretary of State for Arts, Heritage and Tourism (United Kingdom)\nUnited States Department of Commerce\nMinistry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (Vietnam)\nMinistry of Tourism and Arts (Zambia)\nMinistry of Tourism (Zimbabwe)", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Town Serjeant (alternative spelling Town Sergeant) is the Serjeant-at-Arms for local municipalities in English borough councils and serves as a law enforcement official for some towns in the United States. In Scotland the title is used in Aberdeen for the same purpose.\nThe position dates to the 16th Century and its functions included macebearer, bailiff, and gaoler. Historically, the serjeant aided the mayor and also served a ceremonial role. Today in  the United Kingdom, the position is largely ceremonial, without law-enforcement responsibility.\nIt the United States, particularly in New England states such as Rhode Island, towns still elect town sergeants who serve a law enforcement role.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A transportation authority or public transport authority is an authority which regulates or administers transportation related matters. Most transportation authorities in Western countries are under the direction of elected officials.\nIn the United States and Canada, transportation authorities are typically responsible for public transit including buses and rapid transit in metropolitan areas, such as the Metropolitan Transportation Authority in New York, the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, and the Toronto Area Transportation Operating Authority.\nSome transportation authorities, such as Greater Vancouver's Translink, have the power to impose excise taxes (fuel taxes) on gasoline, diesel fuel, and other motor fuels.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Triggerfish describes a technology of cell phone interception and surveillance using a mobile cellular base station (microcell or picocell).  The devices are also known as cell-site simulators or digital analyzers.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Trusted Foundry Program also called the trusted suppliers program is a United States Department of Defense program designed to secure the manufacturing infrastructure for information technology vendors providing hardware to the military. It was originally implemented as an arrangement with IBM before being broadened in 2007 to include other microelectronics suppliers to increase competition and ensure the entire supply chain could be trusted.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the Turkey in Bras\u00edlia (Turkish: T\u00fcrkiye Cumhuriyeti Bras\u00edlia B\u00fcy\u00fckel\u00e7ili\u011fi) is Turkey's diplomatic mission to Brazil. It is located at Na\u00e7oes Avenue, Q.805, Bras\u00edlia.\nThe current Turkish Charg\u00e9 d'Affaires to Brazil is Ahmet G\u00fcrkan.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A usurper is an illegitimate or controversial claimant to power, often but not always in a monarchy. In other words, one who takes the power of a country, city, or established region for oneself, without any formal or legal right to claim it as one's own. Usurpers can rise to power in a region by often unexpected physical force, as well as through political influence and deceit.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Swedish Veterinary Disciplinary Board (Swedish: Veterin\u00e4ra ansvarsn\u00e4mnden) was a Swedish government agency that answered to the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Affairs. The agency tried cases of professional misconduct among veterinarians. It was located in J\u00f6nk\u00f6ping.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Viceroy of Yun-Gui, fully referred to in Chinese as the Governor-General of Yunnan and Guizhou Provinces and the Surrounding Areas Overseeing Military Affairs and Food Production, Director of Civil Affairs, was one of eight regional viceroys in China proper during the Qing dynasty. The Viceroy controlled Yunnan and Guizhou (Kweichow) provinces.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A war referendum is a proposed type of referendum in which citizens would decide whether a nation should go to war. No such referendum has ever taken place. The earliest idea of a war referendum came from the Marquis de Condorcet in 1793 and Immanuel Kant in 1795.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "In New England, a warrant is a document issued by the Board of Selectmen to call a town meeting.\nWarrants essentially list an agenda of items to be voted on by those present.  In towns with an open town meeting, those present would consist of any and all registered voters in the town.  In towns with a representative town meeting, anyone may attend, but only town meeting members (elected representatives) are allowed to vote.\nItems on the agenda generally vary significantly, from the annual operating budget of the town to adjustment of by-laws, and anything else that may legally come before the meeting.\nIn Massachusetts, residents may place articles on the warrant without approval by the Selectmen by petitioning to insert the same.  Petitions to insert an article on the warrant for an Annual Town Meeting require ten signatures.  Petitions to insert an article on the warrant for a Special Town Meeting require 100 signatures or the signatures of ten per cent of the registered voters in the town, whichever is less.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "A Warrant of Appointment is the official document presented by the President of Ireland to persons upon appointment to certain high offices of State, signed by the President and bearing the Official Seal of the President. Warrants are presented, among others, to judges, the Attorney General, the Comptroller and Auditor General and the Ombudsman.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "Werl Prison has about 900 inmates, and is one of the largest prisons in Germany. It is located in the town of Werl in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, east of Dortmund.\nAfter World War II, several high-ranking Nazi officials were imprisoned there.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The West Virginia Future Fund is a permanent trust fund which began operations in March 2014. It was established via the passage of SB 461 and SJR 14 to make the fund constitutionally protected under West Virginia law. Funding comes from a 25% natural gas and oil severance tax. Under the law, only the interest and other income will be spent, while the principal will accumulate.\nBeginning in 2020, the fund will start paying out dividends to finance activities such as education, human resource development, economic development, infrastructure development, and tax relief. The fund is expected to reach $127 million by 2019. It will remain in the control of the West Virginia Treasurer's Office, and will be invested by the West Virginia Investment Management Board.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The Westchester County Clerk is the oldest elected office in Westchester County, New York, having been established in 1683. The County Clerk's responsibility is maintaining and preserving the official documents and records. The current Westchester County Clerk is Timothy C. Idoni.The Westchester County Clerk is the Registrar of county land transactions and liens as well as the Court clerk of the Supreme Court and County Court. The position is both a County Official and a New York State Constitutional Officer.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The XI Constitutional Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe (Portuguese: XI Governo Constitucional de S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 e Pr\u00edncipe) was a Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe. It was established in April 2006 and was disestablished in February 2008.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The XII Constitutional Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe (Portuguese: XII Governo Constitucional de S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 e Pr\u00edncipe) was a Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe. It was established in February 2008 and was disestablished in May 2008.\n\n", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The XIII Constitutional Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe (Portuguese: XIII Governo Constitucional de S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 e Pr\u00edncipe) was a Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe. It was established on 22 June 2008.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The XIV Constitutional Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe (Portuguese: XIV Governo Constitucional de S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 e Pr\u00edncipe) was a Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe. It was established on 14 August 2010 and it was disestablished on 5 December 2012.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "The XV Constitutional Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe (Portuguese: XV Governo Constitucional de S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 e Pr\u00edncipe) was a Government of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 and Pr\u00edncipe. It was established on 12 December 2012 and it was disestablished on 24 November 2014.", "label": "Government"}, {"sentence": "There are numerous issues affecting the safety and health of police officers, including line of duty deaths and occupational stress.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In electrical safety testing, portable appliance testing (PAT, PAT inspection or redundantly as PAT testing) is a process in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, New Zealand and Australia by which electrical appliances are routinely checked for safety. The formal term for the process is \"in-service inspection & testing of electrical equipment\". Testing involves a visual inspection of the equipment and any flexible cables for good condition, and also where required, verification of earthing (grounding) continuity, and a test of the soundness of insulation between the current carrying parts, and any exposed metal that may be touched. The formal limits for pass/fail of these electrical tests vary somewhat depending on the category of equipment being tested.\nOther countries have similar procedures, for example, testing of equipment according to DGUV Vorschrift 3 in Germany.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Positive psychology is defined as a method of building on what is good and what is already working instead of attempting to stimulate improvement by focusing on the weak links in an individual, a group, or in this case, a company. Implementing positive psychology in the workplace means creating an environment that is more enjoyable, productive, and values individual employees. This also means creating a work schedule that does not lead to emotional and physical distress.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Prevention through design (PtD), also called safety by design usually in Europe, is the concept of applying methods to minimize occupational hazards early in the design process, with an emphasis on optimizing employee health and safety throughout the life cycle of materials and processes.  It is a concept and movement that encourages construction or product designers to \"design out\" health and safety risks during design development. The concept supports the view that along with quality, programme and cost; safety is determined during the design stage. It increases the cost-effectiveness of enhancements to occupational safety and health.This method for reducing workplace safety risks lessens workers' reliance on personal protective equipment, which is the least effective of the hierarchy of hazard control.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The principles of motion economy form a set of rules and suggestions to improve the manual work in manufacturing and reduce fatigue and unnecessary movements by the worker, which can lead to the reduction in the work related trauma.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Qualitative risk analysis is a technique used to quantify risk associated with a particular hazard.  Risk assessment is used for uncertain events that could have many outcomes and for which there could be significant consequences. Risk is a function of probability of an event (a particular hazard occurring) and the consequences given the event occurs. Probability refers to the likelihood that a hazard will occur. In a qualitative assessment, probability and consequence are not numerically estimated, but are evaluated verbally using qualifiers like high likelihood, low likelihood, etc.  Qualitative assessments are good for screening level assessments when comparing/screening multiple alternatives or for when sufficient data is not available to support numerical probability or consequence estimates.  Once numbers are inserted into the analysis (either by quantifying the likelihood of a hazard or quantifying the consequences) the analysis transitions to a semi-quantitative or quantitative risk assessment.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Quantitative risk assessment (QRA) software and methodologies give quantitative estimates of risks, given the parameters defining them. They are used in the financial sector, the chemical process industry, and other areas.\nIn financial terms, quantitative risk assessments include a calculation of the single loss expectancy of monetary value of an asset.\nIn the chemical process and petrochemical industries a QRA is primarily concerned with determining the potential loss of life (PLL) caused by undesired events. Specialist software can be used to model the effects of such an event, and to help calculate the potential loss of life.  Some organisations use the risk outputs to assess the implied cost to avert a fatality (ICAF) which can be used to set quantified criteria for what is an unacceptable risk and what is tolerable.\nFor the explosives industry, QRA can be used for many explosive risk applications.  It is especially useful for site risk analysis when reliance on quantity distance (QD) tables is not feasible.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "R-phrases (short for risk phrases) are defined in Annex III of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Nature of special risks attributed to dangerous substances and preparations. The list was consolidated and republished in Directive 2001/59/EC, where translations into other EU languages may be found.\nThese risk phrases are used internationally, not just in Europe, and there is an ongoing effort towards complete international harmonization using the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) which now generally replaces these risk phrases.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Radiation dose reconstruction refers to the process of estimating radiation doses that were received by individuals or populations in the past as a result of particular exposure situations of concern. The basic principle of radiation dose reconstruction is to characterize the radiation environment to which individuals have been exposed using available information. In cases where radiation exposures can not be fully characterized based on available data, default values based on reasonable scientific assumptions can be used as substitutes.  The extent to which the default values are used depends on the purpose of the reconstruction(s) being undertaken.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The United States Radiation Exposure Compensation Act (RECA) is a federal statute providing for the monetary compensation of people, including atomic veterans, who contracted cancer and a number of other specified diseases as a direct result of their exposure to atmospheric nuclear testing undertaken by the United States during the Cold War, or their exposure to radon gas and other radioactive isotopes while undertaking uranium mining, milling or the transportation of ore.\nThe Act provides the following remunerations:\n\n$50,000 to individuals residing or working \"downwind\" of the Nevada Test Site\n$75,000 for workers participating in atmospheric nuclear weapons tests\n$100,000 for uranium miners, millers, and ore transportersIn all cases there are additional requirements which must be satisfied (proof of exposure, establishment of duration of employment, establishment of certain medical conditions, etc.).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Environ was a privately held, international environmental, safety and health sciences consulting firm headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. ENVIRON had operations across more than 90 offices in 21 countries, with more than 1,500 consultants when it was acquired in December 2014 by Danish-based Ramboll.In a transition period, legacy ENVIRON was rebranded as Ramboll Environ, Inc. Since January 1, 2018, ENVIRON no longer exists as a separate business entity, and is now part of the Water and Environment & Health divisions of Ramboll.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Refresher training is an aspect of retraining taken by a person already qualified or previously assessed as competent in a field with the intention of updating skills and/or knowledge to a changed standard, or providing the opportunity to ensure that no important skills or knowledge have been lost due to lack of use. In industry it is also used to upgrade performance of personnel faced with workplace changes or who use obsolete, deprecated, or outdated work procedures, as a method for improving productivity, customer service, employee satisfaction and retention, and workplace health and safety.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A respectful workplace is a safe place of employment where employees are valued, recognised, treated fairly, have clear expectations, and work harmoniously.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The right to sit refers to laws or policies granting workers the right to be granted suitable seating at the workplace. Jurisdictions that have enshrined \"right to sit\" laws or policies include the United Kingdom, Jamaica, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Uganda, Lesotho, Malaysia, Brazil, Israel, Ireland, the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, and the British overseas territory of Gibraltar and Montserrat. Almost all states of the United States and Australia, as well as the majority of Canadian provinces passed right to sit legislation for women workers between 1881 and 1917. US states with current right to sit legislation include California, Florida, Massachusetts, Montana, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. A right to sit provision is included in the International Labour Organization's Hygiene (Commerce and Offices) Convention, 1964; the convention being ratified by 51 countries as of 2014. Local jurisdictions with right to sit laws include Portland, Oregon, St. Louis, Missouri and London's Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. Some jurisdictions, such as Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Idaho, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Missouri, Nevada, New Hampshire, Quebec, and Washington, D.C. have revoked their right to sit laws. Many right to sit laws originally contained gendered language specifying women workers only. Some jurisdictions maintain gendered laws, but many jurisdictions have amended their right to sit laws to be gender neutral.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The right to sit in the United States refers to state and local legislation guaranteeing workers the right to sit at work when standing is not necessary. Between 1881 and 1917, almost all states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico had passed legislation concerning suitable seating for workers. These laws were reforms during the Progressive Era, spearheaded by women workers in the labor movement. The texts of these laws originally almost always specified that they applied only to female workers. Most states with right to sit laws have subsequently amended their legislation to include all workers regardless of sex. Though largely obscure and rarely enforced for over a century, right to sit laws have obtained new relevance following several high-profile lawsuits against major corporations in California and other states during the 2010s and 2020s. States with current, gender-neutral right to sit legislation include California, Florida, Massachusetts, Montana, New Jersey, Oregon, and Wisconsin. Some states, including New Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, maintain gendered language referring to female workers only. Other states, such as Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Idaho, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Missouri, Nevada, and New Hampshire, as well as the District of Columbia, repealed their right to sit laws between 1972 and 2015. Mississippi and Hawaii are the only states to have never had right to sit laws. Right to sit laws have been enacted at the local level in several cities, including Portland, Oregon and St. Louis, Missouri.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Risk and Safety Statements, also known as R/S statements, R/S numbers, R/S phrases, and R/S sentences, is a system of hazard codes and phrases for labeling dangerous chemicals and compounds. The R/S statement of a compound consists of a risk part (R) and a safety part (S), each followed by a combination of numbers. Each number corresponds to a phrase. The phrase corresponding to the letter/number combination has the same meaning in different languages\u2014see 'languages' in the menu on the left.\nIn 2015, the risk and safety statements were replaced by hazard statements and precautionary statements in the course of harmonising classification, labelling and packaging of chemicals by introduction of the UN Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS).\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Broadly speaking, a risk assessment is the combined effort of:\n\nidentifying and analyzing potential (future) events that may negatively impact individuals, assets, and/or the environment (i.e. hazard analysis); and\nmaking judgments \"on the tolerability of the risk on the basis of a risk analysis\" while considering influencing factors (i.e. risk evaluation).Put in simpler terms, a risk assessment determines possible mishaps, their likelihood and consequences, and the tolerances for such events. The results of this process may be expressed in a quantitative or qualitative fashion. Risk assessment is an inherent part of a broader risk management strategy to help reduce any potential risk-related consequences.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Risk control, also known as hazard control, is a part of the risk management process in which methods for neutralising or reduction of identified risks are implemented. Controlled risks remain potential threats, but the probability of an associated incident or the consequences thereof have been significantly reduced.Risk control logically follows after hazard identification and risk assessment.The most effective method for controlling a risk is to eliminate the hazard, but this is not always reasonably practicable. There is a recognised hierarchy of hazard controls which is listed in a generally descending order of effectiveness and preference:\nElimination - the complete removal or avoidance of the hazard also removes the risk.\nSubstitution - A less hazardous or lower risk material, equipment or process may be available.\nIsolation - If the hazard can be separated from the people or equipment at risk by barriers or demarcated areas. the risk is reduced.\nSafeguards - Tools or equipment, can be modified by fitting guards, interlocks and similar engineering solutions.\nProcedural methods \u2013 Safer ways to do something.\nPersonal protective equipment and clothing (PPE) is the last resort.A combination of two or more of these methods may be most effective, or even necessary.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Risk Information Exchange (RiskIE) is an Internet database created in 2007 by Toxicology Excellence for Risk Assessment (TERA). The database provides in-progress and recently completed chemical risk assessments, and is open for anyone to upload relevant information.  By allowing for user input of projects, RiskIE is perhaps the first chemical risk database open for global participation.  As a potential global tracking system, RiskIE might enable scientists to keep abreast of current chemical evaluations, identify opportunities for collaborations, and decide how to efficiently proceed with chemical registration, such as that of the European Union's Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH).  According to Wullenweber et al. (2008), whereas risk databases have historically managed the risk data of a single country/organization (with some exceptions, e.g., Risk Assessment Information System (RAIS), International Toxicity Estimates for Risk (ITER), Toxipedia), RiskIE offers a centralized database open to all.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Alfred Robens, Baron Robens of Woldingham, PC (18 December 1910 \u2013 27 June 1999) was an English trade unionist, Labour politician and industrialist. His political ambitions, including an aspiration to become Prime Minister, were frustrated by bad timing, but his energies were diverted into industry: he spent 10 years as Chairman of the National Coal Board, and later - despite the Aberfan disaster headed a major inquiry which resulted in the Robens Report on occupational health and safety. His outlook was paternalistic; in later life, he moved away from his early socialism towards the Conservative Party. His reputation remains irredeemably tarnished by his failure to have foreseen and prevented the Aberfan disaster, followed by actions widely regarded as grossly insensitive during the aftermath of the disaster.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Rope access or industrial climbing  is a form of work positioning, initially developed from techniques used in climbing and caving, which applies practical ropework to allow workers to access difficult-to-reach locations without the use of scaffolding, cradles or an aerial work platform. Rope access technicians descend, ascend, and traverse ropes for access and work while suspended by their harness. Sometimes a work seat may be used. The support of the rope is intended to eliminate the likelihood of a fall altogether, but a back-up fall arrest system is used in case of the unlikely failure of the primary means of support. This redundancy system is usually achieved by using two ropes - a working line and a safety line.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Royal Commission on the Health and Safety of Workers in Mines, informally known as the Ham Commission, was a 1974 Canadian royal commission founded to investigate and report on the safety of underground mines.The comission was created by Bill Davis as a result of the 1974 Elliot Lake miners strike and led by James Milton Ham. Findings from the comission formed the basis of all subsequent health and safety legislation in Canada.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "On October 21, 2021, at the Bonanza Creek Ranch in Bonanza City, New Mexico, United States, cinematographer Halyna Hutchins was killed and director Joel Souza was injured on the set of the film Rust when a live round was discharged from a revolver used as a prop by actor Alec Baldwin. The weapon had not been thoroughly checked for safety in advance.\nThe incident is currently being investigated by the Santa Fe County Sheriff's Office, the New Mexico First Judicial District Attorney, and the New Mexico Occupational Health and Safety Bureau. Production of Rust was suspended indefinitely. The incident sparked a debate on occupational safety in the film industry, the treatment of its employees, and the use of real guns as props.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "S-phrases are defined in Annex IV of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Safety advice concerning dangerous substances and preparations. The list was consolidated and republished in Directive 2001/59/EC, where translations into other EU languages may be found. The list was subsequently updated and republished in Directive 2006/102/EC, where translations to additional European languages were added.\nThese safety phrases are used internationally and not just in Europe, and there is an ongoing effort towards complete international harmonization. (Note: missing S-number combinations indicate phrases that were deleted or replaced by another phrase.)", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The term safe work procedure (SWP) originated in Victoria, Australia, and is predominantly used as a risk management tool by industries throughout Australia, particularly in the mining sector. SWPs are also referred to using other terms, such as standard operating procedure (SOP). A safe work procedure is a step by step description of a process when deviation may cause a loss. This risk control document created by teams within the company describes the safest and most efficient way to perform a task. This document stays in the health & safety system for regular use as a template or guide when completing that particular task on site.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Safe-in-Sound Excellence in Hearing Loss Prevention Award is an occupational health and safety award that was established in 2007 through a partnership between the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the National Hearing Conservation Association (NHCA)[1].  In 2018, the partnership was extended to include the Council for Accreditation in Occupational Hearing Conservation (CAOHC).[2]\nThis award recognizes organizations that demonstrate measurable achievements towards noise control and hearing loss prevention in the workplace. Noise-induced hearing loss is a prevalent work related illness and case studies show that substantial reductions in noise levels in the workplace can be achieved. There is low quality evidence to show that implementation of stricter legislation can reduce noise levels in workplaces and moderate quality evidence that training in the proper insertion of ear plugs significantly reduces noise exposure but controlled studies and long term follow-up studies are lacking.This award disseminates information of effective practices to a broader occupational safety and health community to encourage the adoption of evidence based hearing loss prevention. The winner, chosen by an expert committee, must incorporate evidence of effectiveness and familiar benchmarks of hearing loss prevention. The focus of this effort is documenting and highlighting effective interventions for the prevention of the negative effects of noise exposure and not regulatory compliance.\n\nThe Safe-in-Sound Awards are presented every year at the NHCA Conference. The inaugural awards were presented in 2009 and recipients included Pratt & Whitney and Domtar Paper Company for the manufacturing sector, Montgomery County Water Services (Ohio) for the services sector, and Sensaphonics Hearing Conservation, Inc. for innovation. Several of the award recipients have reported that noise control is a cost-effective primary preventive strategy, and that their results encouraged them to expand the adoption and implementation of noise control alternatives.   Such approaches include \"Buy-Quiet\" and \"Quiet-by-Design\" initiatives. These are programs guiding purchasers to compare the noise emission levels of different models of equipment, and whenever possible, select the quieter model.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Safeguard is a New Zealand magazine devoted to occupational health and safety. It features articles and information on managing health and safety in the workplace and is aimed at employers in all industries and at health and safety professionals. The magazine was launched as a quarterly in 1988 by the Occupational Safety and Health Service (OSH) of the Department of Labour. It was subsequently taken over by a commercial company, Colour Workshop. Safeguard is now published bi-monthly by Thomson Reuters (Auckland).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Safety and Health  is an American magazine  published by the National Safety Council.The editor is Melissa J. Ruminski and the circulation is about 86,000 copies. The magazine was launched as National Safety News (ISSN 0028-0100) in 1919.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A safety data sheet (SDS), material safety data sheet (MSDS),  or product safety data sheet (PSDS) is a document that lists information relating to occupational safety and health for the use of various substances and products. SDSs are a widely used system for cataloguing information on chemicals, chemical compounds, and chemical mixtures. SDS information may include instructions for the safe use and potential hazards associated with a particular material or product, along with spill-handling procedures. The older MSDS formats could vary from source to source within a country depending on national requirements; however, the newer SDS format is internationally standardized.\nAn SDS for a substance is not primarily intended for use by the general consumer, focusing instead on the hazards of working with the material in an occupational setting. There is also a duty to properly label substances on the basis of physico-chemical, health, or environmental risk. Labels can include hazard symbols such as the European Union standard symbols. The same product (e.g. paints sold under identical brand names by the same company) can have different formulations in different countries. The formulation and hazards of a product using a generic name may vary between manufacturers in the same country.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Safety Jackpot is a commercially available gamecard based incentive program created in 1991 aimed at reducing workplace accidents. The program works by rewarding gamecards to employees for weekly safe behavior. The scratch off gamecards reveal points which employees collect and redeem for merchandise items in the program catalog. The bottom of each gamecard reveals a letter. When the word 'jackpot' is spelled, the employee receives bonus points and is entered into a series of sweepstakes drawings for cash rewards.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Safety statement is the name given to the document that outlines how a company manages their health and safety in the Republic of Ireland, based upon the Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Act, 2005. The requirement to have a written safety statement is outlined in Section 20 of the above Act, although it was also a requirement in the original (but now revoked) Act of 1989. The document is primarily based on the risk assessment of workplace hazards.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "SawStop is an American table saw manufacturer headquartered in Tualatin, Oregon. The company was founded in 2000 to sell table saws that feature a patented automatic braking system that stops the blade upon contact with skin or flesh. According to an NPR article in 2017, roughly 10 table saw finger amputations occur daily in the United States.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sentinel Event Notification System for Occupational Risks (SENSOR)-Pesticides is a U.S. state-based surveillance program that monitors pesticide-related illness and injury.  It is administered by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), twelve state health agencies participate. NIOSH provides technical support to all participating states.  It also provides funding to some states, in conjunction with the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).\nPesticide-related illness is a significant occupational health issue, but it is believed to be underreported.  Because of this, NIOSH proposed the SENSOR program to track pesticide poisonings.  Because workers in many industries are at risk for pesticide exposure, and public concern exists regarding the use of and exposure to pesticides, government and regulatory authorities experience pressure to monitor health effects associated with them.  SENSOR-Pesticides state partners collect case data from several different sources using a standard case definition and set of variables.  This information is then forwarded to the program headquarters at NIOSH where it is compiled and put into a national database.\nResearchers and government officials from the SENSOR-Pesticides program have published research articles that highlight findings from the data and their implications for environmental and occupational pesticide issues.  These issues include eradication of invasive species, pesticide poisoning in schools, birth defects, and residential use of total release foggers, or \"bug bombs,\" which are devices that release an insecticide mist.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A sentinel outlet in occupational safety and health is a water outlet that is chosen to have its temperature monitored so that risk from Legionella can be controlled. This is typically chosen to be the closest and furthest outlets from the water tank.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "On June 29, 2008, the XVIII World Congress on Safety and Health at Work signed the Seoul Declaration on Safety and Health at Work. The declaration included statements concerning national governments' responsibility for perpetuating a \"national preventive safety and health culture\", for improving their national safe-workplace performance systematically, and for providing a health standard with appropriate enforcement to protect workers. The declaration also listed responsibilities of employers, stated the rights of workers, and emphasized the importance of promoting a culture of safety.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexually transmitted infections in the pornography industry deals with the occupational safety and health issue in the sex industry of transmission of sexually transmitted infections/diseases (STIs/STDs), especially HIV/AIDS, which became a major cause of concern since the 1980s, especially for pornographic film actors. From 2004 to 2009, 22 HIV cases in the U.S. pornography industry were reported; roughly half were among men who work in gay films, and the other half were men and women working in heterosexual productions.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Sheri Sangji case is the first criminal case resulting from an academic laboratory accident.The case arose from a fatal accident that occurred in the chemistry laboratory of Patrick Harran at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA).  Research assistant Sheharbano \"Sheri\" Sangji suffered severe burns from a fire that occurred on December 29, 2008 when a plastic syringe she was using to transfer the pyrophoric reagent tert-butyllithium from one sealed container to another came apart, spilling the chemical, and igniting a fire. Sangji was not wearing a protective lab coat and her clothing caught fire, resulting in severe burns that led to her death 18 days later.An investigation was conducted by the California Occupational Safety and Health Administration (Cal/OSHA), which protects the public and workers from safety hazards and enforces the U.S. State of California's occupational and public safety laws.In 2009, Cal/OSHA fined UCLA $31,875 for violations relating to the fire and in 2012, the Los Angeles District Attorney filed four felony charges against the Regents of the University of California and Patrick Harran for \"willful violation of safety regulations\". However, prosecutors reached a deferred prosecution agreement after Harran agreed to pay a donation to a local burn center and do community service. On September 6, 2018, the court announced that Harran had fulfilled the terms of the agreement, and dismissed the charges against him.Sangji's death and Harran's legal proceedings have led to a significant increase in the safety standards of research laboratories in academic settings.Sangji's family was unhappy with the terms of the settlement with Harran. Sangji's sister, Naveen, remarked \"[t]his settlement, like the previous one with UCLA, is barely a slap on the wrist for the responsible individual.\"\nShe noted that previous safety violations in his lab were not corrected before her sister's death and that UCLA had ignored the \"wake-up calls\" of earlier accidents in other labs. She decried the nearly $4.5 million in legal fees the public university spent defending itself and Harran.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Shift work is an employment practice designed to make use of, or provide service across, all 24 hours of the clock each day of the week (often abbreviated as 24/7). The practice typically sees the day divided into shifts, set periods of time during which different groups of workers perform their duties. The term \"shift work\" includes both long-term night shifts and work schedules in which employees change or rotate shifts.In medicine and epidemiology, shift work is considered a risk factor for some health problems in some individuals, as disruption to circadian rhythms may increase the probability of developing cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairment, diabetes, altered body composition and obesity, among other conditions.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A short-term exposure limit (STEL) is the acceptable average exposure over a short period of time, usually 15 minutes as long as the time-weighted average is not exceeded.\nSTEL is a term used in occupational health, industrial hygiene and toxicology.  The STEL may be a legal limit in the United States for exposure of an employee to a chemical substance.  The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (U.S. OSHA) has set OSHA-STELs for 1,3-butadiene, benzene and ethylene oxide.  For chemicals, STEL assessments are usually done for 15 minutes and expressed in parts per million (ppm), or sometimes in milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3).The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists publishes a more extensive list of STELs as threshold limit values (TLV-STEL).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sifa is a type of deadman's control system used on German-influenced European railways.  Although deadman's pedals are commonly used on railways worldwide, Sifa systems are specifically those codified by German Industrial Norms VDE 0119-207-5.\nIn Switzerland the equivalent system is called 'safety control' (Sicherheitssteuerung).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Silicosis is a form of occupational lung disease caused by inhalation of crystalline silica dust. It is marked by inflammation and scarring in the form of nodular lesions in the upper lobes of the lungs. It is a type of pneumoconiosis. Silicosis (particularly the acute form) is characterized by shortness of breath, cough, fever, and cyanosis (bluish skin). It may often be misdiagnosed as pulmonary edema (fluid in the lungs), pneumonia, or tuberculosis. Using workplace controls, silicosis is almost always a preventable disease.Silicosis resulted in at least 43,000 deaths globally in 2013, down from at least 50,000 deaths in 1990.The name silicosis (from the Latin silex, or flint) was originally used in 1870 by Achille Visconti (1836\u20131911), prosector in the Ospedale Maggiore of Milan. The recognition of respiratory problems from breathing in dust dates to ancient Greeks and Romans. Agricola, in the mid-16th century, wrote about lung problems from dust inhalation in miners. In 1713, Bernardino Ramazzini noted asthmatic symptoms and sand-like substances in the lungs of stone cutters. With industrialization, as opposed to hand tools, came increased production of dust. The pneumatic hammer drill was introduced in 1897 and sandblasting was introduced in about 1904, both significantly contributing to the increased prevalence of silicosis. In 1938, the United States Department of Labor, led by then Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, produced a video titled 'Stop Silicosis' to discuss the results of a year-long study done concerning a rise in the number of silicosis cases across the United States.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sleeping while on duty or sleeping on the job \u2013  falling asleep while one is not supposed to \u2013 is considered gross misconduct and grounds for disciplinary action, including termination of employment, in some occupations. Recently however, there has been a movement in support of sleeping, or napping at work, with scientific studies highlighting health and productivity benefits, and over 6% of employers in some countries providing facilities to do so. In some types of work, such as firefighting or live-in caregiving, sleeping at least part of the shift may be an expected part of paid work time. While some employees who sleep while on duty in violation do so intentionally and hope not to get caught, others intend in good faith to stay awake, and accidentally doze.\nSleeping while on duty is such an important issue that it is addressed in the employee handbook in some workplaces. Concerns that employers have may include the lack of productivity, the unprofessional appearance, and danger that may occur when the employee's duties involve watching to prevent a hazardous situation. In some occupations, such as pilots, truck and bus drivers, or those operating heavy machinery, falling asleep while on duty puts lives in danger. However, in many countries, these workers are supposed to take a break and rest every few hours.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "People with extreme hearing loss may communicate through sign languages.  Sign languages convey meaning through manual communication and body language instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns. This involves the simultaneous combination of hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to express a speaker's thoughts. \"Sign languages are based on the idea that vision is the most useful tool a deaf person has to communicate and receive information\".Deaf culture refers to a tight-knit cultural group of people whose primary language is signed, and who practice social and cultural norms which are distinct from those of the surrounding hearing community. This community does not automatically include all those who are clinically or legally deaf, nor does it exclude every hearing person. According to Baker and Padden, it includes any person or persons who \"identifies him/herself as a member of the Deaf community, and other members accept that person as a part of the community,\" an example being children of deaf adults with normal hearing ability.  It includes the set of social beliefs, behaviors, art, literary traditions, history, values, and shared institutions of communities that are influenced by deafness and which use sign languages as the main means of communication.  Members of the Deaf community tend to view deafness as a difference in human experience rather than a disability or disease.  When used as a cultural label especially within the culture, the word deaf is often written with a capital D and referred to as \"big D Deaf\" in speech and sign. When used as a label for the audiological condition, it is written with a lower case d.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Software installed in medical devices is assessed for health and safety issues according to international standards.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The specific inhalation challenge (SIC) is a diagnosis tool to assess airway responsiveness to \"sensitizing\" substances as opposed to nonspecific stimuli such as pharmacological agents (i.e. histamine, methacholine), cold air and exercise. Subjects are exposed to a suspected occupational agent in a controlled way under close supervision in a hospital laboratory. The specific inhalation challenges has been considered as the gold standard in confirming the diagnosis of occupational asthma.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sterilant gas monitoring is the detection of hazardous gases used by health care and other facilities to sterilize medical supplies that cannot be sterilized by heat or steam methods. The current FDA approved sterilant gases are ethylene oxide, hydrogen peroxide and ozone. Other liquid sterilants, such as peracetic acid, may also be used for sterilization and may raise similar occupational health issues. Sterilization means the complete destruction of all biological life (including viruses and sporoidal forms of bacteria), and sterilization efficacy is typically considered adequate if less than one in a million microbes remain viable.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Samuel Stockhausen was a German physician in the mining town of Goslar. He studied the ancient miner's disease, called H\u00fcttenkatze, among workers in the nearby mines of Rammelsberg in the Harz mountains. In 1656 he published a book, in Latin, attributing the disease to noxious fumes from litharge (a lead compound), Libellus de lithargyrii fumo noxio morbifico, ejusque metallico frequentiori morbo vulg\u00f2 dicto die H\u00fctten Katze oder H\u00fctten Rauch (\u201cTreatise on the Noxious Fumes of Litharge, Diseases caused by them and Miners\u2019 Asthma\u201d)\nBecause of this he is considered by some to be the first occupational physician.\n\nUnlike his near contemporary, Paracelsus, who also wrote about diseases of miners, Stockhausen recognized litharge-derived dust as the causative factor and recommended avoiding inhaling it. This was the first time that the ancient syndrome, known to Romans as morbi metallici, was attributed specifically to chronic poisoning with lead.The work of Stockhausen influenced Eberhard Gockel to attribute the consumption of litharge in wine as causing a similar disease.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Styrene () is an organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5CH=CH2. This derivative of benzene is a colorless oily liquid, although aged samples can appear yellowish. The compound evaporates easily and has a sweet smell, although high concentrations have a less pleasant odor. Styrene is the precursor to polystyrene and several copolymers. Approximately 25 million tonnes of styrene were produced in 2010, increasing to around 35 million tonnes by 2018.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The substitution of dangerous chemicals in the workplace is the process of replacing chemicals with less hazardous alternatives or eliminating them entirely, generally for the purposes of improving occupational health and safety or minimizing harmful environmental impact. Due to the difficulty of properly assessing long term carcinogenic, reprotoxic, allergenic, or neurotoxic effects of a substitution, this is a lengthy process that both assesses these dangers and examines the cost and practicality of the substitute. Substituting hazardous chemicals follows the principles of green chemistry and results in clean technology.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A surgical mask, also known by other names such as a medical face mask or procedure mask, is a personal protective equipment used by healthcare professionals that serves as a mechanical barrier that interferes with direct airflow in and out of respiratory orifices (i.e. nose and mouth). This helps reduce airborne transmission of pathogens and other aerosolized contaminants between the wearer and nearby people via respiratory droplets ejected when sneezing, coughing, forceful expiration or unintentionally spitting when talking, etc. Surgical masks may be labeled as surgical, isolation, dental or medical procedure masks.Although the material of which surgical masks are made will filter out some viruses and bacteria by trapping the aerosol suspended in breathed air, they only provide partial protection from airborne diseases because of the typically loose fit between the mask edges and the wearer's face. Surgical masks are distinct from filtering respirators, such as those made to the American N95 standard, which are more airtight and purposefully designed to protect against finer airborne particles.\n\nEvidence from randomized controlled trials that surgical masks reduce infection from diseases such as influenza and COVID-19 is weak. Although a recent very large (over 300,000 people) study found some evidence that they reduced transmission in the community. However, surgical masks can vary greatly in quality which may make these studies less useful. The effect of surgical masks is partially attributed to filtering out some of aerosol particles that are how airborne diseases are transmitted. Surgical masks are highly variable but the material of which they are made typically filter out more aerosol particles than do cloth masks but much less than does the material of which N95, FFP2 and similar masks, are made. This combined with the poor fit suggests that surgical masks offer some protection to airborne diseases such as COVID-19 but less than do N95, FFP2 and similar masks.\nThere are standards for the materials masks are made from. For example, the European EN 14683 Type II standard requires the material of the mask to filter particles (mean diameter close to 3 micrometres) containing the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. The bacterial filtration efficiency of the mask material is the fractional reduction in the number of colony-forming units (CFUs) when the aerosol is passed through the material. For a Type II mask under this standard, the material must filter enough of the aerosol particles containing the bacteria to achieve a CFU reduction of at least 98%.\nASTM International has an F2100 standard with similar bacterial filtering standard to the European Type II standard but in addition uses a test aerosol of 0.1 micrometre particles. The Level 3 standard F2100 standard requires that these particles must be filtered out with at least 98% efficiency. Neither the European nor the ASTM standard tests performance as worn, they just test the material \u2014 the difference being the air leakage. This is different to personal protection equipment standards such as N95 and FFP, which do test performance as worn.\nSurgical masks are made of a nonwoven fabric created using a melt blowing process. They came into use in the 1960s and largely replaced cloth facemasks in developed countries. The colored (usually dark blue, green, or occasionally yellow) side of the mask (fluid-repellant layer) is to be worn outwards, and the white side (absorbent layer) inwards.The use of surgical masks during the COVID-19 pandemic was a subject of debate, as mask shortage was a central issue.\nSurgical masks are popularly worn by the general public all year round in East Asian countries like China, Japan, South Korea, and Vietnam especially during allergy and flu seasons, to reduce the chance of spreading airborne diseases to others, and to prevent the breathing in of airborne irritants such as pollens or dust particles created by air pollution (though dust masks are more effective against pollution). Additionally, surgical masks have become a fashion statement, particularly in contemporary East Asian culture bolstered by its popularity in Japanese and Korean pop culture which have a big impact on East Asian youth culture.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses or the SOII program is a Federal/State cooperative program that publishes annual estimates on nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses. Each year, approximately 200,000 employers report for establishments in private industry and the public sector (state and local government). In-scope cases include work-related injuries or illnesses to workers who require medical care beyond first aid. See the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) for the entire record-keeping guidelines. The SOII excludes all work-related fatalities as well as nonfatal work injuries and illnesses to the self\u2013employed; to workers on farms with 11 or fewer employees; to private household workers; to volunteers; and to federal government workers.State data presenting the number and frequency of work-related injuries, illnesses, and fatal injuries are available from two BLS programs: the BLS Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses (SOII) and the BLS Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI). SOII provides estimates for nonfatal cases of work-related injuries and illnesses from participating States and Territories that are recorded by employers under Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) record keeping guidelines. CFOI publishes data on fatal cases of work-related injuries for all States, Territories, and New York City.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In occupational health and safety, a tagging system is a system of recording and displaying the status of a machine or equipment, enabling staff to view whether it is in working order. It is a product of industry-specific legislation which sets safety standards for a particular piece of equipment, involving inspection, record-keeping, and repair. This sets standardized umbrella terms for equipment and machinery (e.g. machinery, scaffolding, forklift, cherry picker) to be deemed 'safe to use'.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Thermal Work Limit (TWL) is defined as the limiting (or maximum) sustainable metabolic rate that well-hydrated, acclimatized individuals can maintain in a specific thermal environment, within a safe deep body core temperature (< 38.2 \u00b0C or 100.8 \u00b0F) and sweat rate (< 1.2 kg or 2.6 lb per hour). The index is designed for self-paced workers and does not rely on estimation of actual metabolic rates, a process that is difficult and subject to considerable error. The index has been introduced into the United Arab Emirates and Australia, resulting in a substantial and sustained fall in the incidence of heat illness in the latter.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The threshold limit value (TLV) is believed to be a level to which a worker can be exposed per shift in the worktime without adverse effects. Strictly speaking, TLV is a reserved term of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). TLVs issued by the ACGIH are the most widely accepted occupational exposure limits both in the United States and most other countries.  However, it is sometimes loosely used to refer to other similar concepts used in occupational health and toxicology, such as acceptable daily intake (ADI) and tolerable daily intake (TDI). Concepts such as TLV, ADI, and TDI can be compared to the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) in animal testing, but whereas a NOAEL can be established experimentally during a short period, TLV, ADI, and TDI apply to human beings over a lifetime and thus are harder to test empirically and are usually set at lower levels. TLVs, along with biological exposure indices (BEIs), are published annually by the ACGIH.\nThe TLV is an estimate based on the known toxicity in humans or animals of a given chemical substance, and the reliability and accuracy of the latest sampling and analytical methods. It is not a static definition since new research can often modify the risk assessment of substances and new laboratory or instrumental analysis methods can improve analytical detection limits. The TLV is a recommendation by ACGIH, with only a guideline status. As such, it should not be confused with exposure limits having a regulatory status, like those published and enforced by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The OSHA regulatory exposure limits permissible exposure limits (PELs) published in 29CFR 1910.1000 Table Z1 are based on recommendations made by the ACGIH in 1968, although other exposure limits were adopted more recently. Many OSHA exposure limits are not considered by the industrial hygiene community to be sufficiently protective levels since the toxicological basis for most limits have not been updated since the 1960s. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) publishes recommended exposure limits (RELs) which OSHA takes into consideration when promulgating new regulatory exposure limits.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Tinnitus is the perception of sound when no corresponding external sound is present. Nearly everyone will experience a faint \"normal tinnitus\" in a completely quiet room but it is only of concern if it is bothersome or interferes with normal hearing or correlated with other problems. While often described as a ringing, it may also sound like a clicking, buzzing, hiss, or roaring. The sound may be soft or loud, low or high pitched, and often appears to be coming from one or both ears or from the head itself. In some people, the sound may interfere with concentration and in some cases it is associated with anxiety and depression. Tinnitus is usually associated with a degree of hearing loss and with decreased comprehension of speech in noisy environments. It is common, affecting about 10\u201315% of people. Most, however, tolerate it well, and it is a significant problem in only 1\u20132% of all people. It can trigger a fight-or-flight response, as the brain may perceive it as dangerous and important. The word tinnitus comes from the Latin tinnire which means \"to ring\".Rather than a disease, tinnitus is a symptom that may result from various underlying causes and may be generated at any level of the auditory system and structures beyond that system. The most common causes are hearing damage, noise-induced hearing loss or age-related hearing loss, known as presbycusis. Other causes include ear infections, disease of the heart or blood vessels, M\u00e9ni\u00e8re's disease, brain tumors, acoustic neuromas (tumors on the auditory nerves of the ear), migraines, temporomandibular joint disorders, exposure to certain medications, a previous head injury, earwax; and tinnitus can suddenly emerge during a period of emotional stress. It is more common in those with depression.The diagnosis of tinnitus is usually based on the person's description. It is commonly supported by an audiogram, an otolaryngological and a neurological examination. The degree of interference with a person's life may be quantified with questionnaires. If certain problems are found, medical imaging, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), may be performed. Other tests are suitable when tinnitus occurs with the same rhythm as the heartbeat. Rarely, the sound may be heard by someone else using a stethoscope, in which case it is known as objective tinnitus. Occasionally, spontaneous otoacoustic emissions, sounds produced normally by the inner ear, may result in tinnitus.Prevention involves avoiding exposure to loud noise for longer periods or chronically. If there is an underlying cause, treating it may lead to improvements. Otherwise, typically, management involves psychoeducation or counseling, such as talk therapy. Sound generators or hearing aids may help. No medication directly targets tinnitus.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Toluene (), also known as toluol (), is a substituted aromatic hydrocarbon. It is a colorless, water-insoluble liquid with the smell associated with paint thinners. It is a mono-substituted benzene derivative, consisting of a methyl group (CH3) attached to a phenyl group. As such, its systematic IUPAC name is methylbenzene. Toluene is predominantly used as an industrial feedstock and a solvent.\nAs the solvent in some types of paint thinner, permanent markers, contact cement and certain types of glue, toluene is sometimes used as a recreational inhalant and has the potential of causing severe neurological harm.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Total Worker Health is a trademarked strategy defined as policies, programs, and practices that integrate protection from work-related safety and health hazards with promotion of injury and illness prevention efforts to advance worker well-being. It was conceived and is funded by the  National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Total Worker Health is tested and developed in six Centers of Excellence for Total Worker Health in the United States.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell (cytotoxicity) or an organ such as the liver (hepatotoxicity). By extension, the word may be metaphorically used to describe toxic effects on larger and more complex groups, such as the family unit or society at large. Sometimes the word is more or less synonymous with poisoning in everyday usage.\nA central concept of toxicology is that the effects of a toxicant are dose-dependent; even water can lead to water intoxication when taken in too high a dose, whereas for even a very toxic substance such as snake venom there is a dose below which there is no detectable toxic effect. Toxicity is species-specific, making cross-species analysis problematic. Newer paradigms and metrics are evolving to bypass animal testing, while maintaining the concept of toxicity endpoints.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Tread plate, also known as checker plate and diamond plate, is a type of metal stock with a regular pattern or lines on one side for slip resistance. The most common alloy used for aluminum tread plate is 6061, although 5086-H34 and 3003-H231 are also used. Diamond plate is usually steel, stainless steel or aluminium. Steel types are normally made by hot rolling, although modern manufacturers also make a raised and pressed diamond design.\nThe added texture reduces the risk of slipping, making diamond plate a solution for stairs, catwalks, walkways, and ramps in industrial settings. Its non-skid properties mean that diamond plate is frequently used on the interior of ambulances and on the footplates of firetrucks. Additional applications include truck beds and trailer floors. \nTread plate can also be used decoratively, particularly highly polished aluminum variants. Manufactured in plastic, diamond plate is marketed as an interlocking tile system to be installed on garage floors, trailers, and exercise rooms.\nTread plate may be used for surface protection against damage from foot traffic or harmful chemicals. Manufactured with polymer variants, inter-locking diamond plate tile is used in areas with high surface-erosive traffic.\n\"Diamond plate\" can also refer to similar anti-slip textures.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Violence against healthcare professional has occurred in the form of physical violence, verbal abuse, aggressive gestures, blackmail, and cyber-bullying. Violence against doctors has been observed in the United States, Australia, India, China, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and others.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that have a high vapour pressure at room temperature. High vapor pressure correlates with a low boiling point, which relates to the number of the sample's molecules in the surrounding air, a trait known as volatility.VOCs are responsible for the odor of scents and perfumes as well as pollutants. VOCs play an important role in communication between animals and plants, e.g. attractants for pollinators, protection from predation, and even inter-plant interactions. Some VOCs are dangerous to human health or cause harm to the environment. Anthropogenic VOCs are regulated by law, especially indoors, where concentrations are the highest. Most VOCs are not acutely toxic, but may have long-term chronic health effects.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Voluntary Protection Programs (VPP) is an Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) initiative that encourages private industry and federal agencies to prevent workplace injuries and illnesses through hazard prevention and control, worksite analysis, training; and cooperation between management and workers. VPP enlists worker involvement to achieve injury and illness rates that are below national Bureau of Labor Statistics averages for their respective industries.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Water safety refers to the procedures, precautions and policies associated with safety in, on, and around bodies of water, where there is a risk of injury or drowning.\nIt has applications in several occupations, sports and recreational activities.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The International Wellbeing at Work (WAW) series of academic conferences is relatively new in the field of occupational safety and health. WAW has been held biannually since 2010 and attracts researchers and practitioners of the field. In 2016, WAW 2016 was hosted by TNO  in Amsterdam;  in 2014, by NRCWE in Copenhagen .  WAW 2012 was held in Manchester, Great Britain; The WAW 2019 in Paris. The local organizer of this edition was INRS. In 2020, CIOP-PIB organized the edition on-line on the theme of Wellbeing at Work in Hectic Times.\nThe organization of this cycle of conferences is supported by the PEROSH \"Wellbeing and Work\" project group.\nPerosh in the European Network for Research on Occupational Safety and Health. Wellbeing at work is considered a strategic component of OSH in Europe.It is not to be confused with the Health and Wellbeing at Work Conference, which is a purely commercial event, held only in UK,  [1]", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) is a type of apparent temperature used to estimate the effect of temperature, humidity, wind speed (wind chill), and visible and infrared radiation (usually sunlight) on humans.  It is used by industrial hygienists, athletes, sporting events and the military to determine appropriate exposure levels to high temperatures.  It is derived from the following formula:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          W\n          B\n          G\n          T\n        \n        =\n        0.7\n        \n          T\n          \n            \n              w\n            \n          \n        \n        +\n        0.2\n        \n          T\n          \n            \n              g\n            \n          \n        \n        +\n        0.1\n        \n          T\n          \n            \n              d\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {WBGT} =0.7T_{\\mathrm {w} }+0.2T_{\\mathrm {g} }+0.1T_{\\mathrm {d} }}\n  where \n\nTw = Natural wet-bulb temperature (combined with dry-bulb temperature indicates humidity)\nTg = Globe thermometer temperature (measured with a globe thermometer, also known as a black globe thermometer)\nTd = Dry-bulb temperature (actual air temperature)\nTemperatures may be in either Celsius or FahrenheitIndoors, or when solar radiation is negligible, the following formula is often used:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          W\n          B\n          G\n          T\n        \n        =\n        0.7\n        \n          T\n          \n            \n              w\n            \n          \n        \n        +\n        0.3\n        \n          T\n          \n            \n              g\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {WBGT} =0.7T_{\\mathrm {w} }+0.3T_{\\mathrm {g} }}\n  \n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Wildfire suppression is a range of firefighting tactics used to suppress wildfires. Firefighting efforts in wild land areas require different techniques, equipment, and training from the more familiar structure fire fighting found in populated areas.  Working in conjunction with specially designed aerial firefighting aircraft, these wildfire-trained crews suppress flames, construct fire lines, and extinguish flames and areas of heat to protect resources and natural wilderness.  Wildfire suppression also addresses the issues of the wildland\u2013urban interface, where populated areas border with wild land areas.\nIn the United States and other countries, aggressive wildfire suppression aimed at minimizing fire has contributed to accumulation of fuel loads, increasing the risk of large, catastrophic fires.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A work accident, workplace accident, occupational accident, or accident at work is a \"discrete occurrence in the course of work\" leading to physical or mental occupational injury. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), more than 337 million accidents happen on the job each year, resulting, together with occupational diseases, in more than 2.3 million deaths annually.The phrase \"in the course of work\" can include work-related accidents happening off the company's premises, and can include accidents caused by third parties, according to Eurostat. The definition of work accident includes accidents occurring \"while engaged in an economic activity, or at work, or carrying on the business of the employer\" according to the ILO.\nThe phrase \"physical or mental harm\" means any injury, disease, or death. Occupational accidents differ from occupational diseases as accidents are unexpected and unplanned occurrences (e.g., mine collapse), while occupational diseases are \"contracted as a result of an exposure over a period of time to risk factors arising from work activity\" (e.g., miner's lung).Incidents that fall within the definition of occupational accidents include cases of acute poisoning, attacks by humans and animals, insects etc., slips and falls on pavements or staircases, traffic collisions, and accidents on board means of transportation in the course of work, accidents in airports, stations and so on.\nThere is no consensus as to whether commuting accidents (i.e. accidents on the way to work and while returning home after work) should be considered to be work accidents. The ESAW methodology excludes them; the ILO includes them in its conventions concerning Health & Safety at work, although it lists them as a separate category of accidents; and some countries (e.g., Greece) do not distinguish them from other work accidents.A fatal accident at work is defined as an accident which leads to the death of a victim. The time within which the death may occur varies among countries: In Netherlands an accident is registered as fatal if the victim dies during the same day that the accident happened, in Germany if death came within 30 days, while Belgium, France and Greece set no time limit.Where the accidents involve multiple fatalities they are often referred to as industrial disasters.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Work Improvement in Small Enterprises (WISE) is a practical programme developed by the International Labour Organization for improvement of occupational health and safety conditions - in particular small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).  It is a highly pragmatic approach that focus on simple low-cost interventions which improve both labor productivity and work conditions at the same time.  A complete training package with an action manual and a trainers' manual is available from the ILO.\nThe programme has found particular use in developing economies.\nThe programme was originally launched as a PIACT activity in 1976.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A work method statement, sometimes referred to as a safe work method statement or SWMS or a safe work procedure, is a part of a workplace safety plan. It is primarily used in construction to describe a document that gives specific instructions on how to safely perform a work related task, or operate a piece of plant or equipment. In many countries it is law to have work method statements, or similar, in place to advise employees and contractors on how to perform work related tasks safely.The statement is generally used as part of a safety induction and then referred to as required throughout a workplace, they should outline all the hazards that are likely to be encountered when undertaking a task or process and provide detailed guidance on how to carry out the task safely...", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "People who are driving as part of their work duties are an important road user category. First, workers themselves are at risk of road traffic injury. Contributing factors include fatigue and long work hours, delivery pressures, distractions from mobile phones and other devices, lack of training to operate the assigned vehicle, vehicle defects, use of prescription and non-prescription medications, medical conditions, and poor journey planning. Death, disability, or injury of a family wage earner due to road traffic injury, in addition to causing emotional pain and suffering, creates economic hardship for the injured worker and family members that may persist well beyond the event itself.\nEmployers are in a unique position because they can use the employer-employee relationship as leverage to complement and enforce government policies that require safety belt use, prohibit impaired driving, and prohibit mobile-phone use and other forms of distracted driving. Safe-driving policies implemented in the workplace can promote safer driving away from work. In addition, employers, as purchasers of large fleets of vehicles, can spur improvements in vehicle safety, and encourage development of road safety capacity and legislation in the local areas and countries in which they operate, thereby improving road safety for all.\nResearch examining motor vehicle crashes has focused on topics such as driver fatigue, medical conditions, distracted driving, biomechanics, vehicle engineering, collision warning systems, stability control, naturalistic driving data and the potential relation these factors have on the crashes. Various interventions from researchers studying driver behaviours have focused on vehicle monitoring devices, seat belt controls, behaviour interventions and obeying safe driving practices.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Worker Protection Standard is intended to protect employees on farms, forests, nurseries, and greenhouses that are occupationally exposed to agricultural pesticides.This is managed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and is separate from the Hazard Communication Standard managed by Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Worker road safety refers to the economic, societal, and legal ramifications of protecting workers from automobile-related injury, disability, and death. Road traffic crashes are a leading cause of occupational fatalities throughout the world, especially in developing countries. In addition to the suffering of the workers and their families, businesses and society also bear direct and indirect costs. These include increased insurance premiums, the threat of litigation, loss of an employee, and destruction of property.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Workers' Memorial Day, also known as International Workers' Memorial Day or International Commemoration Day for Dead and Injured, takes place annually around the world on April 28, an international day of remembrance and action for workers killed, disabled, injured, or made unwell by their work. In Canada, it is commemorated as the National Day of Mourning.\nWorkers' Memorial Day is an opportunity to highlight the preventable nature of most workplace incidents and ill health and to promote campaigns and union organization in the fight for improvements in workplace safety. The slogan for the day is Remember the dead \u2013 Fight for the living.Although April 28 is used as the focal point for remembrance and a day of international solidarity, campaigning and other related activities continue throughout the year right around the world.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Workers' right to access the toilet refers to the rights of employees to take a break when they need to use the toilet. The right to access a toilet is a basic human need. Unless both the employee and employer agree to compensate the employee on rest breaks an employer cannot take away the worker's right to access a toilet facility while working. There is limited information on the rights workers have to access public toilets among the world's legal systems. The law is not clear in New Zealand, United Kingdom, or the United States of America as to the amount of time a worker is entitled to use a toilet while working. Nor is there clarification on what constitutes a 'reasonable' amount of access to a toilet. Consequently, the lack of access to toilet facilities has become a health issue for many workers. Issues around workplace allowance to use a toilet has given light on issues such as workers having to ask permission to use a toilet and some workers having their pay deducted for the mere human right of using a toilet when they need to.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Workplace exposure monitoring is the monitoring of substances in a workplace that are chemical or biological hazards.  It is performed in the context of workplace exposure assessment and risk assessment.  Exposure monitoring analyzes hazardous substances in the air or on surfaces of a workplace, and is complementary to biomonitoring, which instead analyzes toxicants or their effects within workers.\nA wide array of methods and instrumentation are used in workplace exposure monitoring.  Direct-read instruments give immediate data, and include colorimetric indicators such as gas detector tubes, and electronic devices such as gas monitors and aerosol particle counters.  In addition, samples may be collected and sent to a laboratory for slower but often more thorough analysis.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Hazard controls for COVID-19 in workplaces are the application of occupational safety and health methodologies for hazard controls to the prevention of COVID-19. Vaccination is the most effective way to protect against severe illness or death from COVID-19. Multiple layers of controls are recommended, including measures such as remote work and flextime, increased ventilation, personal protective equipment (PPE) and face coverings, social distancing, and enhanced cleaning programs.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS; French: Syst\u00e8me d'information sur les mati\u00e8res dangereuses utilis\u00e9es au travail, SIMDUT) is Canada's national workplace hazard communication standard. The key elements of the system, which came into effect on October 31, 1988, are cautionary labelling of containers of WHMIS controlled products, the provision of material safety data sheets (MSDSs) and worker education and site-specific training programs.\nWHMIS is an example of synchronization and cooperation amongst Canada's federal, provincial and territorial governments. The coordinated approach avoided duplication, inefficiency through loss of scale and the interprovincial trade barriers that would have been created had each province and territory established its own hazard communication system.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Workplace health promotion is the combined efforts of employers, employees, and society to improve the mental and physical health and well-being of people at work. The term workplace health promotion denotes a comprehensive analysis and design of human and organizational work levels with the strategic aim of developing and improving health resources in an enterprise. The World Health Organization has prioritized the workplace as a setting for health promotion because of the large potential audience and influence on all spheres of a person's life. The Luxembourg Declaration provides that health and well-being of employees at work can be achieved through a combination of:\n\nImproving the organization and the working environment\nPromoting active participation\nEncouraging personal development.Workplace health promotion combines alleviation of health risk factors with enhancement of health strengthening factors and seeks to further develop protection factors and health potentials. Workplace health promotion is complementary to the discipline of occupational safety and health, which consists of protecting workers from hazards. Successful workplace health promotion strategies include the principles of participation, project management, integration, and comprehensiveness:\n\nParticipation: all staff must be included in all program stages\nProject management: programs must be oriented toward the problem-solving cycle\nIntegration: programs must be incorporated into company management practices and workplace health-promotion strategies should influence corporate planning\nComprehensiveness: programs must incorporate interdisciplinary individual-directed and environment-directed health strategies.A report by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work notes growing evidence that significant cost savings can be made by implementing workplace health promotion strategies, and over 90% of United States workplaces with greater than 50 employees have health promotion programs in place.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The impact of artificial intelligence on workers includes both applications to improve worker safety and health, and potential hazards that must be controlled.\nOne potential application is using AI to eliminate hazards by removing humans from hazardous situations that involve risk of stress, overwork, or musculoskeletal injuries.  Predictive analytics may also be used to identify conditions that may lead to hazards such as fatigue, repetitive strain injuries, or toxic substance exposure, leading to earlier interventions.  Another is to streamline workplace safety and health workflows through automating repetitive tasks, enhancing safety training programs through virtual reality, or detecting and reporting near misses.\nWhen used in the workplace, AI also presents the possibility of new hazards.  These may arise from machine learning techniques leading to unpredictable behavior and inscrutability in their decision-making, or from cybersecurity and information privacy issues.  Many hazards of AI are psychosocial due to its potential to cause changes in work organization.  These include changes in the skills required of workers, increased monitoring leading to micromanagement, algorithms unintentionally or intentionally mimicking undesirable human biases, and assigning blame for machine errors to the human operator instead.  AI may also lead to physical hazards in the form of human\u2013robot collisions, and ergonomic risks of control interfaces and human\u2013machine interactions.  Hazard controls include cybersecurity and information privacy measures, communication and transparency with workers about data usage, and limitations on collaborative robots.\nFrom a workplace safety and health perspective, only \"weak\" or \"narrow\" AI that is tailored to a specific task is relevant, as there are many examples that are currently in use or expected to come into use in the near future.  \"Strong\" or \"general\" AI is not expected to be feasible in the near future, and discussion of its risks is within the purview of futurists and philosophers rather than industrial hygienists.\nCertain digital technologies are predicted to result in job losses. In recent years, the adoption of modern robotics has led to net employment growth. However, many businesses anticipate that automation, or employing robots would result in job losses in the future. This is especially true for companies in Central and Eastern Europe. Other digital technologies, such as platforms or big data, are projected to have a more neutral impact on employment.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Workplace revenge refers to the general action of purposeful retaliation within the workplace in an attempt to seek silence the victim and avoid accountability.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Workplace robotics safety is an aspect of occupational safety and health when robots are used in the workplace.  This includes traditional industrial robots as well as emerging technologies such as drone aircraft and wearable robotic exoskeletons.  Types of accidents include collisions, crushing, and injuries from mechanical parts.  Hazard controls include physical barriers, good work practices, and proper maintenance. Previous research showed that robot application is associated with an increase in the rate of occupational injuries in the first two years, and then becomes insignificant and even negative afterwards. Local governments can reduce or even eliminate the effect of robot application on occupational injuries by strengthening safety regulations. In addition, although local governments are keen on pushing robot application and industrial intelligence, the wide application of robots may impose a burden on the public health expenditure of local governments due to occupational injuries.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Workplace Safety and Health Council (WSHC) was formed on 1 April 2008. It is an industry-led statutory body that is based in Singapore. The WSHC can be considered a successor institution to the Workplace Safety and Health Advisory Committee (WSHAC), which was formed in September 2005. The WSHC has statutory powers.\nThe WSHC comprises seventeen leaders from the major industry sectors (including construction, manufacturing, marine industries, petrochemicals and logistics), the government, unions and professionals from the legal, insurance and academic fields.\nUnder the WSHC, seven industry committees, three taskforces and two workgroups exist to address the specific workplace health and safety challenges found in their respective sectors:\n\nConstruction and Landscape Committee\nChemical Industries Committee\nHealthcare Committee\nHospitality & Entertainment Industries Committee\nLogistics and Transport Committee\nMarine Industries Committee\nMetalworking and Manufacturing Committee\nChemical Management & GHS Hazard Communication Taskforce\nCrane Safety Taskforce\nWork at Height Safety Taskforce\nInsurance Workgroup\nFacilities Management WorkgroupThree functional committees exist to identify, champion, and implement initiatives in the following areas:\n\nEngagement and outreach;\nIndustry capability building; and\nWorkplace health", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Singapore Ministry of Manpower is the responsible authority for occupational safety and health in Singapore.  The Workplace Safety and Health Act 2006 addresses requirements for safety and health in workplaces in Singapore and replaced the Factories Act as of 1 March 2006.  The Workplace Safety and Health Council is an industry-led Statutory Body that was formed on 1 April 2008.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Workplace safety standards are sets of standards, aimed at safety at workplaces and to reduce occupational risk from occupational illnesses.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Workplace violence (WPV), violence in the workplace (VIW), or occupational violence refers to violence, usually in the form of physical abuse or threat, that creates a risk to the health and safety of an employee or multiple employees. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health defines worker on worker, personal relationship, customer/client, and criminal intent all as categories of violence in the workplace.  These four categories are further broken down into three levels: Level one displays early warning signs of violence, Level two is slightly more violent, and level three is significantly violent. Many workplaces have initiated programs and protocols to protect their workers as the Occupational Health Act of 1970 states that employers must provide an environment in which employees are free of harm or harmful conditions.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Workplace wellness, known as 'corporate wellbeing' outside the US, is a broad term used to describe activities, programs, and/or organizational policies designed to support healthy behavior in the workplace. This often involves health education, medical screenings, weight management programs, and onsite fitness programs or facilities. Recent developments in wearable health technology have led to a rise in self-tracking devices as workplace wellness. Other common examples of workplace wellness organizational policies include allowing flex-time for exercise, providing onsite kitchen and eating areas, offering healthy food options in vending machines, holding \"walk and talk\" meetings, and offering financial and other incentives for participation. Over time, workplace wellness has expanded from single health promotion interventions to describe a larger project intended to create a healthier working environment.\nCompanies most commonly subsidize workplace wellness programs in the hope that they will save money on employee health benefits like health insurance in the long run.  Although the academic debate is still unsettled, existing research has failed to establish a clinically significant difference in health outcomes, prove a return on investment, or demonstrate causal effects of treatments. The largest benefits have been observed in groups that were already attempting to manage health concerns, which indicates a strong possibility of selection bias. Additionally, this rationale has been critiqued for conflating productivity with physical and emotional wellbeing and prioritizing profit-centric measures over genuine attempts to create a healthy workplace environment.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In organic chemistry, xylene or xylol (from Greek  \u03be\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd (xylon) 'wood'; IUPAC name: dimethylbenzene) are any of three organic compounds with the formula (CH3)2C6H4. They are derived from the substitution of two hydrogen atoms with methyl groups in a benzene ring; which hydrogens are substituted determines which of three structural isomers results. It is a colorless, flammable, slightly greasy liquid of great industrial value.The mixture is referred to as both xylene and, more precisely, xylenes. Mixed xylenes refers to a mixture of the xylenes plus ethylbenzene. The four compounds have identical empirical formulas C8H10. Typically the four compounds are produced together by various catalytic reforming and pyrolysis methods.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Around the world, nearly 250 million children, about one in every six children, ages 5 through 17, are involved in child labor. Children can be found in almost any economic sector. However, at a global level, most of them work in agriculture (70%). Approximately 2.4 million adolescents aged 16 to 17 years worked in the U.S. in 2006. Official employment statistics are not available for younger adolescents who are also known to work, especially in agricultural settings.\nIn 2006, 30 youth under 18 died from work-related injuries in the U.S. In 2003, an estimated 54,800 work-related injuries and illnesses among youth less than 18 years of age were treated in hospital emergency departments. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health reports that only one-third of work-related injuries are seen in emergency departments, therefore it is likely that approximately 160,000 youth sustain work-related injuries and illnesses each year. The highest number of teen worker fatalities occur in agricultural work and the retail trades, according to recent data. Across Europe, 18- to 24-year-olds are at least 50% more likely to be injured in the workplace than more experienced workers.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Australian paradox is an observation of diverging trends in sugar consumption and obesity rates in Australia. The term was first used in a 2011 study published in Nutrients by Professor Jennie Brand-Miller, in which she and co-author Dr Alan Barclay reported that, in Australia, \"a substantial decline in refined sugars intake occurred over the same timeframe that obesity has increased.\"The \"paradox\" in its name refers to the fact that sugar consumption is often considered (for example by Robert Lustig) to be a significant contributor to rising obesity rates, and because ecological studies in the United States have found a positive relationship over certain time periods between sugar consumption and obesity prevalence, although added sugars consumption is now also declining in the United States.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The French paradox  is an apparently paradoxical epidemiological observation that French people have a relatively low incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD), while having a diet relatively rich in saturated fats, in apparent contradiction to the widely held belief that the high consumption of such fats is a risk factor for CHD.  The paradox is that if the thesis linking saturated fats to CHD is valid, the French ought to have a higher rate of CHD than comparable countries where the per capita consumption of such fats is lower.\nIt has also been suggested that the French paradox is an illusion, created in part by differences in the way that French authorities collect health statistics, as compared to other countries, and in part by the long-term effects, in the coronary health of French citizens, of changes in dietary patterns which were adopted years earlier.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The glucose paradox was the observation that the large amount of glycogen in the liver was not explained by the small amount of glucose absorbed. The explanation was that the majority of glycogen is made from a number of substances other than glucose. The glucose paradox was first formulated by biochemists J. Denis McGarry and Joseph Katz in 1984.The glucose paradox demonstrates the importance of the chemical compound lactate in the biochemical process of carbohydrate metabolism. The paradox is that the large amount of glycogen (10%) found in the liver cannot be explained by the liver's small absorption of glucose. After the body's digestion of carbohydrates and the entering the circulatory system in the form of glucose, some will be absorbed directly into the muscle tissue and will be converted into lactic acid throughout the anaerobic energy system, rather than going directly to the liver and being converted into glycogen. The lactate is then taken and converted by the liver, forming the material for liver glycogen. The majority of the body's liver glycogen is produced indirectly, rather than directly from glucose in the blood. Under normal physiological conditions, glucose is a poor precursor compound and use by the liver is limited.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The male-female health-survival paradox, also known as the morbidity-mortality paradox or gender paradox, is the phenomenon in which women experience more medical conditions and disability during their lives, but they unexpectedly live longer than men.  This paradox, where women experience greater morbidity (diseases) but lower mortality (death) in comparison to men, is unusual since it is expected that experiencing disease increases the likelihood of death. However, in this case, the part of the population that experiences more disease and disability is the one that lives longer.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Hispanic paradox is an epidemiological finding that Hispanic Americans tend to have health outcomes that \"paradoxically\" are comparable to, or in some cases better than, those of their U.S. non-Hispanic White counterparts, even though Hispanics have lower average income and education. Low socioeconomic status is almost universally associated with worse population health and higher death rates everywhere in the world. The paradox usually refers in particular to low mortality among Hispanics in the United States relative to non-Hispanic Whites. According to the Center for Disease Control's 2015 Vital Signs report, Hispanics in the United States had a 24% lower risk of mortality, as well as lower risk for nine of the fifteen leading causes of death as compared to Whites.There are multiple hypotheses which aim to determine the reason for the existence of this paradox. Some attribute the Hispanic paradox to biases created by patterns or selection in migration. One such hypothesis is the Salmon Bias, which suggests that Hispanics tend to return home towards the end of their lives, ultimately rendering an individual \"statistically immortal\" and thus artificially lowering mortality for Hispanics in the United States. Another hypothesis in this group is that of the Healthy Migrant, which attributes the better health of Hispanics to the assumption that the healthiest and strongest members of a population are most likely to migrate.Other hypotheses around the Hispanic paradox maintain that the phenomenon is real, and is caused by sociocultural factors which characterize the Hispanic population. Many of these factors can be described under the more broad categories of cultural values, interpersonal context, and community context. Some health researchers attribute the Hispanic paradox to different eating habits, especially the relatively high intake of legumes such as beans and lentils.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Hormesis is a characteristic of many biological processes, namely a biphasic or triphasic response to exposure to increasing amounts of a substance or condition. Within the hormetic zone, the biological response to low exposures to toxins and other stressors is generally favorable. The term \"hormesis\" comes from Greek h\u00f3rm\u0113sis \"rapid motion, eagerness\", itself from ancient Greek horm\u00e1ein \"to set in motion, impel, urge on\", the same Greek root as the word hormone. The term 'hormetics' has been proposed for the study and science of hormesis.\nIn toxicology, hormesis is a dose response phenomenon to xenobiotics or other stressors characterized by a low-dose stimulation, with zero dose and high-dose inhibition, thus resulting in a J-shaped or an inverted U-shaped dose response (e.g. the arms of the \"U\" are inhibitory or toxic concentrations whereas the curve region stimulates a beneficial response.) Generally speaking, hormesis pertains to the study of benefits of exposure to toxins such as radiation or mercury (perhaps analogous to health paradoxes such as the smoker's paradox, although differing by virtue of dose-dependent effects). Microdosing, and to some extent homeopathy, are often regarded as applications of hormesis.In physiology and nutrition, hormesis can be visualized as a hormetic curve with regions of deficiency, homeostasis, and toxicity. Physiological concentrations deviating above or below homeostasis concentrations adversely affects an organism, thus in this context, the hormetic zone is synonymously known as the region of homeostasis. In pharmacology the hormetic zone is similar to the therapeutic window. Some psychological or environmental factors that would seem to produce positive responses have also been termed \"eustress\".\nIn the context of toxicology, the hormesis model of dose response is vigorously debated. The biochemical mechanisms by which hormesis works (particularly in applied cases pertaining to behavior and toxins) remain under early laboratory research and are not well understood. The notion that hormesis is an important policy factor for chemical risk regulations is not widely accepted.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The immigrant paradox in the United States is an observation that recent immigrants often outperform more established immigrants and non-immigrants on a number of health-, education-, and conduct- or crime-related outcomes, despite the numerous barriers they face to successful social integration.\n\nAccording to the UN, the number of first-generation immigrants worldwide is 244 million. \nThese large-scale population changes worldwide have led many scholars, across fields, to study the acculturation and adjustment of immigrants to their new homes. Specifically, researchers have examined immigrant experiences as they pertain to educational attainment, mental and physical health, and conduct/crime.\nResearchers have tried to understand why later generations seem to perform less well than their forebears. They have found that it can be explained by non-optimal methodology and differences in the way generations are modified by the host culture.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Israeli paradox  is an apparently paradoxical epidemiological observation that Israeli Jews have a relatively high incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD), despite having a diet relatively low in saturated fats, in apparent contradiction to the widely held belief that the high consumption of such fats is a risk factor for CHD.  The paradox is that if the thesis linking saturated fats to CHD is valid, the Israelis ought to have a lower rate of CHD than comparable countries where the per capita consumption of such fats is higher.\nThe observation of Israel's paradoxically high rate of CHD is one of a number of paradoxical outcomes for which a literature now exists, regarding the thesis that a high consumption of saturated fats ought to lead to an increase in CHD incidence, and that a lower consumption ought to lead to the reverse outcome. The most famous of these paradoxes is known as the \"French paradox\": France enjoys a relatively low incidence of CHD despite a high per-capita consumption of saturated fat.\nThe Israeli paradox implies two important possibilities. The first is that the hypothesis linking saturated fats to CHD is not completely valid (or, at the extreme, is entirely invalid). The second possibility is that the link between saturated fats and CHD is valid, but that some additional factor in the typical Israeli diet, lifestyle or genes creates another CHD risk\u2014presumably with the implication that if this factor can be identified, it can be isolated in the diet or lifestyle of other countries, thereby allowing both the Israelis, and others, to avoid that particular risk.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The low birth-weight paradox is an apparently paradoxical observation relating to the birth weights and mortality rate of children born to tobacco smoking mothers. Low birth-weight children born to smoking mothers have a lower infant mortality rate than the low birth weight children of non-smokers. It is an example of Simpson's paradox.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Mexican paradox is the observation that Mexicans exhibit a surprisingly low incidence of low birth weight (especially foreign-born Mexican mothers), contrary to what would be expected from their socioeconomic status (SES). This appears as an outlier in graphs correlating SES with low-birth-weight rates. The medical causes of lower rates of low birth weights among birthing Mexican mothers has been called into question.The Hispanic paradox refers to the same phenomenon observed across the populations of South and Central America, where Mexicans remain the healthier.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Mossman\u2013Pacey paradox is an evolutionary irony in which certain actions often taken by men to improve their sexual attractiveness end up lowering their fertility.One of the most prevalent manifestations of this phenomenon is the use of anabolic steroids by some men (particularly if they go to the gym). These steroids can help build larger muscles, but can also lead to side effects such as smaller testicles, erectile dysfunction, and lower sperm count. One of the main reasons for this is that anabolic steroids can stop the pituitary gland producing the hormones LH and FSH. It has been estimated that approximately 90% of anabolic steroid users are at risk of infertility.Another major example is that the use of balding medications such as finasteride can reduce fertility.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The obesity paradox is a medical hypothesis which holds that obesity (and high cholesterol, when the more global term \"reverse epidemiology\" is used) may, counterintuitively, be protective and associated with greater survival in certain groups of people, such as very elderly individuals or those with certain chronic diseases. It further postulates that normal to low body mass index (BMI) or normal values of cholesterol may be detrimental and associated with higher mortality in asymptomatic people. The hypothesis is controversial and is disputed by many scientists.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Paradoxical reaction (or Paradoxical effect) is an effect of a chemical substance such as a medical drug, that is opposite to what would usually be expected. An example of a paradoxical reaction is pain caused by a pain relief medication.\nParadoxical reactions are more commonly observed in people with ADHD.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Peto's paradox is an observation that at the species level, the incidence of cancer does not appear to correlate with the number of cells in an organism. For example, the incidence of cancer in humans is much higher than the incidence of cancer in whales, despite whales having more cells than humans. If the probability of carcinogenesis were constant across cells, one would expect whales to have a higher incidence of cancer than humans. Peto's paradox is named after English statistician and epidemiologist Richard Peto, who first observed the connection.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Pulsus paradoxus, also paradoxic pulse or paradoxical pulse, is an abnormally large decrease in stroke volume, systolic blood pressure and pulse wave amplitude during inspiration. The normal fall in pressure is less than 10 mmHg. When the drop is more than 10 mmHg, it is referred to as pulsus paradoxus. Pulsus paradoxus is not related to pulse rate or heart rate, and it is not a paradoxical rise in systolic pressure. The normal variation of blood pressure during breathing/respiration is a decline in blood pressure during inhalation and an increase during exhalation. Pulsus paradoxus is a sign that is indicative of several conditions, including cardiac tamponade, chronic sleep apnea, croup, and obstructive lung disease (e.g. asthma, COPD).The paradox in pulsus paradoxus is that, on physical examination, one can detect beats on cardiac auscultation during inspiration that cannot be palpated at the radial pulse. It results from an accentuated decrease of the blood pressure, which leads to the (radial) pulse not being palpable and may be accompanied by an increase in the jugular venous pressure height (Kussmaul's sign).  As is usual with inspiration, the heart rate is slightly increased, due to decreased  left ventricular output.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Physical fitness is a state of health and well-being and, more specifically, the ability to perform aspects of sports, occupations and daily activities. Physical fitness is generally achieved through proper nutrition, moderate-vigorous physical exercise, and sufficient rest along with a formal recovery plan.Before the Industrial Revolution, fitness was defined as the capacity to carry out the day's activities without undue fatigue or lethargy. However, with automation and changes in lifestyles, physical fitness is now considered a measure of the body's ability to function efficiently and effectively in work and leisure activities, to be healthy, to resist hypokinetic diseases, improve immune system and to meet emergency situations.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Age-related mobility disability is a self-reported inability to walk due to impairments, limited mobility, dexterity or stamina. It has been found mostly in older adults with decreased strength in lower extremities.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Agility or nimbleness is an ability to change the body's position quickly and requires the integration of isolated movement skills using a combination of balance, coordination, speed, reflexes, strength, and endurance. More specifically, it is dependent on:\n\nBalance \u2013 The ability to maintain equilibrium when stationary or moving (i.e. not to fall over) through the coordinated actions of our sensory functions (eyes, ears and the proprioceptive organs in our joints);\nStatic balance \u2013 The ability to retain the center of mass above the base of support in a stationary position;\nDynamic balance \u2013 The ability to maintain balance with body movement;\nSpeed - The ability to move all or part of the body quickly;\nStrength - The ability of a muscle or muscle group to overcome a resistance; and lastly,\nCoordination \u2013 The ability to control the movement of the body in co-operation with the body's sensory functions (e.g., in catching a ball [ball, hand, and eye coordination]).In sports, agility is often defined in terms of an individual sport, due to it being an integration of many components each used differently (specific to all of sorts of different sports). Sheppard and Young (2006) defined agility as a \"rapid whole body movement with change of direction or velocity in response to a stimulus\".Agility is also an important attribute in many role playing games, both video games such as Pok\u00e9mon, and tabletop games such as Dungeons & Dragons. Agility may affect the character's ability to evade an enemy's attack or land their own, or pickpocket and pick locks.\nIn modern-day psychology, author, psychologist, and executive coach Susan David introduces a concept that she terms \u201cemotional agility,\u201d defined as: \u201cbeing flexible with your thoughts and feelings so that you can respond optimally to everyday situations.\u201dThe concept has also been applied to higher education management and leadership, where it was used to accelerate slower traditional and deliberative processes and to replace them with corporate decision-making.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Balance in biomechanics, is an ability to maintain the line of gravity (vertical line from centre of mass) of a body within the base of support with minimal postural sway. Sway is the horizontal movement of the centre of gravity even when a person is standing still. A certain amount of sway is essential and inevitable due to small perturbations within the body (e.g., breathing, shifting body weight from one foot to the other or from forefoot to rearfoot) or from external triggers (e.g., visual distortions, floor translations). An increase in sway is not necessarily an indicator of dysfunctional balance so much as it is an indicator of decreased sensorimotor control.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) refers to the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to supply oxygen to skeletal muscles during sustained physical activity. The primary measure of CRF is VO2 max. In 2016, the American Heart Association published an official scientific statement advocating that CRF be categorized as a clinical vital sign and should be routinely assessed as part of clinical practice.Regular exercise makes these systems more efficient by enlarging the heart muscle, enabling more blood to be pumped with each stroke, and increasing the number of small arteries in trained skeletal muscles, which supply more blood to working muscles. Exercise improves not just  the respiratory system but the heart by increasing the amount of oxygen that is inhaled and distributed to body tissue. A 2005 Cochrane review demonstrated that physical activity interventions are effective for increasing cardiovascular fitness.There are many benefits of cardiorespiratory fitness. It can reduce the risk of heart disease, lung cancer, type 2 diabetes, stroke, and other diseases. Cardiorespiratory fitness helps improve lung and heart condition, and increases feelings of wellbeing. Additionally, there is mounting evidence that CRF is potentially a stronger predictor of mortality than other established risk factors such as smoking, hypertension, high cholesterol, and type 2 diabetes. Recently, a new study demonstrated the levels of CRF were associated with early deaths <65 years old among recent generations. Low CRF might be emerging to a new risk factor for early death among US Baby Boomers and Generation Xers. Significantly, CRF can be added to these traditional risk factors to improve risk prediction validity.The American College of Sports Medicine recommends aerobic exercise 3\u20135 times per week for 30\u201360 minutes per session, at a moderate intensity, that maintains the heart rate between 65 and 85% of the maximum heart rate.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Cardiovascular fitness is a health-related component of physical fitness that is brought about by sustained physical activity.  A person's ability to deliver oxygen to the working muscles is affected by many physiological parameters, including heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, and maximal oxygen consumption.Understanding the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and other categories of conditioning requires a review of changes that occur with increased aerobic, or anaerobic capacity. As aerobic/anaerobic capacity increases, general metabolism rises, muscle metabolism is enhanced, haemoglobin rises, buffers in the bloodstream increase, venous return is improved, stroke volume is improved, and the blood bed becomes more able to adapt readily to varying demands. Each of these results of cardiovascular fitness/cardiorespiratory conditioning will have a direct positive effect on muscular endurance, and an indirect effect on strength and flexibility.To facilitate optimal delivery of oxygen to the working muscles, an individual needs to train or participate in activities that will build up the energy stores needed for sport. This is referred to as metabolic training. Metabolic training is generally divided into two types: aerobic and anaerobic. A 2005 Cochrane review demonstrated that physical activity interventions are effective for increasing cardiovascular fitness.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Endurance (also related to sufferance, resilience, constitution, fortitude, and hardiness) is the ability of an organism to exert itself and remain active for a long period of time, as well as its ability to resist, withstand, recover from and have immunity to trauma, wounds or fatigue. It is usually used in aerobic or anaerobic exercise. The definition of 'long' varies according to the type of exertion \u2013 minutes for high intensity anaerobic exercise, hours or days for low intensity aerobic exercise. Training for endurance can reduce the ability to exert endurance strength unless an individual also undertakes resistance training to counteract this effect.\nWhen a person is able to accomplish or withstand a higher amount of effort than their original capabilities their endurance is increasing which to many personnel indicates progress. In looking to improve one's endurance they may slowly increase the amount of repetitions or time spent, if higher repetitions are taken rapidly muscle strength improves while less endurance is gained. Increasing endurance has been proven to release endorphins resulting in a positive mind. The act of gaining endurance through physical activity has been shown to decrease anxiety, depression, and stress, or any chronic disease in total. Although a greater endurance can assist the cardiovascular system it does not imply that any cardiovascular disease can be guaranteed to improve. \"The major metabolic consequences of the adaptations of muscle to endurance exercise are a slower utilization of muscle glycogen and blood glucose, a greater reliance on fat oxidation, and less lactate production during exercise of a given intensity.\"The term stamina is sometimes used synonymously and interchangeably with endurance.\nIn military settings, endurance is considered the ability of a force to sustain high levels of combat potential relative to its opponent over the duration of a campaign.Endurance may also refer to an ability to persevere through a difficult situation.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Flexibility or limberness refers to the anatomical  range of movement in a joint or series of joints, and length in muscles that cross the joints to induce a bending movement or motion. Flexibility varies between individuals, particularly in terms of differences in muscle length of multi-joint muscles.  Flexibility in some joints can be increased to a certain degree by exercise, with stretching a common exercise component to maintain or improve flexibility.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Physical training has been present in human societies throughout history. Usually, it was performed for the purposes of preparing for physical competition or display, improving physical, emotional and mental health, and looking attractive. It took a variety of different forms but quick dynamic exercises were favoured over slow or more static ones. For example, running, jumping, wrestling, gymnastics and throwing heavy stones are mentioned frequently in historical sources and emphasised as being highly effective training methods. Notably, they are also forms of exercise which are readily achievable for most people to some extent or another.\nPhysical training was widely practiced by the athletes of Ancient Greece. However, after the original Olympic Games were banned by the Romans in 394, such culturally significant athletic competitions were not held again until the 19th Century. In 1896, the Olympic Games were reintroduced after a gap of some 1500 years. In the years in between, formalised systems of physical training had become more closely aligned with military training. Whilst there were differences in how the training manifested itself based upon what it was in preparation for there were also obvious similarities, and similar training methods and focuses can be seen to recur throughout European history.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of the longest walks that have occurred in groups and on solo or duo projects. Many have promoted social causes or medical conditions. Some have been done mostly for the experience.\nGroups consist of three or more people who walked at least most of the entire distance. Solo/duo walks are one or two people. The difference is that the former is tougher to organise logistically, especially when crossing international borders, since there generally needs to be greater accommodations and more thorough approvals for a group. There is also a tougher process of decision making with even a small group than with one or two people. Some people walking in groups say that the walking part can be easier than dealing with group politics and dynamics.\nThe walks should be continuous, save for a few weeks to organise through other countries. There is a separate section for long runs and wheelchair expeditions that were not walks.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Motor coordination is the orchestrated movement of multiple body parts as required to accomplish intended actions, like walking. This coordination is achieved by adjusting kinematic and kinetic parameters associated with each body part involved in the intended movement. The modifications of these parameters typically relies on sensory feedback from one or more sensory modalities (see: multisensory integration), such as proprioception and vision.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Physical activity is defined as any voluntary bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure. Physical activity encompasses all activities, at any intensity, performed during any time of day or night. It includes both exercise and incidental activity integrated into daily routine. This integrated activity may not be planned, structured, repetitive or purposeful for the improvement of fitness, and may include activities such as walking to the local shop, cleaning, working, active transport etc. Lack of physical activity is associated with a range of negative health outcomes, whereas increased physical activity can improve physical and mental health, as well as cognitive and cardiovascular health. There are at least eight investments that work to increase population-level physical activity, including whole-of-school programmes, active transport, active urban design, healthcare, public education and mass media, sport for all, workplaces and community-wide programmes. Physical activity increases energy expenditure and is a key regulator in controlling body weight (see Summermatter cycle for more).\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Physical strength is the measure of a human's exertion of force on physical objects. Increasing physical strength is the goal of strength training.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A transcontinental walk involves crossing a continent on foot.  If a walk does not technically cross the entire continent, but starts and ends in a major city right near two opposing sides of a continent, it is usually considered transcontinental. People have crossed continents walking alone or in groups.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is the influence that the COVID-19 pandemic has had on politics around the world.  The pandemic has affected the governing and political systems of multiple countries, causing suspensions of legislative activities, isolation or deaths of multiple politicians and reschedulings of elections due to fears of spreading the virus. The pandemic has triggered broader debates about political issues such as the relative advantages of democracy and autocracy, how states respond to crises, politicization of beliefs about the virus, and the adequacy of existing frameworks of international cooperation. Additionally, the pandemic has, in some cases, posed several challenges to democracy, leading to it being undermined and damaged.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The COVID-19 pandemic has affected international relations and caused diplomatic tensions, as well as resulted in a United Nations Security Council resolution demanding a global ceasefire. \nSome scholars have argued that the pandemic necessitates a significant rethinking of existing approaches to international relations, with a greater focus on issues such as health diplomacy, the politics of crisis, and border politics. Others have argued that the pandemic is unlikely to lead to significant changes in the international system. Diplomatic relations have been affected due to tensions around trade and transport of medicines, diagnostic tests, vaccines and hospital equipment related to mitigating the impact of COVID-19. Leaders of some countries have accused others of not containing the disease or responding effectively.Muzaffar S. Abduazimov mentions that currently diplomatic practice experiencing \"six major trends caused by the pandemic, namely: acceleration of ICTs penetration; reappraisal of information security; ensuring the reliability of public diplomacy; further diversification of responsible duties; the growing role of psychology; and, the emergence of the hybrid diplomatic etiquette and protocol.\"", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to public health:\nPublic health has been defined as \"the science and art of preventing disease\u201d, prolonging life and improving quality of life through organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations (public and private), communities and individuals.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Active design is a set of building and planning principles that promote physical activity.  Active design in a building, landscape or city design integrates physical activity into the occupants' everyday routines, such as walking to the store or making a photocopy. Active design involves urban planners, architects, transportation engineers, public health professionals, community leaders and other professionals in building places that encourage physical activity as an integral part of life. While not an inherent part of active design, most designers employing \"active design\" are also concerned with the productive life of their buildings and their building's ecological footprint.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) encompass various forms of physical and emotional abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction experienced in childhood. The harms ACEs can be long-lasting, affecting people even in their adulthood. ACEs have been linked to premature death as well as to various health conditions, including those of mental disorders. Toxic stress linked to child abuse is related to a number of neurological changes in the structure of the brain and its function.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Air pollution measurement is the process of collecting and measuring the components of air pollution, notably gases and particulates. The earliest devices used to measure pollution include rain gauges (in studies of acid rain), Ringelmann charts for measuring smoke, and simple soot and dust collectors known as deposit gauges. Modern air pollution measurement is largely automated and carried out using many different devices and techniques. These range from simple absorbent test tubes known as diffusion tubes through to highly sophisticated chemical and physical sensors that give almost real-time pollution measurements, which are used to generate air quality indexes.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Declaration of Alma-Ata was adopted at the International Conference on Primary Health Care (PHC), Almaty (formerly Alma-Ata), Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (present day Kazakhstan), 6\u201312 September 1978. It expressed the need for urgent action by all governments, all health and development workers, and the world community to protect and promote the health of all people. It was the first international declaration underlining the importance of primary health care. The primary health care approach has since then been accepted by member countries of the World Health Organization (WHO) as the key to achieving the goal of \"Health For All\", but only in developing countries at first. This applied to all other countries five years later. The Alma-Ata Declaration of 1978 emerged as a major milestone of the twentieth century in the field of public health, and it identified primary health care as the key to the attainment of the goal of \"Health For All\" around the globe.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Bachelor of Science in Public Health (BSPH) (or Bachelor of Public Health) is an undergraduate degree that prepares students to pursue careers in the public, private, or non-profit sector in areas such as public health, environmental health, health administration, epidemiology, nutrition, biostatistics, or health policy and planning. Postbaccalaureate training is available in public health, health administration, public affairs, and related areas.\nThe University of California at Irvine, Program in Public Health, Department of Population Health and Disease Prevention, has the largest enrollment of undergraduate majors in Public Health, with about 1,500 students including ~1,000 in the Bachelor of Science in Public Health Sciences, and another ~500 students in the Bachelor of Arts in Public Health Policy (2014). UC Irvine also offers a minor in Public Health for students of other majors.\nThe Council on Education for Public Health includes undergraduate public health degrees in the accreditation review of public health programs and schools.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Bangkok Charter for Health Promotion in a Globalized World is the name of an international agreement reached among participants of the 6th Global Conference on Health Promotion held in Bangkok, Thailand in August 2005, convened by the World Health Organization.  It identifies actions, commitments and pledges required to address the determinants of health in a globalized world through health promotion.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Behavior change, in context of public health, refers to efforts put in place to change people's personal habits and attitudes, to prevent disease. Behavior change in public health can take place at several levels and is known as social and behavior change (SBC). More and more, efforts focus on prevention of disease to save healthcare care costs. This is particularly important in low and middle income countries, where supply side health interventions have come under increased scrutiny because of the cost.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Birth spacing, pregnancy spacing, inter-birth interval (IBI) or inter-pregnancy interval refers to how soon after a prior pregnancy a woman becomes pregnant or gives birth again. There are health risks associated both with pregnancies placed closely together and those placed far apart, but the majority of health risks are associated with births that occur too close together. The WHO recommends 24 months between pregnancies. A shorter interval may be appropriate if the pregnancy ended in abortion or miscarriage, typically 6 months. If the mother has had a prior C-section, it is advisable to wait before giving birth again due to the risk of uterine rupture in the mother during childbirth, with recommendations of a minimum inter-delivery interval ranging from a year to three years. Pregnancy intervals longer than five years are associated with an increased risk of pre-eclampsia. The global public health burden of short inter-pregnancy intervals is substantial. Family planning can help increase inter-pregnancy interval.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Blue space (also referred to as blue infrastructure) in urban planning and design comprises all the areas dominated by surface waterbodies or watercourses. In conjunction with greenspace (parks, gardens, etc. specifically: urban open space), it may help in reducing the risks of heat-related illness from high urban temperatures (urban heat island).\nSubstantial urban waterbodies naturally exist as integral features of the geography of many cities because of their historical geopolitical significance, i.e. the River Thames in London.Accessible blue spaces can help revitalizing neighborhoods and promote increased social connectedness as seen on waterfront renovation projects like the Chattanooga Waterfront (Chattanooga, Tennessee),  the CityDeck in Green Bay, Wisconsin, or the Brooklyn Bridge Park in New York City, further enhanced by waterfront festivals such as the Christmas lights in Medellin, in Colombia. Design guidelines promoting healthy buildings -such as, WELL -managed by The International WELL Building Institute\u2122 (IWBI\u2122), or Fitwel -developed and managed by The Center for Active Design (CfAD), recommend incorporating  including and water features as a strategy to improve the health and wellness of the building occupants, and \"the 9 foundations of a Healthy Building\" -developed at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health-, also recommends indoor access to nature views or nature-inspired elements.\nBecause neighborhoods with access to attractive natural features are susceptible of gentrification, the social benefits associated with waterbodies can be unequally distributed, with Environmental Justice areas lacking access to good quality blue spaces.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Kelly David Brownell (born October 31, 1951) is a clinical psychologist and scholar of public health and public policy at Duke University whose work focuses on obesity and food policy. He is a former dean of Duke's Sanford School of Public Policy. Noted for his research dealing primarily with obesity prevention, as well as the intersection of behavior, environment, and health with public policy, Brownell advised former First Lady Michelle Obama's initiatives to address childhood obesity and has testified before Congress. He is credited with coining the term \"yo-yo dieting\", and was named as one of \"The World's 100 Most Influential People\" by Time Magazine in 2006.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Community health refers to simple health services that are delivered by laymen outside hospitals and clinics. Community health volunteers and community health workers are the main practitioners and they work with Primary Care Providers to facilitate entry into, exit from and utilization of the formal health system by community members.\nCommunity health volunteers are members of the local community who have considerable knowledge of the health services available to the community and are used to identify and link beneficiaries or those in need and the registered providers. Community health workers (Community health assistants and Community health officers) are employees who do not necessarily come from the local community but have vocational, professional or academic qualifications which enable them to provide training, supervisory, administrative, teaching and research services in community health departments.\nCommunity health services are classified into:\n\nPreventive health services such as chemoprophylaxis for Tuberculosis, cancer screening and treatment of diabetes and hypertension.\nPromotive health services such as Health education,  family planning, vaccination and nutritional supplementation\nCurative health services such as treatment of jiggers, lice infestation, Malaria and Pneumonia.\nRehabilitative health services such as provision of prosthetics, Social work, Occupational therapy, Physical therapy, Counselling and other Mental health services.Community health refers to the first level of health services provision in Kenya that is constituted of; \n\nInterventions focusing on building demand for existing health and related services, by improving community awareness and health seeking behaviour and 2. Taking defined interventions and services as defined in (Kenya Health Sector  Strategic and investment plan  KHSSP) close to the community and households.Community health volunteers are members of the local community who have considerable knowledge of the health services available to the community and are used to identify and link those in need and the registered providers.The community Health Volunteers report directly to Community Health Assistants or Community Health officers (CHAs/CHOs) popularly known as the Community Health Extension Workers. Community health Assitants/Officers do not necessarily come from the local community but have professional training and academic qualifications which enable them to provide supervisory, administrative, teaching and research services in community health departments.\nCHAs/CHOs are formal County Government employees. \nThe community Health Volunteers title changes to Community Health Worker immediately if they are on monthly stippend programm or salary. \nCommunity health services are classified into:\n\nPreventive health services\nPromotive health services such as Health education,  family planning\nCurative health services such as treatment of minor illnesses.\nRehabilitative health servicesCommunity health volunteers provide the most basic services such as distribution of Water chlorination tablets, mosquito nets and Health education material but will normally involve or work with registered clinicians when they encounter sick or recovering patients or those with complex or on-going needs.\n\nIt is a major field of study within the medical and clinical sciences which focuses on the maintenance, protection, and improvement of the health status of population groups and communities. It is a distinct field of study that may be taught within a separate school of public health or Preventive Healthcare. The WHO defines community health as:Environmental, Social, and Economic resources to sustain emotional and physical well being among people in ways that advance their aspirations and satisfy their needs in their unique environment.Medical interventions that occur in communities can be classified as three categories: Primary care, Secondary care, and Tertiary care. Each category focuses on a different level and approach towards the community or population group. In the United States, Community health is rooted within Primary healthcare achievements. Primary healthcare programs aim to reduce risk factors and increase health promotion and prevention. Secondary healthcare is related to \"hospital care\" where acute care is administered in a hospital department setting. Tertiary healthcare refers to highly specialized care usually involving disease or disability management.\nThe current registered association  for community Health professionals in Kenya is The Society of Community Health Caregivers https://www.societyofcommunityhealth.org\n\nWhich was registered in the year 2020 to act as an umbrella body for the community Health professionals. \nThe success of Community health programs relies upon the transfer of information from health professionals to the general public using one-to-one or one-to-many communication (mass communication). \nThe success of Community health programs relies upon the transfer of information from health professionals to the general public using one-to-one or one-to-many communication (mass communication). \nThe success of Community health programs relies upon the transfer of information from health professionals to the general public using one-to-one or one-to-many communication (mass communication). The latest shift is towards Health marketing\n.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The compression of morbidity in public health is a hypothesis put forth by James Fries, professor of medicine at Stanford University School of Medicine. The hypothesis was supported by a 1998 study of 1700 University of Pennsylvania alumni over a period of 20 years.Fries' hypothesis is that the burden of lifetime illness may be compressed into a shorter period before the time of death, if the age of onset of the first chronic infirmity can be postponed. This hypothesis contrasts to the view that as the age of countries' populations tends to increase over time, they will become increasingly infirm and consume an ever-larger proportion of the national budget in healthcare costs.Fries posited that if the hypothesis is confirmed, healthcare costs and patient health overall will be improved. In order to confirm this hypothesis, the evidence must show that it is possible to delay the onset of infirmity, and that corresponding increases in longevity will at least be modest. The evidence is at best mixed.  Vincent Mor's \"The Compression of Morbidity Hypothesis: A Review of Research and Prospects for the Future\" argues that \"Cross-national evidence for the validity of the compression of morbidity hypothesis originally proposed by Fries is generally accepted. Generational improvements in education and the increased availability of adaptive technologies and even medical treatments that enhance quality of life have facilitated continued independence of older persons in the industrialized world. Whether this trend continues may depend upon the effect of the obesity epidemic on the next generation of older people.\" See also \"Mortality and Morbidity Trends: Is There Compression of Morbidity?\" for recent evidence against the hypothesis. \nThere may also be age versus cohort effects.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A condemned property or a condemned building is a property or building that local (usually municipal) authorities have closed, seized, or placed restrictions on for various reasons, including public safety and public health, in accordance with local ordinance.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Connecting Organizations for Regional Disease Surveillance (CORDS) is a \"regional infectious disease surveillance network that neighboring countries worldwide are organizing to control cross-border outbreaks at their source.\" In 2012, CORDS was registered as a legal, non-profit international organization in Lyon, France. As of 2021, CORDS was composed of \"six regional member networks, working in 28 countries in Africa, Asia, the Middle East and Europe.\"", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In public health, contact tracing is the process of identifying persons who may have come into contact with an infected person (\"contacts\") and subsequent collection of further information about these contacts. By tracing the contacts of infected individuals, testing them for infection, isolating or treating the infected, and tracing their contacts, public health aims to reduce infections in the population. Diseases for which contact tracing is commonly performed include tuberculosis, vaccine-preventable infections like measles, sexually transmitted infections (including HIV), blood-borne infections, Ebola, some serious bacterial infections, and novel virus infections (e.g., SARS-CoV, H1N1, and SARS-CoV-2).  The goals of contact tracing are:\n\nTo interrupt ongoing transmission and reduce the spread of an infection\nTo alert contacts to the possibility of infection and offer preventive services or prophylactic care\nTo offer diagnosis, counseling and treatment to already infected individuals\nIf the infection is treatable, to help prevent reinfection of the originally infected patient\nTo learn about the epidemiology of a disease in a particular populationContact tracing has been a pillar of communicable disease control in public health for decades. The eradication of smallpox, for example, was achieved not by universal immunization, but by exhaustive contact tracing to find all infected persons. This was followed by isolation of infected individuals and immunization of the surrounding community and contacts at-risk of contracting smallpox.\nIn cases of diseases of uncertain infectious potential, contact tracing is also sometimes performed to learn about disease characteristics, including infectiousness. Contact tracing is not always the most efficient method of addressing infectious disease. In areas of high disease prevalence, screening or focused testing may be more cost-effective.\nPartner notification, also called partner care, is a subset of contact tracing aimed specifically at informing sexual partners of an infected person and addressing their health needs.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A cordon sanitaire (French pronunciation: \u200b[k\u0254\u0281d\u0254\u0303 sanit\u025b\u0281], French for \"sanitary cordon\") is the restriction of movement of people into or out of a defined geographic area, such as a community, region, or country. The term originally denoted a barrier used to stop the spread of infectious diseases. The term is also often used metaphorically, in English, to refer to attempts to prevent the spread of an ideology deemed unwanted or dangerous, such as the containment policy adopted by George F. Kennan against the Soviet Union (see cordon sanitaire (politics)).\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, a number of non-pharmaceutical interventions colloquially known as lockdowns (encompassing stay-at-home orders, curfews, quarantines, cordons sanitaires and similar societal restrictions) have been implemented in numerous countries and territories around the world. These restrictions were established with the intention to reduce the spread of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. By April 2020, about half of the world's population was under some form of lockdown, with more than 3.9 billion people in more than 90 countries or territories having been asked or ordered to stay at home by their governments. Although similar disease control measures have been used for hundreds of years, the scale of those implemented in the 2020s is thought to be unprecedented.Research and case studies have shown that lockdowns are generally effective at reducing the spread of COVID-19, therefore flattening the curve. The World Health Organization's recommendation on curfews and lockdowns is that they should be short-term measures to reorganize, regroup, rebalance resources, and protect health workers who are exhausted. To achieve a balance between restrictions and normal life, the WHO recommends a response to the pandemic that consists of strict personal hygiene, effective contact tracing, and isolating when ill.Although many public health experts and economists supported lockdown restrictions, citing greater long-term costs for allowing the disease to spread uncontrollably, pandemic restrictions have had health, social, and economic impacts, and have been met with protests in some territories.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Countries and territories around the world have enforced lockdowns of varying stringency in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.\nSome include total movement control while others have enforced restrictions based on time. In many cases, only essential businesses are allowed to remain open. Schools, universities and colleges have closed either on a nationwide or local basis in 63 countries, affecting approximately 47 percent of the world's student population.Beginning with the first lockdown in China's Hubei province and nationwide in Italy in March, lockdowns continued to be implemented in many countries throughout 2020 and 2021. On 24 March 2020, the entire 1.3 billion population of India was ordered to stay at home during its lockdown, making it the largest of the pandemic. The world's longest continuous lockdown lasting 234 days took place in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 2020. As of October 2021, the city of Melbourne, Australia, and certain cities in Peru and Chile spent the most cumulative days in lockdown over separate periods, although measures varied between these countries.A few countries and territories did not use the strategy, including Japan, Belarus, Sweden, South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Tanzania, two states in Brazil and certain United States states.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Dental Public Health  (DPH) is a para-clinical specialty of dentistry that deals with the prevention of oral disease and promotion of oral health. Dental public health is involved in the assessment of key dental health needs and coming up with effective solutions to improve the dental health of populations rather than individuals.Dental public health seeks to reduce demand on health care systems by redirection of resources to priority areas. Countries around the world all face similar issues in relation to dental disease. Implementation of policies and principles vary due to availability of resources. Similar to  public health, an understanding of the many factors that influence health will assist the implementation of effective strategies.Dental-related diseases are largely preventable. Public health dentistry is practiced generally through government sponsored programs, which are for the most part directed toward public-school children in the belief that their education in oral hygiene is the best way to reach the general public. The pattern for such programs in the past was a dental practitioners annual visit to a school to lecture and to demonstrate proper tooth-brushing techniques. In the 1970s, a more elaborate program emerged. It included a week of one-hour sessions of instruction, demonstration, and questions and answers, conducted by a dentist and a dental assistant and aided by a teacher who had previously been given several hours of instruction. Use was also made of televised dental health education programs, which parents were encouraged to observe.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The director-general of the World Health Organization (WHO) is the chief executive officer of WHO and the principal advisor to the United Nations on matters pertaining global health. The director general is elected  by and answers to the World Health Assembly (WHA). The current director-general is Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, who was appointed on 1 July 2017, and re-appointed on 24 May 2022. The Director-General also leads the WHO Secretariat and is also the ex-officio Secretary of the World Health Assembly, the WHO Executive Board, and of all commissions and committees, and conferences convened by the Organization.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Dirty Money Project is a scientific research project of New York University, a comprehensive study of the DNA on banknotes which aims to understand the role of banknotes in spreading diseases among humans, especially on those who live in an urban region.\nNYU's Dirty Money Project is part of a larger project looking into New York City's \"MetaGenome\", which seeks to examine the \"microbes all around us\".  According to experts, the project may be able to identify potential health threats, fight flu epidemics, and even chart the environmental impact of major storms. The studies conducted so far have revealed that a banknote is a medium of exchange for hundreds of different kinds of bacteria as banknotes pass from hand to hand.Scientists have also found that each banknote carries about 3,000 types of bacteria on its surface as well as DNA from drug-resistant microbes. And, since a banknote is home to thousands of microbes \u2013 bacteria, fungi and pathogens, this situation can cause such illnesses as skin infections, stomach ulcers and food poisoning etc., scientists believe.\nOne of the goals of the study is to provide information that could help health workers to prevent disease outbreaks in urban environments like New York City before they spread very far through mediums like banknotes.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A Doctor of Public Health (abbr. DrPH, Dr.PH. or D.P.H.;  Latin doctor publica sanitas) is a doctoral degree awarded in the field of Public Health. DrPH is an advanced and terminal degree that prepares its recipients for a career in advancing public health practice, leadership, research, teaching, or administration. The first DrPH degree was awarded by Harvard Medical School in 1911.According to the United Nations, the world faces unprecedented challenges such as climate change, noncommunicable diseases, aging populations, health crises, a widening wealth gap, and the overreliance on the internet. DrPH graduates, who received trainings in evidence-based public health practice and research, are expected to have the competences to convene diverse stakeholders, communicate across a range of sectors, and settings, synthesize findings, and generate practice-based evidence.Given the core competencies developed during the program, DrPH graduates often occupy executive leadership roles in private and public sectors along with non-profits, universities and multilateral entities such as WHO and the World Bank. In addition, some DrPH graduates pursue academia including teaching and research.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Ecosystem health is a metaphor used to describe the condition of an ecosystem. Ecosystem condition can vary as a result of fire, flooding, drought, extinctions, invasive species, climate change, mining,  fishing, farming or logging, chemical spills, and a host of other reasons. There is no universally accepted benchmark for a healthy ecosystem, rather the apparent health status of an ecosystem can vary depending upon which health metrics are employed in judging it and which societal aspirations are driving the assessment. Advocates of the health metaphor argue for its simplicity as a communication tool. \"Policy-makers and the public need simple, understandable concepts like health.\" Some critics  worry that ecosystem health, a \"value-laden construct\", can be \"passed off as science to unsuspecting policy makers and the public.\" However, this term is often used in portraying the state of ecosystems worldwide and in conservation and management. For example, scientific journals and the UN often use the terms planetary and ecosystem health, such as the recent journal The Lancet Planetary Health.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "An environmental hazard is a substance, state or event which has the potential to threaten the surrounding natural environment or adversely affect people's health, including pollution and natural disasters such as storms and earthquakes. It can include any single or combination of toxic chemical, biological, or physical agents in the environment, resulting from human activities or natural processes, that may impact the health of exposed subjects, including pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, biological contaminants, toxic waste, industrial and home chemicals.Human-made hazards while not immediately health-threatening may turn out detrimental to a human's well-being eventually, because deterioration in the environment can produce secondary, unwanted negative effects on the human ecosphere. The effects of water pollution may not be immediately visible because of a sewage system that helps drain off toxic substances. If those substances turn out to be persistent (e.g. persistent organic pollutant), however, they will literally be fed back to their producers via the food chain: plankton -> edible fish -> humans. In that respect, a considerable number of environmental hazards listed below are man-made (anthropogenic) hazards.\nHazards can be categorized in four types:\n\nChemical\nPhysical (mechanical, etc.)\nBiological\npsychological\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "EuroHealthNet is a non-profit partnership of organisations, agencies and statutory bodies working to contribute to a healthier Europe by promoting health and health equity between and within European countries. EuroHealthNet achieves this through its partnership framework by supporting members\u2019 work in EU and associated states through policy and project development, networking and communications.\nThe network\u2019s office has been located in Brussels since 1996 and staff members are experienced in engaging with the EU institutions, decision makers and a large number of stakeholders from public authorities, civil society, the corporate sector and academia. EuroHealthNet has connections with national and regional governments, as well as with the European institutions, and therefore a good understanding of how evidence and information on health equity can be introduced in current policy making agendas.\nThe secretariat of around ten staff is based in Brussels and supports the partnership, which operates in three closely interlinked platforms:\n\nEuroHealthNet PRACTICE\nEuroHealthNet POLICY\nEuroHealthNet RESEARCH\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Euthenics () is the study of improvement of human functioning and well-being by improvement of living conditions. \"Improvement\" is conducted by altering external factors such as education and the controllable environments, including the prevention and removal of contagious disease and parasites, environmentalism, education regarding employment, home economics, sanitation, and housing.Rose Field notes of the definition in a May 23, 1926 The New York Times article, \"the simplest being efficient living\". A right to environment.The Flynn effect has been often cited as an example of euthenics. Another example is the steady increase in body size in industrialized countries since the beginning of the 20th century.\nEuthenics is not normally interpreted to have anything to do with changing the composition of the human gene pool by definition, although everything that affects society has some effect on who reproduces and who does not.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Fairs and Markets Act 1850 is an Act that was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Among other things, it tightened restrictions on the Sunday operation of fairs and markets.As late as 1899, it was noticed in Model byelaws, rules and regulations under the public health and other acts : with alternative and additional clauses.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A fat tax is a tax or surcharge that is placed upon fattening food, beverages or on overweight individuals. It is considered an example of Pigovian taxation. A fat tax aims to discourage unhealthy diets and offset the economic costs of obesity.\nA fat tax aims to decrease the consumption of foods that are linked to obesity. A related idea is to tax foods that are linked to increased risk of coronary heart disease. Numerous studies suggest that as the price of a food decreases, individuals get fatter. In fact, eating behavior may be more responsive to price increases than to nutritional education. Estimates suggest that a 1 cent per ounce tax on sugar-sweetened beverages may reduce the consumption of those beverages by 25%. However, there is also evidence that obese individuals are less responsive to changes in the price of food than normal-weight individuals.To implement a fat tax, it is necessary to specify which food and beverage products will be targeted. This must be done with care, because a carelessly chosen food tax can have surprising and perverse effects. For instance, consumption patterns suggest that taxing saturated fat would induce consumers to increase their salt intake, thereby putting themselves at greater risk for cardiovascular death. Current proposals frequently single out sugar-sweetened drinks as a target for taxation. Cross-sectional, prospective, and experimental studies have found an association between obesity and the consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks. However, experimental studies have not always found an association, and the size of the effect can be very modest.Since the poor spend a greater proportion of their income on food, a fat tax might be regressive. Taxing foods that provide primarily calories, with little other nutritional value reduces this problem, since calories are readily available from many sources in diet of industrialized nations.  To make a fat tax less burdensome for the poor, proponents recommend earmarking the revenues to subsidize healthy foods and health education. Additionally, proponents have argued that the fat tax is less regressive to the extent that it lowers medical expenditures and expenditures on the targeted foods among the poor. Indeed, there is a higher incidence of diet-related illnesses among the poor than in the general population.Unlike placing restrictions on foods or ingredients, a fat tax would not limit consumer choice, only change relative prices.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A focus of infection is a place containing whatever epidemiological factors are needed for transmission of an infection. Any focus of infection will have a source of infection, and other common traits of such a place include a human community, a vector population, and environmental characteristics adequate for spreading infection.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Four-Step Impact Assessment is an academic framework initiated and published by Jonathan Mann and colleagues at the Fran\u00e7ois-Xavier Bagnoud Center for Health and Human Rights at the Harvard School of Public Health. The assessment takes into account the negotiation of objectives between human rights and public health. Such an approach takes into account a measure of each discipline's respective overlap to expose infringement of goals. Such infringement or confluence can be mapped out in what Mann and colleagues proposed in a 2 by 2 table, as illustrated below.\nThe Four-Step Impact Assessment:\n\nTo what extent does the proposed policy or program represent \u201cgood public health\u201d?\nIs the proposed policy or program respectful and protective of human rights?\nHow can we achieve the best possible combination of public health and human rights quality?\nHow serious is the public health problem?\nIs the proposed response likely to be effective?\nWhat are the severity, scope and duration of the burdens on human rights resulting from the proposed policy or program?\nTo what extent is the proposed policy or program restrictive and intrusive?\nIs the proposed policy or program over inclusive or under inclusive?\nWhat procedural safeguards are included in the proposed policy or program?\nWill the proposed policy or program be periodically reviewed to assess both its public health effectiveness and its impact on human rights? Identify specific changes to the proposed policy or program that increase its human rights and/or public health quality while maintaining (or even strengthening) its public health effectiveness.\nFinally, does the proposed policy or program (as revised) still appear to be the optimal approach to the public health problem?As a way to visualize the intersection of both health and human rights, this table places Human Rights Quality on the Y-axis, and Public Health Quality on the X-axis. The levels or rank of both measures are graphically displayed at some point in the cartesian plane. The organizations that jointly supported this framework consisted of Mann's Francois Xavier Bagnoud Center for Health and Human Rights, the International Federation of Red Cross, and Red Crescent Societies.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Global Buruli Ulcer Initiative (GBUI) is a World Health Organization (WHO) initiative to coordinate global efforts to control Buruli ulcer, an infectious disease characterized by the development of painless open wounds. It was started in 1998 after a 1997 visit to C\u00f4te d'Ivoire by Hiroshi Nakajima, who was then the general director of the WHO, recognizing the lack of research and a growing disease burden.Initially established with funding from the Nippon Foundation, as of 2020 the GBUI involves more than 40 nongovernmental organizations, research institutions, and other foundations. A 2004 WHO resolution \"called for increasing surveillance and control, and for intensified research to develop tools to diagnose, treat and prevent\" Buruli ulcer. In 2009, a strategy to promote early detection and provide wider access to antibiotics was adopted. A bi-annual meeting is held in Geneva to bring researcher institutions, nongovernmental agencies, and representatives from countries with Buruli ulcer together.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Global Health Security Index is an assessment of global health security capabilities in 195 countries prepared by the Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, the Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) and the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The genomic epidemiological database for global identification of microorganisms or global microbial identifier is a platform for storing whole genome sequencing data of microorganisms, for the identification of relevant genes and for the comparison of genomes to detect and track-and-trace infectious disease outbreaks and emerging pathogens. The database holds two types of information: 1) genomic information of microorganisms, linked to, 2) metadata of those microorganism such as epidemiological details. The database includes all genera of microorganisms: bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Harvard \"Six Cities\" study was a major epidemiological study of over 8,000 adults in six American cities that helped to establish the connection between fine-particulate air pollution (such as diesel engine soot) and reduced life expectancy (\"excess mortality\"). Widely acknowledged as a landmark piece of public health research, it was initiated by Benjamin G. Ferris, Jr at Harvard School of Public Health and carried out by Harvard's Douglas Dockery, C. Arden Pope of Brigham Young University, Ferris himself, and three other collaborators, and published in The New England Journal of Medicine in 1993. Following a lawsuit by The American Lung Association, the study, and its various follow-ups, led to a tightening of pollution standards by the US Environmental Protection Agency. This prompted an intense backlash from industry groups in the late 1990s, culminating in a Supreme Court case, in what Science magazine termed \"the biggest environmental fight of the decade\".", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Health education is a profession of educating people about health. Areas within this profession encompass environmental health, physical health, social health, emotional health, intellectual health, and spiritual health, as well as sexual and reproductive health education.Health education can be defined as the principle by which individuals and groups of people learn to behave in a manner conducive to the promotion, maintenance, or restoration of health. However, as there are multiple definitions of health, there are also multiple definitions of health education.  In the U.S., the Joint Committee on Health Education and Promotion Terminology of 2001 defined Health Education as \"any combination of planned learning experiences based on sound theories that provide individuals, groups, and communities the opportunity to acquire information and the skills needed to make quality health decisions.\"The World Health Organization (WHO) defined Health Education as consisting of \"consciously constructed opportunities for learning involving some form of communication designed to improve health literacy, including improving knowledge, and developing life skills which are conducive to individual and community health.\"", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The World Health Organization Health Emergencies Programme was established on 1 July 2016 by Director-General Margaret Chan at the request of the World Health Assembly.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Health For All is a goal of the World Health Organization (WHO), that has been popularized since the 1970s and which envisions securing the health and well being of people around the world. It is the basis for the World Health Organization's primary health care strategy to promote health, human dignity, and enhanced quality of life.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Health security is a concept that encompasses activities and measures across sovereign boundaries that mitigates public health incidents to ensure the health of populations. It is an evolving paradigm within the fields of international relations and security studies. Proponents of health security posit that all states have a responsibility to protect the health and wellbeing of their populations. Opponents suggest health security impacts civil liberties and the equal distribution of resources.According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), health security encompasses the \u201cactivities required to minimise the danger and impact of acute public health events that endanger the collective health of populations living across geographical regions and international boundaries\u201d. It is the responsibility of governments globally to protect the health of their populations.The advent of new security challenges, resulting from increasing global vulnerability to infectious diseases has created demand for greater global commitment and collaboration towards public health. Globalisation, and the advent of transnational concerns regarding the spread of infectious disease, have become integral to national and international security agendas. Disease, pandemics, and epidemics have become of increasing concern for global policymakers and governments, requiring mobilisation of essential resources for the implementation of rapid and effective health procedures. The WHO, and initiatives such as the Global Health Security Agenda are central to advocacy of health security - aiming to improve detection, prevention, and response to infectious disease through public health surveillance and partnerships between states.Health security is a concept or framework for public health issues which includes protection of national populations from external health threats such as pandemics.Four types of security may be considered in this context: biosecurity; global health security; human security; and national security.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Medical help may in some instances be accompanied by embarrassment.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Healthy city is a term used in public health and urban design to stress the impact of policy on human health. It is a municipality that continually improves on a physical and a social level until environmental and pathological conditions are reached establishing an acceptable morbidity rate for the population. Its modern form derives from a World Health Organization (WHO) initiative on Healthy Cities and Villages in 1986, but has a history dating back to the mid 19th century. The term was developed in conjunction with the European Union, but rapidly became international as a way of establishing healthy public policy at the local level through health promotion. It emphasises the multi-dimensionality of health as laid out in WHO's constitution and, more recently, the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. An alternative term is Healthy Communities, or Municipios saludables in parts of Latin America.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Ira Vaughn Hiscock (May 7, 1892 \u2013 April 4, 1986) was a bacteriologist and a leading authority on public health. He was an innovator of comprehensive health surveys throughout the United States and Samoa, and led various panels of the World Health Organization.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Human-to-primate transmission (HPT) is a seldom-remarked epidemiologic vector. It is by definition a cross-species transmission vector.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Immunisation Advisory Centre (IMAC) is a New Zealand-wide organisation which provides information and training about immunization and vaccine-preventable diseases to health care professionals, government bodies, and individuals.  It co-ordinates the nation's immunisation programmes, policy advice and research.\nIt was launched in 1997, and is based at The University of Auckland.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Independent Panel for Pandemic Preparedness and Response was established by the Director-General of the World Health Organization in response to a resolution adopted in the 73rd World Health Assembly at the onset of COVID-19 pandemic. Its mission is to \"provide an evidence-based path for the future\", and is led by Co-Chairs Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, the former President of Liberia and Helen Clark, the former Prime Minister of New Zealand.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Infant mortality is the death of young children under the age of 1. This death toll is measured by the infant mortality rate (IMR), which is the probability of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live births. The under-five mortality rate, which is referred to as the child mortality rate, is also an important statistic, considering the infant mortality rate focuses only on children under one year of age.In 2013, the leading cause of infant mortality in the United States was birth defects. Other leading causes of infant mortality include birth asphyxia, pneumonia, congenital malformations, term birth complications such as abnormal presentation of the fetus umbilical cord prolapse, or prolonged labor, neonatal infection, diarrhea, malaria, measles and malnutrition. One of the most common preventable causes of infant mortality is smoking during pregnancy. Lack of prenatal care, alcohol consumption during pregnancy, and drug use also cause complications which may result in infant mortality. Many environmental factors contribute to infant mortality, such as the mother's level of education, environmental conditions, and political and medical infrastructure. Improving sanitation, access to clean drinking water, immunization against infectious diseases, and other public health measures can help reduce high rates of infant mortality.\nIn 1990, 8.8 million infants younger than 1 year died globally. Until 2015, this number has almost halved to 4.6 million infant deaths. Over the same period, the infant mortality rate declined from 65 deaths per 1,000 live births to 29 deaths per 1,000. Globally, 5.4 million children died before their fifth birthday in 2017. In 1990, the number of child deaths was 12.6 million. More than 60% of these deaths are seen as being avoidable with low-cost measures such as continuous breast-feeding, vaccinations and improved nutrition.The child mortality rate, but not the infant mortality rate, was an indicator used to monitor progress towards the Fourth Goal of the Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations for the year 2015. A reduction of the child mortality is now a target in the Sustainable Development Goals\u2014Goal Number 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. Throughout the world, infant mortality rate (IMR) fluctuates drastically, and according to Biotechnology and Health Sciences, education and life expectancy in the country is the leading indicator of IMR. This study was conducted across 135 countries over the course of 11 years, with the continent of Africa having the highest infant mortality rate of any region studied with 68 deaths per 1,000 live births.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Infodemiology, as defined by Gunther Eysenbach in the early 2000s, is an area of science research focused on scanning the internet for user-contributed health-related content, with the ultimate goal of improving public health. It is also defined as the science of mitigating public health problems resulting from an infodemic.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Injury prevention is an effort to prevent or reduce the severity of bodily injuries caused by external mechanisms, such as accidents, before they occur.  Injury prevention is a component of safety and public health, and its goal is to improve the health of the population by preventing injuries and hence improving quality of life. Among laypersons, the term \"accidental injury\" is often used.  However, \"accidental\" implies the causes of injuries are random in nature.  Researchers prefer the term \"unintentional injury\" to refer to injuries that are nonvolitional but often preventable. Data from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control show that unintentional injuries are a significant public health concern: they are by far the leading cause of death from ages 1 through 44.  During these years, unintentional injuries account for more deaths than the next three leading causes of death combined. Unintentional injuries also account for the top ten sources of nonfatal emergency room visits for persons up to age 9 and nine of the top ten sources of nonfatal emergency room visits for persons over the age of 9.Injury prevention strategies cover a variety of approaches, many of which are classified as falling under the \"3 Es\" of injury prevention: education, engineering modifications, and enforcement/enactment of policies.  Some organizations and researchers have variously proposed the addition of equity, empowerment, emotion, empathy, evaluation, and economic incentives to this list.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The International Hygiene Exhibition was a world's fair focusing on medicine and public health, held in Dresden, Germany, in 1911.The leading figure organizing the exhibition was German philanthropist and businessman Karl August Lingner, who had grown wealthy from his Odol mouthwash brand, and was enthusiastic to educate the public about advances in public health. Lingner had previously organized a public-health exhibition as part of the 1903 Dresden municipal expo, and its success led him to plan a larger endeavor.The exhibition opened on May 6, 1911, with 30 countries participating, 100 buildings built for the event, and 5 million visitors over its duration. It emphasized accessible visual representations of the body, and a particular sensation were the transparent organs preserved and displayed according to a method devised by Werner Spalteholz.Following the exhibition, its contents became the permanent German Hygiene Museum in Dresden. Its success spawned several follow-up expos, most notably the 1926 GeSoLei exhibition in D\u00fcsseldorf.Other International Exhibitions of Hygiene were held in:\n\n1910: Buenos Aires, Argentina: Exposici\u00f3n Internacional del Centenario (1910)\n1913: Lima, Peru\n1914: Genoa, Italy", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Stephen David John (born 1979), is a British philosopher . He is a Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge, and the University Hatton Professor in the Philosophy of Public Health. John is a member of the academic staff and lecturer in the Department of History and Philosophy of Science (HPS), his research focuses on the philosophy of science, political philosophy and the philosophy of public health.He obtained his BA, MPhil, and PhD from the University of Cambridge. His doctoral advisor was baroness Onora O'Neill. and his thesis title \"Vulnerability, Health and Risk: towards a normative framework  for public health policy\".\nSince 2012 he has been a Fellow of Pembroke College, and the University Hatton Professor in the Philosophy of Public Health. He is also a member of the Leverhulme Centre for the Future of Intelligence and of Cancer Research UK.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Langya henipavirus (LayV), also known as Langya virus, is a species of henipavirus first detected in the Chinese provinces of Shandong and Henan.\nIt has been announced in 35 patients from 2018 to August 2022. All but 9 of the 35 cases in China were infected with LayV only, with symptoms such as fever, fatigue, and coughing. No deaths due to LayV had been reported as of August 2022. Langya henipavirus affects species including humans, dogs, goats, and its presumed original host, shrews. The 35 cases were not in contact with each other, and it was not known as of August 2022 if the virus is capable of human-to-human transmission.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Lifestyle diseases can be defined as diseases linked with one's lifestyle.  These diseases are non-communicable diseases. They are caused by lack of physical activity, unhealthy eating, alcohol, substance use disorders and smoking tobacco, which can lead to heart disease, stroke, obesity, type II diabetes and lung cancer. The diseases that appear to increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and people live longer include Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, atherosclerosis, asthma, cancer, chronic liver disease or cirrhosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, chronic kidney failure, osteoporosis, PCOD, stroke, depression, obesity and vascular dementia.\nLifestyle disease may soon have an impact on the workforce and the cost of health care. Treating these non-communicable diseases can be expensive. It can be critical for the patients health to receive primary prevention and identify early symptoms of these non communicable disease. These lifestyle disease are expected to increase throughout the years if people do not improve their lifestyle choices.Some commenters maintain a distinction between diseases of longevity and diseases of civilization or diseases of affluence. Certain diseases, such as diabetes, dental caries and asthma, appear at greater rates in young populations living in the \"western\" way; their increased incidence is not related to age, so the terms cannot accurately be used interchangeably for all diseases.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In many legal jurisdictions, the manner of death is a determination, typically made by the coroner, medical examiner, police, or similar officials, and recorded as a vital statistic.  Within the United States and the United Kingdom, a distinction is made between the cause of death, which is a specific disease or injury, versus manner of death, which is primarily a legal determination versus the mechanism of death (also called the mode of death) which does not explain why the person died or the underlying cause of death and can include cardiac arrest or exsanguination. Different categories are used in different jurisdictions, but manner of death determinations include everything from very broad categories like \"natural\" and \"homicide\" to specific manners like \"traffic accident\" or \"gunshot wound\".  In some cases an autopsy is performed, either due to general legal requirements, because the medical cause of death is uncertain, upon the request of family members or guardians, or because the circumstances of death were suspicious.\nInternational Classification of Disease (ICD) codes can be used to record manner and cause of death in a systematic way that makes it easy to compile statistics and more feasible to compare events across jurisdictions.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A medical officer of health, also known as a medical health officer, chief health officer, chief public health officer or district medical officer, is the title commonly used for the senior government official of a health department, usually at a municipal, county/district, state/province, or regional level. The post is held by a physician who serves to advise and lead a team of public health professionals such as environmental health officers and public health nurses on matters of public health importance.\nThe equivalent senior health official at the national level is often referred to as the chief medical officer (CMO), although the title varies across countries, for example known as the surgeon general in the United States and the chief public health officer in Canada.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Medicinicum Lech is a public health event that has been held annually since 2014 in Lech am Arlberg in Vorarlberg (Austria). It is Vorarlberg's largest public health event.The concept is to invite researchers and other medical professionals to give lectures in an interdisciplinary approach that draws on Western and Eastern medicine, alternative medicine. In addition to lectures and discussions, the Medicinicum is accompanied by events like cooking classes, herbal walks et cetera.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Multidrug-resistant bacteria (MDR bacteria) are bacteria that are resistant to three or more classes of antimicrobial drugs. MDR bacteria have seen an increase in prevalence in recent years and pose serious risks to public health. MDR bacteria can be broken into 3 main categories: Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and other (acid-stain). These bacteria employ various adaptations to avoid or mitigate the damage done by antimicrobials. With increased access to modern medicine there has been a sharp increase in the amount of antibiotics consumed. Given the abundant use of antibiotics there has been a considerable increase in the evolution of antimicrobial resistance factors, now outpacing the development of new antibiotics.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A non-pharmaceutical intervention or non-pharmacological intervention (NPI) is any type of health intervention which is not primarily based on medication. Some examples include exercise, sleep improvement, or dietary habits.Non-pharmacological interventions may be intended to prevent or treat disease or other health-related conditions, or to  improve public health. They can be educational, and they may involve a variety of lifestyle or environmental changes. Complex or multicomponent interventions use multiple strategies, and they often involve the participation of several care providers.Non-pharmacological treatments can call on various fields of expertise, such as surgery, medical devices, rehabilitation, psychotherapy, and  behavioral interventions.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In epidemiology, a non-pharmaceutical intervention (NPI) is any method used to reduce the spread of an epidemic disease without requiring pharmaceutical drug treatments. Examples of non-pharmaceutical interventions that reduce the spread of infectious diseases include wearing a face mask and staying away from sick people.\nThe US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) points to personal, community, and environmental interventions. NPI have been recommended for pandemic influenza at both local and global levels, and studied at large scale during the 2009 swine flu pandemic and the COVID-19 pandemic. NPIs are a set of measures that can be utilized at any time, and are used in the period between the emergence of an epidemic disease and the deployment of an effective vaccine.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A notifiable disease is one which that has to be reported to the government authorities as required by law. In Sweden, over 50 diseases are classified as notifiable.  The notifiable diseases come under four categories : notifiable, mandatory contact tracing required, dangerous to public health (allm\u00e4nsfarliga) and dangerous to the society (samh\u00e4llsfarliga).  As per the Swedish law, notifiable diseases should be reported by the laboratories, doctor treating the patient or performing autopsy. The report is sent through an electronic system called SmiNet to the Public Health Agency of Sweden.  As of January 2018, the only three diseases classified as dangerous to society are small pox, Ebola and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Nuisance (from archaic nocence, through Fr. noisance, nuisance, from Lat. nocere, \"to hurt\") is a common law tort. It means that which causes offence, annoyance, trouble or injury. A nuisance can be either public (also \"common\") or private. A public nuisance was defined by English scholar Sir James Fitzjames Stephen as,\n\n\"an act not warranted by law, or an omission to discharge a legal duty, which act or omission obstructs or causes inconvenience or damage to the public in the exercise of rights common to all Her Majesty's subjects\".\nPrivate nuisance is the interference with the right of specific people. Nuisance is one of the oldest causes of action known to the common law, with cases framed in nuisance going back almost to the beginning of recorded case law. Nuisance signifies that the \"right of quiet enjoyment\" is being disrupted to such a degree that a tort is being committed.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A nuisance ordinance, also referred to as a crime-free ordinance or a disorderly house ordinance, is a local law usually passed on the town, city, or municipality level of government that aims to legally punish both landlords and tenants for crimes that occur on a property or in a neighborhood. These laws impose penalties under programs referred to as nuisance abatement when crimes are reported, regardless of whether crimes actually occurred or what the police action entailed. The result of these ordinances is for landlords to tell tenants to not report crimes, refuse to renew the lease of anyone involved in reporting a crime, and eviction of tenants involved in any crimes, even if the tenants were the victims of said crimes. \nAccording to the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), while supporters of these ordinances argue that they prevent criminal activities in the areas under the ordinances, the actual result is instead a reduction in overall public safety and harm brought to victims of crime, particularly those suffering from domestic abuse, that are deterred from reporting the criminal activity committed against them. These ordinances have also been found to be disproportionately applied to people of color and communities that have a high minority population in general.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Public health nursing, also known as community health nursing is a nursing specialty focused on public health.  The term was coined by Lillian Wald of the Henry Street Settlement, or, Public health nurses (PHNs) or community health nurses \"integrate community involvement and knowledge about the entire population with personal, clinical understandings of the health and illness experiences of individuals and families within the population.\"  Public health nursing in the United States traces back to a nurse named Lillian Wald who, in 1893, established the Henry Street Settlement in New York City and coined the expression \"public health nurse\".\nA Public or Community Health Nurse is expected to comply with the duties and limitations of the American Nurse Association (ANA) publication Public Health Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice.Public health nurses work within communities and focus on different areas to improve the overall health of the people within that community. Some areas of employment for public health nurses are school districts, county or state health departments, and departments of correction. The public health nurse looks for areas of concern within the community and assesses and plans ways through which the concerns can be resolved or minimized. Some health concerns a public health nurse may work on are infection control, health maintenance, health coaching, as well as home care visits for welfare and to provide care to certain members of the community who may need it. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is a leading health indicator in preventing morbidity and mortality. Clinical preventative services such as immunizations and routine screenings for colorectal cancer, blood pressure control and diabetes management are key to improving the Nation's health.Public health nursing focuses on betterment of the community as a whole. Public health nursing is used to promote and protect the population through knowledge of caring for patients at the bedside, in the community, and through social aspects. The public health nurse must assess the needs of the population and limitations to care. Interventions then must be planned and put into place to produce the best possible outcome for the patient. The community health nurse then evaluates effectiveness of the plan while making changes. In combination, this allows the community health nurse to incorporate the community with the health of the patient.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In reproductive health, obstetric transition is a concept around the secular trend of countries gradually shifting from a pattern of high maternal mortality to low maternal mortality, from direct obstetric causes of maternal mortality to indirect causes, aging of maternal population, and moving from the natural history of pregnancy and childbirth to institutionalization of maternity care, medicalization and over medicalization. This concept was originally proposed in the Latin American Association of Reproductive Health Researchers (ALIRH, 2013) in analogy of the epidemiological, demographic and nutritional transitions.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Onesimus (late 1600s\u20131700s) was an African man who was instrumental in the mitigation of the impact of a smallpox outbreak in Boston, Massachusetts. His birth name is unknown. He was enslaved and, in 1706, was given to the New England Puritan minister Cotton Mather, who renamed him. Onesimus introduced Mather to the principle and procedure of inoculation to prevent the disease, which laid the foundation for the development of vaccines. After a smallpox outbreak began in Boston in 1721, Mather used this knowledge to advocate for inoculation in the population, a practice that eventually spread to other colonies. In a 2016 Boston magazine survey, Onesimus was declared one of the \"Best Bostonians of All Time\".\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Tracing the origins of novel viruses and the specific pathways by which they enter the population is based on epidemiological, genomic, virological and clinical studies. This requires that key stakeholders, such as researchers and health workers on the ground pass data to international agencies such as the WHO or the MSF, as free of restrictions as possible, within the constraints of medical privacy laws.John Snow traced the origins of 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak to a contaminated water pump, heralding the advent of epidemiology. However, after the pandemic subsided Snow's findings were rejected by government officials causing a political controversy.\nIn an interview with Discover Magazine, Ian Lipkin said of virus hunting \"Initially the evidence is circumstantial\", likening it to Criminology where a motive and opportunity need to be established.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Pandemic Severity Assessment Framework (PSAF) is an evaluation framework which uses quadrants to evaluate both the transmissibility and clinical severity of a pandemic and to combine these into an overall impact estimate.\nClinical severity is calculated via multiple measures including case fatality rate, case-hospitalization ratios, and deaths-hospitalizations ratios, while viral transmissibility is measured via available data among secondary household attack rates, school attack rates, workplace attack rates, community attack rates, rates of emergency department and outpatient visits for influenza-like illness.The PSAF superseded the 2007 linear Pandemic Severity Index (PSI), which assumed 30% spread and measured case fatality rate (CFR) to assess the severity and evolution of the pandemic. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) adopted the PSAF as its official pandemic severity assessment tool in 2014, and it was the official pandemic severity assessment tool listed in the CDC's National Pandemic Strategy at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Polizeiwissenschaft (German for \"Police science\", though \"Polizei\" may in this case be better translated as \"Public Policy\" or \"Politics\" in a broad sense) was a discipline born in the first third of the 18th century which lasted until the middle of the 19th century. \nConsidered as the science of the internal order of the community, it was a comprehensive term, which included today's public law, administrative science, the early political economy, public health concerns, urbanism and urban planning (important in the light of the miasma theory of disease), etc. It overlapped with the simultaneously used term of Verwaltungswissenschaft (or \"administrative science\") and was a university course included in official trainings. \nThe first instruction chairs for \"Cameralia Oeconomica and Polizeiwissenschaft\" were created in 1727 by Frederick William I of Prussia in Halle, Saxony-Anhalt and Frankfurt.One of the Polizeiwissenschaft first practitioners was Johann Friedrich von Pfeiffer born in Berlin and was a leading exponent of the theory on economic sustainability. Polizeiwissenschaft was quite distinct from today's use of the term \"police\", which is strictly reserved for law enforcement activities. It included \"Marktpolizei\" (\"market police\"), concerned with the surveillance of prices and economical activity, \"Gewerbeaufsicht\" (\"surveillance of trade\"), \"Bauaufsicht\" (\"construction supervision\") and \"Ausl\u00e4nderpolizei\" (\"Foreigners' police\"). \nThe term has recently been used in a sense more closely related to contemporary police activities, used both as a comprehensive term as a synonym of \"police sciences\" (including jurisprudence, criminology, sociology, psychology, political science, forensics, etc.).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The precautionary principle (or precautionary approach) is a broad epistemological, philosophical and legal approach to innovations with potential for causing harm when extensive scientific knowledge on the matter is lacking. It emphasizes caution, pausing and review before leaping into new innovations that may prove disastrous. Critics argue that it is vague, self-cancelling, unscientific and an obstacle to progress.In an engineering context, the precautionary principle manifests itself as the factor of safety, discussed in detail in the monograph of Elishakoff. It was apparently suggested, in civil engineering, by Belindor in 1729. Interrelation between safety factor and reliability is extensively studied by engineers and philosophers.\nThe principle is often used by policy makers in situations where there is the possibility of harm from making a certain decision (e.g. taking a particular course of action) and conclusive evidence is not yet available. For example, a government may decide to limit or restrict the widespread release of a medicine or new technology until it has been thoroughly tested. The principle acknowledges that while the progress of science and technology has often brought great benefit to humanity, it has also contributed to the creation of new threats and risks. It implies that there is a social responsibility to protect the public from exposure to such harm, when scientific investigation has found a plausible risk. These protections should be relaxed only if further scientific findings emerge that provide sound evidence that no harm will result.\nThe principle has become an underlying rationale for a large and increasing number of international treaties and declarations in the fields of sustainable development, environmental protection, health, trade, and food safety, although at times it has attracted debate over how to accurately define it and apply it to complex scenarios with multiple risks. In some legal systems, as in law of the European Union, the application of the precautionary principle has been made a statutory requirement in some areas of law.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The PRECEDE\u2013PROCEED model is a cost\u2013benefit evaluation framework proposed in 1974 by Lawrence W. Green that can help health program planners, policy makers and other evaluators, analyze situations and design health programs efficiently. It provides a comprehensive structure for assessing health and quality of life needs, and for designing, implementing and evaluating health promotion and other public health programs to meet those needs. One purpose and guiding principle of the PRECEDE\u2013PROCEED model is to direct initial attention to outcomes, rather than inputs. It guides planners through a process that starts with desired outcomes and then works backwards in the causal chain to identify a mix of strategies for achieving those objectives. A fundamental assumption of the model is the active participation of its intended audience \u2014 that is, that the participants (\"consumers\") will take an active part in defining their own problems, establishing their goals and developing their solutions.In this framework, health behavior is regarded as being influenced by both individual and environmental factors, and hence has two distinct parts. First is an \"educational diagnosis\" \u2013 PRECEDE, an acronym for Predisposing, Reinforcing and Enabling Constructs in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation. Second is an \"ecological diagnosis\" \u2013 PROCEED, for Policy, Regulatory, and Organizational Constructs in Educational and Environmental Development. The model is multidimensional and is founded in the social/behavioral sciences, epidemiology, administration, and education. The systematic use of the framework in a series of clinical and field trials confirmed the utility and predictive validity of the model as a planning tool.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Preventive and social medicine is a branch of medicine dealing with providing health services in areas of prevention,promotion and treatment of rehabilitative diseases. Studies in Preventive and social medicine are helpful in providing Guided care, medicine in environmental health, offering scholarly services, policy formulation, consulting, research in International work. While other fields of medicines deals with individual health,preventive medicines deals with community health.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Protective sequestration, in public health, is social distancing measures taken to protect a small, defined, and still-healthy population from outsiders during an epidemic (or pandemic) before the infection reaches that population. It is sometimes referred to as \"reverse cordon sanitaire.\"\nDue to the disruption that protective sequestration can cause, it is typically considered only under exceptional circumstances where implementation and enforcement are feasible. It is more easily achieved in circumstances where voluntary compliance of the sequestered population is likely.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A public health intervention is any effort or policy that attempts to improve mental and physical health on a population level. Public health interventions may be run by a variety of organizations, including governmental health departments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Common types of interventions include screening programs, vaccination, food and water supplementation, and health promotion. Common issues that are the subject of public health interventions include obesity, drug, tobacco, and alcohol use, and the spread of infectious disease, e.g. HIV.A policy may meet the criteria of a public health intervention if it prevents disease on both the individual and community level and has a positive impact on public health.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A public health observatory is an organization or program that monitors and reports on the public health of a particular region or topic in order to inform health policy. Depending on the geographical area or focus of work, it may also be called a \"regional health observatory\", \"urban health observatory\", or \"national health observatory\".\nIn 2016, a study in the European Journal of Public Health catalogued at least 150 public health observatories worldwide, and that their main functions were reporting on health, performing data analysis, and supporting evidence-based decision-making. A public health observatory does not generate primary data itself, and instead focuses on synthesizing and collecting existing data.Environmental health, diet, recreation, outdoor education, exercise and other concerns are explored by some public health observatories.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Public health surveillance (also epidemiological surveillance, clinical surveillance or syndromic surveillance) is, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), \"the continuous, systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of health-related data needed for the planning, implementation, and evaluation of public health practice.\" Public health surveillance may be used to track emerging health-related issues at an early stage and find active solutions in a timely manner. Surveillance systems are generally called upon to provide information regarding when and where health problems are occurring and who is affected.Public health surveillance systems can be passive or active. A passive surveillance system consists of the regular, ongoing reporting of diseases and conditions by all health facilities in a given territory. An active surveillance system is one where health facilities are visited and health care providers and medical records are reviewed in order to identify a specific disease or condition. Passive surveillance systems are less time-consuming and less expensive to run but risk under-reporting of some diseases. Active surveillance systems are most appropriate for epidemics or where a disease has been targeted for elimination.Techniques of public health surveillance have been used in particular to study infectious diseases. Many large institutions, such as the WHO and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), have created databases and modern computer systems (public health informatics) that can track and monitor emerging outbreaks of illnesses such as influenza, SARS, HIV, and even bioterrorism, such as the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States.\nMany regions and countries have their own cancer registry, which is monitors the incidence of cancers to determine the prevalence and possible causes of these illnesses.Other illnesses such as one-time events like stroke and chronic conditions such as diabetes, as well as social problems such as domestic violence, are increasingly being integrated into epidemiologic databases called disease registries. A cost-benefit analysis is conducted on these registries to determine governmental funding for research and prevention.\nSystems that can automate the process of identifying adverse drug events, are currently being used, and are being compared to traditional written reports of such events. These systems intersect with the field of medical informatics, and are rapidly becoming adopted by hospitals and endorsed by institutions that oversee healthcare providers (such as JCAHO in the United States). Issues in regard to healthcare improvement are evolving around the surveillance of medication errors within institutions.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Real-time outbreak and disease surveillance system (RODS) is a syndromic surveillance system developed by the University of Pittsburgh, Department of Biomedical Informatics.   It is \"prototype developed at the University of Pittsburgh where real-time clinical data from emergency departments within a geographic region can be integrated to provide an instantaneous picture of symptom patterns and early detection of epidemic events.\"RODS uses a combination of various monitoring tools.\nThe first tool is a moving average with a 120-day sliding phase-I-window.\nThe second tool is a nonstandard combination of CUSUM and EWMA, where an EWMA is used to predict next-day counts, and a CuSum monitors the residuals from these predictions.\nThe third monitoring tool in RODS is a recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm, which fits an autoregressive model to the counts and updates estimates continuously by minimizing prediction error. A Shewhart I-chart is then applied to the residuals, using a threshold of 4 standard deviations.\nThe fourth tool in RODS implements a wavelet approach, which decomposes the time series using Haar wavelets, and uses the lowest resolution to remove long-term trends from the raw series. The residuals are then monitored using an ordinary Shewhart I-chart with a threshold of 4 standard deviations.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In the United Kingdom, a Responsibility Deal is a voluntary agreement between the government and businesses to work together to secure improvements in a key area of public policy.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The road master (Latin: viarius; Italian: Maestro delle Strade) was a middle- to high-ranking urban official common across the central and northern regions of Italy between c. 1250-1550, that is the communal and despotic era. Often part of the podest\u00e0\u2019s or capitano del popolo\u2019s entourage, the road master worked in small teams of builders and administrators to maintain a city's network of roads and waterways, including nodal points such as gates, bridges, sluices and markets. In many towns and cities across the peninsula, road masters not only built and maintained such amenities, but they also monitored human and animal behavior that impacted their traversability, and fined pertinent offenders. For instance, they could punish artisans polluting a public street or neighborhood, enforcing a distinct form of urban zoning. Road masters also fought against domestic practices that were seen as causing harm to the population at large, including unlawful refuse disposal and neglecting to restrain pigs.\nRoads officials were also active in ensuring urban markets ran smoothly. Beyond the upkeep of roads and canals allowing produce to reach and leave markets, these officials often examined the accuracy of weights and measures used by retailers. They also pursued people who tried to sell produce outside the allowed time and place or wares of inferior quality, such as rotten meat or fish. In doing so, they resembled the Islamicate market inspector or muhtasib. Lastly, roads officials also policed inns and taverns, places where food and drink were sold, to ensure these were of good quality and served at the correct amounts and for the right price. The presence in taverns of alcohol and abundance of foreigners, including sex workers, sometimes meant that roads masters also operated as a moral police force, fighting gambling, rowdiness and sexual promiscuity.In doing all this, road masters participated in earlier cities\u2019 preventative and harm-reductive programs, designed to promote public health and fight disease at the population level. They had rural parallels in the office of the field warden.\nRoad masters and their teams are especially well documented for Bologna, where they were known as the Dirt masters (Ufficiali del fango); Lucca; and Rome.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "School-based health and nutrition services are provided through the school system to improve the health and well-being of children and in some cases whole families and the broader community.  These services have been developed in different ways around the globe, but the fundamentals are constant: the early detection, correction, prevention or amelioration of disease, disability and abuse from which school aged children can suffer.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Seattle Coronavirus Assessment Network (SCAN) is a public health surveillance program established in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. SCAN originated in March 2020 as a partnership between the Public Health department of Seattle and King County in Washington, USA and the Seattle Flu Study. SCAN's predecessor, the Seattle Flu Study, reported the first known case of community transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in the United States.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Shift-and-persist model has emerged in order to account for unintuitive, positive health outcomes in some individuals of low socioeconomic status. A large body of research has previously linked low socioeconomic status to poor physical and mental health outcomes, including early mortality. Low socioeconomic status is hypothesized to get \"under the skin\" by producing chronic activation of the sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal axis, which increases allostatic load, leading to the pathogenesis of chronic disease. However, some individuals of low socioeconomic status do not appear to experience the expected, negative health effects associated with growing up in poverty. To account for this, the Shift-and-Persist Model proposes that, as children, some individuals of low socioeconomic status learn adaptive strategies for regulating their emotions (\"shifting\") and focusing on their goals (\"persisting\") in the face of chronic adversity. According to this model, the use of shift-and-persist strategies diminishes the typical negative effects of adversity on health by leading to more adaptive biological, cognitive, and behavioral responses to daily stressors.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Sleeping Sickness Commission was a medical project established by the British Royal Society to investigate the outbreak of African sleeping sickness or African trypanosomiasis in Africa at the turn of the 20th century. The outbreak of the disease started in 1900 in Uganda, which was at the time a protectorate of the British Empire. The initial team in 1902 consisted of Aldo Castellani and George Carmichael Low, both from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, and Cuthbert Christy, a medical officer on duty in Bombay, India. From 1903, David Bruce of the Royal Army Medical Corps and David Nunes Nabarro of the University College Hospital took over the leadership. The commission established that species of blood protozoan called Trypanosoma brucei, named after Bruce, was the causative parasite of sleeping sickness.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Social Emergency Medicine is an emerging branch of Emergency Medicine that explores the interplay of social forces and the emergency care system, and how these act together to affect the health of individuals and their communities. Organized in 2009, the field has gained wider acceptance within the larger specialty of emergency medicine. Initiatives in social emergency medicine include research, direct service and advocacy aimed at addressing the social determinants of health.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE) is the principal advisory group to World Health Organization (WHO) for vaccines and immunization. Established in 1999 through the merging of two previous committees, notably the Scientific Advisory Group of Experts (which served the Program for Vaccine Development) and the Global Advisory Group (which served the EPI program) by Director-General of the WHO Gro Harlem Brundtland. It is charged with advising WHO on overall global policies and strategies, ranging from vaccines and biotechnology, research and development, to delivery of immunization and its linkages with other health interventions. SAGE is concerned not just with childhood vaccines and immunization, but all vaccine-preventable diseases. SAGE provide global recommendations on immunization policy and such recommendations will be further translated by advisory committee at the country level.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A sugary drink tax, soda tax, or sweetened beverage tax (SBT) is a tax or surcharge (food-related fiscal policy) designed to reduce consumption of sweetened beverages. Drinks covered under a soda tax often include carbonated soft drinks, sports drinks and energy drinks. This policy intervention is an effort to decrease obesity and the health impacts related to being overweight, however the medical evidence supporting the benefits of a sugar tax on health is of very low certainty. The tax is a matter of public debate in many countries and beverage producers like Coca-Cola often oppose it. Advocates such as national medical associations and the World Health Organization promote the tax as an example of Pigovian taxation, aimed to discourage unhealthy diets and offset the growing economic costs of obesity.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Transportation and health is a branch of public health dealing with efforts to improve health outcomes related to transportation.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The transtheoretical model of behavior change is an integrative theory of therapy that assesses an individual's readiness to act on a new healthier behavior, and provides strategies, or processes of change to guide the individual. The model is composed of constructs such as: stages of change, processes of change, levels of change, self-efficacy, and decisional balance.The transtheoretical model is also known by the abbreviation \"TTM\" and sometimes by the term \"stages of change\", although this latter term is a synecdoche since the stages of change are only one part of the model along with processes of change, levels of change, etc. Several self-help books\u2014Changing for Good (1994), Changeology (2012), and Changing to Thrive (2016)\u2014and articles in the news media have discussed the model. It has been called \"arguably the dominant model of health behaviour change, having received unprecedented research attention, yet it has simultaneously attracted criticism\".", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Vaccine equity means ensuring that everyone in the world has equal access to vaccines. The importance of vaccine equity has been emphasized by researchers and public health experts during the COVID-19 pandemic but is relevant to other illnesses and vaccines as well.  Historically, world-wide immunization campaigns have led to the eradication of smallpox and significantly reduced polio, measles, tuberculosis, diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus.There are important reasons to establish mechanisms for global vaccine equity. Multiple factors support the development and spread of pandemics, not least the ability of people to travel long distances and widely transmit viruses.  A virus that remains in circulation somewhere in the world is likely to spread and recur in other areas.  The more widespread a virus is, and the larger and more varied the population it affects, the more likely it is to evolve more transmissible, more virulent, and more vaccine resistant variants.  Vaccine equity can be essential to stop both the spread and the evolution of a disease.  Ensuring that all populations receive access to vaccines is a pragmatic means towards achieving global public health.  Failing to do so increases the likelihood of further waves of a disease.Infectious diseases are disproportionately likely to affect those in low and middle-income neighborhoods and countries (LMICs), making vaccine equity an issue for local and national public health and for foreign policy.  Ethically and morally, access for all to essential medicines such as vaccines is fundamentally related to the human right to health, which is well founded in international law. Economically, vaccine inequity damages the global economy. Supply chains cross borders: areas with very high vaccination rates still depend on areas with lower vaccination rates for goods and services.Achieving vaccine equity requires addressing inequalities and roadblocks in the production, trade, and health care delivery of vaccines.  Challenges include scaling-up of technology transfer and production, costs of production, safety profiles of vaccines, and anti vaccine disinformation and aggression.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Vaccine line jumping is the act of obtaining a vaccine in which the supply fails to meet the demands of the population ahead of those for whom it has been prioritized, usually via fraudulent means, the exploitation of one's social status, or some other unethical manner. Vaccine line jumping is distinct from vaccine chasing, in which one goes out of their way to seek a scarcely available vaccine to which they are legally entitled.In some situations, an honor system is used in which the recipient declares, either verbally or in writing, if they are in a priority group, but no proof is asked. Other places require that one who is in a priority group provide documentation of belonging to such a group. For example, if prioritization is by age, a driver's license or other governmental identification can be used to verify age. If by occupation, a work ID can be used, and if a medical condition is a criterium, it could be a physician certificate.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Vaccine storage relates to the proper vaccine storage and handling practices from their manufacture to the administration in people. The general standard is the 2\u20138 \u00b0C cold chain for vaccine storage and transportation. This is used for all current US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-licensed human vaccines and in low and middle-income countries. Exceptions include some vaccines for smallpox, chickenpox, shingles and one of the measles, mumps, and rubella II vaccines, which are transported between \u221225 \u00b0C and \u221215 \u00b0C. Some vaccines, such as the COVID-19 vaccine, require a cooler temperature between \u221280 \u00b0C and \u221260 \u00b0C for storage.In 1996, the World Health Organization (WHO) decided to spread vaccines worldwide. This urges researchers to design storage for vaccines without losing its potency. Since then, the production of vaccines has spiked, and various kinds of vaccines have their handling practices. WHO has set standards to ensure cold chain and has different types of storage, including refrigerators, freezers, cold boxes, and vaccine carriers. Different types of thermometers are also used because a slight temperature change could result in loss of potency. The storage are necessary to improve vaccine shelf life and transport vaccine worldwide.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "\u00c9mile Arthur Vallin (27 November 1833 in Nantes - 27 February 1924 in Montpellier) was a French military physician, considered to be a precursor of public health in France a convinced Pasteurian.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Verbal autopsy (VA) is a method of gathering information about symptoms and circumstances for a deceased individual to determine their cause of death. Health information and a description of events prior to death are acquired from conversations or interviews with a person or persons familiar with the deceased and analyzed by health professionals or computer algorithms to assign likely cause(s) of death.Verbal autopsy is used in settings where most deaths are otherwise undocumented, which typically means in low- and middle-income countries. Estimates suggest a majority of the 60 million annual global deaths occur without medical attention or official medical certification of the cause of death. VA attempts to establish causes of death for otherwise undocumented subjects, allowing scientists to analyze disease patterns and direct public health policy decisions.\nNoteworthy large-scale uses of the verbal autopsy method include the Million Death Study in India, China's national program to document causes of death in rural areas, the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010, and the INDEPTH Network multi-site study. VA is increasingly recognised as an important component of national CRVS (civil registration and vital statistics) systems.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Vermont Department of Health is state department responsible for the health of Vermont in the United States. It is a sub-division of the Vermont Agency of Human Services. As of March 2017, the Department of Health is led by Mark Levine, MD. Dr. Levine was appointed  the Commissioner of Health by Governor Phil Scott.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Veterinary public health (VPH) is a component of public health that focuses on the application of veterinary science to protect and improve the physical, mental and social well-being of humans. In several countries activities related to VPH are organized by the chief veterinary officer.\nConventionally veterinary public health as a topic covers the following areas:", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Violence interruption is a community-based approach to reducing communal and interpersonal violence that treats violence as a public health problem. This type of model was created by the organization Cure Violence Global. Individuals providing violence interruption services are known as violence interrupters. Techniques used include mediation and measures to address underlying causes of violence such as poverty. These mediations are usually between rival gangs. The violence interrupters are people who have lived experience and usually come from the neighborhoods they work in. Maintaining respect and trust from the community is of the utmost importance to foster strong relationships with the individuals who are being served so that they maintain their credibility as messengers. They also help these individuals access services that can address the underlying root causes of an individual's actions. For example, job training and job placement. The initiatives use a public health model to prevent violence and crime by treating them as diseases.  As of 2018 initiatives were in place in Washington DC, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Baltimore and other US cities, as well as in London and Glasgow.Violence interruption is distinct from law enforcement as an approach to ending violence, although the two approaches can sometimes be regarded as complementary to one another. The component that makes this strategy so successful is the community partner agencies and the interrupters themselves.The Health Alliance for Violence Intervention (HAVI) is a network of hospital-based violence intervention programs that cultivate relationships between the hospitals and community social service agencies to provide resources and services to victims of gun violence. Oakland California implemented a hospital-based violence intervention program to conduct research and assess the effectiveness of this model of violence intervention. The participants were predominantly Black and Latino youth between the ages of 12 to 20 years old. Youth that had received an intervention at the hospital were less likely to be arrested for any offenses by 70% and less likely to continue committing crimes by 60%.During the COVID-19 pandemic, violence interrupters helped encourage social distancing, hand washing, and other measures to limit viral spread and helped distribute food and supplies in the areas they served.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Wastewater-based epidemiology (or wastewater-based surveillance or sewage chemical-information mining) analyzes wastewater to determine the consumption of, or exposure to, chemicals or pathogens in a population. This is achieved by measuring chemical or biomarkers in wastewater generated by the people contributing to a sewage treatment plant catchment. Wastewater-based epidemiology has been used to estimate illicit drug use in communities or populations, but can be used to measure the consumption of alcohol, caffeine, various pharmaceuticals and other compounds. Wastewater-based epidemiology has also been adapted to measure the load of pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2 in a community. It differs from traditional drug testing, urine or stool testing in that results are population-level rather than individual level. Wastewater-based epidemiology is an interdisciplinary endeavour that draws on input from specialists such as wastewater treatment plant operators, analytical chemists and epidemiologists.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Weight of the Nation is a four-part documentary series produced by American cable television network HBO. Addressing the growing obesity epidemic in the United States, it was first aired in May 2012. The documentary series included collaboration with National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Institute of Medicine. The series was produced by John Hoffman.The scientific commentators featured in the documentary include Francis Collins, Samuel Klein, Rudolph Leibel, Robert Lustig, and Kelly D. Brownell.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The World Health Organization Hub for Pandemic and Epidemic Intelligence was established by the Director-General of the World Health Organization and the former Chancellor of Germany in 2021 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Pandemic Hub is led by Dr Chikwe Ihekweazu, who is Assistant Director-General, Division of Health Emergency Intelligence and Surveillance Systems at WHO.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The World Health Assembly (WHA) is the forum through which the World Health Organization (WHO) is governed by its 194 member states. It is the world's highest health policy setting body and is composed of health ministers from member states.\nThe members of the WHA generally meet every year in May in Geneva at the Palace of Nations, the location of WHO Headquarters. The main tasks of the WHA are to decide major policy questions, as well as to approve the WHO work programme and budget and elect its Director-General (every fifth year) and annually to elect ten members to renew part of its executive board. Its main functions are to determine the policies of the Organization, supervise financial policies, and review and approve the proposed programme budget.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Quality of life (QOL) is defined by the World Health Organization as \"an individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns\". Standard indicators of the quality of life include wealth, employment, the environment, physical and mental health, education, recreation and leisure time, social belonging, religious beliefs, safety, security and freedom. QOL has a wide range of contexts, including the fields of international development, healthcare, politics and employment. Health related QOL (HRQOL) is an evaluation of QOL and its relationship with health.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Asthma Life Impact Scale (ALIS) measure is a disease specific patient reported outcome questionnaire which assesses the impact that asthma has on a patient\u2019s quality of life.The questionnaire has 22 items, which goes beyond earlier focus on the symptoms, functioning and environmental triggers of asthma and includes emotional issues.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Bradburn Affect Balance Scale is a self-report measure of quality of life. The scale consists of ten mood states (for example, item one is \"particularly excited  or  interested  in something\"), and the subject must report if they have been in that state in the last week.The scale was included in the 1978-1979 Canada Health Survey.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Cambridge Pulmonary Hypertension Outcome Review (CAMPHOR) is a disease specific patient-reported outcome measure which assesses quality of life of patients with pulmonary hypertension (PH). It was the first pulmonary hypertension specific questionnaire for assessing patient reported symptoms, quality of life and functioning.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Physiotherapists treating patients following uncomplicated coronary artery bypass surgery (also called coronary artery bypass graft surgery, or CABG) surgery continue to use interventions such as deep breathing exercises that are not supported by best available evidence. Standardised guidelines may be required to better match clinical practice with current literature.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of countries and territories by home ownership rate, which is the ratio of owner-occupied units to total residential units in a specified area.\n\n}}</ref>\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "An electronic patient-reported outcome (ePRO) is a patient-reported outcome that is collected by electronic methods. ePRO methods are most commonly used in clinical trials, but they are also used elsewhere in health care.  As a function of the regulatory process, a majority of ePRO questionnaires undergo the linguistic validation process.  When the data is captured for a clinical trial, the data is considered a form of Electronic Source Data", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Freedom Fund is an international non-profit organisation dedicated to identifying and investing in the most effective frontline efforts to end slavery. In 2017, the International Labour Organization reported that on any given day in 2016, there were 40 million people living in modern slavery worldwide across a wide range of industries.The Freedom Fund was founded in September 2013, by three leading anti-slavery donors, Humanity United, the Legatum Foundation and the Walk Free Foundation and officially announced by President Bill Clinton at the Clinton Global Initiative on September 26, 2013 where he declared \"this is a huge deal and we should all support this.\"", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The FACT-G (Version 4) is a patient-reported outcome measure used to assess health-related quality of life in patients undergoing cancer therapy.  The FACT-G is the original questionnaire that led to the development of the larger Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy (FACIT) collection of quality of life instruments.  The survey assesses the impacts of cancer therapy in four domains: physical, social/family, emotional, and functional.  The FACT-G is also offered with additional questions measuring cancer-specific factors that may affect quality of life, leading to the creation of the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy - Head and Neck (FACT-H&N), the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy - Lung (FACT-L), and 18 others.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Genuine progress indicator (GPI) is a metric that has been suggested to replace, or supplement, gross domestic product (GDP). The GPI is designed to take fuller account of the well-being of a nation, only a part of which pertains to the size of the nation's economy, by incorporating environmental and social factors which are not measured by GDP. For instance, some models of GPI decrease in value when the poverty rate increases. The GPI separates the concept of societal progress from economic growth.\nThe GPI is used in ecological economics, \"green\" economics, sustainability and more inclusive types of economics. It factors in environmental and carbon footprints that businesses produce or eliminate, including in the forms of resource depletion, pollution and long-term environmental damage. GDP is increased twice when pollution is created, since it increases once upon creation (as a side-effect of some valuable process) and again when the pollution is cleaned up; in contrast, GPI counts the initial pollution as a loss rather than a gain, generally equal to the amount it will cost to clean up later plus the cost of any negative impact the pollution will have in the meantime. While quantifying costs and benefits of these environmental and social externalities is a difficult task, \"Earthster-type databases could bring more precision and currency to GPI's metrics.\" It has been noted that such data may also be embraced by those who attempt to \"internalize externalities\" by making companies pay the costs of the pollution they create (rather than having the government or society at large bear those costs) \"by taxing their goods proportionally to their negative ecological and social impacts\".GPI is an attempt to measure whether the environmental impact and social costs of economic production and consumption in a country are negative or positive factors in overall health and well-being. By accounting for the costs borne by the society as a whole to repair or control pollution and poverty, GPI balances GDP spending against external costs. GPI advocates claim that it can more reliably measure economic progress, as it distinguishes between the overall \"shift in the 'value basis' of a product, adding its ecological impacts into the equation\".:\u200aCh. 10.3\u200a Comparatively speaking, the relationship between GDP and GPI is analogous to the relationship between the gross profit of a company and the net profit; the net profit is the gross profit minus the costs incurred, while the GPI is the GDP (value of all goods and services produced) minus the environmental and social costs. Accordingly, the GPI will be zero if the financial costs of poverty and pollution equal the financial gains in production of goods and services, all other factors being constant.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Happy life expectancy (HLE) is calculated by multiplying life expectancy by a happiness index. The first uses life expectancy at birth. The happiness index is the average appreciation of life (with a value from 0 to 1) from the world databases of happiness.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Health and Quality of Life Outcomes is a peer-reviewed online-only open access medical journal covering research on health-related quality of life. It was established in 2003 and is published by BioMed Central. The editor-in-chief is Holger Sch\u00fcnemann (McMaster University). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 2.278.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Leisure has often been defined as a quality of experience or as free time. Free time is time spent away from business, work, job hunting, domestic chores, and education, as well as necessary activities such as eating and sleeping. Leisure as an experience usually emphasizes dimensions of perceived freedom and choice. It is done for \"its own sake\", for the quality of experience and involvement. Other classic definitions include Thorsten Veblen's (1899) of \"nonproductive consumption of time.\" Free time is not easy to define due to the multiplicity of approaches used to determine its essence. Different disciplines have definitions reflecting their common issues: for example, sociology on social forces and contexts and psychology as mental and emotional states and conditions. From a research perspective, these approaches have an advantage of being quantifiable and comparable over time and place.Leisure studies and sociology of leisure are the academic disciplines concerned with the study and analysis of leisure. Recreation differs from leisure in that it is a purposeful activity that includes the experience of leisure in activity contexts. Economists consider that leisure times are valuable to a person like wages that they could earn for the same time spend towards the activity. If it were not, people would have worked instead of taking leisure. However, the distinction between leisure and unavoidable activities is not a rigidly defined one, e.g. people sometimes do work-oriented tasks for pleasure as well as for long-term utility. A related concept is social leisure, which involves leisurely activities in social settings, such as extracurricular activities, e.g. sports, clubs. Another related concept is that of family leisure. Relationships with others is usually a major factor in both satisfaction and choice.\nThe concept of leisure as a human right was realised in article 24 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Life satisfaction (LS) is the way in which people show their emotions, feelings, and moods. It is how they feel about their directions and options for the future.  It is a measure of well-being assessed in terms of mood, satisfaction with relationships, achieved goals, self-concepts, and self-perceived ability to cope with one's daily life. Life satisfaction involves a favorable attitude towards one's life\u2014rather than an assessment of current feelings. Life satisfaction has been measured in relation to economic standing, degree of education, experiences, residence, and among many other topics.Life satisfaction is a key part of subjective well-being. There are many factors, both internal and external (such as socio-demographic and psychosocial) that contribute to one's subjective well-being and life satisfaction. Socio-demographic factors include gender, age, marital status, income, and education. Psychosocial factors include health and illness, functional ability, activity level, and social relationships.People are more likely to experience higher levels of life satisfaction the older they become.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of countries by ecological footprint. The table is based on data spanning from 1961 to 2013 from the\nGlobal Footprint Network's National Footprint Accounts published in 2016. Numbers are given in global hectares per capita. The\nworld-average ecological footprint in 2016 was 2.75 global hectares per person (22.6 billion in total). With a world-average biocapacity of 1.63 global hectares (gha) per person (12.2 billion in total), this leads to a global ecological deficit of 1.1 global hectares per person (10.4 billion in total).For humanity, having a footprint smaller than the planet's biocapacity is a necessary condition for sustainability. After all, ecological overuse is only possible temporarily. A country that consumes more than 1.73 gha per person has a resource demand that is not sustainable world-wide if every country were to exceed that consumption level simultaneously. Countries with a footprint below 1.73 gha per person might not be sustainable: the quality of the footprint may still lead to net long-term ecological destruction. If a country does not have enough ecological resources within its own territory to cover its population's footprint, then it runs an ecological deficit and the country is termed an ecological debtor. Otherwise, it has an ecological reserve and it is called a creditor. To a significant degree, biocapacity correlates with access to water resources.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Migraine Specific Quality of Life (MSQoL) is a patient-reported outcome measure (PRO or PROM) which assesses the quality of life of migraineurs. It is a 25-item questionnaire which is filled out by the patient and is used to determine how the patient's life has been affected by their migraines.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A patient diary is a tool used during a clinical trial or a disease treatment to assess the patient's condition (e.g. symptom severity, quality of life) or to measure treatment compliance. An electronic patient diary registers the data in a storage device and allows for automatically monitoring the time the entry was made.\nFrequent recording of symptoms using a diary helps to reduce recall bias. Electronic diaries ensure entries are made as scheduled, and not, for example, in a batch immediately before the clinic visit. \nPatient diaries are also way to find out if a patient takes the medication according to the treatment schedule, which is an important problem during clinical trials and the treatment of degenerative diseases with relatively few symptoms.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Patient Reported Outcome Indices for Multiple Sclerosis (PRIMUS) is a disease specific patient-reported outcome questionnaire which measures the quality of life (QoL) of patients with multiple sclerosis.The measure contains an assessment of quality of life, activity limitations and symptoms. A higher score on any or all of these scales indicates a lower quality of life due to the disease.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A patient-reported outcome (PRO) is a health outcome directly reported by the patient who experienced it. It stands in contrast to an outcome reported by someone else, such as a physician-reported outcome, a nurse-reported outcome, and so on. PRO methods, such as questionnaires, are used in clinical trials or other clinical settings, to help better understand a treatment's efficacy or effectiveness. The use of digitized PROs, or electronic patient-reported outcomes (ePROs), is on the rise in today's health research setting.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In medicine (oncology and other fields), performance status is an attempt to quantify cancer patients' general well-being and activities of daily life. This measure is used to determine whether they can receive chemotherapy, whether dose adjustment is necessary, and as a measure for the required intensity of palliative care. It is also used in oncological randomized controlled trials as a measure of quality of life.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) is an attempt to measure the quality of life or well-being of a country. The value is the average of three statistics: basic literacy rate, infant mortality, and life expectancy at age one, all equally weighted on a 1 to 100 scale.\nIt was developed for the Overseas Development Council in the mid-1970s by Morris David Morris, as one of a number of measures created due to dissatisfaction with the use of GNP as an indicator of development. PQLI might be regarded as an improvement but shares the general problems of measuring quality of life in a quantitative way. It has also been criticized because there is considerable overlap between infant mortality and life expectancy.The UN Human Development Index is a more widely used means of measuring well-being.\nSteps to Calculate Physical Quality of Life:\n1) Find percentage of the population that is literate (literacy rate).\n2) Find the infant mortality rate. (out of 1000 births)\nINDEXED Infant Mortality Rate = (166 - infant mortality) \u00d7 0.625\n3) Find the Life Expectancy.\nINDEXED Life Expectancy = (Life expectancy - 42) \u00d7 2.7\n4) Physical Quality of Life =\n\n               (Literacy Rate + INDEXED Infant Mortality Rate + INDEXED Life Expectancy) \n               _________________________________________________________________________\n                                                   3\n\n- ABOUT PHYSICAL QUALITY OF LIFE INDEX= PQLI : Increase in national income and per capita income are not the real indicators of economic development, as it has a number of limitations. Increasing incomes of the country are concentrated in the hands of a few people, which is not development. The development of a country should be such that the living standards of the poor rise, and the basic requirements of the citizens are fulfilled. Keeping this in mind, Morris Davis Morris presented the physical quality of life index, in short known as the PQLI. In this index, betterment of physical quality of life of human beings is considered economic development. The level of physical quality of life determines the level of economic development. If any country's physical quality of life is higher than that of the other country, then that country is considered as more developed. There are three standards to measure the physical quality, which are depicted here:1)- Extent of Education,\n2)- Life Expectancy &\n3)- Infant Mortality Rate\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Primary goods are presented in the book A Theory of Justice (1971) written by the American philosopher John Rawls.\nIn the first edition of the Theory of Justice, these goods are supposed to be desirable for every human being, just as they are also useful for them. Thus, primary goods are the common base for the unanimous selection of the justice principle in the original position.\nPrimary goods are subdivided in two categories:\n\nNatural primary goods: this category includes intelligence, imagination, health, speed etc.\nSocial primary goods: this category includes rights (civil rights and political rights), liberties, income and wealth, the social bases of self-respect, etc.In the second edition of the Theory of Justice, primary goods are stated to be those that the citizens need as free people and as members of the society.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Psoriatic Arthritis Quality of Life (PsAQoL) measure is a disease specific patient-reported outcome measure which measures the effect that psoriatic arthritis has on a patient\u2019s quality of life.It is a self-administered, 20-item questionnaire that takes about three minutes to complete. The answers are restricted to true or false.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "This article charts a Quality of life index by country as determined by World Population Review, an independent organization.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Quality of Well-Being Scale (QWB) is a general health quality of life questionnaire which measures overall status and well-being over the previous three days in four areas: physical activities, social activities, mobility, and symptom/problem complexes.It consists of 71 items and takes 20 minutes to complete. There are two different versions of the QWB; the original was designed to be administered by an interviewer, and the second development (the QWB-SA) was designed to be self-administered.The four domain scores of the questionnaire are combined into a total score that ranges from 0 to 1.0, with 1.0 representing optimum function and 0 representing death.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The reasonable person model (RPM) is a psychological framework which argues that people are at their best when their informational needs are met. Positing that unreasonableness is not a human trait, but rather the result of environment (context and circumstances), the RPM attempts to define the environments/actions that foster reasonableness,  defining three key areas that assist with this: model building, being effective, and meaningful action.\nThe RPM was developed by environmental psychologists Stephen and Rachel Kaplan and integrates principles from environmental, cognitive, and evolutionary psychology.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Recurrent Genital Herpes Quality of Life (RGHQoL) measure is a patient-reported outcome measure which determines the impact that recurrent genital herpes has on a patient\u2019s quality of life. It is a 20 item questionnaire with items such as \u201cHerpes makes it difficult for me to plan ahead\u201d and \u201cI worry that sex will trigger an outbreak.\u201d. Lower scores on the RGHQoL indicate a higher negative impact on quality of life.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours or workload.\nMany people choose to retire when they are elderly or incapable of doing their job due to health reasons. People may also retire when they are eligible for private or public pension benefits, although some are forced to retire when bodily conditions no longer allow the person to work any longer (by illness or accident) or as a result of legislation concerning their positions. In most countries, the idea of retirement is of recent origin, being introduced during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. Previously, low life expectancy, lack of social security and the absence of pension arrangements meant that most workers continued to work until their death. Germany was the first country to introduce retirement benefits in 1889.Nowadays, most developed countries have systems to provide pensions on retirement in old age, funded by employers or the state. In many poorer countries, there is no support for the elderly beyond that provided through the family. Today, retirement with a pension is considered a right of the worker in many societies; hard ideological, social, cultural and political battles have been fought over whether this is a right. In many Western countries, this is a right embodied in national constitutions.\nAn increasing number of individuals are choosing to put off this point of total retirement, by selecting to exist in the emerging state of pre-tirement.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Rheumatoid Arthritis Quality of Life Questionnaire (RAQoL) is a disease-specific patient-reported outcome measure which determines the effect rheumatoid arthritis has on a patient\u2019s quality of life. The RAQoL has 30 items with a yes and no response format and takes about six minutes to complete.Scores on the RAQoL are a sum of all the individual item scores with a range from 0-30, with a lower score indicating better quality of life. The RAQoL is a self-assessment questionnaire, meaning patients fill out the survey themselves in order to avoid experimental error.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Short Form (12) Health Survey is a 12-item, patient-reported survey of patient health.  It is a reduced size version of the SF-36, and is widely used since it produces similar results for physical and mental health scores with far less respondent burden for producing scores of overall mental and physical well-being.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Short Form (36) Health Survey is a 36-item, patient-reported survey of patient health.  The SF-36 is a measure of health status and an abbreviated variant of it, the SF-6D, is commonly used in health economics as a variable in the quality-adjusted life year calculation to determine the cost-effectiveness of a health treatment.  The original SF-36 stemmed from the Medical Outcome Study, MOS, which was conducted by the RAND Corporation. Since then a group of researchers from the original study released a commercial version of SF-36 while the original SF-36 is available in public domain license free from RAND. A shorter version is the SF-12, which contains 12 items rather than 36. If having only adequate physical and mental health summary scores is of interest, \"then the SF12 may be the instrument of choice\".", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Social quality is a way of understanding society which is also relevant for social and public policy. Social quality looks at elements that should constitute a good or decent society. It contributes to the body of work concerned with understanding social progress going beyond GDP, taking into account the work of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Whilst most approaches have concentrated on the economics or psychology of well-being, social quality can help understanding the social conditions that enable human flourishing.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Suboptimal health status (SHS), or subhealth or sub-health(Chinese: \u4e9a\u5065\u5eb7), can be defined as a state characterized by some disturbances in psychological behaviors or physical characteristics, or in some indices of medical examination, with no typical pathologic features. It is considered as a therapeutic working concept which defines an intermediate stage between health and disease, which is not quite either status. Human persons who are sub-healthy have any of a range of uncomfortable symptoms but without any obvious and diagnosable illnesses which can be identified through standard medical observation methods.  This concept was first presented as \"the third state\" by the scholar of former Soviet Union, Berkman, in the mid-1980s. It is also interpreted as different terms like \"intermediate state\", \"grey state\" or \"a general malaise\". Sub-health is a term which is widely used by Chinese people, or in connection with traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).Some feel that the notion of SHS has been invented to sell people medical products.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Time affluence is defined as the sense that one has ample time available on a daily basis.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Vitality (from Middle French  vitalit\u00e9, from Latin  v\u012bt\u0101lit\u0101s, from Latin  v\u012bta 'life') is the capacity to live, grow, or develop. More simply it is the property of having life. The perception of vitality is regarded as a basic psychological drive and, in philosophy, a component to the will to live. As such, people seek to maximize their vitality or their experience of vitality\u2014that which corresponds to an enhanced physiological capacity and mental state.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Well-being, or wellbeing, also known as wellness, prudential value or quality of life, refers to what is intrinsically valuable relative to someone. So the well-being of a person is what is ultimately good for this person, what is in the self-interest of this person. Well-being can refer to both positive and negative well-being. In its positive sense, it is sometimes contrasted with ill-being as its opposite. The term \"subjective well-being\" denotes how people experience and evaluate their lives, usually measured in relation to self-reported well-being obtained through questionnaires. Sometimes different types of well-being are distinguished, like mental well-being, physical well-being, economic well-being or emotional well-being. The different forms of well-being are often closely interlinked. For example, improved physical well-being (e.g., by reducing or ceasing an addiction) is associated with improved emotional well-being. As another example, better economic well-being (e.g., possessing more wealth) tends to be associated with better emotional well-being even in adverse situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Well-being plays a central role in ethics since what we ought to do depends, at least to some degree, on what would make someone's life get better or worse. According to welfarism, there are no other values besides well-being.The terms well-being, pleasure and happiness are used in overlapping ways in everyday language but their meanings tend to come apart in technical contexts like philosophy or psychology. Pleasure refers to experience that feels good and is usually seen as one constituent of well-being. But there may be other factors, such as health, virtue, knowledge or the fulfillment of desires. Happiness, often seen either as \"the individual\u2019s balance of pleasant over unpleasant experience\" or as the state of being satisfied with one's life as a whole, is also commonly taken to be a constituent of well-being.\nTheories of well-being try to determine what is essential to all forms of well-being. Hedonistic theories equate well-being with the balance of pleasure over pain. Desire theories hold that well-being consists in desire-satisfaction: the higher the number of satisfied desires, the higher the well-being. Objective list theories state that a person's well-being depends on a list of factors that may include both subjective and objective elements.\nWell-being is the central subject of positive psychology, whose goal is to discover the factors that contribute to human well-being. Martin Seligman, for example, suggests that these factors consist in having positive emotions, being engaged in an activity, having good relationships with other people, finding meaning in one's life and a sense of accomplishment in the pursuit of one's goals.The Oxford English Dictionary traces the term well-being to a 16th-century calque of the Italian concept benessere.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Wellness is a state beyond absence of illness but rather aims to optimize well-being.The notions behind the term share the same roots as the alternative medicine movement, in 19th-century movements in the US and Europe that sought to optimize health and to consider the whole person, like New Thought, Christian Science, and Lebensreform. Ayurveda mentions the concept and also has dedicated a whole speciality for the concept of wellness and maintenance of health.\nThe term wellness has also been misused for pseudoscientific health interventions.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Wellness in School is offered as a unit in some K-8 elementary schools in the United States. It is defined as the quality or state of being in good health, especially as an actively sought goal. Wellness is taught in 6 or 7 dimensions: physical, social, intellectual, emotional, occupational, spiritual and environmental. Inclusion of the latter two is controversial. While the teaching of \"The Whole Child\" seems to be an antiquated philosophy with public schools trending towards high-stakes testing, there are many schools such as Montessori and other philosophies/pedagogies that value this curriculum. The following isn't an expanded definition of each, but simply what the goals and objectives are for each dimension.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Quality of working life (QWL) describes a person's broader employment-related experience. Various authors and researchers have proposed models of quality of working life \u2013 also referred to as quality of worklife \u2013 which include a wide range of factors, sometimes classified as \"motivator factors\" which if present can make the job experience a positive one, and \"hygiene factors\" which if lacking are more associated with dissatisfaction. A number of rating scales have been developed aiming to measure overall quality of working life or certain aspects thereof. Some publications have drawn attention to the importance of QWL for both employees and employers, and also for national economic performance.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The world's most livable cities is an informal name given to any list of cities as they rank on an annual survey of living conditions. In addition to providing clean water, clean air, adequate food and shelter, a \u2018livable\u2019 city must also generate a sense of community and offer hospitable settings for all, especially young people, to develop social skills, a sense of autonomy and identity.Regions with cities commonly ranked in the top 50 include Oceania, Northern America and Europe. Three examples of such surveys are Monocle's \"Quality of Life Survey\", the Economist Intelligence Unit's \"Global Liveability Ranking\", and \"Mercer Quality of Living Survey\". Numbeo has the largest statistics and survey data based on cities and countries. Deutsche Bank's Liveability Survey is another ranking of cities by quality of life.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Race and health refers to how being identified with a specific race influences health. Race is a complex concept that has changed across chronological eras and depends on both self-identification and social recognition. In the study of race and health, scientists organize people in racial categories depending on different factors such as: phenotype, ancestry, social identity, genetic makeup and lived experience. \"Race\" and ethnicity often remain undifferentiated in health research.Differences in health status, health outcomes, life expectancy, and many other indicators of health in different racial and ethnic groups are well documented. Epidemiological data indicate that racial groups are unequally affected by diseases, in terms or morbidity and mortality. Some individuals in certain racial groups receive less care, have less access to resources, and live shorter lives in general. Overall, racial health disparities appear to be rooted in social disadvantages associated with race such as implicit stereotyping and average differences in socioeconomic status.Health disparities are defined as \"preventable differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence, or opportunities to achieve optimal health that are experienced by socially disadvantaged populations\". According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, they are intrinsically related to the \"historical and current unequal distribution of social, political, economic and environmental resources\".The relationship between race and health has been studied from multidisciplinary perspectives, with increasing focus on how racism influences health disparities, and how environmental and physiological factors respond to one another and to genetics.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Alcohol tolerance refers to the bodily responses to the functional effects of ethanol in alcoholic beverages. This includes direct tolerance, speed of recovery from insobriety and resistance to the development of alcohol use disorder.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The common disease-common variant (often abbreviated CD-CV) hypothesis predicts that common disease-causing alleles, or variants, will be found in all human populations which manifest a given disease.  Common variants (not necessarily disease-causing) are known to exist in coding and regulatory sequences of genes. According to the CD-CV hypothesis, some of those variants lead to susceptibility to complex polygenic diseases. Each variant at each gene influencing a complex disease will have a small additive or multiplicative effect on the disease phenotype. These diseases, or traits, are evolutionarily neutral in part because so many genes influence the traits. The hypothesis has held  in the case of putative causal variants in apolipoprotein E, including APOE \u03b54, associated with Alzheimer's disease. IL23R has been found to be associated with Crohn's disease; the at-risk allele has a frequency 93% in the general population.\nOne common form of variation across human genomes is called a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). As indicated by the name, SNPs are single base changes in the DNA.  SNP variants tend to be common in different human populations. These polymorphisms have been valuable as genomic signposts, or \"markers\", in the search for common variants that influence susceptibility to common diseases.  Research has linked common SNPs to diseases such as type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer's, schizophrenia and hypertension.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Joyce Echaquan was a 37-year-old Atikamekw woman who died on September 28, 2020, in the Centre hospitalier de Lanaudi\u00e8re in Saint-Charles-Borrom\u00e9e, Quebec. Before her death, she recorded a Facebook Live video that showed her screaming in distress and healthcare workers abusing her.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A growing body of research has begun to highlight differences in the way racial and ethnic groups respond to psychiatric medication.It has been noted that there are \"dramatic cross-ethnic and cross-national variations in the dosing practices and side-effect profiles in response to practically all classes of psychotropics.\"", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Hydralazine/isosorbide dinitrate, sold under the brand name Bidil, is a fixed-dose combination medication used to treat self-identified black people with congestive heart failure. It is a combination of hydralazine hydrochloride (an arteriolar vasodilator) and isosorbide dinitrate (a nitrate vasodilator). It is the first race-based prescription drug in the United States.:\u200a7\u200aThe Food and Drug Administration approved this race-specific medicine to treat heart failure in self-identified African-American patients. This drug was developed without regard to race or genetics, but it became convenient for commercial reasons to market the drug to black patients. The FDA allowed the drug company to test the efficiency in a clinical trial that only included African American participants which speculated that race causes an unknown genetic factor that affects heart disease. The creation and use of this medicine leads to a dangerous message; black people's bodies are so different from others that a drug tested in them is not guaranteed to work in other patients. In the end, the drug companies' marketing failed because black patients were wary of using a drug just for black people.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "African countries have been sites for clinical trials by large pharmaceutical companies, raising human rights concerns. Incidents of unethical experimentation, clinical trials lacking properly informed consent, and forced medical procedures have been claimed and prosecuted.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The medical genetics of Jews have been studied to identify and prevent some rare genetic diseases that, while still rare, are more common than average among people of Jewish descent. There are several autosomal recessive genetic disorders that are more common than average in ethnically Jewish populations, particularly Ashkenazi Jews. This is due to population bottlenecks that occurred relatively recently in the past as well as a practice of consanguineous marriage (marriage of second cousins or closer). These two phenomena lead to a decrease in genetic diversity and a higher likelihood that two parents will carry a mutation in the same gene and pass on both mutations to a child.\nThe genetics of Ashkenazi Jews have been particularly well-studied, as the phenomenon affects them the most. This has resulted in the discovery of many genetic disorders associated with this ethnic group. In contrast, the medical genetics of Sephardic Jews and Mizrahi Jews are more complicated, since they are more genetically diverse, and consequently no genetic disorders are more common in these groups as a whole. Instead, they tend to have the genetic diseases common in their various countries of origin.Several organizations, such as Dor Yeshorim, offer screening for Ashkenazi genetic diseases, and these screening programs have had a significant impact, in particular by reducing the number of cases of Tay\u2013Sachs disease.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Minority stress describes high levels of stress faced by members of stigmatized minority groups.  It may be caused by a number of factors, including poor social support and low socioeconomic status; well understood causes of minority stress are interpersonal prejudice and discrimination. Indeed, numerous scientific studies have shown that when minority individuals experience a high degree of prejudice, this can cause stress responses (e.g., high blood pressure, anxiety) that accrue over time, eventually leading to poor mental and physical health. Minority stress theory summarizes these scientific studies to explain how difficult social situations lead to chronic stress and poor health among minority individuals.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "New World Syndrome is a set of non-communicable diseases brought on by consumption of junk food and a sedentary lifestyle, especially common to indigenous peoples of the Americas, Oceania, and circumpolar peoples. It is characterized by obesity, heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, and shortened life span.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Scholarly studies have investigated the effects of religion on health. The World Health Organization (WHO) discerns four dimensions of health, namely physical, social, mental, and spiritual health. Having a religious belief may have both positive and negative impacts on health and morbidity.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Numerous religious traditions have taken a stance on abortion but few are absolute. These stances span a broad spectrum, based on numerous teachings, deities, or religious print, and some of those views are highlighted below.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A health deity is a god or goddess in mythology or religion associated with health, healing and wellbeing.  They may also be related to childbirth or Mother Goddesses.  They are a common feature of polytheistic religions.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The relationship between religion and divorce is complicated and varied. Different religions have different perceptions of divorce. Some religions accept divorce as a fact of life, while others only believe it is right under certain circumstances like adultery. Also, some religions allow remarriage after divorce, and others believe it is inherently wrong. This article attempts to summarize these viewpoints of major world religions and some important traditions regarding divorce in each faith.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Faith Community Nursing, also known as Parish Nursing, Parrish Nursing, Congregational Nursing or Church Nursing, is a movement of over 15,000 registered nurses, primarily in the United States.  There are also Parish nurses in Australia, the Bahamas, Canada, England, Ghana, India, Kenya, Korea, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, New Zealand, Nigeria, Palestine, Pakistan, Scotland, Singapore, South Africa, Swaziland, Ukraine, Wales, Zambia and Zimbabwe.  Faith community nursing is a practice specialty that focuses on the intentional care of the spirit, promotion of an integrative model of health and prevention and minimization of illness within the context of a community of faith. The intentional integration of the practice of faith with the practice of nursing so that people can achieve wholeness in, with, and through the population which faith community nurses serve.\nParish nursing began in the mid-1980s in Chicago through the efforts of Rev. Dr. Granger Westberg as a reincarnation of the faith community nursing outreach done by religious orders, such as the \"Parish Deaconesses\" in Europe and America in the 1800s.  Parish nursing is rooted in the Judeo-Christian tradition, and the historic practice of professional nursing, and is consistent with the basic assumptions of many faiths that we care for self and others as an expression of God's love. However, it is not only available to Christian congregations.  There are Jewish Congregational Nurses, Muslim Crescent Nurses, and RNs serving in similar capacities within other faith traditions.\nFaith Community Nursing (FCN) is recognized as a specialty nursing practice. Faith Community Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice was approved by the American Nurses Association in 2005 (and updated in 2012) and define the specialty as \"...the specialized practice of professional nursing that focuses on the intentional care of the spirit as part of the process of promoting holistic health and preventing or minimizing illness in a faith community.\" (American Nurses Association, 2012, Faith Community Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice, Silver Springs, MD: Author, p1). The 16 standards of Faith Community Nursing Practice reflect the specialty's professional values and priorities and provide practice directions and the framework for practice evaluation.  Each standard is measurable by a set of specific competencies that serve as evidence of minimal compliance with that standard.\nFaith community nursing focuses on a wholistic approach to patient care. Faith community nursing believes that by promoting a wholistic approach this will prevent or minimize illnesses in faith communities (How is faith community nursing the same or different, 2015). Nurses in this specialty, cares for the patient as a whole; physically, emotionally, and spiritually. A good relationship between the nurse and client is vital for this specialty. The role of a faith community nurse is to provide routine spiritual care in partnership with a faith community; it also involves routine implementation and coordination of activities, resourcing and referring. Faith community nurses also maintain the goal of patient care towards wholistic functioning. Patients have needs that are not related to clinical nursing. These needs can affect the way they view their care, the way they receive that care, and the way they engage in that care (The Joint Commission, 2010). For some, their faith is their way to cope with illnesses and stress; faith community nursing helps to bring faith and clinical nursing together to achieve this goal.\nTo become a faith community nurse, the registered nurse must have a minimum of 2 years experience, must have a current license in the state where the faith community is located, and have completed a parish nurse foundations course for the specialty practice as recognized by the American Nurses Association.  There are several different curriculum offerings for the faith community nurse which have been developed by a panel of nursing faculty.  These are offered though a partnership with the International Parish Nurse Resource Center (IPNRC) at more than 130 nursing schools and health systems around the US and abroad.\nFaith community nurses serve in several roles, including:\n\u2022\tHealth advisor\n\u2022\tEducator on health issues\n\u2022\tVisitor of church members at home or in the hospital\n\u2022\tProvider of referrals to community resources and provide assistance in obtaining needed health services\n\u2022\tDeveloper of support groups within the church\n\u2022\tTrainer and coordinator of volunteers\n\u2022\tProvider of health screenings\nFaith community nursing plays a tremendous role in increasing patient outcomes. Through the encouragement of spirituality, faith community nurses decrease post hospitalization adverse events; decrease hospital readmission's and increase patient's ability to thrive at home after hospital discharge. Post hospitalization adverse events can be decreased with the use of faith community nurses, during post hospital follow up care. Medical guidance and education provided by faith community nursing increases patient\u2019s adherence. Supportive networks and measure creates leverage when reaching out to hard to reach populations like; poverty stricken, low income, homeless, and medically uninsured individuals. These individuals remain the hardest for health care professionals to keep in touch with after hospital discharge, as well as the most least likely to adhere to medical treatment once discharged. Home visits, follow up care, community services and resources are available to these individuals through the use of faith community nurses. The utilization of social services provides preventative measures, health screening, and education on topics like: exercise, health, and nutritional, to improve the patient\u2019s health and disease status. Not only does a faith community nurse improve patient outcomes but they also improve the spiritual, mental and physical well-being of the patient, through counseling and the use of other community health programs (Schroepfer, 2016). (SHarrisCSU)\nIt is important to note that faith community nurses are not expected to provide patient care in the church or at a patient's home but rather to be a source of referrals for services in the community.  They coordinate existing services and supplement them with a holistic dimension of health and caring.\nA parish nurse program or faith community nurse program can operate in several different ways.  Models include: 1) one church supporting its own full or part-time nurse, 2) several churches supporting one nurse, 3) a group of volunteer nurses supporting one or several churches or 4) a nurse related to a hospital or clinic who supports a church or churches as part of his or her job.  Of the several thousand faith community nurses, only about 35% in the US are compensated financially for their ministry. In the United States, faith community nurses typically belong to the Health Ministries Association which is the national professional membership organization for faith community nurses.  They also have available the International Parish Nurse Resource Center and the American Nurses Association, among others.\nThe Caribbean has joined the community of Parish Nursing and Health Care Ministry with the launching of Health Care Ministry in The Bahamas.  It began with an initial course spanning a three-week period and brought together nurses from various denominations who were commissioned on 27 February 2005. Initially, the Canadian and Australian models of Parish Nursing were introduced to The Bahamas as an extension of the Pastoral Care Ministries of Diocese 2000 & Beyond, a programme of the Anglican Diocese of The Bahamas and Turks & Caicos Islands. To date, more than 60 people have been trained and actively engaged in the ministry as either Parish Nurses or Health & Wellness Carers.\nSince the ministry began in 2005 it has grown steadily and was known as the Anglican Diocesan Health Care Ministry [Parish Nursing] Council.  However, effective 7 March 2008 the name changed to the Ecumenical Health Care Ministry Council. It is intended that there will be continued training and that the programme will spread throughout the Commonwealth of The Bahamas and the Caribbean.  To this end, the ministry will be recognised by the Bahamas Christian Council and by extension the Caribbean Council of Churches (Ecumenical Health Care Ministry, Bahamas).\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Handbook of Religion and Health is a scholarly book about the relation of spirituality and religion with physical and mental health. Written by Harold G. Koenig, Michael E. McCullough, and David B. Larson, the book was published in the United States in 2001. The book has been discussed in magazines and reviewed in professional journals.A second revised edition of the Handbook was published in 2012.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted religion in various ways, including the cancellation of the worship services of various faiths and the closure of Sunday schools, as well as the cancellation of pilgrimages, ceremonies and festivals. Many churches, synagogues, mosques, and temples have offered worship through livestream amidst the pandemic, or held interactive sessions on Zoom.Relief wings of religious organisations have dispatched disinfection supplies, powered air-purifying respirators, face shields, gloves, coronavirus nucleic acid detection reagents, ventilators, patient monitors, syringe pumps, infusion pumps, and food to affected areas. Other churches have offered free COVID-19 testing to the public. Adherents of many religions have gathered together to pray for an end to the COVID-19 pandemic, for those affected by it, as well as for wisdom for physicians and scientists to combat the disease.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Journal of Religion and Health (JORH) is an international multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary peer-reviewed academic journal \nThe Journal was founded in 1961 by the Blanton-Peale Institute and published by Springer Science+Business Media. The JORH is one of the oldest journals covering religion, psychology, spirituality and health.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Harold G. Koenig is a psychiatrist on the faculty of Duke University.  His ideas have been covered in Newsweek and other news media with regard to religion, spirituality and health, a focus of some of his research and clinical practice. Templeton Foundation has provided great financial support to his activities.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Lawh-i-Anta'l-Kafi or the Long Healing Prayer (also known as Lawh-i-Shif\u00e1 and Lawh al-Shaf\u00e1 al-Taw\u00edl) is a prayer written in Arabic by Bah\u00e1\u02bcu'll\u00e1h, founder of the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith, in the 'Akk\u00e1 period. The authorized English translation was done in 1980 by Habib Taherzadeh and a Committee at the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed World Centre.\nThe main part of the prayer consists of numerous rhythmic invocations of God, each ending with the phrase \"Thou the Sufficing, Thou the Healing, Thou the Abiding, O Thou Abiding One.\"The prayer ends with a supplication for healing and protection, and includes the phrase \"protect the bearer of this blessed Tablet, and whoso reciteth it, and whoso cometh upon it, and whoso passeth around the house wherein it is. Heal Thou, then, by it every sick, diseased and poor one\", which gives this prayer its talismanic nature.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Multidimensional Measurement of Religiousness/Spirituality for Use in Health Research is a report, originally published in 1999, by a Fetzer Institute / National Institute on Aging working group on the measurement of religion and spirituality. A revised version with a new preface was published in 2003. The book presents a series of 12 self-report questionnaire measures, each focused on a particular aspect of religiousness or spirituality, along with reviews of underlying theory and supporting research. The book's purpose is to provide validated measures of spiritual and religious factors in health research. The book includes the Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality (BMMRS), a practical measure with selected items from the 12 previous chapters.\nThe book has been widely cited in health and behavioral science research, and several subsequent publications have been partially or entirely dedicated to evaluating and critiquing the measures.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Pastoral care is an ancient model of emotional, social and spiritual support that can be found in all cultures and traditions. The term is considered inclusive of distinctly non-religious forms of support, as well as support for people from religious communities.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of patron saints of ailments, illnesses, and dangers.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The relationship between religion and HIV/AIDS has been an ongoing one, since the advent of the pandemic. Many faith communities have participated in raising awareness about HIV/AIDS, offering free treatment, as well as promoting HIV/AIDS testing and preventative measures. Christian denominations, such as Lutheranism and Methodism, have advocated for the observance of World AIDS Day to educate their congregations about the disease. Some Churches run voluntary blood testing camps and counselling centers to diagnose and help those affected by HIV/AIDS.Controversies, in some faiths, have mainly revolved around LGBT people and condom use, while other religions are affirming of LGBT individuals and actively participate in the dissemination of condoms as a means of disease prophylaxis.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "As per 2014, more than 70 medical schools in the United States offer courses on spirituality and medicine. The Association of American Medical Colleges has co-sponsored, with the National Institute for Healthcare Research, four conferences, on curricular development in spirituality and medicine since 1997.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The 10/90 gap is the term adopted by the Global Forum for Health Research to highlight the finding by the Commission on Health Research for Development in 1990, that less than 10% of worldwide resources devoted to health research were put towards health in Developing Countries, where over 90% of all preventable deaths worldwide occurred. Every year, the spread of disease suffered in both rich and poor countries converges. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the most prevalent diseases consist of cardiovascular disease, cancer and diabetes.  These diseases now account for 45% of the global health burden and is the culprit for up to 85% of deaths in low-income countries. The 10/90 Gap focuses on joining organisations together to reduce these statistics.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research (the Alliance) is an international partnership hosted at World Health Organization Headquarters that works to improve the health of those in low- and middle-income countries by supporting the generation and use of evidence that strengthens health systems.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Black Women's Health Study (BWHS) is a long-term observational study conducted at Boston University's Slone Epidemiology Center since 1995 to investigate the health problems of Black women over a long time period, with the ultimate goal of improving their health. Gaining information about the causes of health problems that affect Black women will help to determine health outcomes. The study, funded by the National Institutes of Health follows a cohort of the 59,000 women that enrolled.Black women are underrepresented in most studies of women's health, while some disorders are known to disproportionately affect Black women. Women's health is often meant to reflect women's reproductive health, but in this case it is better expressed as \"the health of Black women\". This study seeks to gather and compile information on the conditions that affect Black women including particularly breast cancer, lupus, premature birth, hypertension, colon cancer, diabetes, and uterine fibroids.The study design is based on a biennial questionnaire. Publications have been released continually since the start of the survey, mostly dealing with specific conditions The earliest were abstracts. The first comprehensive report was in 1998.  Through May 2014, there have been a total of 205 papers.  A biannual newsletter summarizing current work is also published.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Clinical research is a branch of healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness (efficacy) of medications, devices, diagnostic products and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease. Clinical research is different from clinical practice. In clinical practice established treatments are used, while in clinical research evidence is collected to establish a treatment.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Commission on Health Research for Development was an independent international initiative with the aim of improving health and development in what were then called \u2018developing countries\u2019. It was active between 1987 and 1990, when it completed its work with the publication of its landmark report: Health Research: Essential Link to Equity in Development.Convinced that scientific research could contribute much more to health and development, the Commission set out to survey the status of research in relation to the health problems of developing countries, to examine how it was or was not contributing to health in these countries, and to propose improvements in the way health research was being conducted to ensure maximum impact on health.\nDuring its two years of work and deliberations, the Commission reviewed available information on health research and development, commissioned special papers, and consulted widely around the world. During open Commission meetings that were held in (Germany), Zimbabwe, the United States, Mexico, India, Japan, France and Sweden, local and international experts in health and development were invited to share their experiences.  The Commission heard evidence from health researchers, social activists and administrators and met with ministers of health and representatives of many international organisations including the World Health Organization, UNICEF and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Dance is a healthy physical activity, with many far reaching physical, and psychological benefits. Dancing can be enjoyed in many forms, and is for every age and ability. This physical activity appeals to some who may not typically be active and therefore may be another alternative of exercise. Dance for health has become an important factor in the prevention, treatment and management in several health circumstances. It can benefit both physical and mental health and subsidizes social communication Dance is an art which is learned in and shared between many cultures. Types of dance can entail body movements, expression and collaboration. The correlation between dance and health has been subject of a number of research studies that show dance to be a largely healthy exercise. However, there are a number of health risks that require attention.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The internationally renowned Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study  (also known as the Dunedin Study) is a detailed study of human health, development and behaviour. Based at the University of Otago in New Zealand, the Dunedin Study has followed the lives of 1037 babies born between 1 April 1972 and 31 March 1973 at Dunedin's Queen Mary Maternity Hospital since their birth. Teams of national and international collaborators work on the Dunedin Study, including a team at Duke University, USA. The research is constantly evolving to encompass research made possible by new technology and seeks to answer questions about how people's early years impact mental and physical health as they age.\nThe study is now in its fifth decade and has produced over 1300 publications and reports, many of which have influenced or helped inform policy makers in New Zealand and overseas; many of these can be found on the publications section of their website.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Evans County Heart Study was a long-term cardiovascular study on residents of Evans County, Georgia. The study, which was funded by the National Institute of Health, began in July, 1958, and was last updated as recent as May 2016. It resulted in more than 560 published papers that ultimately showed the importance of HDL cholesterol. The study was conducted by Dr. Curtis Gordon Hames, a family doctor from Claxton, Georgia. The study took place in Evans Country because the area had a high death count due to heart complications, such as heart disease and other cardiovascular diseases. The studies showed that there was a significant abundance of heart conditions within a variety of ethnicities. People as young as fourteen and as old as seventy-four participated in the tests, and were divided into different age groups; however only males were eligible for the study. Anyone as old as one-hundred years old could be eligible, and any younger.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Evidence Aid is an international platform that was formed out of the need to deliver time sensitive access to systematic reviews for use in the event of disasters and other humanitarian emergencies. The method of using systematic reviews (a collection of available evidence on any given topic) is to provide evidence for use by policy makers, clinicians, regulators, and even the general public who benefit when these materials are easy to understand and are accessible. The vision of Evidence Aid is to create and satisfy an increasing demand for evidence to improve the impact of humanitarian aid by stimulating the use of an evidence-based approach. Evidence Aid was founded in 2004. It is currently a project that is housed by the Cochrane Collaboration and Queen's University Belfast. Evidence Aid was established by several members of the international Cochrane Collaboration following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Evidence Aid was formed to provide systematic reviews on the effects of interventions and actions of relevance prior to, in the course of and during the aftermath of disasters or other humanitarian emergencies, in order to improve health-related outcomes; their aim is to work with those who need and use this evidence (those preparing for and responding to disasters and humanitarian emergencies \u2013 policy-makers, guideline developers, trainers, as well as aid agencies and independent consultants), as well as working with researchers and publishers to facilitate freely accessible materials to meet the information needs for those facing humanitarian emergencies and disasters. Evidence Aid works in collaboration with other organizations including Public Health England; Red Cross Flanders, International Rescue Committee; Centers for Disease Control; Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine; and the University of Oxford.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) is a dietary assessment tool delivered as a questionnaire to estimate frequency and, in some cases, portion size information about food and beverage consumption over a specified period of time, typically the past month, three months, or year. FFQs are a common dietary assessment tool used in large epidemiologic studies of nutrition and health. Examples of usage include assessment of intake of vitamins and other nutrients, assessment of the intake of toxins, and estimating the prevalence of dietary patterns such as vegetarianism.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Framingham Heart Study is a long-term, ongoing cardiovascular cohort study of residents of the city of Framingham, Massachusetts. The study began in 1948 with 5,209 adult subjects from Framingham, and is now on its third generation of participants.  Prior to the study almost nothing was known about the epidemiology of hypertensive or arteriosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Much of the now-common knowledge concerning heart disease, such as the effects of diet, exercise, and common medications such as aspirin, is based on this longitudinal study. It is a project of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, in collaboration with (since 1971) Boston University.  Various health professionals from the hospitals and universities of Greater Boston staff the project.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Global Forum for Health Research is an international foundation headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, established in 1997 to increase the amount of research into global health issues. It coined the phrase 10/90 gap to identify the observation that only 10% of the world's health research spending is targeted at 90% of present health problems.The Global Forum is a partner to the World Health Organization (WHO). In her keynote address to the Forum in 1999 Gro Harlem Brundtland, then Director\u2013General of WHO, declared that the Global Forum was key in the involvement of all the various levels, sectors and disciplines of \"development agencies, the research community, health workers and end\u2013users\".The Global Forum represents all the parties interested in health research: governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), United Nations agencies, research centers, universities, and the pharmaceutical industry. It is run by a governing council and provides support to programmes of research that benefit the developing world. It draws attention to global health research aims with an annual forum that draws together international health researchers and policy makers.\nThe Global Forums take place in a different international location each year: Geneva, Bangkok, Arusha, Mexico City, Mumbai, Cairo. The 11th was in Beijing in 2007, the 12th in Bamako, Mali, in 2008 and Cuba hosted the 2009 Forum.As a non-profit foundation the Global Forum is currently funded by the World Bank, the WHO; the governments of Brazil, Canada, Ireland, Mexico, Norway, Switzerland; and private philanthropy groups including the Rockefeller Foundation.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Great Smoky Mountains Study is a longitudinal study led by William Copeland (professor) from Duke University Medical Center that started in 1993 and ended in 2003. It followed 1,420 children from western North Carolina. Participants were interviewed at up to nine points in time - first aged 9 to 16, and again at ages 19\u201321.Four years into the study, about one quarter of the families saw a dramatic and unexpected increase in income. They were members of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, and a casino had just been built on the reservation. From that point on every tribal citizen earned a share of the profits (about $4,000/yr per person). The study showed that among these children, instances of behavioral and emotional disorders decreased, and conscientiousness and agreeableness increased. Randall Akee remarked that \"It would be almost impossible to replicate this kind of longitudinal study\u201d.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Information Services Division (ISD) is the part of NHS Scotland that provides health information, health intelligence, statistical information and analysis. ISD is part of the Public Health and Intelligence Strategic Business Unit of Public Health Scotland.From January 2015,  ISD has published health statistics weekly, spreading the publications out more evenly across the year.In 2011 there were 3 main groups attending to core work:\nHealthcare Information Group - directed by Joan Forrest - analyses hospital, general practice, prescribing and other nationally consistent data;\nEpidemiology and Statistics Group - directed by Fiona Murphy - compiles national statistics on cancer and substance abuse;\nData Intelligence Group - director Anne Leigh-Brown - ensures submission of current data streams and develops new ones.There are also a number of specialist programmes. These include:\nCancer information;\nDental informatics;\nEquality and diversity information;\nHealth and Social Care information;\nHeart disease and Stroke;\nMental health;\nNational Medicines utilisation unit;\nNHS Resources;\nPerformance management (HEAT);\nPrimary Care information;\nQuality improvement;\nScottish Public health observatory;\nSubstance misuse;\nUnscheduled care;\nWaiting Times;\nWorkforce programme.Two major internal change programmes are under way. The Scottish Health Information Service - headed by Steve Pavis - is establishing data warehousing and associated services. Delivering our Future - led by Lorna Jackson - is drawing-up a blueprint for the future of the organisation and catalysing staff and organisational development to realise that vision.   \nInformation Services Division became part of Public Health Scotland on 1 April 2020. This new agency is a collaborative approach by both the Scottish Government and COSLA to give effect to the recommendations of the 2015 Public Health  Review.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "International Program of Psycho-Social Health Research (IPP-SHR) is an Australian research program based in Queensland which explores the psycho-social dimension of health through examining and reporting on the human experience of serious physical and mental illnesses.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A medical writer, also referred to as medical communicator, is a person who applies the principles of clinical research in developing clinical trial documents that effectively and clearly describe research results, product use, and other medical information. \nThe medical writer develops any of the five modules of the Common Technical Document. The medical writers also ensure that their documents comply with regulatory, journal, or other guidelines in terms of content, format, and structure.\nMedical writing as a function became established in the pharmaceutical, medical device industry and Contract Research Organizations (CROs) because the industry recognized that it requires special skill to produce well-structured documents that present information clearly and concisely. All new drugs go through the increasingly complex process of clinical trials and regulatory procedures that lead to market approval. This demand for the clear articulation of medical science, drives the demand for well written, standards-compliant documents that medical professionals can easily and quickly read and understand. Similarly, medical institutions engage in translational research, and some medical writers have experience offering writing support to the principal investigators for grant applications and specialized publications.The medical writing market is estimated to be USD 3.36 billion in 2020 and is growing at a 12.1% compound annual growth rate.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The National Institute for Communicable Diseases (NICD) is the national public health institute of South Africa, providing reference to microbiology, virology, epidemiology, surveillance and public health research to support the government's response to communicable disease threats.The NICD serves as a resource of knowledge and expertise of communicable diseases to the South African Government, Southern African Development Community countries and the African continent. The institution assists in the planning of policies and programmes to support and respond to communicable diseases.The main goal of the NICD is to be the national organ for South Africa for public health surveillance of communicable disease.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The National Obesity Observatory (NOO) was a publicly funded body that is part of a network of Public Health Observatories across Britain and Ireland. It published data, information, and intelligence related to obesity, overweight, and their underlying causes. NOO is now part of [Public Health England] who now carry out their work.\nNOO worked closely with a wide range of organisations to assist policy makers and practitioners who were involved in understanding and tackling obesity at population level. It did this through analysing and interpreting research and data to produce reports and briefings. To support these activities it also produced analytical and data visualisation tools. These are used, for example, to map obesity and associated determinants at national, regional and local levels.\nMembers of NOO were instrumental in establishing the National Child Measurement Programme (NCMP). Analysis and interpretation of the NCMP dataset is a core element of NOO's work.\nNOO is a member of the Association of Public Health Observatories.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Nursing research is research that provides evidence used to support nursing practices. Nursing, as an evidence-based area of practice, has been developing since the time of Florence Nightingale to the present day, where many nurses now work as researchers based in universities as well as in the health care setting.\nNurse education places focus upon the use of evidence from research in order to rationalise nursing interventions. In England and Wales, courts may determine if a nurse acted reasonably based upon whether their intervention was supported by research.\nNursing research falls largely into two areas:\n\nQuantitative research is based in the paradigm of logical positivism and is focused upon outcomes for clients that are measurable, generally using statistics. The dominant research method is the randomised controlled trial.\nQualitative research is based in the paradigm of phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography and others, and examines the experience of those receiving or delivering the nursing care, focusing, in particular, on the meaning that it holds for the individual. The research methods most commonly used are interviews, case studies, focus groups and ethnographyRecently in the UK, action research has become increasingly popular in nursing.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Open flow microperfusion (OFM) is a sampling method for clinical and preclinical drug development studies and biomarker research. OFM is designed for continuous sampling of analytes from the interstitial fluid (ISF) of various tissues. It provides direct access to the ISF by insertion of a small, minimally invasive, membrane-free probe with macroscopic openings. Thus, the entire biochemical information of the ISF becomes accessible regardless of the analyte's molecular size, protein-binding property or lipophilicity.\nOFM is capable of sampling lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds, protein bound and unbound drugs, neurotransmitters, peptides and proteins, antibodies, nanoparticles and nanocarriers, enzymes and vesicles.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "PEROSH (Partnership for European Research in Occupational Safety and Health) is a federation of fourteen European occupational safety and health (OSH) institutes in thirteen member states. The aim of PEROSH is to share knowledge, conduct collaborative research and organise common conferences on topics related to health and safety at work.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The PIETY Study is a U.S. longitudinal study of Chinese families derived from the PINE Study. It is the product of a synergistic collaboration between the Chinese Health, Aging, and Policy Program (CHAP) at Rush University, Northwestern University, and many community-based organizations and social service providers. This academic-community partnership is led by XinQi Dong MD, MPH, at Rush University, Melissa A Simon, MD, MPH, at Northwestern University, and Esther Wong, ACSW and Bernarda Wong, ACSW, at Chinese American Service League.The goal of the PIETY Study is to better understand the health and well-being of Chinese adult children, and understand the factors impacting the health and aging of Chinese older adults from the perspectives and experiences of adult children.Since 2011, more than 4,000 face-to-face interviews were conducted. Each interview was personalized according to languages or dialects the participant preferred, including English, Mandarin, Cantonese, Toishanese, and Teochew.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Self-rated health (also called Self-reported health, Self-assessed health, or perceived health) refers to both a single question such as \"in general, would you say that your health is excellent, very good, good, fair, or poor?\" and a survey questionnaire in which participants assess different dimensions of their own health. This survey technique is commonly used in health research for its ease of use and its power in measuring health.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Uni Research Health is a department in Uni Research, one of the largest research companies in Norway. The Research Director of Uni Research Health is Professor Hege R. Eriksen.Uni Research Health has approximately 125 employees, most of them located in Bergen, Norway.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Katharina Sophia Volz (born in Ulm, Germany, 1987) is a medical researcher and entrepreneur. She is the founder and chief executive officer of OccamzRazor, a biotechnology start-up based in New York City and San Francisco, which is searching for cures for incurable diseases. Powered by revolutionary machine learning technology, OccamzRazor harnesses the world's scientific information to discover and develop drugs for brain diseases \u2013 much faster and more effectively than ever before.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Warsaw Ghetto Hunger Study was a study taken up by Jewish doctors imprisoned in the Warsaw Ghetto in 1942. The Nazis, intent on starving the ghetto within months, allowed no more than a daily intake of 180 calories per prisoner \u2013 less than 1/10th the recommended caloric intake for a healthy human being, while withholding vaccines and medicine that would be necessary to prevent the spread of disease in the dense ghetto. This resulted in a thriving black market which supplied about 80% of the ghetto's food, and a network of 250 soup kitchens operated by the Joint, which at one time had served as many as 100,000 meals per day.In February 1942 a group of Jewish doctors headed by Israel Milejkowski decided to use the famine, which was out of their control, to study the physiological and psychological effects of hunger. Using smuggled supplies, they commenced on a deep study of the various aspects of hunger: metabolic, cardiovascular, ophthalmological and even immune system changes, to name a few. Despite the lack of resources, the risk of execution (Jews being prohibited by the Nazis from scientific work) and their own poor physical conditions, the 28 doctors managed to keep a strict study protocol including isolation, glycemic load testing, and even pathology.The study had ended in August 1942 with the Grossaktion Warsaw. The study manuscript was smuggled out of the ghetto and kept by the Polish doctor Witold Eugeniusz Or\u0142owski. Immediately after the end of the war it was published in Polish and French (1946), and then in English in 1979 by Myron Winick of Columbia University.According to Winick:\n\n...some of the findings were lost, but what remains is still the most extensive investigation of starvation ever carried out. The physicians described the clinical findings in such detail that their description remains the clearest to date... [It] remains a major building block in our understanding of the effects of severe malnutrition on both adults and children. But it is more than that. It is a glimpse into the character of some of the physicians in the Warsaw ghetto.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Biorisk generally refers to the risk associated with biological materials and/or infectious agents, also known as pathogens. The term has been used frequently for various purposes since the early 1990s. The term is used by regulators, security experts, laboratory personnel and industry alike, and is used by the World Health Organization (WHO). WHO/Europe also provides tools and training courses in biosafety and biosecurity.An international Laboratory Biorisk Management Standard developed under the auspices of the European Committee for Standardization, defines biorisk as the combination of the probability of occurrence of harm and the severity of that harm where the source of harm is a biological agent or toxin. The source of harm may be an unintentional exposure, accidental release or loss, theft, misuse, diversion, unauthorized access or intentional unauthorized release.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Biosafety Clearing-House is an international mechanism that exchanges information about the movement of genetically modified organisms, established under the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. It assists Parties (i.e. governments that have ratified the Protocol) to implement the protocol\u2019s provisions and to facilitate sharing of information on, and experience with, living modified organisms (also known as genetically modified organisms, GMOs). It further assists Parties and other stakeholders to make informed decisions regarding the importation or release of GMOs.\nThe Biosafety Clearing-House Central Portal is accessible through the Web. The BCH is a distributed system, and information in it is owned and updated by the users themselves through an authenticated system to ensure timeliness and accuracy.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international agreement on biosafety as a supplement to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) effective since 2003. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by genetically modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.\nThe Biosafety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be based on the precautionary principle and allow developing nations to balance public health against economic benefits. It will for example let countries ban imports of genetically modified organisms if they feel there is not enough scientific evidence that the product is safe and requires exporters to label shipments containing genetically altered commodities such as corn or cotton.\nThe required number of 50 instruments of ratification/accession/approval/acceptance by countries was reached in May 2003. In accordance with the provisions of its Article 37, the Protocol entered into force on 11 September 2003. As of July 2020, the Protocol had 173 parties, which includes 170 United Nations member states, the State of Palestine, Niue, and the European Union.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Drunk walking describes people intoxicated by alcohol walking in public spaces. Whereas there are long standing social stigmas and laws against drunk driving, only more recently have the personal and social dangers of drunk walking become apparent. Pedestrians under the influence of alcohol may be less likely to use crosswalks and more likely to cross against the traffic lights. Alcohol use is connected to more serious injuries with longer hospital stays if a pedestrian is hit by a vehicle.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Norman Garmezy (June 18, 1918 \u2013 November 21, 2009) was a professor of psychology who is known for his work in developmental psychopathology. After receiving his Ph.D. from the University of Iowa in 1950, Garmezy held appointments at Duke University (1950\u20131961) and the Institute of Child Development at the University of Minnesota (1961\u20131989). His early work was on the etiology of schizophrenia; however, he is best known for his later work on risk, resilience, stress, and coping in child development.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Health, Risk & Society is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering all aspects of risk analysis concerning health issues. It was established in 1999 and is published by Taylor & Francis. The editor-in-chief is Patrick Brown from the University of Amsterdam, Netherlands.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A health risk assessment (also referred to as a health risk appraisal and health & well-being assessment) is a questionnaire about a person's medical history, demographic characteristics and lifestyle. It is one of the most widely used screening tools in the field of health promotion and is often the first step in multi-component health promotion programs.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The health risks of dead bodies are dangers related to the improper preparation and disposal of cadavers. While normal circumstances allow cadavers to be quickly embalmed, cremated, or buried, natural and man-made disasters can quickly overwhelm and/or interrupt the established protocols for dealing with the dead.  Under such circumstances, the decomposition and putrefaction of cadavers goes unchecked, and raises a series of health, logistical, and psychological issues. After disasters with extensive loss of life due to trauma rather than disease\u2014earthquakes, storms, human conflict, etc.\u2014many resources are often expended on burying the dead quickly, and applying disinfectant to bodies for the specific purpose of preventing disease. Specialists say that spraying is a waste of disinfectant and manpower, that \"resources that should be going into establishment of water supply, sanitation, shelter, warmth and hygienic food for the survivors are being applied to digging mass graves\", and that \"Time and time again, eminent and authoritative experts have pointed out that dead bodies do not constitute a health hazard\".", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Anal sex or anal intercourse is generally the insertion and thrusting of the erect penis into a person's anus, or anus and rectum, for sexual pleasure. Other forms of anal sex include fingering, the use of sex toys for anal penetration, oral sex performed on the anus (anilingus), and pegging. Although anal sex most commonly means penile\u2013anal penetration, sources sometimes use anal intercourse to exclusively denote penile\u2013anal penetration, and anal sex to denote any form of anal sexual activity, especially between pairings as opposed to anal masturbation.While anal sex is commonly associated with male homosexuality, research shows that not all gay men engage in anal sex and that it is not uncommon in heterosexual relationships. Types of anal sex can also be a part of lesbian sexual practices. People may experience pleasure from anal sex by stimulation of the anal nerve endings, and orgasm may be achieved through anal penetration \u2013 by indirect stimulation of the prostate in men, indirect stimulation of the clitoris or an area of the vagina (sometimes called the G-spot) in women, and other sensory nerves (especially the pudendal nerve). However, people may also find anal sex painful, sometimes extremely so, which may be due to psychological factors in some cases.As with most forms of sexual activity, anal sex participants risk contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Anal sex is considered a high-risk sexual practice because of the vulnerability of the anus and rectum. The anal and rectal tissues are delicate and do not provide lubrication like the vagina does, so they can easily tear and permit disease transmission, especially if a personal lubricant is not used. Anal sex without protection of a condom is considered the riskiest form of sexual activity, and therefore health authorities such as the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend safe sex practices for anal sex.Strong views are often expressed about anal sex. It is controversial in various cultures, especially with regard to religious prohibitions. This is commonly due to prohibitions against anal sex among males or teachings about the procreative purpose of sexual activity. It may be considered taboo or unnatural, and is a criminal offense in some countries, punishable by corporal or capital punishment. By contrast, anal sex may also be considered a natural and valid form of sexual activity as fulfilling as other desired sexual expressions, and can be an enhancing or primary element of a person's sex life.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Cunnilingus is an oral sex act performed by a person on the vulva or vagina of another person. The clitoris is the most sexually sensitive part of the human female genitalia, and its stimulation may result in a woman becoming sexually aroused or achieving orgasm.Cunnilingus can be sexually arousing for participants and may be performed by a sexual partner as foreplay to incite sexual arousal before other sexual activities (such as vaginal or anal intercourse) or as an erotic and physically intimate act on its own. Cunnilingus can be a risk for contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs), but the transmission risk for oral sex, especially HIV transmission, is significantly lower than for vaginal or anal sex.Oral sex is often regarded as taboo, but most countries do not have laws which ban the practice. Commonly, heterosexual couples do not regard cunnilingus as affecting the virginity of either partner, while lesbian couples commonly do regard it as a form of virginity loss. People may also have negative feelings or sexual inhibitions about giving or receiving cunnilingus or may refuse to engage in it.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Oral sex, sometimes referred to as oral intercourse, is sexual activity involving the stimulation of the genitalia of a person by another person using the mouth (including the lips, tongue, or teeth) and the throat. Cunnilingus is oral sex performed on the vulva or vagina, while fellatio is oral sex performed on the penis. Anilingus, another form of oral sex, is oral stimulation of the anus. Oral stimulation of other parts of the body, such as by kissing or licking, is not considered oral sex.\nOral sex may be performed as foreplay to incite sexual arousal before other sexual activities (such as vaginal or anal intercourse), or as an erotic and physically intimate act in its own right. Like most forms of sexual activity, oral sex can pose a risk for contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs). However, the transmission risk for oral sex, especially HIV transmission, is significantly lower than for vaginal or anal sex.Oral sex is often regarded as taboo, but most countries do not have laws which ban the practice. Commonly, people do not regard oral sex as affecting the virginity of either partner, though opinions on the matter vary. People may also have negative feelings or sexual inhibitions about giving or receiving oral sex, or may flatly refuse to engage in the practice.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Human sexual activity, human sexual practice or human sexual behaviour is the manner in which humans experience and express their sexuality. People engage in a variety of sexual acts, ranging from activities done alone (e.g., masturbation) to acts with another person (e.g., sexual intercourse, non-penetrative sex, oral sex, etc.) in varying patterns of frequency, for a wide variety of reasons. Sexual activity usually results in sexual arousal and physiological changes in the aroused person, some of which are pronounced while others are more subtle. Sexual activity may also include conduct and activities which are intended to arouse the sexual interest of another or enhance the sex life of another, such as strategies to find or attract partners (courtship and display behaviour), or personal interactions between individuals (for instance, foreplay or BDSM). Sexual activity may follow sexual arousal.\nHuman sexual activity has sociological, cognitive, emotional, behavioural and biological aspects; these include personal bonding, sharing emotions and the physiology of the reproductive system, sex drive, sexual intercourse and sexual behaviour in all its forms.\nIn some cultures, sexual activity is considered acceptable only within marriage, while premarital and extramarital sex are taboo. Some sexual activities are illegal either universally or in some countries or subnational jurisdictions, while some are considered contrary to the norms of certain societies or cultures. Two examples that are criminal offences in most jurisdictions are sexual assault and sexual activity with a person below the local age of consent.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "An astronaut (from the Ancient Greek \u1f04\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd (astron), meaning 'star', and \u03bd\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 (nautes), meaning 'sailor') is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander or crew member aboard a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the term is sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists.\"Astronaut\" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality or allegiance; however, astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian \"kosmos\" (\u043a\u043e\u0441\u043c\u043e\u0441), meaning \"space\", also borrowed from Greek) in order to distinguish them from American or otherwise NATO-oriented space travellers. Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin \"t\u00e0ik\u014dng\" (\u592a\u7a7a), meaning \"space\"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called h\u00e1ngti\u0101nyu\u00e1n (\u822a\u5929\u5458, meaning \"heaven navigator\" or literally \"heaven-sailing staff\").\nSince 1961, 600 astronauts have flown in space.  Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A microlife is a unit of risk representing half an hour change of life expectancy.Discussed by David Spiegelhalter and Alejandro Leiva, and also used by Lin et al. for decision analysis, microlives are intended as a simple way of communicating the impact of a lifestyle or environmental risk factor, based on the associated daily proportional effect on expected length of life. Similar to the micromort (one in a million probability of death) the microlife is intended for \"rough but fair comparisons between the sizes of chronic risks\". This is to avoid the biasing effects of describing risks in relative hazard ratios, converting them into somewhat tangible units. Similarly they bring long-term future risks into the here-and-now as a gain or loss of time. \n\n\"A daily loss or gain of 30 minutes can be termed a microlife, because 1\u2009000\u2009000 half hours (57 years) roughly corresponds to a lifetime of adult exposure.\"The microlife exploits the fact that for small hazard ratios the change in life expectancy is roughly linear. They are by necessity rough estimates, based on averages over population and lifetime. Effects of individual variability, short-term or changing habits, and causal factors are not taken into account.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A micromort (from micro- and mortality) is a unit of risk defined as a one-in-a-million chance of death. Micromorts can be used to measure the riskiness of various day-to-day activities. A microprobability is a one-in-a million chance of some event; thus, a micromort is the microprobability of death. The micromort concept was introduced by Ronald A. Howard who pioneered the modern practice of decision analysis.Micromorts for future activities can only be rough assessments, as specific circumstances will always have an impact.  However, past historical rates of events can be used to provide a ball park, average figure.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexual intercourse (or coitus or copulation) is a sexual activity typically involving the insertion and thrusting of the penis into the vagina for sexual pleasure, reproduction, or both. This is also known as vaginal intercourse or vaginal sex. Other forms of penetrative sexual intercourse include anal sex (penetration of the anus by the penis), oral sex (penetration of the mouth by the penis or oral penetration of the female genitalia), fingering (sexual penetration by the fingers) and penetration by use of a dildo (especially a strap-on dildo). These activities involve physical intimacy between two or more individuals and are usually used among humans solely for physical or emotional pleasure and can contribute to human bonding.There are different views on what constitutes sexual intercourse or other sexual activity, which can impact on views on sexual health. Although sexual intercourse, particularly the term coitus, generally denotes penile\u2013vaginal penetration and the possibility of creating offspring, it also commonly denotes penetrative oral sex and penile\u2013anal sex, especially the latter. It usually encompasses sexual penetration, while non-penetrative sex has been labeled \"outercourse\", but non-penetrative sex may also be considered sexual intercourse. Sex, often a shorthand for sexual intercourse, can mean any form of sexual activity. Because people can be at risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections during these activities, safer sex practices are recommended by health professionals to reduce transmission risk.Various jurisdictions place restrictions on certain sexual acts, such as incest, sexual activity with minors, prostitution, rape, zoophilia, sodomy, premarital and extramarital sex. Religious beliefs also play a role in personal decisions about sexual intercourse or other sexual activity, such as decisions about virginity, or legal and public policy matters. Religious views on sexuality vary significantly between different religions and sects of the same religion, though there are common themes, such as prohibition of adultery.\nReproductive sexual intercourse between non-human animals is more often called copulation, and sperm may be introduced into the female's reproductive tract in non-vaginal ways among the animals, such as by cloacal copulation. For most non-human mammals, mating and copulation occur at the point of estrus (the most fertile period of time in the female's reproductive cycle), which increases the chances of successful impregnation. However, bonobos, dolphins and chimpanzees are known to engage in sexual intercourse regardless of whether the female is in estrus, and to engage in sex acts with same-sex partners. Like humans engaging in sexual activity primarily for pleasure, this behavior in these animals is also presumed to be for pleasure, and a contributing factor to strengthening their social bonds.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Members of the United States population between the ages of 18 and 29 who decide that it is in their financial best interest to forgo health insurance are sometimes referred to as  young invincibles by the insurance industry, a term coined to express the idea that the young demographic perceives themselves as immune to sickness and injury.  The argument is that these individuals are young and in good health, so they have a low risk of experiencing substantial health issues that would lead to large amounts of spending on health care.  Further, this group tends to have a mentality of \u201cit won\u2019t happen to me\u201d with regards to most causes of injury. Together, these beliefs lead to the young invincibles not purchasing insurance.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to health sciences:\nHealth sciences are those sciences which focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter. Health sciences relate to multiple academic disciplines, including STEM disciplines and emerging patient safety disciplines (such as social care research).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Biomedical sciences are a set of sciences applying portions of natural science or formal science, or both, to develop knowledge, interventions, or technology that are of use in healthcare or public health.  Such disciplines as medical microbiology, clinical virology, clinical epidemiology, genetic epidemiology, and biomedical engineering are medical sciences.  In explaining physiological mechanisms operating in pathological processes, however, pathophysiology can be regarded as basic science.\nBiomedical Sciences, as defined by the UK Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education Benchmark Statement in 2015, includes those science disciplines whose primary focus is the biology of human health and disease and ranges from the generic study of biomedical sciences and human biology to more specialised subject areas such as pharmacology, human physiology and human nutrition. It is underpinned by relevant basic sciences including anatomy and physiology, cell biology, biochemistry, microbiology, genetics and molecular biology, immunology, mathematics and statistics, and bioinformatics. As such the biomedical sciences have a much wider range of academic and research activities and economic significance than that defined by hospital laboratory sciences. Biomedical Sciences are the major focus of bioscience research and funding in the 21st century.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "According to the International Federation of Kinesiology, anthropomaximology is the study of the anatomy, physiology, and mechanics of body movement, especially in humans, and its application to the evaluation and treatment of muscular imbalance or derangement. The concept was developed in the USSR during the 1970s\u20131980s as a result of numerous Olympic victories. The Soviets utilized anthropomaximology in their athletic training, combining rigorous physical exercise with mental training techniques which allowed the competitors to tap into \"hidden reserves\" and surpass other athletes' endurance.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "DeCS \u2013 Health Sciences Descriptors is a structured and trilingual thesaurus created by BIREME \u2013 Latin American and Caribbean Center on Health Sciences Information \u2013 in 1986 for indexing scientific journal articles, books, proceedings of congresses, technical reports and other types of materials, as well as for searching and recovering scientific information in LILACS, MEDLINE and other databases. In the VHL, Virtual Health Library, DeCS is the tool that permits the navigation between records and sources of information through controlled concepts and organized in Portuguese, Spanish and English.\nIt was developed from MeSH \u2013 Medical Subject Headings from the NLM \u2013 U.S. National Library of Medicine \u2013 in order to permit the use of common terminology for searching in three languages, providing a consistent and unique environment for information retrieval regardless of the language. In addition to the original MeSH terms, four specific areas were developed: Public Health (1986), Homeopathy (1991), Health Surveillance (2005), and Science and Health (2005).\nThe concepts that compose the DeCS vocabulary are organized in a hierarchical structure permitting searches in broader or more specific terms or all the terms that belong to a single hierarchy.  \nIts main purpose is to serve as a unique language for indexing and recovery of information among the components of the Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Information System, coordinated by BIREME and that encompasses 37 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, permitting a uniform dialog between nearly 600 libraries.  \nDeCS participates in the unified terminology development project, UMLS \u2013 Unified Medical Language System of the NLM, with the responsibility of contributing with the terms in Portuguese and Spanish.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a field of research, healthcare, and social activism that explores the health of an individual's reproductive system and sexual wellbeing during all stages of their life.The term can also be further defined more broadly within the framework of the World Health Organization's (WHO) definition of health\u2015as \"a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity\"\u2015 to denote sexual wellbeing, encompassing the ability of an individual to have responsible, satisfying and safe sex and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so. UN agencies in particular define sexual and reproductive health as including both physical and psychological well-being vis-\u00e0-vis sexuality. A further interpretation includes access to sex education, access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of birth control, as well as access to appropriate health care services, as the ability of women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth could provide couples with the best chance of having a healthy infant.\nIndividuals face inequalities in reproductive health services. Inequalities vary based on socioeconomic status, education level, age, ethnicity, religion, and resources available in their environment. Low income individuals may lack access to appropriate health services and/or knowledge of how to maintain reproductive health.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "56 Dean Street, based in Dean Street in London's Soho district, is the city's largest sexual health clinic. Part of the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, it also has a second branch, Dean Street Express,  at 34 Dean Street, which offers a fast-turnaround testing service. As of 2017, the clinic was the largest HIV clinic in Europe. In addition to its specialism in HIV infection and other sexually transmitted diseases, it also offers general sexual health care services, including contraception. The clinic also runs TransPlus - the UK\u2019s first integrated NHS gender dysphoria, sexual health and HIV service.\n56 Dean Street is recognised internationally for its innovation, particularly in regard to its engagement of London's higher-risk communities as well as HIV epidemic management. HIV combination prevention is the multi-factoral approach to addressing the HIV epidemic. It includes;\n\nengagement of high risk communities in regular HIV testing\ncondom awareness and use\neasy access to HIV-PEP (Post-Exposure Prophylaxis)\nquick-start HIV treatment; once diagnosed HIV positive, patients are prescribed HIV ART (Anti-Retroviral Therapy) within days after diagnosis, quickening their journey to an uninfectious status, to reduce the number of infectious people within communities, and slowing the spread of infection in communities. This is called Treatment as Prevention\nPrEP, which can protect HIV negative people from HIV infection. The clinic has made the provision of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) a priority.\nBehavioral advice, support and psychosocial interventions (eg, chemsex support, sexual wellbeing information education, support\ncommunity awareness of all the above.with the result that new HIV infection rates in London have dropped dramatically since the introduction of these interventions.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "AIDS fatigue is a phenomenon wherein individuals or societies who had been concerned about the impact of HIV or AIDS become desensitized to having a strong emotional response to HIV issues after receiving continual messages about the danger over a long period of time.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Autoerotic fatalities are accidental deaths that occur during sexual self-stimulation when an apparatus, device or prop that is being employed to enhance pleasure causes the death. Researchers only apply the term to unintentional deaths resulting from solitary sexual activity, not suicide or acts with a partner. The incidence of autoerotic fatalities in Western countries is around 0.5 per million inhabitants each year.Autoerotic asphyxia is the leading cause. 70 to 80% of autoerotic deaths are caused by hanging, while 10 to 30% are attributed to plastic bags or chemical use. Both of these lead to autoerotic asphyxia. 5 to 10% are related to electrocution, foreign body insertion, overdressing/body wrapping, or another atypical method. Specific causes include the use of chemicals such as amyl nitrite, GHB, or nitrous oxide, and props and tools such as knives, oversized dildos, ligatures or bags for asphyxiation, duct tape, electrical apparatus for shocks, water for self-immersion, fire-making equipment for self-immolation, or sharp, unhygienic or large fetishized objects. Male victims might be more likely to use a variety of devices during autoerotic behaviour than female victims.\nThe subject has been treated in two books, Autoerotic Fatalities by Hazelwood et al. (1983) and Autoerotic Asphyxiation: Forensic, Medical, and Social Aspects by Sheleg et al. (2006).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Bacterial vaginosis is caused by an imbalance of the naturally occurring bacteria in the vagina.  The normally predominant species of Lactobacilli are markedly reduced. This is the list of organisms that are found in the vagina that are associated with bacterial vaginosis, an infectious disease of the vagina caused by excessive growth of specific bacteria. The census and relationships among the microbiota are altered in BV resulting in a complex bacterial milieu. Some species have been identified relatively recently. Having infections with the listed pathogens increases the risk of acquiring other sexually transmitted infections including HIV/AIDS.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The British Journal of Sexual Medicine (abbreviated Br J Sex Med or BJSM) is a medical periodical, first published in 1973.The first issue declared an intent \"to provide authoritative and scientific knowledge on sexual problems and medical problems that have sexual implications to them. The journal will explore the purely clinical field as well as areas of related knowledge that can be brought to bear upon medical practice from the world of psychology, sociology and other behavioural sciences\u2026 we will not attempt to be tied to any one particular point of view with relation to human sexuality\".\nThe remit of the journal has broadened to cover developments in HRT, contraception, oncology and HIV.\nThe BJSM is published by Hayward Medical Communications.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Bugchasing (alternatively bug chasing) is the rare practice of intentionally seeking human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection through sexual activity.Bugchasers\u2014those who eroticize HIV\u2014constitute a subculture of barebackers, men who have unprotected sex with other men. It is exceedingly uncommon for men to self-identify as bugchasers, but among those who do, their behavior does not consistently match this identification; instead, they often seek ambiguous sexual situations, rather than ones in which their partner is known to have HIV. There are some explanations for the behavior, ranging from sexual excitement at the idea of HIV-positive status, to finding a shared sense of community with other HIV-positive people, to suicidality.\nBy 2003, the concept had entered the public consciousness after Rolling Stone published \"Bug Chasers: The men who long to be HIV+\", an article describing the practice. It may have existed since the AIDS crisis began. It has since been mentioned in or the focus of pieces of media and popular culture. As of 2021, bugchasing behavior still persists as a niche behavior, in spite of the widespread availability of effective PrEP and HAART treatments that protect against HIV transmission in otherwise unprotected sex.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Coital incontinence (CI) is urinary leakage that occurs during either penetration or orgasm and can occur with a sexual partner or with masturbation. It has been reported to occur in 10% to 27% of sexually active women with urinary continence problems. There is evidence to suggest links between urinary leakage at penetration and urodynamic stress incontinence, and between urinary leakage at orgasm and detrusor overactivity.Coital incontinence is physiologically distinct from female ejaculation, with which it is sometimes confused.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) is a sex education instruction method based on-curriculum that aims to give students the knowledge, attitudes, skills, and values to make appropriate and healthy choices in their sexual lives. The intention is that this understanding will prevent students from contracting sexually transmitted infections, such as HIV and HPV. CSE is also designed with the intention of reducing unplanned and unwanted pregnancies, as well as lowering rates of domestic and sexual violence, thus contributing to a healthier society, both physically and mentally.Comprehensive sexuality education ultimately promotes sexual abstinence as the safest sexual choice for young people. However, CSE curriculums and teachers are still committed to teaching students about topics connected to future sexual activity, such as age of consent, safe sex, contraception such as birth control pills, condoms, and the ending of pregnancy, when conception does occur, through abortion. This also includes discussions which promote safe behaviors, such as communicating with partners and seeking testing for sexually transmitted infections. Additionally, comprehensive sex education curricula may include discussions surrounding pregnancy outcomes such as parenting, adoption, and abortion. Some states have introduced bills to the legislature that would require all pre-existing sexuality education curricula in public schools to be fully comprehensive and inclusive. The most widely agreed benefit of using comprehensive sexuality education over abstinence-only sex education is that CSE acknowledges that the student population will be sexually active in their future. By acknowledging this, CSE can encourage students to plan ahead to make the healthiest possible sexual decisions. This ideology of arming students to most successfully survive their future sexual experiences underlies the majority of topics within CSE, including various methods of contraception and refusal skills.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder (CSBD), also known as hypersexual disorder, is a pattern of behavior involving intense preoccupation with sexual fantasies and behaviours that cause distress, are inappropriately used to cope with stress, cannot be voluntarily curtailed, and risk or cause harm to oneself or others. This disorder can also cause impairment in social, occupational or other important functions.CSBD is not a diagnosis found in ICD-10 or DSM-5. It was proposed in 2010 for inclusion in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition (DSM-5) of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), but was ultimately not approved. ICD-11 currently includes a diagnosis for \"Compulsive Sexual Behaviour Disorder\", which is categorized under \"Impulse Control Disorders\".", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A condom is a sheath-shaped barrier device used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy or a sexually transmitted infection (STI). There are both male and female condoms. With proper use\u2014and use at every act of intercourse\u2014women whose partners use male condoms experience a 2% per-year pregnancy rate. With typical use the rate of pregnancy is 18% per-year. Their use greatly decreases the risk of gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, hepatitis B, and HIV/AIDS. To a lesser extent, they also protect against genital herpes, human papillomavirus (HPV), and syphilis.The male condom is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and works by forming a physical barrier which blocks semen from entering the body of a sexual partner. Male condoms are typically made from latex and, less commonly, from polyurethane, polyisoprene, or lamb intestine. Male condoms have the advantages of ease of use, ease of access, and few side effects. Men with a latex allergy should use condoms made from a material other than latex, such as polyurethane. Female condoms are typically made from polyurethane and may be used multiple times.Condoms as a method of preventing STIs have been used since at least 1564. Rubber condoms became available in 1855, followed by latex condoms in the 1920s. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. As of 2019, globally around 21% of those using birth control use the condom, making it the second-most common method after female sterilization (24%). Rates of condom use are highest in East and Southeast Asia, Europe and North America. About six to nine billion are sold a year.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Condom fatigue is a term used by medical professionals and safer sex educators to refer to the phenomenon of decreased condom use. It is related to decreased effectiveness of safer sex messages because people who realize the necessity of condoms still perpetuate the phenomenon. It is typically expressed as a frustration with the idea of a future filled with less sexual pleasure due to the use of condoms.The term has particularly been used to describe men who have sex with men, though the term applies to people of all genders and sexual orientations. Condom fatigue is linked to increased HIV infection, as consistent condom use can significantly lower one's risk of transmitting or catching HIV.Condom fatigue is not a universal phenomenon. In Germany, condom use between new sexual partners has increased between 1994 and 2010 from 65% to 87%. That being said, it is seen in many different cultures in both the United States and other parts of the world.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Condoms, needles, and negotiation, also known as the CNN approach, is a harm reduction approach to reducing the rate of transmission of sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS by:\n\nProviding condoms and teaching negotiation of safer sex with partners\nProviding clean needles to reduce transmission from injection drug useIn contrast with the abstinence, be faithful, use a condom, or \"ABC\" approach to this problem, the \"CNN\" approach aims primarily at reducing the rate of transmission among high-risk groups such as women in areas where women have low levels of social power, prostitutes and their clients, and intravenous drug users.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Connecticut Society of Social Hygiene was founded in 1911 to \"limit the spread of social disease.\" Through public education efforts, legislative reform, and other methods, the Society attempted to use eugenics to raise public awareness and influence public policy. Losing influence during World War I, in 1920 they reincorporated as the Connecticut Social Hygiene Association, Inc., a branch of the American Social Hygiene Association.Dr. Thomas N. Hepburn, father of actress Katharine Hepburn, was among the prominent Connecticut residents to co-found the society. Along with his wife, Katharine Martha Houghton Hepburn, and other members, they advocated for age-appropriate sex education and worked to ebb the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or sexually transmitted disease (STD).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Delayed ejaculation (DE) describes a man's inability or persistent difficulty in achieving orgasm, despite typical sexual desire and sexual stimulation. Generally, a man can reach orgasm within a few minutes of active thrusting during sexual intercourse, whereas a man with delayed ejaculation either does not have orgasms at all or cannot have an orgasm until after prolonged intercourse which might last for 30\u201345 minutes or more. Delayed ejaculation is closely related to anorgasmia.\nIn the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), fifth edition, the definition of DE requires 1 of 2 symptoms: either a marked delay in or a marked infrequency or absence of ejaculation on 75% to 100% of occasions for at least 6 months of partnered sexual activity without the individual desiring delay, and causing significant distress to the individual. DE is meant to describe any and all of the ejaculatory disorders that result in a delay or absence of ejaculation. The Third International Consultation on Sexual Medicine defined DE as an IELT threshold beyond 20 to 25\nminutes of sexual activity, as well as negative personal consequences such as bother or distress. Of note, most men's intravaginal ejaculation latency time range is approximately 4 to 10 minutes. While ejaculatory latency and control were significant criteria to differentiate men with DE from those without ejaculatory disorders, bother/distress did not emerge as a significant factor.Delayed ejaculation is the least common of the male sexual dysfunctions, and can result as a side effect of some medications. In one survey, 8% of men reported being unable to achieve orgasm over a two-month period or longer in the previous year. DEs are either primary and lifelong or acquired. Acquired DEs may be situational. While most men do experience occasional or short term delayed ejaculation issues, the prevalence of lifelong DE and acquired long term DE is estimated around 1% and 4%, respectively.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Delayed puberty is when a person lacks or has incomplete development of specific sexual characteristics past the usual age of onset of puberty. The person may have no physical or hormonal signs that puberty has begun. In the United States, girls are considered to have delayed puberty if they lack breast development by age 13 or have not started menstruating by age 15. Boys are considered to have delayed puberty if they lack enlargement of the testicles by age 14. Delayed puberty affects about 2% of adolescents.Most commonly, puberty may be delayed for several years and still occur normally, in which case it is considered constitutional delay of growth and puberty, a common variation of healthy physical development. Delay of puberty may also occur due to various causes such as malnutrition, various systemic diseases, or defects of the reproductive system (hypogonadism) or the body's responsiveness to sex hormones.Initial workup for delayed puberty not due to a chronic condition involves measuring serum FSH, LH, testosterone/estradiol, as well as bone age radiography. If it becomes clear that there is a permanent defect of the reproductive system, treatment usually involves replacement of the appropriate hormones (testosterone/dihydrotestosterone for boys, estradiol and progesterone for girls).\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A dental dam or rubber dam is a thin, 6-inch (150 mm) square sheet, usually latex or nitrile, used in dentistry to isolate the operative site (one or more teeth) from the rest of the mouth. Sometimes termed \"Kofferdam\" (from German), it was designed in the United States in 1864 by Sanford Christie Barnum. It is used mainly in endodontic, fixed prosthodontic (crowns, bridges) and general restorative treatments. Its purpose is both to prevent saliva interfering with the dental work (e.g. contamination of oral micro-organisms during root canal therapy, or to keep filling materials such as composite dry during placement and curing), and to prevent instruments and materials from being inhaled, swallowed or damaging the mouth. In dentistry, use of a rubber dam is sometimes referred to as isolation or moisture control.Dental dams are also used for safer oral sex.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Dhat syndrome (Sanskrit: \u0927\u093e\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u094b\u0937, IAST: Dh\u0101tu do\u1e63a) is a condition found in the cultures of South Asia (including Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka) in which male patients report that they suffer from premature ejaculation or impotence, and believe that they are passing semen in their urine. The condition has no known organic cause.In traditional Hindu spirituality, semen is described as a \"vital fluid\". The discharge of this \"vital fluid\", either through sex or masturbation, is associated with marked feelings of anxiety and dysphoria. Often the patient describes the loss of a whitish fluid while passing urine. At other times, marked feelings of guilt associated with what the patient assumes is \"excessive\" masturbation are noted.\nMany doctors view dhat as a folk diagnostic term used in South Asia to refer to anxiety and hypochondriacal concerns associated with the discharge of semen, with discoloration of the urine, and feelings of weakness and exhaustion.\nDhat is thought to be a culture-bound syndrome similar to jiryan (South-East Asia), prameha (Sri Lanka), and\nshenkui (China). Dhat syndrome might be related to other post-orgasmic diseases, such as post-coital tristesse (PCT), postorgasmic illness syndrome (POIS), and sexual headache.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Women with disabilities have the same health issues as any other women, such as the need for routine breast and cervical cancer screening. Women with impaired mobility are often not given basic tests, such as weight monitoring, due to the lack of accessible equipment.Women with disabilities, especially individuals who belong to minority groups or who live in rural settings, are often underserved in their healthcare needs. In addition, women with disabilities are more likely to live in poverty, which puts them at a greater health risk. In general, because of a lack of social connectedness that many disabled women experience, they often become disconnected from sources of support which can include healthcare providers. In Brazil, women with disabilities are also less likely to seek out gynecological health care, due to various reasons, including cultural attitudes and cost.Article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women outlines women's protection from gender discrimination when receiving health services and women's entitlement to specific gender-related healthcare provisions. Article 25 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities specifies that \"persons with disabilities have the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health without discrimination on the basis of disability.\"Because traditionally, men have been used to model and test health treatments, approaches to health services, such as physical therapy, have not been properly aligned with disabled women's needs. It wasn't until after the 1990s that women's health issues were studied in-depth in the United States. In addition, researching the health issues of women with disabilities is also understudied. Starting in the early 2000s, health issues for people with disabilities began to be studied in the United States. The first long-term study involving the experiences of women with disability and gynecological services was published in 2001.When disabled women need to access routine services for anything other than their main impairment(s), they can be perceived as \"problematic patients\" by healthcare providers. Women with disabilities have reported that they are seen through the lens of their disability first, and as a person second, by healthcare providers. One woman with cerebral palsy reported that it was perceived by her doctor that every health concern was because of her CP, including a toothache. Conversely, a 2003 report  found that not only did health care providers in general have positive attitudes towards people with physical disabilities in Saudi Arabia, regardless of gender and which cited that most health care professionals worldwide have positive attitudes.In countries with strict gender segregation, such as Saudi Arabia, women must use women-only clinics, many of which do not have access for people with physical disabilities.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sex and drugs date back to ancient humans and have been interlocked throughout human history. Both legal and illegal, the consumption of drugs and their effects on the human body encompasses all aspects of sex, including desire, performance, pleasure, conception, gestation, and disease.\nThere are many different types of drugs that are commonly associated with their effects on sex, including alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, MDMA, GHB, amphetamines, opioids, antidepressants, and many others.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A dry enema is an alternative technique for cleansing the human rectum either for reasons of health, or for sexual hygiene.  It is accomplished by squirting a small amount of sterile lubricant into the rectum, resulting in a bowel movement more quickly and with less violence than can be achieved by an oral laxative.\nIt is called \"dry\" in contrast to the more usual wet enema, because no water is used.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Dry sex is the sexual practice of having sexual intercourse without vaginal lubrication. Vaginal lubrication can be removed by using herbal aphrodisiacs, household detergents, antiseptics, by wiping out the vagina, or by placing leaves in the vagina besides other methods. Dry sex is associated with increased health risks.Removing or preventing vaginal lubrication through practices associated with dry sex increases friction during intercourse, which may be perceived as increased vaginal tightness, and enhanced sexual pleasure for the male partner. Some men who insist on dry sex regard \"wet\" women as unchaste. Dry sex can be painful for women and men. Dry sex is common in Sub-Saharan Africa and it has also been reported in Suriname among Afro-Surinamese women.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexual motivation is influenced by hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, oxytocin, and vasopressin. In most mammalian species, sex hormones control the ability and motivation to engage in sexual behaviours.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Enzyte is a herbal nutritional supplement originally manufactured by Berkeley Premium Nutraceuticals.  The marketing of Enzyte resulted in a conviction and prison term for the company's owner and bankruptcy of the company. The product is now marketed by Vianda, LLC of Cincinnati, Ohio. The manufacturer has claimed that Enzyte promotes \"natural male enhancement,\" which is a euphemism for enhancing erectile function. However, its effectiveness has been called into doubt and the claims of the manufacturer have been under scrutiny from various state and federal organizations. Kenneth Goldberg, medical director of the Male Health Center at Baylor University, says, \"It makes no sense medically. There's no way that increasing blood flow to the penis, as Enzyte claims to do, will actually increase its size.\"In March 2005, following thousands of consumer complaints to the Better Business Bureau, federal agents raided Berkeley facilities, gathering material that resulted in a 112-count criminal indictment. The company's founder and CEO, Steven M Warshak, and his mother, Harriet Warshak, were found guilty of conspiracy to commit mail fraud, bank fraud, and money laundering, and in September 2008 they were sentenced to prison and ordered to forfeit $500 million in assets. The convictions and fines forced the company into bankruptcy, and in December 2008 its assets were sold for $2.75 million to investment company Pristine Bay, which continued operations.Enzyte is widely advertised on U.S. television as \"the once daily tablet for natural male enhancement.\" The commercials feature a character known as \"Smilin' Bob,\" acted out by Canadian actor Andrew Olcott, who, in the commercials, always wears a smile that is implied to result from the enhancing effects of Enzyte; these advertisements feature double entendres. Some such commercials also feature an equally smiling \"Mrs. Bob.\"\nBecause Enzyte is an herbal product, no testing is required by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. An official of the Federal Trade Commission division that monitors advertising says the lack of scientific testing is \"a red flag right away. There's no science behind these claims.\" The company has conceded that it has no scientific studies that substantiate any of its Enzyte claims.Ira Sharlip, a spokesman for the American Urological Association, has said, \"There is no such thing as a penis pill that works. These are all things that are sold for profit. There's no science or substance behind them.\"", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "ExtenZe is an herbal nutritional supplement claiming to promote \"natural male enhancement\", a euphemism for penis enlargement. Additionally, television commercials and advertisements claim an \"improved\" or \"arousing\" sexual experience. Extenze paid $6 million to settle a class-action false advertising lawsuit in 2010.Websites selling the product make several more detailed claims, including acquiring a \"larger penis\". Their enlarging effects are described as \"temporary\" while under the use of Extenze. Early infomercials featured a studio audience and porn star Ron Jeremy. Former Dallas Cowboys and Miami Hurricanes head coach Jimmy Johnson has also appeared in an ExtenZe commercial. ExtenZe makes pills and 2-ounce shots that are sold in over 75,000 retail stores.\nThe product is manufactured by BIOTAB Nutraceuticals, Inc., and marketed by Maximizer Health Products.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Female sexual arousal disorder (FSAD) is a disorder characterized by a persistent or recurrent inability to attain sexual arousal or to maintain arousal until the completion of a sexual activity. The diagnosis can also refer to an inadequate lubrication-swelling response normally present during arousal and sexual activity. The condition should be distinguished from a general loss of interest in sexual activity and from other sexual dysfunctions, such as the orgasmic disorder (anorgasmia) and hypoactive sexual desire disorder, which is characterized as a lack or absence of sexual fantasies and desire for sexual activity for some period of time.\nAlthough female sexual dysfunction is currently a contested diagnostic, it has become more common in recent years to use testosterone-based drugs off-label to treat FSAD.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Lock Hospital for Women was a hospital in Glasgow for women suffering from venereal disease.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Gynopedia is a nonprofit organization that runs an open resource wiki for sexual, reproductive and women's health care around the world. The website was founded by Lani Fried in 2016. The main topics discussed on the site include access to contraception, emergency contraception, testing for sexually-transmitted diseases, medications, menstrual products, gynecologists, pregnancy, abortion, counseling services, women's resources and LGBTQ resources. As of November 2017, the website covers nearly 100 cities.Gynopedia is a primarily English-language website, but volunteer translators have begun translating pages into other languages, such as French.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Hermaphrodites with Attitude was a newsletter edited by Cheryl Chase and published by the Intersex Society of North America (ISNA) between 1994 and 2005. The full archives are available online. In 2008, ISNA transferred its remaining funds, assets, and copyrights to Accord Alliance and then closed.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Since reports of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) began to emerge and spread in the United States between the 1970s and 1980s, the HIV/AIDS epidemic has frequently been linked to gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) by epidemiologists and medical professionals. It was first noticed after doctors discovered clusters of Kaposi's sarcoma and pneumocystis pneumonia in homosexual men in Los Angeles, New York City, and San Francisco in 1981. The first official report on the virus was published by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) on June 5, 1981 and detailed the cases of five young gay men who were hospitalized with serious infections. A month later, The New York Times reported that 41 homosexuals had been diagnosed with Kaposi's sarcoma, and eight had died less than 24 months after the diagnosis was made.By 1982, the condition was referred to in the medical community as \"gay-related immune deficiency\" (GRID), \"gay cancer,\" and \"gay compromise syndrome\". It was not until July 1982 that the term Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) was suggested to replace GRID, and even then it was not until September that the CDC first used the AIDS acronym in an official report. Scientists and physicians now know that HIV/AIDS does not only affect the gay community and can infect anybody, regardless of sex, ethnicity, or sexual orientation. However, globally, MSM are still considered a \"key population,\" meaning they have high rates of HIV and are at high risk for acquiring the virus.Gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) are only a small percentage of the U.S. population, but they are consistently the population group most affected by the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the United States, and are the largest proportion of American citizens with an AIDS diagnosis who have died. The United Nations estimates that 2 to 20% of MSM are infected with HIV, depending on the region they live in.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "How to Have Sex in an Epidemic: One Approach is a 1983 manual by Richard Berkowitz and Michael Callen, under the direction of Joseph Sonnabend, to advise men who have sex with men (MSM) about how to avoid contracting the infecting agent which causes AIDS. It was among the first publications to recommend the use of condoms to prevent the transmission of STDs in men having sex with men, and has even been named, along with Play Fair!, as one of the foundational publications in the advent of modern safe sex.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A hydrocele testis is an accumulation of clear fluid within the cavum vaginale, the potential space between the layers of the tunica vaginalis of the testicle. A primary hydrocele causes a painless enlargement in the scrotum on the affected side and is thought to be due to the defective absorption of fluid secreted between the two layers of the tunica vaginalis (investing membrane). A secondary hydrocele is secondary to either inflammation or a neoplasm in the testis.\nA hydrocele usually occurs on one side, but can also affect both sides. The accumulation can be a marker of physical trauma, infection, tumor or varicocele surgery, but the cause is generally unknown. Indirect inguinal hernia indicates increased risk of hydrocele.\nHydroceles are more common in boys than girls. A hydrocele is normally seen in infant boys as an enlarged scrotum. In infant girls it appears as enlarged labia.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Hypersexuality is extremely frequent or suddenly increased libido. It is controversial whether it should be included as a clinical diagnosis used by mental healthcare professionals. Nymphomania and satyriasis were terms previously used for the condition in women and men, respectively.\nHypersexuality may be a primary condition, or the symptom of another medical disease or condition; for example, Kl\u00fcver-Bucy syndrome or bipolar disorder. Hypersexuality may also present as a side effect of medication such as drugs used to treat Parkinson's disease.\nClinicians have yet to reach a consensus over how best to describe hypersexuality as a primary condition, or to determine the appropriateness of describing such behaviors and impulses as a separate pathology.\nHypersexual behaviours are viewed variously by clinicians and therapists as a type of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or \"OCD-spectrum disorder\", an addiction, or a disorder of impulsivity. A number of authors do not acknowledge such a pathology and instead assert that the condition merely reflects a cultural dislike of exceptional sexual behavior.Consistent with there not being any consensus over what causes hypersexuality, authors have used many different labels to refer to it, sometimes interchangeably, but often depending on which theory they favor or which specific behavior they were studying. Contemporary names include compulsive masturbation, compulsive sexual behavior, cybersex addiction, erotomania, \"excessive sexual drive\", hyperphilia, hypersexuality, hypersexual disorder, problematic hypersexuality, sexual addiction, sexual compulsivity, sexual dependency, sexual impulsivity, \"out of control sexual behavior\", and paraphilia-related disorder.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Intravaginal ejaculation latency time (IELT) is the time it takes to ejaculate during vaginal penetration. Average IELT varies between people and tends to decrease with age.\nSome medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) affect IELT. IELT is one factor used to diagnose and treat conditions such as premature ejaculation. IELT may be relevant in perceptions of sexual performance and actual satisfaction, which may also be dependent on many other factors.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Kegel exercise, also known as pelvic-floor exercise, involves repeatedly contracting and relaxing the muscles that form part of the pelvic floor, now sometimes colloquially referred to as the \"Kegel muscles\". The exercise can be performed many times a day, for several minutes at a time but takes one to three months to begin to have an effect.Kegel exercises aim to strengthen the pelvic floor muscles. These muscles have many functions within the human body. In women, they are responsible for: holding up the bladder, preventing urinary stress incontinence (especially after childbirth), vaginal and uterine prolapse. In men, these muscles are responsible for: urinary continence, fecal continence, and ejaculation. Several tools exist to help with these exercises, although various studies debate the relative effectiveness of different tools versus traditional exercises.The American gynecologist Arnold Kegel first published a description of such exercises in 1948.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A lock hospital was an establishment that specialised in treating sexually transmitted diseases. They operated in Britain and its colonies and territories from the 18th century to the 20th.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Maternal health is the health of women during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. In most cases, it encompasses the health care dimensions of family planning, preconception, prenatal, and postnatal care in order to ensure a positive and fulfilling experience. In other cases, maternal health can reduce maternal morbidity and mortality. Maternal health revolves around the health and wellness of women, particularly when they are pregnant, at the time they give birth, and during child-raising. WHO has indicated that even though motherhood has been considered as a fulfilling natural experience that is emotional to the mother, a high percentage of women develop health problems and sometimes even die (WHO n.p). Because of this, there is a need to invest in the health of women (Amiri and Ulf-G 13). The investment can be achieved in different ways, among the main ones being subsidizing the healthcare cost, education on maternal health, encouraging effective family planning, and ensuring progressive check up on the health of women with children. Maternal mortality particularly affects women of color and women living in low and lower-middle income countries.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Men who have sex with men (MSM), also known as males who have sex with males, are male persons who engage in sexual activity with members of the same sex, regardless of how they identify themselves. They may or may not identify as gay or bisexual. The term MSM was created in the 1990s by epidemiologists to study the spread of disease among all men who have sex with men, regardless of identity, to include, for example, male prostitutes. The term MSM is often used in medical literature and social research to describe such men as a group for research studies. It does not describe any specific sexual activity, and which activities are covered by the term depends on context.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Multiple sex partners is the measure and incidence of engaging in sexual activities with two or more people within a specific time period. Sexual activity with MSP can happen simultaneously or serially. MSP includes sexual activity between people of a different gender or the same gender. A person can be said to have multiple sex partners, when the person have sex with more than one person at the same time. Another term, polyamorous, is a behavior and not a measure describing multiple romantically sexually or romantically committed relationships at the same time.Young people having MSP in the last year is an indicator used by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to evaluate risky sexual behavior in adolescents and  monitoring changes in the worldwide HIV/AIDS infection rates and deaths..", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Mutual monogamy is a form of monogamy that exists when two partners agree to be sexually active with only one another. Being in a long-term mutually monogamous relationship reduces the risk of acquiring a sexually transmitted infection (STI). It is one of the most reliable ways to avoid STIs. Those who choose mutual monogamy can be tested before the sexual relationship to be certain they are not infected.  This strategy for the prevention of acquiring a sexually transmitted infection requires that each partner remain faithful and does not engage in sexual activity with another partner.Mutual monogamy differs from serial monogamy which is a current monogamous relationship that has not been established in the past and may not continue into the future. Serial monogamy may not result in the reduced risk of contracting a sexually transmitted infection because the past sexual exposures to infection are brought into the new relationship, even though it may be exclusive of other sexual partners. The risk of acquiring a sexually transmitted infection while in a serial monogamous relationship is the same as the risk of those who have concurrent partners. Those with a greater ability to communicate about their commitment are likely to sustain the relationship.\nWhen individuals are mutually monogamous, and are free from STIs/HIV when they enter the relationship, the risk for being infected with STI/HIV acquisition from sexual intercourse is very low. A mutually monogamous relationship lowers the risk of HIV, cervicitis, and other sexually transmitted infections.A mutual monogamous sexual relationship often includes a pledge to stay with the partner and includes the desire for the relationship to last, a psychological attachment and the lack of being able to find another partner. If these conditions remain a priority for both, the \"couple is likely committed and mutually monogamous.\"Being in a long-term mutually monogamous relationship with a partner who has been tested and has negative STI test lowers the chance of acquiring gonorrhea. It is also effective for lowering the risk of syphilis, chlamydia and pubic lice.The lack of a more precise definition of mutual monogamy in the literature confounds the ability to statistically assess its effectiveness.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The My Body Back Project was set up in London by Pavan Amara in August 2014. First intended as a website and support network for survivors of sexual assault, it has expanded its scope into first a sexual health clinic and then other projects such as a maternity clinic, a photography project and various workshops.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The exact role of Mycoplasma hominis (and to a lesser extent Ureaplasma) in regards to a number of conditions related to pregnant women and their (unborn) offspring is controversial. This is mainly because many healthy adults have genitourinary colonization with Mycoplasma, published studies on pathogenicity have important design limitations and the organisms are very difficult to detect. The likelihood of colonization with M. hominis appears directly linked to the number of lifetime sexual partners\nNeonatal colonization does occur, but only through normal vaginal delivery. Caesarean section appears protective against colonization and is much less common. Neonatal colonization is transient.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (NATSAL) is the name given to a series of face-to-face surveys of people in the United Kingdom regarding their sexual behaviour and patterns. The three rounds of interviews completed to date are NATSAL-1 (1990\u201391) and NATSAL-2 (2000\u20132001) and NATSAL-3 (2010\u201312). The results are widely used in research and policy making. NATSAL's principal investigator is Anne Johnson, a professor at University College, London, and co-leader Kaye Wellings, a professor at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.The Natsal-3 survey revealed, among other things, that British people are having sex less often than they did 20 years ago.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "No Secrets, also known coequally as Adult Safeguarding, was a UK Government publication from the Department of Health which provided guidance on developing and implementing multi-agency policies and procedures to protect adults deemed \"at risk\" from harm and/or abuse. Its full title was \"No secrets: guidance on developing and implementing multi-agency policies and procedures to protect vulnerable adults from abuse\". It has now been replaced by statutory guidance issued under the Care Act 2014.When the guidance was current, the Department of Health website stated that:\n\n\"It explains how commissioners and providers of health and social care services should work together to produce and implement local policies and procedures. They should collaborate with the public, voluntary and private sectors and they should also consult service users, their carers and representative groups. Local authority social services departments should co-ordinate the development of policies and procedures.\"", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Non-consensual condom removal, or \"stealthing\", is the practice of a man  removing a condom during sexual intercourse without consent, when his sex partner has only consented to condom-protected sex. Victims are exposed to potential sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV/AIDS, or unwanted pregnancies. Such behaviour may be therefore regarded as sexual assault or rape, and sometimes as a form of reproductive coercion. As of 2020, stealthing is punishable as a form of sexual violence in some countries, such as Germany and the United Kingdom.Purposefully damaging a condom before or during intercourse may also be referred to as stealthing, regardless of who damaged the condom. \n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Ontario sex education curriculum controversy refers to the debates over reforms of the sex education curriculum in the province of Ontario during the 2010s.In 2015, the government of Ontario, then led by Kathleen Wynne, introduced a new sex ed curriculum, updating it for the first time since 1998 and including topics such as sharing explicit content online, sexual orientation, and gender identity. A number of protests broke out against the new curriculum, and after the 2018 Ontario general election the new provincial government, led by Doug Ford, announced that it would be scrapping the changes and reverting to the 1998 curriculum. This move caused a further eruption of protests by supporters of the new curriculum this time, and in 2019 the government announced a different new curriculum that contained most of the updates contained in the 2015 curriculum.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The orgasm gap, or pleasure gap, is a social phenomenon referring to the general disparity between heterosexual men and women in terms of sexual satisfaction\u2014more specifically, the unequal frequency in achievement of orgasm during sexual encounters. Currently, across every demographic that has been studied, women report the lowest frequency of reaching orgasm during sexual encounters with men. Researchers speculate there are multiple factors that may contribute to the orgasm gap. Orgasm gap researcher Laurie Mintz argues that the primary reason for this form of gender inequality is due to \"our cultural ignorance of the clitoris\" and that it is commonplace to \"mislabel women's genitals by the one part (the vagina) that gives men, but not women, reliable orgasms.\"\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Party and play (PnP), also called chemsex or wired play, is the consumption of drugs to facilitate or enhance sexual activity. Sociologically, it refers to a subculture of recreational drug users who engage in high-risk sexual activities under the influence of drugs within sub-groups. This can include unprotected sex during sessions with multiple sexual partners that may continue for days.\nThe drug of choice is typically methamphetamine, known as crystal meth, tina or T, but other drugs are also used, such as mephedrone, GHB, GBL, and alkyl nitrites (known as poppers). The term slamsex is associated with users who inject the drugs.Some studies have found that people participating in such sex parties have a higher probability of acquiring sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS, by having unprotected sex with large numbers of sexual partners. For this reason, it is considered \"a public health priority\".\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Paula Method is a proposed alternative to Kegel exercises. The idea is that by strengthening your sphincter muscles (eye muscle: orbicularis oculi and mouth muscle: orbicularis oris), the contractions would also strengthen the sphincter muscles in the pelvic floor. Evidence to support its use is lacking.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Pelvic congestion syndrome, also known as pelvic vein incompetence, is a long term condition believed to be due to enlarged veins in the lower abdomen. The condition may cause chronic pain, such as a constant dull ache, which can be worsened by standing or sex. Pain in the legs or lower back may also occur.While the condition is believed to be due to blood flowing back into pelvic veins as a result of faulty valves in the veins, this hypothesis is not certain. The condition may occur or worsen during pregnancy. The presence of estrogen is believed to be involved in the mechanism. Diagnosis may be supported by ultrasound, CT scan, MRI, or laparoscopy.Early treatment options include medroxyprogesterone or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Surgery to block the varicose veins may also be done. About 30% of women of reproductive age are affected. It is believed to be the cause of about a third of chronic pelvic pain cases. While pelvic venous insufficiency was identified in the 1850s it was only linked with pelvic pain in the 1940s.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Penile fracture is rupture of one or both of the tunica albuginea, the fibrous coverings that envelop the penis's corpora cavernosa. It is caused by rapid blunt force to an erect penis, usually during vaginal intercourse, or aggressive masturbation. It sometimes also involves partial or complete rupture of the urethra or injury to the dorsal nerves, veins and arteries.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A penile implant is an implanted device intended for the treatment of erectile dysfunction, Peyronie's disease, ischemic priapism, deformity and any traumatic injury of the penis, and for phalloplasty in men or phalloplasty and metoidioplasty in female-to-male gender reassignment surgery. Men also opt for penile implants for aesthetic purposes. Men\u2019s satisfaction and sexual function is influenced by discomfort over genital size which leads to seek surgical and non-surgical solutions for penis alteration. Although there are many distinct types of implants, most fall into one of two categories: malleable and inflatable transplants.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Peyronie's disease is a connective tissue disorder involving the growth of fibrous plaques in the soft tissue of the penis. Specifically, scar tissue forms in the tunica albuginea, the thick sheath of tissue surrounding the corpora cavernosa, causing pain, abnormal curvature, erectile dysfunction, indentation, loss of girth and shortening.It is estimated to affect about 10% of men. The condition becomes more common with age.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Play Fair! was a landmark brochure produced by the San Francisco Order of the Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence produced what was to become a landmark document in the emerging AIDS crisis. Play Fair! was one of the first safer sex material written by and for gay men. One of the authors of the publication was public health nurse and AIDS activist Bobbi Campbell (a.k.a. Sister Florence Nightmare) would go on to appear on the cover of the August 8, 1983, issue of Newsweek.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A plethysmograph is an instrument for measuring changes in volume within an organ or whole body (usually resulting from fluctuations in the amount of blood or air it contains). The word is derived from the Greek \"plethysmos\" (increasing, enlarging, becoming full), and \"graphein\" (to write).\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Porphyromonas gingivalis belongs to the phylum Bacteroidota and is a nonmotile, Gram-negative, rod-shaped, anaerobic, pathogenic bacterium. It forms black colonies on blood agar.\nIt is found in the oral cavity, where it is implicated in periodontal disease, as well as in the upper gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract and the colon. It has been isolated from women with bacterial vaginosis.Collagen degradation observed in chronic periodontal disease results in part from the collagenase enzymes of this species. It has been shown in an in vitro study that P. gingivalis can invade human gingival fibroblasts and can survive in the presence of antibiotics. P. gingivalis invades gingival epithelial cells in high numbers, in which case both bacteria and epithelial cells survive for extended periods of time. High levels of specific antibodies can be detected in patients harboring P. gingivalis.\nP. gingivalis infection has been linked to Alzheimer's disease and rheumatoid arthritis. It contains the enzyme peptidyl-arginine deiminase, which is involved in citrullination. Patients with rheumatoid arthritis have increased incidence of periodontal disease; antibodies against the bacterium are significantly more common in these patients.P. gingivalis is divided into K-serotypes based upon capsular antigenicity of the various types. These serotypes have been the drivers of observations regarding bacterial cell to cell interactions to the associated serotype-dependent immune response and risk with pancreatic cancer.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "PositiveSingles is a free friendship, social, and dating website that specifically caters to people who are living with sexually transmitted diseases (STD). Its services are mainly provided in North America and Europe. PositiveSingles was founded in 2001 and its headquarters are in Vaughan, Ontario. The company is privately held.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Post-coital tristesse (PCT), also known as post-coital dysphoria, is the feeling of sadness, anxiety, agitation or aggression, after sexual intercourse or masturbation. Its name comes from New Latin postcoitalis and French tristesse, literally \"sadness\". Many people with PCT may exhibit strong feelings of anxiety lasting from five minutes to two hours after coitus.The phenomenon is attributed to the Greek medical writer Galen, who is supposed to have written that \"Every animal is sad after coitus except the human female and the rooster.\" However, this quotation is not found in Galen's surviving writings, so it may be a later fabrication. Sigmund Freud and Havelock Ellis were familiar with the proverb, which they both attributed to an anonymous author, and it was not until decades later that the maxim became connected with Galen among sexologists.The philosopher Baruch Spinoza, in his Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione, wrote: \"For as far as sensual pleasure is concerned, the mind is so caught up in it, as if at peace in a [true] good, that it is quite prevented from thinking of anything else. But after the enjoyment of sensual pleasure is passed, the greatest sadness follows. If this does not completely engross, still it thoroughly confuses and dulls the mind.\" Arthur Schopenhauer, writing later on the phenomenon, observed that \"directly after copulation the devil's laughter is heard.\"One study reported that among a sample of 1208 male participants, 40% of them had experienced PCT at least once in their lifetime and 20% reported experiencing PCT in the four weeks preceding the study. This study also reports that 3\u20134% of the sample experienced PCT symptoms on a regular basis. According to the same study, PCT among males is associated with current psychological distress, sexual abuse during childhood, and with several sexual dysfunctions.With respect to symptoms in women, one study involved an epidemiological survey of post-coital psychological symptoms in a United Kingdom population sample of female twins: it found that 3.7% of these women reported suffering from recent PCT and 7.7% of them reported suffering PCT for a long time. Another study reported that almost half of female university students reported PCT symptoms at least once in their lifetime. The study also reported that there appeared to be no correlation between PCT and intimacy in close relationships.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Postorgasmic illness syndrome is a syndrome in which people have chronic physical and cognitive symptoms immediately following ejaculation. The symptoms last for up to a week. The cause and prevalence are unknown; it is considered a rare disease.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In medicine, precocious puberty is puberty occurring at an unusually early age. In most cases, the process is normal in every aspect except the unusually early age and simply represents a variation of normal development. In a minority of children with precocious puberty, the early development is triggered by a disease such as a tumor or injury of the brain. Even when there is no disease, unusually early puberty can have adverse effects on social behavior and psychological development, can reduce adult height potential, and may shift some lifelong health risks. Central precocious puberty can be treated by suppressing the pituitary hormones that induce sex steroid production. The opposite condition is delayed puberty.The term is used with several slightly different meanings that are usually apparent from the context. In its broadest sense, and often simplified as early puberty, \"precocious puberty\" sometimes refers to any physical sex hormone effect, due to any cause, occurring earlier than the usual age, especially when it is being considered as a medical problem. Stricter definitions of \"precocity\" may refer only to central puberty starting before a statistically specified age based on percentile in the population (e.g., 2.5 standard deviations below the population mean), on expert recommendations of ages at which there is more than a negligible chance of discovering an abnormal cause, or based on opinion as to the age at which early puberty may have adverse effects. A common definition for medical purposes is onset before 8 years in girls or 9 years in boys.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Preventx is a provider of remote sexual health testing kits and routine and emergency contraception. based in Meadowhall Business Park.  It was established in 2008 and by 2022 had run over 10 million tests for infectious diseases.  It employs about 80 people and  processes over 300,000 tests each month.  Dr Vanessa Apea is the medical director.\nThe COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom has increased use, as people are more used to testing themselves at home.   After March 2020 use rose by more than 200% as many sexual health service clinics closed. It was awarded a contract to provide at-home testing kits for 31 London boroughs, coordinated by Sexual Health London, until at least 2023 as in-person testing was restricted to people with symptoms.  The firm supplies  more than 60% of the local authorities in England and claims to be the world\u2019s biggest publicly-funded STI testing service. Some of the sexually transmitted infection tests involve filling up a vial of your own blood which some people find difficult.The firm discovered in a survey of 8,676 women that trichomonas vaginalis was more common in women from ethnic minority backgrounds and they were also more likely to test positive when not displaying symptoms than white women.The firm polled 500 women in 2021 who attempted to access long-acting contraceptive choices and found that 30% could  not get a long-acting reversible contraceptive coil or an implant because of the disruption of sexual health clinics. This had sent them to abortion services, and the morning-after pill.Synova is a substantial investor in the business and is backing plans to expand services into Spain, Belgium and Germany.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Prevotella intermedia (formerly Bacteroides intermedius) is a gram-negative, obligate anaerobic pathogenic bacterium involved in periodontal infections, including gingivitis and periodontitis, and often found in acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis. It is commonly isolated from dental abscesses, where obligate anaerobes predominate.\nP. intermedia is thought to be more prevalent in patients with noma.\nP. intermedia use steroid hormones as growth factors, so their numbers are higher in pregnant women. It has also been isolated from women with bacterial vaginosis.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Priapism is a condition in which a penis remains erect for hours in the absence of stimulation or after stimulation has ended. There are three types: ischemic (low-flow), nonischemic (high-flow), and recurrent ischemic (intermittent). Most cases are ischemic. Ischemic priapism is generally painful while nonischemic priapism is not. In ischemic priapism, most of the penis is hard; however, the glans penis is not. In nonischemic priapism, the entire penis is only somewhat hard. Very rarely, clitoral priapism occurs in women.Sickle cell disease is the most common cause of ischemic priapism. Other causes include medications such as antipsychotics, SSRIs, blood thinners and prostaglandin E1, as well as drugs such as cocaine. Ischemic priapism occurs when blood does not adequately drain from the penis. Nonischemic priapism is typically due to a connection forming between an artery and the corpus cavernosum or disruption of the parasympathetic nervous system resulting in increased arterial flow. Nonischemic priapism may occur following trauma to the penis or a spinal cord injury. Diagnosis may be supported by blood gas analysis of blood aspirated from the penis or an ultrasound.Treatment depends on the type. Ischemic priapism is typically treated with a nerve block of the penis followed by aspiration of blood from the corpora cavernosa. If this is not sufficient, the corpus cavernosum may be irrigated with cold, normal saline or injected with phenylephrine. Nonischemic priapism is often treated with cold packs and compression. Surgery may be done if usual measures are not effective. In ischemic priapism, the risk of permanent scarring of the penis begins to increase after four hours and definitely occurs after 48 hours. Priapism occurs in about 1 in 20,000 to 1 in 100,000 males per year.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In human sexuality, the refractory period is usually the recovery phase after orgasm during which it is physiologically impossible for a man to have additional orgasms. This phase begins immediately after ejaculation and lasts until the excitement phase of the human sexual response cycle begins anew with low-level response. Although it is generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and can thus experience an additional orgasm (or multiple orgasms) soon after the first one, some sources state that both men and women experience a refractory period because women may also experience a moment after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "C\u00e4cilia (Cillie) Rentmeister (born 1948 in Berlin) is a German art historian, culture scientist and researcher of cultural conditions of women and of gender. In addition to studying the different realities in which men and women are living, she has concerned herself with the matriarchy.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, prisons are obligated to provide health care to prisoners. Such health care is sometimes called correctional medicine. In women's prisons, correctional medicine includes attention to reproductive health.\nThe number of women incarcerated in the United States has increased greatly over the last few decades, and at a faster rate than the number of incarcerated men. Many of the same factors that increase women's likelihood of incarceration also put them at a higher risk for contracting HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections, and for having high-risk pregnancies. The majority of incarcerated women are economically disadvantaged and poorly educated, and have not had adequate access to preventive healthcare prior to their imprisonment, such as Pap tests, STI screening, and pregnancy counseling.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health that vary amongst countries around the world. The World Health Organization defines reproductive rights as follows:\n\nReproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence.\nWomen's reproductive rights may include some or all of the following: abortion-rights movements; birth control; freedom from coerced sterilization and contraception; the right to access good-quality reproductive healthcare; and the right to education and access in order to make free and informed reproductive choices. Reproductive rights may also include the right to receive education about sexually transmitted infections and other aspects of sexuality, right to menstrual health and protection from practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM).Reproductive rights began to develop as a subset of human rights at the United Nation's 1968 International Conference on Human Rights. The resulting non-binding Proclamation of Tehran was the first international document to recognize one of these rights when it stated that: \"Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children.\" Women\u2019s sexual, gynecological, and mental health issues were not a priority of the United Nations until its Decade of Women (1975\u20131985) brought them to the forefront. States, though, have been slow in incorporating these rights in internationally legally binding instruments. Thus, while some of these rights have already been recognized in hard law, that is, in legally binding international human rights instruments, others have been mentioned only in non binding recommendations and, therefore, have at best the status of soft law in international law, while a further group is yet to be accepted by the international community and therefore remains at the level of advocacy.Issues related to reproductive rights are some of the most vigorously contested rights' issues worldwide, regardless of the population's socioeconomic level, religion or culture.The issue of reproductive rights is frequently presented as being of vital importance in discussions and articles by population concern organizations such as Population Matters.Reproductive rights are a subset of sexual and reproductive health and rights.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A reproductive system disease is any disease of the reproductive system.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Risky sexual behavior is the description of the activity that will increase the probability that a person engaging in sexual activity with another person infected with a sexually transmitted infection will be infected or become pregnant, or make a partner pregnant. It can mean two similar things: the behavior itself, the description of the partner's behavior. The behavior could be unprotected vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse. The partner could be a nonexclusive partner, HIV-positive, or an person who injects substances. Substance use is associated with risky sexual behaviors.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Romantic Depot is a brand of lingerie stores that sells sexual health and wellness products. It was founded in 2000 by Glen Buzzetti.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Safe sex is sexual activity using methods or contraceptive devices (such as condoms) to reduce the risk of transmitting or acquiring sexually transmitted infections (STIs), especially HIV. \"Safe sex\" is also sometimes referred to as safer sex or protected sex to indicate that some safe sex practices do not eliminate STI risks. It is also sometimes used colloquially to describe methods aimed at preventing pregnancy that may or may not also lower STI risks.\nThe concept of \"safe sex\" emerged in the 1980s as a response to the global AIDS epidemic, and possibly more specifically to the AIDS crisis in the United States. Promoting safe sex is now one of the main aims of sex education and STI prevention, especially reducing new HIV infections. Safe sex is regarded as a harm reduction strategy aimed at reducing the risk of STI transmission.Although some safe sex practices (like condoms) can also be used as birth control (contraception), most forms of contraception do not protect against STIs. Likewise, some safe sex practices, such as partner selection and low-risk sex behavior, might not be effective forms of contraception.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Self-report sexual risk behaviors are a cornerstone of reproductive health\u2013related research, particularly when related to assessing risk-related outcomes such as pregnancy or acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) such as HIV.  Despite their frequency of use, the utility of self-report measures to provide an accurate account of actual behavior are questioned, and methods of enhancing their accuracy should be a critical focus when administering such measures. Self-reported assessments of sexual behavior are prone to a number of measurement concerns which may affect the reliability and validity of a measure, ranging from a participant's literacy level and comprehension of behavioral terminology to recall biases and self-presentation (or confidentiality concerns resulting from stigmatization of the behavior in question).Therefore, the decision to incorporate a self-report measure of sexual risk behaviors is often one of practicality. Self-report measures are both inexpensive and more feasible than behavioral observation given the private nature of most sexual risk behaviors. To this end, the validity of self-reported sexual risk measures can be strengthened by the level of concordant answers obtained from sexual partners or through more objective measures of risk (such as the incidence of pregnancy, HIV or other STDs.It is important to consider the way in which measures of self-reported sexual risk behaviors will be collected during the research development phase. Frequently self-report measures are self-administered but may also be elicited from an interviewer, either face-to-face or by telephone; such modalities help address literacy and comprehension confounds but may increase the potential for self-presentation bias. The delivery of risk behavior assessments via the internet or computer can increase a sense of privacy, and may reduce self-presentation biases.In addition, a study was conducted by Durant, Carey and Schroeder in which 358 college students were examined to see effects of anonymity and confidentiality on responses. The confidentiality group, the members were asked to provide their personal information however were assured that they would be kept confidential. Whereas, in the anonymity group the members were simply not asked to provide their personal information. The results indicated that members of the confidentiality group answered much lower frequencies for questions about their health risk behaviors, and also had many more non-responses. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the vital value of collecting sexual behavior self-reports through a process of anonymity.Similarly, it is important to select a self-report sexual risk measure which meets the study's assessment needs.  Dichotomous (yes/no) evaluation of engagement in risk behaviors (risk screening), assessing the level of risk via frequency of engagement in risk behaviors (risk assessments) and detailed event-level data related to the co-occurrence of other factors (e.g., alcohol use or primary versus secondary partners) that may facilitate engaging in risk behaviors (risk-event data) are unequivocal, serving very distinct functions in evaluating self-reported risk behavior.Attention should also be paid to the period of time over which self-reported risk measures ask individuals to recall the occurrence and frequency of engaging in risk behavior; generally, recalling frequency of risk behaviors over a period of approximately three months supports recall accuracy.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sex after pregnancy is often delayed for several weeks or months, and may be difficult and painful for women. Injury to the perineum or surgical cuts (episiotomy) to the vagina during childbirth can cause sexual dysfunction. Sexual activity in the postpartum period other than sexual intercourse is possible sooner, but some women experience a prolonged loss of sexual desire after giving birth, which may be associated with postnatal depression. Common issues that may last more than a year after birth are greater desire by the man than the woman, and a worsening of the woman's body image.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sex reassignment therapy is the medical aspect of gender transitioning, that is, modifying one's sex characteristics to better suit one's gender identity.  It can consist of hormone therapy to modify secondary sex characteristics, sex reassignment surgery to alter primary sex characteristics, and other procedures altering appearance, such as permanent hair removal for trans women.\nIn appropriately evaluated cases of severe gender dysphoria, sex reassignment therapy is often the best when standards of care are followed.:\u200a1570\u200a:\u200a2108\u200a  There is academic concern over the low quality of the evidence supporting the efficacy of sex reassignment therapy as treatment for gender dysphoria, but more robust studies are impractical to carry out;:\u200a22\u200a as well, there exists a broad clinical consensus, supplementing the academic research, that supports the effectiveness in terms of subjective improvement of sex reassignment therapy in appropriately selected patients.:\u200a2\u20133\u200a  Treatment of gender dysphoria does not involve attempting to correct the patient's gender identity, but to help the patient adapt.:\u200a1568\u200aMajor health organizations in the United States and UK have issued affirmative statements supporting sex reassignment therapy as comprising medically necessary treatments in certain appropriately evaluated cases.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexual addiction, also known as sex addiction, is a state characterized by compulsive participation or engagement in sexual activity, particularly sexual intercourse, despite negative consequences.Proponents of a diagnostic model for sexual addiction consider it to be one of several sex-related disorders within hypersexual disorder.  The term sexual dependence is also used to refer to people who report being unable to control their sexual urges, behaviors, or thoughts. Related or synonymous models of pathological sexual behavior include hypersexuality (nymphomania and satyriasis), erotomania, Don Juanism, and paraphilia-related disorders.The concept of sexual addiction is contentious. There is considerable debate among psychiatrists, psychologists, sexologists, and other specialists whether compulsive sexual behavior constitutes an addiction, and therefore its classification and possible diagnosis. Animal research has established that compulsive sexual behavior arises from the same transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms that mediate drug addiction in laboratory animals; however, as of 2018, sexual addiction is not a clinical diagnosis in either the DSM or ICD medical classifications of diseases and medical disorders. Some argue that applying such concepts to normal behaviors such as sex can be problematic, and suggest that applying medical models such as addiction to human sexuality can serve to pathologise normal behavior and cause harm.The ICD-11 created a new condition classification, compulsive sexual behavior disorder, to cover \"a persistent pattern of failure to control intense, repetitive sexual impulses or urges resulting in repetitive sexual behaviour\". However, CSBD is not considered to be an addiction, and the WHO does not support a diagnosis of sex addiction.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters (SRHM), formerly Reproductive Health Matters (RHM), is an open-access peer-reviewed academic journal of sexual and reproductive health and rights. The journal was established in 1993 by Marge Berer. The founding director and editor, Marge Berer, led RHM since its inception until 2015, when she handed over responsibilities to Dr Shirin Heidari, who became the editor-in-chief and chief executive of the organisation. Under her leadership, the journal transitioned to an open-access, online publication. In 2018, Heidari handed responsibility to Dr Julia Hussein as editor-in-chief and Eszter Kism\u00f6di as chief executive.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexual dysfunction is difficulty experienced by an individual or partners during any stage of normal sexual activity, including physical pleasure, desire, preference, arousal, or orgasm. The World Health Organization defines sexual dysfunction as a \"person's inability to participate in a sexual relationship as they would wish\". This definition is broad and is subject to many interpretations. A diagnosis of sexual dysfunction under the DSM-5 requires a person to feel extreme distress and interpersonal strain for a minimum of six months (except for substance- or medication-induced sexual dysfunction). Sexual dysfunction can have a profound impact on an individual's perceived quality of sexual life. The term sexual disorder may not only refer to physical sexual dysfunction, but to paraphilias as well; this is sometimes termed disorder of sexual preference.\nA thorough sexual history and assessment of general health and other sexual problems (if any) are important when assessing sexual dysfunction, because it is usually correlated with other psychiatric issues, such as mood disorders, eating and anxiety disorders, and schizophrenia. Assessing performance anxiety, guilt, stress, and worry are integral to the optimal management of sexual dysfunction. Many of the sexual dysfunctions that are defined are based on the human sexual response cycle proposed by William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson, and modified by Helen Singer Kaplan.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexual function is how the body reacts in different stages of the sexual response cycle, or as a result of sexual dysfunction. Relevant aspects of sexual function are defined on the basis of a modified version of Masters and Johnson's work. The aspects of sexual function defined as being relevant to the assessment include sexual desire, erection, orgasm and ejaculation. Guidelines for assessing sexual function are suggested and divided into four stages:\nStage 1 deals with the documentation of the defined aspects of sexual function. The main questions are: \n\nIs the function intact? For example: Have there been any occurrences of erections or orgasms during a given period of time?\nIf the function is intact, what is the frequency and/or intensity of the function? For example: How often has the person had an orgasm or erections during the given period of time and how intense is the orgasmic pleasure and erection stiffness compared to youth or the best period in life. The suggested explanations for the absence or waning of functions at this stage are physiological and psychological.Stage 2 deals with the assessment of the frequency of different sexual activities, such as intercourse, within a given time frame. The possible explanations for an absence or a decreased frequency of sexual activities may include physiological, psychological, social, religious and ethical reasons.\nStage 3 it is estimated if or to what extent waning sexual functions and/or activities cause distress.\nStage 4, the association between the distress due to waning sexual function and well-being and emotional isolation is assessed.\nThese guidelines were constructed to assess male sexual function in relation with treatment for prostate cancer. However, the concept has been modified and adapted for females.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexual headache is a type of headache that occurs in the skull and neck during sexual activity, including masturbation or orgasm. These headaches are usually benign, but occasionally are caused by intracranial hemorrhage and cerebral infarction, especially if the pain is sudden and severe. They may be caused by general exertion, sexual excitement, or contraction of the neck and facial muscles. Most cases can be successfully treated with medication.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexual health clinics specialize in the prevention and treatment of sexually transmitted infections.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexual medicine is a branch of medicine concerning the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disorders of sexual function. Examples of disorders treated with sexual medicine are erectile dysfunction, hypogonadism, and prostate cancer. Sexual medicine often uses a multidisciplinary approach involving physicians, mental health professionals, social workers, and sex therapists. Sexual medicine physicians often approach treatment with medicine and surgery, while sex therapists often focus on behavioral treatments.While literature on the prevalence of sexual dysfunction is very limited especially in women, about 31% of women report at least one sexual dysfunction regardless of age. About 43% of men report at least one sexual dysfunction, and most increase with age except for premature ejaculation.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A sexual network is a social network that is defined by the sexual relationships within a set of individuals.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sexually induced sneezing or sex sneeze is a phenomenon characterized by sneezing during orgasm or sexual arousal.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Shenkui (simplified Chinese: \u80be\u4e8f; traditional Chinese: \u814e\u8667; pinyin: sh\u00e8nku\u012b) is a traditional Chinese medicinal term in which the individual suffers withdrawal like symptoms including painful brainfog, chills, nausea, and even flu like symptoms with anxiety, believed to be caused by a loss of semen and orgasm. The symptoms can last weeks to months after a single orgasm. And in Traditional Chinese Medicine, shen (kidney) is the reservoir of vital essence in semen (ching) and k\u2019uei signifies deficiency.Shenkui or shen-k'uei is one of several Chinese culture-bound syndromes locally ascribed to getting stuck in yang and the needing of yin to rebalance Yang (Chinese: \u967d). Semen is believed to be \"lost\" through sexual activity or masturbation, nocturnal emissions, \"white urine\" which is believed to contain semen, or other mechanisms. Symptoms within the Chinese diagnostic system include painful brain fog, chills, dizziness, backache, tiredness, weakness, insomnia, frequent dreams, and complaints of sexual dysfunction (such as premature ejaculation or impotence). From an ethnopsychiatric perspective, additional symptoms are preoccupation with sexual performance, potential semen loss, and bodily complaints.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The term \"short-arm inspection\" is a military euphemism referring to the routine medical inspection of male soldiers' penises (\"short arms\") for signs of sexually-transmitted diseases and other medical problems.The precise origin of the term is uncertain; however, American and Australian troops are known to have used the term during the First World War.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Spermarche\u2014also known as semenarche\u2014is the beginning of development of sperm in boys' testicles at puberty. It is the counterpart of menarche in girls. Depending on their upbringing, cultural differences, and prior sexual knowledge, boys may have different reactions to spermarche, ranging from fear to excitement. Spermarche is one of the first events in the life of a male leading to sexual maturity. It occurs at the time when the secondary sex characteristics are just beginning to develop. The age when spermarche occurs is not easy to determine. However, researchers have tried to determine the age in various populations by taking urine samples of boys and determining the presence of spermatozoa. The presence of sperm in urine is referred to as spermaturia.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Tampon tax (or period tax) is a value-added tax or sales tax charged on tampons and other feminine hygiene products while other products considered basic necessities are granted tax exemption status. The term tampon tax is not an official designation but instead a popular term used to call attention to the issue.\nProponents of tax exemption argue that tampons, sanitary napkins, menstrual cups and other products which serve the basic menstrual cycle constitute unavoidable necessities for women and should be classified alongside other unavoidable, tax exempt necessities, such as groceries and personal medical items. The BBC estimates that women need to use feminine hygiene products for about a week each month for about 30 years. While sales tax policy varies across jurisdictions, these products were typically taxed at the same rate as non-essential goods, such as in the United States, while other countries, such as the United Kingdom and Ireland, reduced or eliminated their general consumption tax on sanitary products. When asked about equivalent exemptions for men, proponents argue that no male products, condoms included, are comparable to feminine hygiene products, since menstruation is biological and \"feminine hygiene is not a choice\". However, others argue that other basic necessities such as toilet paper are still taxed in many countries, for example in the UK at 20%. As the vast majority of consumers of feminine hygiene products are women, the increased cost has been criticized as being discriminatory against women. The tampon tax is not a special tax levied directly on feminine hygiene products.Since about 2004, many countries have abolished or reduced sales taxes for tampons and pads, including Kenya, Canada, India, Colombia, Australia, Germany and Rwanda.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Tannerella forsythia is an anaerobic, Gram-negative bacterial species of the Bacteroidota phylum. It has been implicated in periodontal diseases and is a member of the red complex of periodontal pathogens.  T. forsythia was previously named Bacteroides forsythus and Tannerella forsythensis.Tannerella forsythia was discovered by and named after Anne Tanner, who works at The Forsyth Institute located in Cambridge, Massachusetts.T. forsythia has been identified in atherosclerotic lesions. Lee et al. found that infecting mice with T. forsythia induced foam cell formation and accelerated the formation of atherosclerotic lesions.  It has also been isolated from women with bacterial vaginosis.  The presence of oral T. forsythia has been found to be associated with an increased risk of esophageal cancer.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Tampon tax (or period tax) is a value-added tax or sales tax charged on tampons and other feminine hygiene products while other products considered basic necessities are granted tax exemption status. The term tampon tax is not an official designation but instead a popular term used to call attention to the issue.\nProponents of tax exemption argue that tampons, sanitary napkins, menstrual cups and other products which serve the basic menstrual cycle constitute unavoidable necessities for women and should be classified alongside other unavoidable, tax exempt necessities, such as groceries and personal medical items. The BBC estimates that women need to use feminine hygiene products for about a week each month for about 30 years. While sales tax policy varies across jurisdictions, these products were typically taxed at the same rate as non-essential goods, such as in the United States, while other countries, such as the United Kingdom and Ireland, reduced or eliminated their general consumption tax on sanitary products. When asked about equivalent exemptions for men, proponents argue that no male products, condoms included, are comparable to feminine hygiene products, since menstruation is biological and \"feminine hygiene is not a choice\". However, others argue that other basic necessities such as toilet paper are still taxed in many countries, for example in the UK at 20%. As the vast majority of consumers of feminine hygiene products are women, the increased cost has been criticized as being discriminatory against women. The tampon tax is not a special tax levied directly on feminine hygiene products.Since about 2004, many countries have abolished or reduced sales taxes for tampons and pads, including Kenya, Canada, India, Colombia, Australia, Germany and Rwanda.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Trotula is a name referring to a group of three texts on women's medicine that were composed in the southern Italian port town of Salerno in the 12th century. The name derives from a historic female figure, Trota of Salerno, a physician and medical writer who was associated with one of the three texts. However, \"Trotula\" came to be understood as a real person in the Middle Ages and because the so-called Trotula texts circulated widely throughout medieval Europe, from Spain to Poland, and Sicily to Ireland, \"Trotula\" has historic importance in \"her\" own right.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Tubo-ovarian abscesses are one of the late complications of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and can be life-threatening if the abscess ruptures and results in sepsis. It consists of an encapsulated or confined 'pocket of pus' with defined boundaries that forms during an infection of a fallopian tube and ovary.  These abscesses are found most commonly in reproductive age women and typically result from upper genital tract infection. It is an inflammatory mass involving the fallopian tube, ovary and, occasionally, other adjacent pelvic organs. A TOA can also develop as a complication of a hysterectomy.:\u200a103\u200aPatients typically present with fever, elevated white blood cell count, lower abdominal-pelvic pain, and/or vaginal discharge. Fever and leukocytosis may be absent. TOAs are often polymicrobial with a high percentage of anaerobic bacteria. The cost of treatment in the United States is approximately $2,000 per patient, which equals about $1.5 billion annually.  Though rare, TOA can occur without a preceding episode of PID or sexual activity.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Vaginal steaming, sometimes shortened to V-steaming, and also known as yoni steaming, is an alternative health treatment whereby a woman squats or sits over steaming water containing herbs such as mugwort, rosemary, wormwood, and basil. It has been practiced in Africa (Mozambique, South Africa), Asia (Indonesia, Thailand), and Central America (among the Q'eqchi' people).\nVaginal steaming is described in spas as an ancient Korean treatment for reproductive organ ailments and is claimed to have other benefits. No empirical evidence supports any of these claims. It has become a fad for women in the Western world. In a paper for Culture, Health & Sexuality, Vandenburg and Braun argue that the rhetoric of vaginal steaming mirrors sexist Western discourse about the supposed inherent dirtiness of the female body, and that its claims of improved fertility and sexual pleasure continue the view that the female body exists for male sexual pleasure and childbearing.There is no evidence that vaginal steaming has any benefits, while there is evidence that it can be dangerous.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Vaginismus is a condition in which involuntary muscle spasm interferes with vaginal intercourse or other penetration of the vagina. This often results in pain with attempts at sex. Often, it begins when vaginal intercourse is first attempted.The formal diagnostic criteria specifically requires interference during vaginal intercourse and a desire for intercourse. However, the term vaginismus is sometimes used more broadly to refer to any muscle spasms occurring during the insertion of some or all types of objects into the vagina, sexually motivated or otherwise, including the usage of speculums and tampons.The underlying cause is generally a fear that penetration will hurt. Risk factors include a history of sexual assault, endometriosis, vaginitis, or a prior episiotomy. Diagnosis is based on the symptoms and examination. It requires there to be no anatomical or physical problems and a desire for penetration on the part of the woman.Treatment may include behavior therapy such as graduated exposure therapy and gradual vaginal dilatation. Surgery is not generally indicated. Botulinum toxin (botox), a muscle spasm treatment, is being studied. Estimates of how common the condition is vary. One textbook estimates that 0.5% of women are affected. Outcomes are generally good with treatment.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Veillonella parvula is a strictly anaerobic, Gram-negative, coccus-shaped bacterium in the genus Veillonella. It is a normal part of the oral flora but can be associated with diseases such as periodontitis and dental caries as well as various systemic infections, including meningitis and osteomyelitis. It has also been isolated from women with bacterial vaginosis and has been associated with hypertension together with Campylobacter rectus and Prevotella melaninogenica.V. parvula is unable to feed on carbohydrates, but can feed on lactate provided by Streptococcus species also found in the oral cavity. Specifically, Streptococcus mutans and V. parvula can form multispecies biofilms that lead to a lower susceptibility to antimicrobial treatments, resulting in periodontitis and dental carries.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Women who have sex with women (WSW) are women who engage in sexual activities with other women, whether they identify themselves as lesbian, bisexual, or heterosexual, or dispense with sexual identification altogether. The term WSW is often used in medical literature to describe such women as a group for clinical study, without needing to consider sexual self-identity.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A blood rule is a rule used in many sports that generally states that an athlete that receives an open wound, is bleeding, or who has blood on them or their clothes, must immediately leave the playing area to receive medical attention. Though they may be able to play again later, they cannot continue until the wound is taken care of, bleeding has stopped, and all contaminated equipment has been replaced. The main concern addressed by these rules is the spread of infectious diseases.Some sports where this is used are Australian Rules Football, NCAA Baseball, and some major American sports leagues.\nIn the National Rugby League, for example, play stops whilst the player's medical staff attends to the wound. If the bleeding is not stopped to the referee's satisfaction, the player must then leave the field for further attention. In sports such as association football, a player may leave the field without being substituted immediately, his team playing short-handed until he re-enters play, is replaced, or the match ends (if the injury cannot be satisfactorily healed and the team is out of substitutions).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Kenko Kempo Karate is a hybrid martial art system aimed at people over 40 years of age. It is a methodology to adapt Eastern martial arts to the needs of persons of advanced age, for both novices as well as experienced practitioners. It aims at health, wellness, and self-defense. The system can be adapted to most martial arts but consistently uses Tai Chi forms as part of the training programme. \nKenko Kempo Karate is registered as an association in Germany as well as the Netherlands where the Netherlands Federation for Martial Arts accepted it within its elderly martial arts initiative.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Active living is a way of life that integrates physical activity into everyday routines, such as walking to the store or biking to work. Active living is not a formalized exercise program or routine, but instead means to incorporate physical activity, which is defined as any form of movement, into everyday life. Active living brings together urban planners, architects, transportation engineers, public health professionals, activists and other professionals to build places that encourage active living and physical activity. One example includes efforts to build sidewalks, crosswalks, pedestrian crossing signals, and other ways for children to walk safely to and from school, as seen in the Safe Routes to School program. Recreational opportunities (parks, fitness centers, etc.) close to the home or workplace, walking trails, and bike lanes for transportation also contribute to a more active lifestyle. Active living includes any physical activity or recreation activity and contributes to a healthier lifestyle. Furthermore, active living addresses health concerns, such as obesity and chronic disease, by helping people have a physically active lifestyle. Communities that support active living gain health benefits, economic advantages, and improved quality of life.For achieving active living, people need at least 150 minutes of moderate physical activity or 75 minutes of strong physical activity every week.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The chemtrail conspiracy theory posits the erroneous belief that long-lasting condensation trails are \"chemtrails\" consisting of chemical or biological agents left in the sky by high-flying aircraft, sprayed for nefarious purposes undisclosed to the general public. Believers in this conspiracy theory say that while normal contrails dissipate relatively quickly, contrails that linger must contain additional substances. Those who subscribe to the theory speculate that the purpose of the chemical release may be solar radiation management, weather modification, psychological manipulation, human population control, biological or chemical warfare, or testing of biological or chemical agents on a population, and that the trails are causing respiratory illnesses and other health problems.The claim has been dismissed by the scientific community. There is no evidence that purported chemtrails differ from normal water-based contrails routinely left by high-flying aircraft under certain atmospheric conditions. Although proponents have tried to prove that chemical spraying occurs, their analyses have been flawed or based on misconceptions. Because of the persistence of the conspiracy theory and questions about government involvement, scientists and government agencies around the world have repeatedly explained that the supposed chemtrails are in fact normal contrails.The term chemtrail blends the words chemical and trail, just as contrail blends condensation and trail.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Early in 2020, in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, the disease spread to a number of cruise ships, with the nature of such ships \u2013 including crowded semi-enclosed areas, increased exposure to new environments, and limited medical resources \u2013 contributing to the heightened risk and rapid spread of the disease.The British-registered Diamond Princess was the first cruise ship to have a major outbreak on board, with the ship quarantined at Yokohama from 4 February 2020 for about a month. Of 3711 passengers and crew, around 700 people became infected and 9 people died.Governments and ports responded by preventing many cruise ships from docking and advising people to avoid travelling on cruise ships. Many cruise lines suspended their operations to mitigate the spread of the pandemic.\nBy June 2020, over 40 cruise ships had had confirmed positive cases of coronavirus on board.  The last cruise ship with passengers aboard during the first wave of the pandemic, Artania, docked at its home port with its last eight passengers on 8 June 2020. In addition, over 40,000 crew members still remained on cruise ships, some in isolation, in mid-June 2020. Many could not be repatriated because cruise lines refused to cover the cost, and because countries had different and changing rules. The condition was stressful to many of those stranded; multiple suicides were reported.Domestic UK cruises, confined to ports of call in the British Isles, began to resume in May 2021. United States cruises restarted in June 2021.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Diamond Princess is a British-registered luxury cruise ship that is operated by Princess Cruises, a holiday company based in the United States and Bermuda. In February 2020, during a cruise of the Western Pacific, cases of COVID-19 were detected on board. The vessel was quarantined off Japan for two weeks, after which all remaining passengers and crew were evacuated. Of the 3,711 people on board, 712 became infected with the virus \u2013 567 of 2,666 passengers, and 145 of 1,045 crew. Figures for total deaths vary from early to later assessments, and because of difficulties in establishing causation. As many as 14 are reported to have died from the virus, all of them older passengers - an overall mortality rate for those infected of 2%.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The COVID-19 pandemic had a large impact on public transport. Many countries advised that public transport should only be used when essential; passenger numbers fell drastically, and services were reduced. Provision of a reasonable service for the much smaller number of fare-paying passengers incurred large financial losses.\nProtective measures such as obligatory mask-wearing and spacing of passengers where possible were introduced, and ventilation and sanitation (disinfection) were implemented. Protection required passengers and operators to make many changes to the way they operated and behaved.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Rosamund Kissi-Debrah (also known as Rosamund Adoo-Kissi-Debrah) is a British grassroots campaigner who raises awareness of asthma and the health problems that can be caused by air pollution.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In the United States about 10% of the population, 33 million people, live within 900 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day, which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants. Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma, lung and heart disease, and cancer among others. Car pollutants include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter (fine dusts and soot), and toxic air pollutants  While these pollutants affect the general health of populations, they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses. The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the adult.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Obesity and walking describes how the locomotion of walking differs between an obese individual (BMI \u2265 30 kg/m2) and a non-obese individual. The prevalence of obesity is a worldwide problem. In 2007\u20132008, prevalence rates for obesity among adult American men were approximately 32% and over 35% amongst adult American women.  According to the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 66% of the American population is either overweight or obese and this number is predicted to increase to 75% by 2015. Obesity is linked to health problems such as decreased insulin sensitivity and diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, sleep apnea, and joint pain such as osteoarthritis.  It is thought that a major factor of obesity is that obese individuals are in a positive energy balance, meaning that they are consuming more calories than they are expending. Humans expend energy through their basal metabolic rate, the thermic effect of food, non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), and exercise. While many treatments for obesity are presented to the public, exercise in the form of walking is an easy, relatively safe activity that has the potential to move a person towards a negative energy balance and if done for a long enough time may reduce weight.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The video game industry has been substantially impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in various ways, most often due to concerns over travel to and from China or elsewhere, and delays in the manufacturing processes within China.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A  serious game or applied game is a game designed for a primary purpose other than pure entertainment. The \"serious\" adjective is generally prepended to refer to video games used by industries like defense, education, scientific exploration, health care, emergency management, city planning, engineering, and politics. Serious games are a subgenre of serious storytelling, where storytelling is applied \"outside the context of entertainment, where the narration progresses as a sequence of patterns impressive in quality ... and is part of a thoughtful progress\". The idea shares aspects with simulation generally, including flight simulation and medical simulation, but explicitly emphasizes the added pedagogical value of fun and competition.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Video game addiction (VGA), also known as  gaming disorder or internet gaming disorder, is generally defined as the problematic, compulsive use of video games that results in significant impairment to an individual's ability to function in various life domains over a prolonged period of time. This and associated concepts have been the subject of considerable research, debate, and discussion among experts in several disciplines and has generated controversy within the medical, scientific, and gaming communities. Such disorders can be diagnosed when an individual engages in gaming activities at the cost of fulfilling daily responsibilities or pursuing other interests without regard for the negative consequences. As defined by the ICD-11, the main criterion for this disorder is a lack of self control over gaming.The World Health Organization included gaming disorder in the 11th revision of its International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The American Psychiatric Association (APA), while stating there is insufficient evidence for the inclusion of Internet gaming disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in 2013, considered it worthy of further study.Controversy around the diagnosis includes whether the disorder is a separate clinical entity or a manifestation of underlying psychiatric disorders. Research has approached the question from a variety of viewpoints, with no universally standardized or agreed definitions, leading to difficulties in developing evidence-based recommendations.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Game addiction problems can induce repetitive strain injuries, skin disorders or other health issues. Other problems include video game-provoked seizures in patients with epilepsy. In rare and extreme cases, deaths have resulted from excessive video game playing (see Deaths due to video game addiction).\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The BioInitiative Report is a report on the relationship between the electromagnetic fields (EMF) associated with powerlines and wireless devices and health. It was self-published online, without peer review, on 31 August 2007, by a group \"of 14 scientists, researchers, and public health policy professionals\". The BioInitiative Report states that it is an examination of the controversial health risks of electromagnetic fields and  radiofrequency radiation. Some updated BioInitiative material was published in a journal in an issue guest-edited by one of the members of the group, and a 2012 version of the report was released on 7 January 2013. It has been heavily criticized by independent and governmental research groups for its lack of balance.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "BodyLove is a radio soap opera in which the characters face common health problems and attempt to deal with them using practical solutions and healthier eating. Billed as \"the soap opera that's good for you\", BodyLove uses fictional drama to reach African American listeners with messages that promote healthy lifestyles. The program is based upon the principles of \"entertainment-education\" that have been recommended for reaching audiences not reached by traditional health education and health promotion messages.The show is aimed at an African American audience which struggles with many of these health problems in disproportionate numbers. (For example, the diabetes death rate for blacks is more than double that for whites.) Betsy Hunter, executive director of the non-profit Media for Health, told The Birmingham News, \"If you can't entertain, you can't possibly change health behavior.\"", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Health information on the Internet refers to all health-related information communicated through or available on the Internet.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The 1920 Aliens Order was a statutory instrument created under the Aliens Restriction (Amendment) Act 1919 and extended powers over the entry of immigrants into Britain. The order made passports obligatory and was brought out in the context of widespread unemployment after the First World War. All aliens seeking employment or residence were as a result required to register with the police and a 'central register of aliens' was maintained under the direction of the Secretary of State.The Order also required the medical inspection of all aliens entering Britain and permitted immigration officers to refuse entry to those deemed \"a lunatic, idiot, or mentally deficient\" or if \"certified by a medical inspector that for medical reasons his admission is undesirable\".The Order remained in force until it was replaced by the 1953 Aliens Order.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that, as of April 4, 2020, the 2019\u20132020 United States flu season had caused 39 million to 56 million flu illnesses, 410,000 to 740,000 hospitalizations and 24,000 to 62,000 deaths. In January 2020, the Director of the National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases, Dr. Anthony Fauci expected the 2019-2020 flu season to be one of the worst in several years, at least as severe as the 2017-2018 season. By the third week in February the seasonal flu was near its peak with over 26 million people sickened, 250,000 hospitalized, and 14,000 who died. Experts said that the flu came in two waves, with a hard impact on children. The season began in October, earlier than usual, with the expected wave of influenza B virus. The number of children who died, 105, was higher in late February than any season for the past ten years with about 67% associated with influenza B viruses. The second wave came with the influx of influenza A viruses, such as H1N1. According to preliminary burden estimates for the 2019-2020 flu season (October 1, 2019 through April 4, 2020) there were between 39 and 56 million flu cases; 18-26 million doctor visits; 410,000 to 740,000 hospitalizations, and between 24,000 and 62,000 deaths.  The unusually abrupt decline in cases by April 2020 was attributed to the effects of widespread social distancing and lockdowns aimed at COVID-19, shortening the influenza season by 5-6 weeks.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Ayliffe technique is a hand washing technique (a step-by-step approach), which is attributed to Graham Ayliffe et al., specifically for health care services. The technique has been adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) and is similar to EN 1500. Evidence suggests that it reduces microbial load on hands.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A bariatric ambulance is an ambulance vehicle modified to carry the severely obese. They have extra-wide interiors, and carry \"bariatric stretchers\" and specialized lifting gear that is capable of carrying very large patients. They are required as a result of the increasing prevalence of obesity in the general population. Currently, there is no standardized weight capacity for bariatric ambulances, and requirements may vary in populations according to epidemiological demand. However, they are typically designed to carry weights between 350 kg (771.6 lbs) and up to at least 450 kg (992 lbs).\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Billy's Bootcamp is an exercise program developed by Billy Blanks. It created a pop culture phenomenon in Japan in 2007, much like Tae Bo did in the U.S. earlier, selling more than 200,000 copies in May of the same year alone.Billy Blanks visited Japan on June 21, 2007 to promote Bootcamp. Upon arrival Blanks was greeted by 200 Japanese fans who affectionately call him \"Taicho\" (Japanese: \u968a\u9577, chief) at Narita International Airport. Blanks appeared on many Japanese TV shows during his ten-day stay in Japan such as SMAP\u00d7SMAP where Shingo Katori, a member of popular Japanese boy band SMAP, impersonated Blanks.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Carte Vitale is the health insurance card of the national health care system in France. It was introduced in 1998 to allow a direct settlement with the medical arm of the social insurance system. The declaration of a primary health insurance company (Caisse primaire d'assurance maladie) substitutes the card usage.Since 2008, a second generation of smart cards is being introduced\u2014the \"Carte Vitale 2\" carries a picture for identification and the smart card has additional functions of an electronic health insurance card to carry electronic documents of the treatment process. The first generation had been a family card carrying the names of all family members, thereby simply declaring they are covered by the French social security health care, while non-residents would need to use the European Health Insurance Card to prove their health insurance status.To be eligible for a Carte Vitale, you must be a citizen of France for 3 or more years. a Carte Vitale can be ordered from the official social security website of France, and will come in the mail within a 1-2 month period.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Case mix index (CMI) within health care and medicine, is a relative value assigned to a diagnosis-related group of patients in a medical care environment. The CMI value is used in determining the allocation of resources to care for and/or treat the patients in the group.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Cost per procedure, sometimes known as price per procedure, is a medical pricing model which describes the average cost of receiving a certain medical procedure.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Debunkify is a campaign established in July 2006 aimed at dispelling tobacco and secondhand smoke misconceptions in the state of Ohio. A mobile marketing tour, complete with a Debunkify-branded vehicle and a team of brand ambassadors, canvassed Ohio on a 10-month run, with the aim of debunking tobacco myths and correcting tobacco misconceptions at each of its stops.Throughout June 2007, 17 participating standTunz artists battled it out online for a chance to play at the Myth Farewell Tour Main Event.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Deconditioning is adaptation of an organism to less demanding environment, or, alternatively, the decrease of physiological adaptation to normal conditions. Decondition may result from decreased physical activity, prescribed bed rest, orthopedic casting, paralysis, aging, etc.\n A particular interest in the study of deconditioning is in aerospace medicine, to diagnose, fight, and prevent adverse effects of the conditions of space flight.\nDeconditioning due to decreased physical effort results in muscle loss, including heart muscles.\nDeconditioning due to lack of gravity or non-standard gravity action (e.g., during bed rest) results in abnormal distribution of body fluids.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Decontamination (sometimes abbreviated as decon, dcon, or decontam) is the process of removing contaminants on an object or area, including chemicals, micro-organisms or radioactive substances. This may be achieved by chemical reaction, disinfection or physical removal. It refers to specific action taken to reduce the hazard posed by such contaminants, as opposed to general cleaning.\nDecontamination is most commonly used in medical environments, including dentistry, surgery and veterinary science, in the process of food preparation, in environmental science, and in forensic science.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Dietary diversity is the variety or the number of different food groups people eat over the time given. Many researchers might use the word ' dietary diversity' and \u2018dietary variety\u2019 interchangeably. However, some researchers differentiate the definition between 2 words that dietary diversity has defined as the difference of food groups while dietary variety has focused on the actual food items people intake.Dietary diversity is related to nutrient intakes and is also an indicator of dietary quality. Moreover, dietary diversity associated with health outcomes such as being overweight  or an increased mortality .Dietary diversity is influenced by various determinants such as physical and mental health, economic status, or food environment.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Dirty dog exercise or hip side lifts or fire hydrant exercise is an exercise that is meant to strengthen the hips and buttocks, without the use of weights. It is so named due to resemblance to the way a dog urinates.\nThe exercise also improves core stability.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Discretionary food is a term for foods and drinks not necessary to provide the nutrients the human body's needs, but that may add variety to a person's diet.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis (DCEA) is an extension of cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) that incorporates concern for both the average levels of outcomes as well as the distribution of outcomes. It is particularly useful when evaluating interventions to tackle health inequality.DCEA includes Extended Cost Effectiveness Analysis, which in addition to standard CEA assesses the costs and effectiveness for different socioeconomic groups.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Maria Dudycz is an Australian health professional and advocate for people with disabilities.Dudycz is most notable for her work developing the Victorian Disability Act 2006.Throughout her career, Dudycz's medical experience has seen her receive a number of Federal Government appointments.  These include chairing the Advisory Panel on the marketing in Australia of Infant Formula from 2001 until 2005, and directing the National Health and Medical Research Council's Breast Cancer Centre from 2001 until 2003.Dudycz also chaired the Australasian College of Legal Medicine from 1998 until 2003.In 2018, Dudycz was added to the Victorian Honour Roll of Women.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Established in 1969, the Duke Diet and Fitness Center is one of America's longest running treatment centers for individuals who struggle with excess weight, a sedentary lifestyle, and associated health problems. The center is designed for adults age 18 and up and dedicated to education about and exploration of major components of successful lifestyle change including nutrition, fitness, behavioral health, medical management, and ongoing support.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Elderly Pharmaceutical Insurance Coverage (EPIC) (\"New York State's Senior Prescription Plan\") was designed so that personal/out-of-pocket costs for medicines are reduced or largely paid for program participants by the state. Members are also given assistance with Medicare Part D.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "EudraVigilance (European Union Drug Regulating Authorities Pharmacovigilance) is the European data processing network and management system for reporting and evaluation of suspected adverse reactions to medicines which have been authorised or being studied in clinical trials in the European Economic Area (EEA). The European Medicines Agency (EMA) operates the system on behalf of the European Union (EU) medicines regulatory network.\nThe European EudraVigilance system deals with the:\n\nElectronic exchange of Individual Case Safety Reports (ICSR, based on the ICH E2B specifications):\nEudraVigilance Clinical Trial Module (EVCTM) for reporting Suspected Unexpected Serious Adverse Reactions (SUSARs).\nEudraVigilance Post-Authorisation Module (EVPM) for post-authorisation ICSRs.\nEarly detection of possible safety signals from marketed drugs for human use.\nContinuous monitoring and evaluation of potential safety issues in relation to reported adverse reactions.\nDecision-making process, based on a broader knowledge of the adverse reaction profile of drugs.EMA publishes data from EudraVigilance in the European database for suspected adverse drug reaction reports.\nThe EudraVigilance access policy governs the level of access different stakeholder groups have to adverse drug reactions reports.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "FAT!SO? is a book by fat activist Marilyn Wann, published in 1998 by Ten Speed Press. It is subtitled Because You Don't Have To Apologize For Your Size!.It followed a web zine of the same name by Wann.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Food Safety Act 1990  is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It is the statutory obligation to treat food intended for human consumption in a controlled and managed way.\nThe key requirements of the Act are that food must comply with food safety requirements, must be \"of the nature, substance and quality demanded\", and must be correctly described (labelled).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Jeanne H. Freeland-Graves is an American nutritionist, currently the Bess Heflin Centennial Professor at University of Texas at Austin.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Mar\u00eda de las Nieves Garc\u00eda-Casal (born 1962) She is a licensed dietitian and nutritionist born in Galicia, Spain, raised and educated in Venezuela, and the first woman to lead the Latin American Society of Nutrition (SLAN). She was the president during the period 2012 to 2015. She was the President of the Venezuelan Chapter of the Society for the period 2014\u20132019. Her research includes iron nutrition and also the assessment of marine algae as a source of food for humans.\nShe was the head of the Center of Experimental Medicine at Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research in Caracas, Venezuela. \nGarc\u00eda-Casal, throughout her career has received numerous national and international awards for her scientific contributions to health and nutrition, one of the most outstanding was the 2009 award from the Bengoa Foundation (Venezuela), for her research in the field of prevention and treatment of type II diabetes mellitus.\nShe currently works as a scientist at the World Health Organization in Geneva, Switzerland.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Gargaar Multi-speciality Hospital was founded in 2009. It is a multi-speciality private hospital, located in Hargeisa.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Gargling (same root as 'gurgle') is the act of bubbling liquid in the mouth. It is also the washing of one's mouth and throat with a liquid, such as mouthwash, that is kept in motion by breathing through it with a gurgling sound.\nA traditional home remedy of gargling warm saltwater is sometimes recommended to soothe a sore throat.A study in Japan has shown that gargling water a few times a day will lower the chance of upper respiratory infections such as colds, though some medical authorities are skeptical.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Georgia Department of Public Health (DPH) is the principal state agency of Georgia responsible for disease prevention, promoting health as well as disaster preparedness, in conjunction with the Georgia Emergency Management Agency (GEMA). \nIn 2011, DPH became an independent state agency, after previously operating as sub-agency under other state departments. \nOn the state level, DPH operates through several divisions, programs and regional offices, while on the local level it finances and supports the states 159 county health departments and 18 public health districts. \nDPH\u2019s primary responsibilities include: Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Maternal and Child Health, Infectious Disease and Immunization, Environmental Health, Epidemiology, Emergency Preparedness and Response, Emergency Medical Services, Pharmacy, Nursing, Volunteer Health Care, the Office of Health Equity, Vital Records, and the State Public Health Laboratory.\n\nIts headquarters are on the 15th floor of 2 Peachtree Street, NW in Downtown Atlanta.As of 2020 Kathleen E. Toomey is the commissioner.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Ghana COVID-19 Private Sector Fund is an initiative by the Government of Ghana (GOG) to help fight the novel corona virus pandemic. The fund was established by ten businessmen and women to raise GHC 100,000 to support the effort of the government by providing intervention to support the public who have been hard hit by the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana either economically, socially and politically.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Ghana Infectious Disease Centre (GIDC) is a centre built to improve the medical diagnostic, and research capacity of Ghana with regard to infectious diseases, the facility was built due to the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana. Establishing the centre was facilitated by the Ghana COVID-19 Private Sector Fund in collaboration with the Ghana Armed Forces at the Ga East Municipal Hospital in Accra. The old Shai Osudoku District Hospital was also renovated into one of the infectious diseases centres in the Shai Osudoku District in Dodowa. This shares boundary with the Shai Osudoku District Health Directorate. The president, Nana Addo Dankwa Akuffo Addo inspected the centre on 30 October 2020 \n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Statistical overview of health status in Azerbaijan\nThe Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that Azerbaijan is fulfilling 67.3% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to health based on its level of income. When looking at the right to health with respect to children, Azerbaijan achieves 93.5% of what is expected based on its current income. In regards to the right to health amongst the adult population, the country achieves only 91.1% of what is expected based on the nation's level of income.  Azerbaijan falls into the \"very bad\" category when evaluating the right to reproductive health because the nation is fulfilling only 17.2% of what the nation is expected to achieve based on the resources (income) it has available.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Life expectancy at birth in Belarus was 69 for men and 79 for women in 2016.A new measure of expected human capital calculated for 195 countries from 1990 to 2016 and defined for each birth cohort as the expected years lived from age 20 to 64 years and adjusted for educational attainment, learning or education quality, and functional health status was published by The Lancet in September 2018. Belarus had the twenty-second highest level of expected human capital with 23 health, education, and learning-adjusted expected years lived between age 20 and 64 years. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that Belarus is fulfilling 86.0% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to health based on its level of income. When looking at the right to health with respect to children, Belarus achieves 100.0% of what is expected based on its current income. In regards to the right to health amongst the adult population, the country achieves 84.1% of what is expected based on the nation's level of income.  Belarus falls into the \"very bad\" category when evaluating the right to reproductive health because the nation is fulfilling only 74.0% of what the nation is expected to achieve based on the resources (income) it has available.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A new measure of expected human capital calculated for 195 countries from 1990 to 2016 and defined for each birth cohort as the expected years lived from age 20 to 64 years and adjusted for educational attainment, learning or education quality, and functional health status was published by the Lancet in September 2018. Belgium had the tenth highest level of expected human capital with 25 health, education, and learning-adjusted expected years lived between age 20 and 64 years.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Greece had the highest rate of male smokers in Europe in 2015: 53%.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Health in North Macedonia is improving.  The Macedonian life expectancy in 2016 was 74 for men and 78 for women.  In 2015 it was estimated that 11.44% of the Macedonian population had diabetes, costing about $403 per person per year.   In 2015 it had the fourth highest rate of death from non-communicable diseases in Europe (637 per 100,000).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Life expectancy at birth in 2013 was 74 for men and 79 for women.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A new measure of expected human capital calculated for 195 countries from 1990 to 2016 and defined for each birth cohort as the expected years lived from age 20 to 64 years and adjusted for educational attainment, learning or education quality, and functional health status was published by the Lancet in September 2018. Taiwan had the fifth highest level of expected human capital with 26 health, education, and learning-adjusted expected years lived between age 20 and 64 years.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Czech Republic had the second highest rate of obesity in Europe in 2015. 28.7% of the adult population had a body mass index  of 30 or more.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Healthcare in Algeria consists of an established network of hospitals, clinics, and dispensaries. The government provides universal health care.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Kuwait has a state-funded healthcare system, which provides treatment without charge to holders of a Kuwaiti passport. A public insurance scheme exists to provide reduced cost healthcare to non-citizens. Private healthcare providers also run medical facilities in the country, available to members of their insurance schemes. As part of Kuwait Vision 2035, many new hospitals have opened.In the years leading up to the COVID-19 pandemic, Kuwait invested in its health care system at a rate that was proportionally higher than most other GCC countries. As a result, the public hospital sector significantly increased its capacity. Kuwait currently has 20 public hospitals. The new Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Hospital is considered the largest hospital in the Middle East. Kuwait also has 16 private hospitals.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Hospitals and small medical centers and posts are found throughout the island of Madagascar, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo.In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low.\nThe Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that Madagascar is fulfilling 90.8% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to health based on its level of income. When looking at the right to health with respect to children, Madagascar achieves 99.0% of what is expected based on its current income. In regards to the right to health amongst the adult population, the country achieves 96.8% of what is expected based on the nation's level of income.  Madagascar falls into the \"bad\" category when evaluating the right to reproductive health because the nation is fulfilling only 76.6% of what the nation is expected to achieve based on the resources (income) it has available.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Czech Republic has a universal health care system, based on a compulsory insurance model, with fee-for-service care funded by mandatory employment-related insurance plans since 1992. According to the 2018 Euro health consumer index, a comparison of healthcare in Europe, the Czech healthcare is ranked 14th, just behind Portugal and two positions ahead of the United Kingdom.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Healthcare in Ukraine is part of a universal health care system being a successor of the Soviet healthcare system. The Ministry of Healthcare implements the state policy in the country in the field of medicine and healthcare.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Hepatitis Testing Day is May 19 in the United States.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Homecare (also spelled as home care) is health care or supportive care provided by a professional caregiver in the individual home where the patient or client is living, as opposed to care provided in group accommodations like clinics or nursing home. Homecare is also known as domiciliary care, social care or in-home care. It comprises a range of activities, especially paramedical aid by nurses and assistance in daily living for ill, disabled or elderly people.Clients receiving home health care may incur lower costs, receive equal to better care, and have increased satisfaction in contrast to other settings.Occasionally, palliative and end-of-life care can be provided through home health nursing.Home health nurses may assist patients with activities of daily living (ADLs) such as bathing, toileting, and feeding, or they direct and supervise the aide in providing ADL care. Nurses keep track of vital signs, carry out physician orders, draw blood, document the tasks they perform and the patient's health status, and communicate between the patient, family, and physician.Some nurses travel to multiple homes per day and provide short visits to multiple patients, while others may stay with one patient for a certain amount of time per day.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Honoring our Promise to Address Comprehensive Toxics Act of 2022, known as the Honoring our PACT Act of 2022, is an Act of Congress intended to significantly improve healthcare access and funding for veterans who were exposed to toxic substances during military service.\nThe act was first introduced on June 17, 2021, by Representative Mark Takano (D-CA). The House of Representatives passed the bill by 256\u2013174 on March 3, 2022, and passed the Senate by 84\u201314 on June 16, 2022. Due to a previously unnoticed technical constitutional issue with the bill, a revised version needed to pass the Senate again, but failed a cloture vote 55\u201342 after 25 Republicans flipped their votes. Republicans cited a preexisting provision that made previously approved veterans' funding mandatory rather than discretionary as justification for their vote changes, while erroneously claiming the provision would increase spending authority unrelated to burn pits.The failed cloture vote occurred immediately after the bipartisan CHIPS Act passed the Senate, after which Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer and West Virginia Senator Joe Manchin announced their agreement on the Inflation Reduction Act. The act would be approved through reconciliation, which would require only 50 votes plus Vice President Harris as the tie-breaking vote as Senate President. The failed cloture vote on the veterans' bill was widely seen from Democrats and veterans as retaliation for agreeing on the inflation bill.Dozens of veterans, many of whom were exposed to burn pits themselves, continuously camped outside the United States Capitol in protest for five days. The bill passed the Senate by 86\u201311 on August 2, 2022, amid pressure from the veteran groups and other activists, including comedian and political commentator Jon Stewart. There was no change in the funding mechanism or of the bill's text between the first and the second Senate vote. On August 10, 2022, it was signed into law by President Joe Biden.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "How Not to Die: Discover the Foods Scientifically Proven to Prevent and Reverse Disease is a book by Michael Greger, M.D. with Gene Stone, published in 2015. The book was a New York Times Best Seller.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Isabelle Huot is a Canadian professional dietitian.\nShe holds a doctorate in nutrition from Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al. Huot as a Nutritionist has participated in several research projects both in Canada and abroad. She carried out a year of research in nutritional epidemiology at the Geneva University Hospitals (French: H\u00f4pitaux universitaires de Gen\u00e8ve, HUG) in 1995. After obtaining a master's degree in epidemiology and nutrition from Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al, she continued her doctoral studies in nutrition during which she won a scholarship from the Danone for its study in \"Impact of a community intervention to promote cardiovascular health on fat consumption\". She completed her doctorate in 2003.She writes in several media. In 2001, for a special feature published in L'Actualit\u00e9 M\u00e9dicale, she was nominated for the Kenneth R. Wilson Memorial Award.In 2009, she founded her own nutrition clinic Kilo Solution in Verdun. She now owns 3 clinics located in Verdun, downtown Montreal and Laval.Isabelle is one of the six personalities featured in the Palmar\u00e8s des Carri\u00e8re of 2007. She is one of the 1000 exceptional women from the PORTRAITS X 1000 SERIES by photographer Pierre Maraval. She is a member of the Canadian Association for the Gastronomic and Hotel Press (Association canadienne de sant\u00e9 publiqu) and of the Union des Artistes. In addition, Isabelle is the spokesperson for mangezquebec.com. In 2011, she was named Verdun Business Personality of the Month for May.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Intermediate care provides rehabilitation, support and care for individuals who have been in hospital and require additional support before they can return home.\nIn the United Kingdom, intermediate care offers time-limited, short-term support and rehabilitation for individuals aiming to be able to live more independently, including:\n\nassistance to become as independent as possible after a hospital stay\nsupport to enable a person to live at home despite increasing difficulties due to illness or disability\nprevention of a permanent move into residential care where this may not be the best outcome.A focus is often on reducing the need for admission to hospital, and allowing earlier hospital discharge.Intermediate care is offered free of charge via NHS funding.In the United States, an intermediate care facility (ICF), possibly located within a nursing home, is a health care facility for individuals who are disabled, elderly, or non-acutely ill, usually providing less intensive care than that offered at a hospital or skilled nursing facility.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Italy towel, (Korean: \uc774\ud0dc\ub9ac\ud0c0\uc6d4) also known as the Korean exfoliating mitt or Korean exfoliating towel (depending on the shape), is a mass-produced bath product used to scrub and peel the outermost layer of skin; it was invented in Busan by Kim Pil-gon in 1962. Since then, the Italy towel has become a household item in Korean homes and a staple item in Korean saunas. The Italy towel is also used in other areas of Asia such as Thailand, the north of China, and Japan.\nThe Korean exfoliating mitt was named the Italy towel because the viscose fabric used to make it was imported from Italy at the time. Different colors represent different strengths, with green being the standard.According to a 2017 poll held by the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the Italy towel was ranked as one of the top ten inventions made within the country.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Kazakhstan National Respiratory Society founded in 1985 works with the Central-Asian Pulmonologists Association and the Euro-Asian Respiratory Society.  The society is maintained by the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Kraus\u2013Weber test (or K\u2013W test) is a fitness test devised in the 1940's by Hans Kraus and Sonja Weber of New York Presbyterian Hospital.  The poor tests results of American children versus children from European countries gained attention in the 1950's from American media and the US Government.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Literatura Latino-Americana e do Caribe em Ci\u00eancias da Sa\u00fade (in Portuguese), acronym LILACS, and previously called Latin American Index Medicus, is an on-line bibliographic database in medicine and health sciences, maintained by the Latin American and Caribbean Center on Health Sciences Information (also known as BIREME, located in S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil. Similar to MEDLINE, which was developed by the United States National Library of Medicine, it contains bibliographic references to papers that have been published in a set of scientific and medical journals of the region, and that are not covered by MEDLINE.\nThe database is structured using the LILACS Methodology, which comprises:\n\nLILDBI-Web, and more recently, FI-ADMIN Software: programs used to make the description and indexing of documents, in addition to performing data checking, required by the Methodology;\nSeCS Software - Periodical Publications Collection Control System: used to control the collection of journals and control the titles of magazines;\nDeCS vocabulary - Health Sciences Descriptors: controlled vocabulary used in indexing to ensure accurate retrieval of bibliographic references;\nBibliographic Description Manual (7th revised edition - 2008): guides you in filling in the LILDBI-Web and FI-ADMIN data fields;\nIndexing Manual: guides in indexing the documents described in LILDBI-Web and FI-ADMIN. LILACS indexing follows an indexing policy quite similar to the NLM - National Library of Medicine;\nDocument Selection Guide: guides in the selection of documents and journal articles that will be inserted in the LILACS database.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Left Without Being Seen (LWBS) is a healthcare term often used by emergency departments (ED) to designate a patient encounter that ended with the patient leaving the healthcare setting before the patient could be seen by a certified physician.  Often the inclusion of this phrase in a medical record is the result of ED overcrowding (i.e. the patient could no longer wait in the ED to be seen by a physician, so they left without alerting a healthcare professional).  Typically, those patients who leave an emergency department without being seen are not at an increased risk of death, and often do not require inpatient hospital admission. An increase in LWBS patients may be reflective of systemic public healthcare logistical issues. \n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Lumbini Provincial Hospital is a government hospital located in Butwal in Lumbini Province of Nepal. The hospital is considered a crucial resource for healthcare to poor citizens who cannot afford private hospitals.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Maryland Department of Health is an agency of the government of Maryland responsible for public health issues. The Department is headed by a Secretary who is a member of the Executive Council/Cabinet of the Governor of Maryland. Currently the secretary is Dennis R. Schrader. Previous secretaries have included Robert R. Neall, Joshua Sharfstein, and Georges C. Benjamin.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A massage table is used by massage therapists to position the client to receive a massage.  Most are manufactured with client comfort and therapist ergonomics in mind.  A typical table has an easily cleaned, heavily padded surface, and a face cradle that allows the client to breathe easily while lying face down. \nCustomizable tables can include a powered center section, variable position armrests and adjustable head section to create better body mechanics for the therapist so that they can better treat the client.\n\nTables may be either stationary or portable, depending on the intended use.  Additional padding or supports such as specific supports for pregnancy massage, may be used as accessories to the basic table. Common additions also included speciality heated pads and draping sheets.\nThere are many uses for massage tables beyond basic massage therapy. They can also be used as an examination table by doctors and medical practitioners, and can be used by specialized practitioner like: reflexologists, physiotherapists, osteopaths, acupuncturists, reiki practitioners and even beauty therapists like facialists.\nWhen it comes to choosing the right massage table one should consider many factors like: what type of therapy will be performed and what are specific needs for proper therapy treatment. Uniform surface provides patient with comfort which is needed for general massages and therapy. Some massages like sport massage require special patient positions and for that more-sections therapy tables should be used.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Medicines Control Authority of Zimbabwe (MCAZ) is the statutory body of Zimbabwe responsible for protecting public and animal health. It was established on September 1, 1969 by an Act of Parliament called the Drugs and Allied Substances Control Act. The MCAZ is a successor of the Drugs Control Council (DCC) and the Zimbabwe Regional Drug Control Laboratory (ZRDCL). Since 2020, the MCAZ has been a member of Vaccine Safety Net (VSN), a global network of websites established by the World Health Organization (WHO). As of 2021, the MCAZ has 101 to 250 staff members.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Health and Medical Services (MOH) is a government ministry of Fiji responsible for overseeing Fiji's Healthcare system. Its head office is in Dinem House in Toorak, Suva. The current Minister for Health and Medical Services is Ifereimi Waqainabete who was appointed to the position in November 2018.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Health and Medical Services (MHMS) (in Gilbertese, Botaki n Mwakuri ibukin te Mauri ao Katoki Aoraki) is a governmental ministry of Kiribati. It is partnered with the World Bank, Unicef, Australian Aid, UNFPA, and New Zealand Foreign Affairs and Trade.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Ministry of Health and Medical Services (MHMS) is a government ministry of the Solomon Islands. Its head office is in Honiara. The divisions in the ministry are Administration & Management, Health Care, Health Improvement, Health Policy and Planning. The health care division operates hospitals in the country.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) is the state health agency of the State of Minnesota in the United States. The department has four offices in Saint Paul and seven outside of the Twin Cities metropolitan area: Bemidji, Duluth, Fergus Falls, Mankato, Marshall, Rochester, and St. Cloud.\nThe agency was established in 1977 after the abolition of the state board of health, which had existed since 1872.The agency is responsible for Minnesotans' public health, including disease control and prevention, environmental health, public policy, and regulation of health care providers. Additionally, it runs an immunization program and reports on the quality of clinical care in hospitals and clinics across the state.On September 15, 2021, Minnesota Department of Health announced the release of Docket, a free mobile application that enables consumer access to the Minnesota Immunization Information Connection (MIIC) system.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Mississippi Legislature COVID-19 outbreak was the infection of 26 state legislators of the Mississippi Legislature with COVID-19 in the summer of 2020. A total of 49 infections were linked to the outbreak. All legislators survived, but there was one death linked to an infection spread by a legislator.The outbreak led to delays in the legislators meeting to discuss important budget issues.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Mosquito Awareness Week or Mosquito Control Awareness Week is held every year in North and South American countries, including the United States. Mosquito Awareness Week is observed annually in late June. A separate Caribbean Mosquito Awareness Week (CARPA) is held earlier in the year, typically in April or May.Mosquito Awareness Week raises awareness of diseases spread by mosquitoes, including dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika, yellow fever, and malaria. It aims to reduce mosquito breeding and encourage people to take preventative measures to avoid mosquito bites.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Muesli belt malnutrition is a term coined by Professor Vincent Marks, author of the book Panic Nation, to describe the supposed phenomenon that parents feeding their children what is seen as an \"extremely healthy\" diet (the term muesli is possibly derisively used here as an exemplar of healthy food) could be depriving their children of essential fats.A study carried out at Bristol University examining the diets of British toddlers found that such fears were overstated.  The study found that while children in the lowest fat group had lower intakes of zinc and vitamin A, children in the highest fat group ingested less iron and vitamin C. Overall the children were not seriously deprived of any essential nutrients, regardless of their diets.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) is a government health organization of Tanzania. It was founded in 1986 and it operates under the purview of the country's Ministry of Health.The NACP is a policy making board, on the issue of HIV and AIDS in Tanzania.\nThe National AIDS Control Programme offers information regarding HIV, AIDS, and other STIs to the public. Currently the organization is working toward the 90-90-90 goal set by UNAIDS.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "National Colon Cancer Awareness Month is an annual celebration observed in the United States during the month of March, to increase awareness of colorectal cancer. In the United States it is organized by the Colorectal Cancer Alliance.\"", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The National Family Health Survey (NFHS) is an India-wide survey conducted by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, with the International Institute for Population Sciences serving as the nodal agency.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The National Patient Safety Goals is a quality and patient safety improvement program established by the Joint Commission in 2003. The NPSGs were established to help accredited organizations address specific areas of concern in regards to patient safety.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The National Survey on Drug Use and Health, often abbreviated NSDUH, is an annual nationwide survey on the use of legal and illegal drugs, as well as mental disorders, that has been conducted by the United States federal government since 1971. It is funded by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), and is supervised by the SAMHSA's Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. The survey interviews about 70,000 Americans aged 12 and older, through face-to-face interviews conducted where the respondent lives. In 1988, RTI International started conducting the survey, and they have been contracted by SAMHSA to continue doing so through 2017. It was originally called the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, but was renamed in 2002 to its current name. The NSDUH, along with the Monitoring the Future, is one of the two main ways the National Institute on Drug Abuse measures drug use in the United States.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The National Treatment Purchase Fund (NTPF) is an Irish government body which was established to decrease waiting lists in the Irish public healthcare system. \nThe Fund was established under Statutory Instrument 179 - National Treatment Purchase Fund (Establishment) Order, 2004, and the Nursing Homes Support Scheme Act (2009). The NTPF reduced waiting times for procedures from between 2 and 5 years in 2002 to an average of 2.4 months in 2009.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Negative ion products are products which claim to release negative ions and create positive health effects, although these claims are unsupported. Many also claim to protect users from 5G radiation. These claims are likewise unsubstantiated. A market has developed for these products due to conspiracy theories about 5G. Many of these contain radioactive substances. In a test of these bracelets by the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, samples were found to have a yearly dose of up to 1.22 millisieverts a year, well in excess of the 1 millisievert limit recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection. As a result, they were banned in the Netherlands.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Nuru (Japanese: \u306c\u308b, lit.\u2009'slippery') is Japanese erotic massage technique from Kawasaki, Japan. The technique requires one or more nuru masseuses to rub their body against the client's body when both parties are nude and covered with an odorless and colorless massage lotion. The massage gel is slippery and often organic, made from nori seaweed though there are different types available.During the massage, participants will try to get the widest possible physical contact, triggering strong tactile sensations designed to relieve stress. The main component of the gel used in nuru massages is the sulfated polysaccharide fucoidan, which is obtained from the leaves of the brown seaweed plant Sphaerotrichia divaricata. Chamomile, azulene and other minerals are often added. There are pre-made versions of nuru gel available as well as powdered versions.\nOften, a nuru massage finishes with a sexual act. Along with other forms of sex work, nuru massages are legal in rural areas in Nevada, U.S., the Netherlands, Austria and some other countries.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Obesity in the Republic of Ireland is a major health concern. Ireland has one of Europe's highest rates of obesity; 60% of adults, and over 20% of children and young people, in the country are overweight or obese. In 2011, 23.4% of the country's population was obese. The country's mean BMI increased by 1.1kg (2.4lbs)/m\u00b2 between 1990 and 2001 and 0.6 kilograms (1.3 lb)/m\u00b2 between 2001 and 2011. A PubMed study found obesity among children specifically in Ireland fell from 25% in 2005 to 16% by 2019; however, the study cautions that obesity remains a serious problem in Ireland.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Orthosomnia is a medical term for an unhealthy obsession with getting perfect sleep. The term was coined by researchers from Rush University Medical College and Northwestern University\u2019s Feinberg School of Medicine in a case study published on February 15, 2017 in the Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine titled \"Orthosomnia: Are Some Patients Taking the Quantified Self Too Far?\" in which the researchers noticed that the three patients having their sleep tracked spent excessive time in bed in order to increase their \"sleep numbers\", which might have actually made their Insomnia worse.Dr. Sabra Abbott, an assistant professor of neurology at Northwestern University and one of the researchers involved in the study, first noticed Orthosomnia when she and her colleagues started having \"a number of patients coming in with a phenomenon that didn't necessarily meet the classical description of insomnia, but that was still keeping them up at night\". Abbott also noticed that because the people suffering from Orthosomnia became so dependent on their sleep tracking devices, \"they were actually destroying their sleep\" because they weren't measuring up to what their tracker considered a \"good\" amount of sleep.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Patriotic Health Campaign, first started in the 1950s, was a campaign aimed to improve sanitation, hygiene, as well as attack diseases in the People's Republic of China.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Pattern glare is a form of visual discomfort, arising from viewing repetitively striped patterns, such as those of op art. Instead of the patterns' appearing as they are, they may appear to move, to shimmer, or to vary in shape over time.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Perineum sunning or butthole sunning is a fad wellness practice that involves exposing the perineum (area between the genitals and anus) to sunlight. Adherents claim various unproven health benefits such as improved libido, circulation, sleep, and longevity. There is no scientific evidence that this behavior promotes any of the alleged benefits. The practice of exposing a sensitive area of skin to sunlight also increases the risk of skin cancers such as melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and basal-cell carcinoma. Safer options such as relaxation, meditation, and mindfulness can also achieve the same benefits.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A phlebologist is a medical specialist in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of venous origin. The specialty of phlebology has developed to enable physicians sharing an interest in venous disease and health to share knowledge and experience despite being trained in a variety of backgrounds such as dermatology, vascular surgery, haematology, interventional radiology or general medicine. Diagnostic techniques used include the patient's history and physical examination, venous imaging techniques in particular vascular ultrasound and laboratory evaluation related to venous thromboembolism. The American Medical Association and the American Osteopathic Association has added phlebology to their list of self-designated practice specialties.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Population study is an interdisciplinary field of scientific study that uses various statistical methods and models to analyse, determine, address, and predict population challenges and trends from data collected through various data collection methods such as population census, registration method, sampling, and some other systems of data sources.In the various fields of healthcare, a population study is a study of a group of individuals taken from the general population who share a common characteristic, such as age, sex, or health condition. This group may be studied for different reasons, such as their response to a drug or risk of getting a disease.\n This article incorporates public domain material from the U.S. National Cancer Institute document: \"Dictionary of Cancer Terms\".\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Post-maturity syndrome develops in about 20% of human pregnancies continuing past the expected dates. Ten years ago it was generally held that the postmature fetus ran some risk of dying in the uterus before the onset of labour because of degeneration and calcification of the placenta. Features of post-maturity syndrome include oligohydramnios, meconium aspiration, macrosomia and fetal problems such as dry peeling skin, overgrown nails, abundant scalp hair, visible creases on palms and soles, minimal fat deposition and skin colour become green or yellow due to meconeum staining. Post-maturity refers to any baby born after 42 weeks gestation or 294 days past the first day of the mother's last menstrual period. Less than 6 percent of all babies are born at 42 weeks or later. In most cases, continued fetal growth between 39 and 43 wk gestation results in a macrosomic infant. However, sometimes the placenta involutes, and multiple infarcts and villous degeneration cause placental insufficiency syndrome. In this syndrome, the fetus receives inadequate nutrients and oxygen from the mother, resulting in a thin (due to soft-tissue wasting), small-for-gestational-age, undernourished infant with depleted glycogen stores. Post term, the amniotic fluid volume eventually decreases, leading to oligohydramnios. Although pregnancy is said to last nine months, health care providers track pregnancy by weeks and days. The estimated delivery date, also called the estimated due date or EDD, is calculated as 40 weeks or 280 days from the first day of the last menstrual period. Only 4 percent (1 in 20) women will deliver on their due date. The terms Post-maturity or \"Post-term\" are both words used to describe babies born after 42 weeks. The terms \"post-maturity\" and \"post-term\" are interchangeable. As there are many definitions for prolonged pregnancy the incidence varies from 2 to 10%.When incidence is taken as delivery beyond 42 weeks it is 10%, if it is taken according to the delivered baby's weight and length it is 2%.The baby may have birth weight of 4kg and length of 54 cm but these findings are variable, even the baby may have underweight. Post-maturity is more likely to happen when a mother has had a post-term pregnancy before. After one post-term pregnancy, the risk of a second post-term birth increases by 2 to 3 times. Other, minor risk factors include an older or obese mother, a white mother, male baby, or a family history of post-maturity. Maternal risks include obstructed labor, perennial damage, instrumental vaginal delivery, a Cesarean section, infection, and post postpartum hemorrhage. Accurate pregnancy due dates can help identify babies at risk for post-maturity. Ultrasound examinations early in pregnancy help establish more accurate dating by measurements taken of the fetus. Pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes, hypertension, or other high-risk conditions should be managed according to guidelines for those conditions.If there are no maternal or fetal complications, labor can be induced after assessing the favorability of the cervix and excluding cephalo-pelvic disproportions. Otherwise emergency lower segment Caesarean section (LSCS) should be made.\nThe syndrome was first described by Stewart H. Clifford in 1954.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In epidemiology, preventable fraction for the population (PFp), is the proportion of incidents in the population that could be prevented by exposing the whole population. It is calculated as \n  \n    \n      \n        P\n        \n          F\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n        =\n        (\n        \n          I\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n        \u2212\n        \n          I\n          \n            e\n          \n        \n        )\n        \n          /\n        \n        \n          I\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle PF_{p}=(I_{p}-I_{e})/I_{p}}\n  , where \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          I\n          \n            e\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle I_{e}}\n   is the incidence in the exposed group, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          I\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle I_{p}}\n   is the incidence in the population.It is used when an exposure reduces the risk, as opposed to increasing it, in which case its symmetrical notion is attributable fraction for the population.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Public Health Institute of Chile (ISP) is an organization that promotes and protects public health in Chile. Since 2019, the ISP has been a member of Vaccine Safety Net (VSN), a global network of websites established by the World Health Organization (WHO).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A Qualified Health Benefits Plan (QHBP) is a healthcare plan that follows rules included in the proposed Affordable Health Care for America Act (H.R. 3962), preceded by America's Affordable Health Choices Act of 2009 (H.R. 3200). These rules include offering a standard set of services, which includes hospital and outpatient care, mental health, prevention, well-child care, and maternity care.\nH.R. 3962 would require private insurance plans and the public health insurance option to adhere to a set of standards:\nGuaranteed renewal of insurance\nGuaranteed acceptance, regardless of a person's current health or health history.\nA cap on out-of-pocket costs\nAllow the use of affordability credits so that those with (sudden or long-term) lower incomes can afford insurance\nCompetition in the market place and efficiency requirements for private plans to bring the cost of premiums downIt also requires that the public plan be national \u2013 available everywhere in the United States.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A renal diet is a diet aimed at keeping levels of fluids, electrolytes, and minerals balanced in the body in individuals with chronic kidney disease or who are on dialysis. Dietary changes may include the restriction of fluid intake, protein, and electrolytes including sodium, phosphorus, and potassium. Calories may also be supplemented if the individual is losing weight undesirably.The diet may help limit the buildup of waste products within the body and reduce strain on the kidneys, as well as reduce blood pressure and lower the risk of fluid build-up around the heart and lungs. Phosphorus restriction can help maintain bone health, as phosphorus buildup in the blood results in the leaching of calcium from bones and subsequently an increased fracture risk. The evidence supporting uptake of a renal diet and a reduction in cardiovascular events and mortality is limited, but dietary interventions may increase health-related quality of life and estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR) while lowering serum albumin and serum cholesterol levels.The restrictiveness of a renal diet depends on the severity of the patient's kidney disease, and the diet should be undertaken with the advice of a dietician.According to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, all CKD patients should reduce sodium consumption, eat small portions of high-quality protein, and choose heart-healthy foods (like low-fat proteins, fruits, vegetables, and legumes) to avoid fat buildup in the arteries. Patients with more severe disease and compromised kidney function should reduce phosphorus and potassium consumption. Individuals with advanced kidney disease may also need to increase iron intake through food or supplements.Foods that are often limited or avoided on a renal diet include foods with high water content, oranges and orange juice, nectarines, kiwis, raisins or other dried fruit, bananas, cantaloupe, honeydew, prunes, nectarines, asparagus, avocado, potatoes, tomatoes or tomato sauce, winter squash, pumpkin, avocado, and cooked spinach.Patients with comorbid conditions like diabetes may need to further alter their diets to meet the needs of those conditions simultaneously.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Respiratory protective equipment (RPE) is a form of personal protective equipment designed to protect the wearer from a variety of airborne hazards in the form of a gas, fume, mist, dust or vapour. Respirators filter the air to remove harmful particles and alongside the breathing apparatus (BA) provides clean air for the worker to breathe.RPE is covered by a number of UK laws including:\n\nPersonal Protective Equipment Regulations 2002 \nPersonal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992\nHealth and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974\nControl of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002.The Health and Safety Executive advises that RPE should be appropriate for the needs of the wearer, the task they are undertaking and the environment in which it takes place.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Retiree Drug Subsidy Program is a program offered by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) to reimburse health plan sponsors (municipalities, unions and private employers) for a portion of their eligible expenses for retiree prescription drug benefits. This enables Plan Sponsors to continue providing drug coverage to their Medicare-eligible retirees at a lower cost.\nBenefits of the RDS Program for participating Plan Sponsors include:\nA Federal subsidy equal to 28-percent Qualifying Covered Retiree's costs for prescription drugs otherwise covered by Medicare Part D that are attributable to such drug costs between the applicable Cost Threshold and Cost Limit\nIncurred costs (including dispensing fees) that the Health Plan Sponsor pays, and that the retiree pays, are eligible for subsidy. Rebates received are subtracted from the amount eligible for subsidy.\nProgram flexibility that supports the Health Plan Sponsor's current prescription drug plan structure\nExtensive educational materials and supportTo qualify for the subsidy, a Health Plan Sponsor must show that its coverage is \"actuarially equivalent\" to, or at least as generous as, the defined standard Medicare Part D coverage.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Reverse smoking is a kind of smoking where the burnt end of a hand rolled tobacco leaf is put in the mouth rather than the unlit end of the cigar. It is practiced in some parts of Andhra Pradesh, India and the Philippines. Reverse smoking is considered to be a risk factor for oral cancer.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Eric Bruce Rimm is an American nutrition scientist and epidemiologist. He is Professor of Epidemiology and Nutrition at the Harvard School of Public Health, Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School, and director of the Harvard School of Public Health's Program in Cardiovascular Epidemiology. He has researched the relationship between diet and the risk of chronic diseases such as obesity.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Robin Danielson Feminine Hygiene Product Safety Act is a proposed act of the United States Congress, directing the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to research the possible health risks of menstrual hygiene products made with dioxins, synthetic fibers, chemicals such as chlorine or fragrance irritants. It also called for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to monitor dioxin levels in similar hygiene products.First introduced in 1997 (but renamed in 1999), the bill is named after Robin Danielson, who died in 1998 of toxic shock syndrome, a rare bacterial disease linked to high-absorbency tampon use. Congresswoman Carolyn Maloney has re-introduced the bill a number of times since then, but it has never passed or received significant support.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "In physical rehabilitation and sports training, the SAID principle asserts that the human body adapts specifically to imposed demands. It demonstrates that, given stressors on the human system, whether biomechanical or neurological, there will be a Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands (SAID). For example, by only doing pull-ups on the same regular pull-up bar, the body becomes adapted to this specific physical demand, but not necessarily to other climbing patterns or environments.\nIn 1958, Berkeley Professor of Physical Education Franklin M. Henry proposed the \"Specificity Hypothesis of Motor Learning\".", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Seattle 500 Study is a University of Washington study that tracks individuals from birth.  It is a longitudinal prospective study of the effects of prenatal health habits on human development.  Beginning in 1974, this study has continuously followed a birth cohort of approximately 500 offspring. Current data collection is aimed at studying the development of mental health problems and problems of alcohol/drug abuse and dependence and their pre and post-natal antecedents.\nThe data which Seattle 500 collects is the basis of other research.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sentinel Initiative is a set of efforts by U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that tries to improve the ability to identify and evaluate safety of medicinal products.It has several parts: Sentinel System, Postmarket Rapid Immunization Safety Monitoring (PRISM) system, and Blood Safety Continuous Active Surveillance Network (BloodSCAN). Part of Sentinel Initiative is a surveillance program for biologics. It is called Biologics Effectiveness and Safety (BEST) Initiative.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Sleep efficiency (SE) is the ratio between the time a person spends asleep, and the total time dedicated to sleep (i.e. both sleeping and attempting to fall asleep or fall back asleep). It is given as a percentage. SE of 80% or more is considered normal/healthy with most young healthy adults displaying SE above 90%. SE can be determined with a polysomnograph and is an important parameter of a sleep study.Sleep efficiency is often described as the ratio between time spent asleep (\"total sleep time (STS)\"), and time spent \"in bed\" (\"time in bed (TIB)\"), however, TIB does not encompass \"non-sleep-related activities\" performed in bed (e.g. reading, watching television, etc.) as the phrase may seem to suggest.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "A sling, also known as arm sling, is a device to limit movement of the shoulder or elbow while it heals. A sling can be created from a triangular bandage.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Social Histories of Medicine is a book series from Manchester University Press which covers \"all aspects of health, illness and medicine, from prehistory to the present, in every part of the world\". It runs in collaboration with the Society for the Social History of Medicine and is the third series that the society has been associated with after Studies in the Social History of Medicine (1989-2009) and Studies for the Society for the Social History of Medicine. The editors of the current series are David Cantor and Keir Waddington.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Sonoma Diet (also known as the New Sonoma Diet) is a lifestyle plan that was devised by nutritionist Connie Guttersen, and is a derivation of the Mediterranean diet.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Soul, Mind, Body Medicine: A Complete Soul Healing System for Optimum Health and Vitality is a self-help book written by spiritual healer Zhi Gang Sha which provides a controversial interpretation of Traditional Chinese medicine and quantum physics. Published in 2006, within three weeks of its release the book was placed in the top five of The New York Times Best Seller list.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "TARMED is a system of procedure codes used in Switzerland.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Alison Tedstone MBE RNutr FAfN (born April 1961) is Chief Nutritionist (National Director of Diet, Obesity and Physical Activity) at Public Health England (PHE).", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Topical tobacco paste is a home remedy sometimes recommended as a treatment for wasp, hornet, fire ant, scorpion or bee stings,  though there is no scientific evidence that this home remedy works to relieve pain. For about 2 percent of people, allergic reactions can be life-threatening and require emergency treatment. \n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Universal Coverage scheme, also known as the gold card or 30-baht scheme, is the largest of the three Thai healthcare programmes that provide universal health care to the country's citizens. It covers the majority of the population, and is directly funded by the national budget and allocated on a mixed per-capita basis by the National Health Security Office (NHSO). The programme was launched in 2002 during the government of Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra, based on foundational developmental work by public-health civil servants, especially Doctor Sanguan Nitayarumphong, beginning in the 1980s.\nAt its launch, the programme required a copayment of 30 baht (approx. 1 US dollar) per visit, and it became widely known by that name. Thailand became one of the first few middle-income countries to implement universal healthcare, and the system was internationally praised and contributed greatly to Thaksin's political popularity.\nThe system has, since its original implementation, seen various modifications, including the removal of the 30 baht copayment (which happened following Thaksin's overthrow by coup in 2006) and the provision of direct access to antiretroviral therapy, haemodialysis and other chronic diseases. Further reforms are still being considered in order to address financial sustainability issues.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Virkon is a multi-purpose disinfectant. It contains potassium peroxymonosulfate (an oxidizing agent), sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (a detergent), sulfamic acid (a cleaning agent), and inorganic buffers. It is typically used for cleaning up hazardous spills, disinfecting surfaces and soaking equipment. The solution is used in many areas, including hospitals, laboratories, nursing homes, funeral homes, dental and veterinary facilities, and anywhere else where control of pathogens is required.1% Virkon has a wide spectrum of activity against viruses, some fungi, and bacteria. This includes at least 300 strains/clinical isolates from 76 bacteria, 47 strains/clinical isolates from 35 viruses, and 45 strains/clinical isolates from 17 fungi.It has been proven effective against SARS-COV-2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (2019-nCoV). However, it is less effective against spores and fungi than some alternative disinfectants.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Virtual Medical Record (vMR) is a simplified, standardised electronic health record data model designed to support interfacing to clinical decision support (CDS) systems. vMR is compatible with Service-oriented Architecture (SOA) of CDS.\nThe project is sponsored by HL7.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Willimina Rayne Walsh (1900 \u2013 1966) was the associate director of the American Public Health Association. She was the recipient of the Sedgwick Memorial Medal in 1965 for her work on the growth and expansion of the association.Walsh worked for APHA for 45 years beginning in 1920. Her work there included managing and overseeing the annual meetings\u2014their sites as well as their programs\u2014in addition to bringing in more advertising for The American Journal of Public Health. During her tenure, the membership of APHA grew from 3700 people to 16,000 people. She was active in public health affairs, speaking publicly about the need for increased public health measures. Many spoke of her \"behind the scenes\" work on various initiatives including the editorial board of Health Laboratory Science who credited her with helping them launch their journal.Walsh was raised in Lawrence, Massachusetts and attended the State Normal School in Lowell, Massachusetts where she graduated with honors. She married John Walsh in New York City, on April 16, 1926.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The weight loss effects of water have been little studied, but it is plausible that consuming water with meals may reduce total energy intake and aid weight loss, particularly if water is taken instead of calorific drinks.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The White Center COVID-19 quarantine site is a quarantine site in the unincorporated King County, Washington neighborhood of White Center, near Seattle, Washington, in the United States. Residents who are diagnosed with COVID-19 but can not be quarantined at home, but who do not need emergency medical care, will be housed there. Many of them are expected to be the homeless.The facility was funded by Public Health \u2013 Seattle & King County as part of a $28 million emergency spending package. The plan was announced on March 3 and the first trailer was installed there on the same day. There will be space for 32 people to be housed in eight trailers. By March 27, the trailers had plumbing and were ready for use.Senator Joe Nguyen, who represents White Center in the Washington State Legislature, said he was \"wary to see that this facility has been placed in a community already deeply disenfranchised by decades of policies working against it\".The White Center facility was one of five quarantine sites in King County by the end of March, with others in Kent, Issaquah, North Seattle, and one adjacent to Harborview hospital in Seattle.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "World Inflammatory Bowel Disease Day, also known as World IBD Day, is an annual event to raise awareness of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, known collectively as inflammatory bowel disease. The day is coordinated by the European Federation of Crohn's and Ulcerative Colitis Associations (EFCCA). It was created in 2010 during Digestive Disease Week in the United States and takes place on 19 May.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "World PT Day is observed to generate awareness about the crucial contribution physiotherapists make to society, enabling people to be mobile, well, and independent. This is observed on 8 September. Designated in 1996, World PT Day is promoted by World Physiotherapy.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The World Starts With Me is a computer-based sex education and AIDS prevention program aimed at young Ugandans, developed and produced by Butterfly Works Foundation and the World Population Foundation (a Dutch non-governmental organization) in association with Ugandan Schoolnet. It has so far reached children all around the globe and Kenyans have now joined in the learning process. Teenagers get to learn more about their bodies and they also learn about sexually transmitted diseases. This helps in showing teenagers the consequences of having unprotected sex. In 2004, it won a Prix Ars Electronica Golden Nica for Digital Communities.", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "Norma Timon Yeeting is a reproductive health advocate from Tarawa, Kiribati.\nIn 1983 she graduated with a B.A. from the University of the South Pacific.Yeeting is currently Executive Director of the Kiribati Family Health Association and a leading voice for sexual and reproductive health rights. A prominent nongovernment organisation in the Pacific region, the Association is based in South Tarawa and covers twelve additional islands in Kiribati, reaching around 75% of the country's population. With the organization. Yeeting has helped lead research on heath issues in Kiribati, including cancer awareness in South Tarawa. She has also represented Kiribati in advising other nations in their development cooperation efforts in the Pacific region.Yeeting has worked for the Kiribati government in the Ministry of Home Affairs and Ministry of Finance & Economic Development. She has also represented Kiribati at the United Nations Commission on Population and Development.\n\n", "label": "Health"}, {"sentence": "The Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting occurred on December 14, 2012, in Newtown, Connecticut. The perpetrator, Adam Lanza, fatally shot his mother before murdering 20 students and six staff members at Sandy Hook Elementary School, and later committed suicide. A number of fringe figures have promoted conspiracy theories that doubt or dispute what occurred at Sandy Hook. Various conspiracy theorists have claimed, for example, that the massacre was actually orchestrated by the U.S. government as part of an elaborate plot to promote stricter gun control laws.The more common conspiracy theory, adopted initially by James H. Fetzer, James Tracy, and others, and further popularized by Alex Jones, denied that the massacre actually occurred, asserting that it was faked. The massacre was described by Fetzer and Tracy as a classified training exercise involving members of federal and local law enforcement, the news media, and crisis actors, which they claim was modeled on Operation Closed Campus, an Iowa school-shooting drill that was canceled in 2011 amid threats and public outcry. Jones described the shooting incident as \"synthetic, completely fake with actors; in my view, manufactured [...] it just shows how bold they are that they clearly used actors.\"No evidence supports the conspiracy theories, which make a number of implausible claims. Moreover, many Sandy Hook conspiracy theories contradict one another. A number of sources have published articles debunking various claims put forward by conspiracy theorists. In 2018, the parents of several children killed in the Sandy Hook shooting launched a lawsuit against Jones and other authors of conspiracy videos for defamation, accusing them of engaging in a campaign of \"false, cruel, and dangerous assertions\". In 2019, Jones reversed his stance and stated that the massacre was real.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In Lithuanian history, Sarmatism is a term used to refer to various nationalist pseudohistorical theories which seek to refute traditional understanding of the history of Lithuania and propose that the medieval Grand Duchy of Lithuania is a continuation of states and ethnic groups in Eastern Europe attested before the first mention of the name of Lithuania recorded in the Annals of Quedlinburg in 1009. The name comes from Sarmatia, a term used in Greco-Roman carthography, notably the Geography of Ptolemy, to label all of Eastern Europe, and which is generally believed by Sarmatist historians to refer to the extent of Antiquity-era Lithuania. \nThese theories lack support in the Lithuanian historical community, and are criticized for amateurish linguistics, selective use of historical data, and extreme nationalism.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The SARS conspiracy theory began to emerge during the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak in China in the spring of 2003, when Sergei Kolesnikov, a Russian scientist and a member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, first publicized his claim that the SARS coronavirus is a synthesis of measles and mumps. According to Kolesnikov, this combination cannot be formed in the natural world and thus the SARS virus must have been produced under laboratory conditions. Another Russian scientist, Nikolai Filatov, head of Moscow's epidemiological services, had earlier commented that the SARS virus was probably man-made.However, independent labs concluded these claims to be premature since the SARS virus is a coronavirus, whereas measles and mumps are paramyxoviruses. The primary differences between a coronavirus and a paramyxovirus are in their structures and method of infection, thus making it implausible for a coronavirus to have been created from two paramyxoviruses.\nThe widespread reporting of claims by Kolesnokov and Filatov caused controversy in many Chinese internet discussion boards and chat rooms. Many Chinese believed that the SARS virus could be a biological weapon manufactured by the United States, which perceived China as a potential threat.\nThe failure to find the source of the SARS virus further convinced these people and many more that SARS was artificially synthesised and spread by some individuals and even governments. Circumstantial evidence suggests that the SARS virus crossed over to humans from Asian palm civets (\"civet cats\"), a type of animal that is often killed and eaten in Guangdong, where SARS was first discovered.Supporters of the conspiracy theory suggest that SARS caused the most serious harm in mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore, regions where most Chinese reside, while the United States, Europe and Japan were not affected as much. However, the highest mortality from SARS outside of China occurred in Canada where 43 died. Conspiracists further take as evidence the idea that, although SARS has an average mortality rate of around 10% around the world, no one died in the United States from SARS. However, there were only 8 confirmed cases out of 27 probable cases in the US (10% of 8 people is less than 1 person).  Regarding reasons why SARS patients in the United States experienced a relatively mild illness, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control has explained that anybody with fever and a respiratory symptom who had traveled to an affected area was included as a SARS patient in the U.S., even though many of these were found to have had other respiratory illnesses.Tong Zeng, an activist with no medical background, authored the book The Last Defense Line: Concerns About the Loss of Chinese Genes, published in 2003. In the book, Zeng suggested researchers from the United States may have created SARS as an anti-Chinese bioweapon after taking blood samples in China for a longevity study in the 1990s. The book's hypothesis was a front-page report in the Guangzhou newspaper Southern Metropolis Daily.Coronaviruses similar to SARS have been found in bats in China, suggesting they may be their natural reservoir.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews is a three-volume work of pseudo-scholarship, published by the Nation of Islam. The first volume, which was released in 1991, asserts that Jews dominated the Atlantic slave trade. The Secret Relationship has been widely criticized for being antisemitic and for failing to provide an objective analysis of the role of Jews in the slave trade. The American Historical Association issued a statement condemning claims that Jews played a disproportionate role in the Atlantic slave trade, and other historians such as Wim Klooster and Seymour Drescher concluded that the role of Jews in the overall Atlantic slave trade was in fact minimal.The book uses selective citations in order to exaggerate the role of Jews.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Shakespeare authorship question is the argument that someone other than William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon wrote the works attributed to him. Anti-Stratfordians\u2014a collective term for adherents of the various alternative-authorship theories\u2014believe that Shakespeare of Stratford was a front to shield the identity of the real author or authors, who for some reason\u2014usually social rank, state security, or gender\u2014did not want or could not accept public credit. Although the idea has attracted much public interest, all but a few Shakespeare scholars and literary historians consider it a fringe theory, and for the most part acknowledge it only to rebut or disparage the claims.Shakespeare's authorship was first questioned in the middle of the 19th century, when adulation of Shakespeare as the greatest writer of all time had become widespread. Shakespeare's biography, particularly his humble origins and obscure life, seemed incompatible with his poetic eminence and his reputation for genius, arousing suspicion that Shakespeare might not have written the works attributed to him. The controversy has since spawned a vast body of literature, and more than 80 authorship candidates have been proposed, the most popular being Sir Francis Bacon; Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford; Christopher Marlowe; and William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby.Supporters of alternative candidates argue that theirs is the more plausible author, and that William Shakespeare lacked the education, aristocratic sensibility, or familiarity with the royal court that they say is apparent in the works. Those Shakespeare scholars who have responded to such claims hold that biographical interpretations of literature are unreliable in attributing authorship, and that the convergence of documentary evidence used to support Shakespeare's authorship\u2014title pages, testimony by other contemporary poets and historians, and official records\u2014is the same used for all other authorial attributions of his era. No such direct evidence exists for any other candidate, and Shakespeare's authorship was not questioned during his lifetime or for centuries after his death.Despite the scholarly consensus, a relatively small but highly visible and diverse assortment of supporters, including prominent public figures, have questioned the conventional attribution. They work for acknowledgment of the authorship question as a legitimate field of scholarly inquiry and for acceptance of one or another of the various authorship candidates.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Sign and the Seal: The Quest for the Lost Ark of the Covenant is a pseudoarchaeological 1992 book by British author Graham Hancock, in which the author describes his search for the Ark of the Covenant and proposes a theory of the ark's historical movements and current whereabouts. The book sold well but received negative reviews.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Sirius Mystery is a book written by Robert K. G. Temple (born Robert Kyle Grenville Temple in 1945) supporting the pseudoscientific  ancient astronauts hypothesis that intelligent extraterrestrial beings visited the Earth and made contact with humans in antiquity and prehistoric times. The book was first published by St. Martin's Press in 1976. Its second, 1998, edition is called The Sirius Mystery: New Scientific Evidence of Alien Contact 5,000 Years Ago.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Soviet offensive plans controversy was a debate among historians in the late 20th and early 21st centuries as to whether Joseph Stalin had planned to launch an attack against Nazi Germany in the summer of 1941. The controversy started with Viktor Suvorov with his 1980s book Icebreaker: Who started the Second World War? where he argued, based on his analysis of historical documents and data, that Stalin used Nazi Germany as a proxy to attack Europe.\nThe thesis by Suvorov that Stalin had planned to attack Nazi Germany in 1941 was refuted by a number of historians, such as Antony Beevor, Gabriel Gorodetsky, David Glantz and Dmitri Volkogonov and was partially supported by Valeri Danilov, Joachim Hoffmann, Mikhail Meltyukhov, and Vladimir Nevezhin.\nThe majority of historians believe that Stalin was seeking to avoid war in 1941, as he believed that his military was not ready to fight the German forces, although there is no agreement among historians as to why Stalin persisted with his strategy of appeasement of Nazi Germany despite growing evidence of an imminent German invasion.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "On February 14, 2018, 19-year-old Nikolas Cruz opened fire on students and staff at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, murdering 17 people and injuring 17 others. Cruz, a former student at the school, fled the scene on foot by blending in with other students, and was arrested without incident approximately one hour later in nearby Coral Springs. Police and prosecutors investigated \"a pattern of disciplinary issues and unnerving behavior\".The killing spree is the deadliest high school shooting in United States history, surpassing the Columbine High School massacre that killed 15, including the perpetrators, in Colorado in April 1999. The shooting came at a period of heightened public support for gun control that followed mass shootings in Paradise, Nevada, and in Sutherland Springs, Texas, in October and November 2017.\nStudents at Parkland founded Never Again MSD, an advocacy group that lobbies for gun control. On March 9, Governor Rick Scott signed a bill that implemented new restrictions to Florida's gun laws and also allowed for the arming of teachers who were properly trained and the hiring of school resource officers.The Broward County Sheriff's Office received widespread criticism for its handling of the police response, both for not following up on multiple warnings about Cruz despite a lengthy record of threatening behavior and for staying outside the school instead of immediately confronting him. This led to the resignations of several police officers who responded to the scene, and the removal of Sheriff Scott Israel. A commission appointed by then-Governor Scott to investigate the shooting condemned the police inaction and urged school districts across the state to adopt greater measures of security.On October 20, 2021, Cruz pleaded guilty to all charges and apologized for his actions. Sentencing was expected in January 2022; but was delayed numerous times, some due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Cruz's sentencing began July 18, 2022.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Sun Language Theory (Turkish: G\u00fcne\u015f Dil Teorisi) was a Turkish nationalist linguistic pseudoscientific hypothesis developed in Turkey in the 1930s that proposed that all human languages are descendants of one proto-Turkic primal language. The theory proposed that because this primal language had close phonemic resemblances to Turkish, all other languages can essentially be traced back to Turkic roots. According to the theory, the Central Asian worshippers, who wanted to salute the omnipotence of the sun and its life-giving qualities, had done so by transforming their meaningless blabbering into a coherent set of ritual utterings, and language was born, hence the name.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Sutherland Springs church shooting occurred on November 5, 2017, when Devin Patrick Kelley, of New Braunfels, Texas, perpetrated a mass shooting at the First Baptist Church in Sutherland Springs, Texas. Kelley killed 26 people, including an unborn child, wounded 22 others, and killed himself. The attack is the deadliest mass shooting in Texas history, and the fifth-deadliest in the United States. It was the deadliest shooting in an American place of worship in modern history, surpassing the Charleston church shooting of 2015 and the Waddell Buddhist temple shooting of 1991.Kelley was prohibited by law from purchasing or possessing firearms and ammunition due to a domestic violence conviction in a court-martial while in the United States Air Force. The Air Force failed to record the conviction in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) National Crime Information Center database, which is used by the National Instant Check System to flag prohibited purchases. The error prompted the Air Force to begin a review.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Tartary (Latin: Tartaria, French: Tartarie, German: Tartarei, Russian: \u0422\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f, romanized: Tartariya) or Tatary (Russian: \u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f, romanized: Tatariya) was a blanket term used in Western European literature and cartography for a vast part of Asia bounded by the Caspian Sea, the Ural Mountains, the Pacific Ocean, and the northern borders of China, India and Persia, at a time when this region was largely unknown to European geographers. The active use of the toponym (place name) can be traced from the 13th to the 19th centuries. In European sources, Tartary became the most common name for Central Asia that had no connection with the real polities or ethnic groups of the region; until the 19th century, European knowledge of the area remained extremely scarce and fragmentary. In modern English-speaking tradition, the region formerly known as Tartary is usually called Inner or Central Eurasia. Much of this area consists of arid plains, the main population of which in the past was engaged in animal husbandry.Ignorance surrounding Tartary's use as a place name has spawned conspiracy theories including ideas of a \"hidden past\" and \"mud floods\". Such theories assert that Tartary (or \"Tartaria\") was a lost civilization with advanced technology and culture. This ignores the well-documented history of Asia, which Tartary refers to. In the present day, the Tartary region covers a region spanning from central Afghanistan to northern Kazakhstan, as well as areas in present Mongolia, China and the Russian Far East in \"Chinese Tartary\".\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Templar Revelation: Secret Guardians of the True Identity of Christ is a book written by Lynn Picknett and Clive Prince and published in 1997 by Transworld Publishers Ltd in Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand.  It proposes a fringe hypothesis regarding the relationship between Jesus, John the Baptist and Mary Magdalene, and states that their true story has been suppressed by the Roman Catholic Church through, among other tactics, the conscious selection of the texts that make up the canonical New Testament, their campaigns against heresy, and their propaganda against non-Christians.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Temple denial is a claim advanced by Palestinian political leaders, religious figures, intellectuals, and authors that the successive Temples in Jerusalem did not exist or were placed other than on the Temple Mount.Yitzhak Reiter describes the growing tendency of Islamic authorities to deny the existence of the Jewish Temples on the Temple Mount, characterizing it as part of a campaign to increase the status of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount in Islam as part of the effort to make Jerusalem a Muslim city under Arab governance. The New York Times noted that \"Temple denial, increasingly common among Palestinian leaders, also has a long history: After Israel became a state in 1948, the Waqf removed from its guidebooks all references to King Solomon's Temple, whose location at the site it had previously said was 'beyond dispute'.\" David Hazony has described the phenomenon as \"a campaign of intellectual erasure [by Palestinian leaders, writers, and scholars] ... aimed at undermining the Jewish claim to any part of the land\", and compared the phenomenon to Holocaust denial.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Temple of Lemmink\u00e4inen (Finnish: Lemmink\u00e4isen temppeli) is a cave in Gumbostrand village, located in Sipoo, Finland. It is an underground temple depicted in The Bock Saga, a collection of stories by Ior Bock; the mouth of the temple, according to the saga, is located under a rock that Bock calls Kyypelivuori. The name of cave refers to Lemmink\u00e4inen, a figure in Finnish mythology and one of the main characters of the Kalevala.\nAccording to Bock, the mouth of the temple was closed in 987, when Christianity arrived in Uusimaa and pagan traditions had to be hidden. During the excavations carried out between 1987 and 1999, a tunnel about 50 meters long was opened under the rock, but no temple has been found. Due to the lack of money, the excavation was not continued and the Finnish Heritage Agency has managed to characterize the site as a mere natural formation and has never believed that anything of archaeological significance can be found there.In the summer of 2007, the excavation project was scheduled to continue, but this did not materialize. Juha Javanainen, the editor of Bock's book, has said in October 2010 that he hopes that the excavations can start again someday, but there are no concrete plans yet. Carl Borgen, who has published several books on the saga by Ior Bock, has argued that a group of treasure hunters known as the \"Temple Twelve\" would continue to dig in the summer of 2022.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Temple of the Stars is an alleged ancient temple claimed to be situated around Glastonbury in Somerset, England.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas suggests that the earliest Old World contact with the Americas was not with Columbus or Norse settlers, but with the Phoenicians (or, alternatively, other Semitic peoples) in the first millennium BC.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Thirteenth Tribe is a 1976 book by Arthur Koestler, in which the author advances the thesis that Ashkenazi Jews are not descended from the historical Israelites of antiquity, but from Khazars, a Turkic people. Koestler hypothesized that the Khazars (who may have converted to Judaism in the 8th century) migrated westwards into Eastern Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries when the Khazar Empire was collapsing.\nKoestler used previous works by  Douglas Morton Dunlop, Raphael Patai and Abraham Polak as sources. His stated intent was to make antisemitism disappear by disproving its racial basis.\nPopular reviews of the book were mixed, academic critiques of its research were generally negative, and Koestler biographers David Cesarani and Michael Scammell panned it.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The three Gojoseon kingdoms are states thought to have existed according to   Joseon Sangosa (1924\u201325). The concept gained a following among  several fringe historians, although it is not completely accepted by mainstream scholars.In popular Korean history, drawing on the Korean founding myth, Gojoseon (\uace0\uc870\uc120, \u53e4\u671d\u9bae, 2333 BC \u2013 239 BC) was an early state that was established around Liaoning, southern Manchuria, and the northern Korean Peninsula. It was anciently known simply as Joseon, but is now referred to as Gojoseon, i.e. \"Ancient Joseon\" to distinguish it from the much later (14th century) Kingdom of Joseon.\nAccording to some sources, Gojoseon was a kingdom formed by the union of three confederacies, or Samhan: Makjoseon (\ub9c9\uc870\uc120, \u83ab\u671d\u9bae), Jinjoseon (\uc9c4\uc870\uc120, \u771f\u671d\u9bae) and Beonjoseon (\ubc88\uc870\uc120, \u756a\u671d\u9bae). These three confederacies are said to be  also known as Mahan, Byeonhan, and Jinhan. In conventional Korean history, these three confederacies appeared following Gojoseon's break-up, in the central and southern Korean Peninsula, until they were fully absorbed into the Three Kingdoms of Korea around the 4th century CE. Therefore, these later Samhan must be distinguished from the \"former Samhan\", or Samjoseon.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Thule Society (; German: Thule-Gesellschaft), originally the Studiengruppe f\u00fcr germanisches Altertum (\"Study Group for Germanic Antiquity\"), was a German occultist and V\u00f6lkisch group founded in Munich shortly after World War I, named after a mythical northern country in Greek legend. The society is notable chiefly as the organization that sponsored the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (DAP; German Workers' Party), which was later reorganized by Adolf Hitler into the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP or Nazi Party). According to Hitler biographer Ian Kershaw, the organization's \"membership list ... reads like a Who's Who of early Nazi sympathizers and leading figures in Munich\", including Rudolf Hess, Alfred Rosenberg, Hans Frank, Julius Lehmann, Gottfried Feder, Dietrich Eckart, and Karl Harrer.Author Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke contends that Hans Frank and Rudolf Hess had been Thule members, but other leading Nazis had only been invited to speak at Thule meetings or they were entirely unconnected with it. According to Johannes Hering, \"There is no evidence that Hitler ever attended the Thule Society.\"", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912 shocked the world and attracted controversy resulting in a number of conspiracy theories have been put forward regarding the disaster.\nOne such hypothesis is that the sunken ship was actually the Titanic's near-identical sister-ship  Olympic, which was the subject of a large insurance claim, and that the two vessels were secretly switched prior to the voyage.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Trail of Blood is a 1931 book by  American Southern Baptist minister James Milton Carroll, comprising a collection of five lectures he gave on the history of Baptist churches, which he presented as a succession from  the first Christians. The work has been criticized for linking together numerous unrelated sects and historical  heresies that have no relation to Baptist theology or polity.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Treason of the Long Knives (Welsh: Brad y Cyllyll Hirion) is a pseudohistorical myth and legend of a massacre of British Celtic chieftains by Anglo-Saxon soldiers at a peace conference on Salisbury Plain in the 5th century. The story is not included in any contemporary accounts, but does feature centuries later in the semi-mythological histories of the Historia Brittonum and the Historia Regum Britanniae. Though a popular cautionary tale in medieval Europe, no historical evidence for The Treason of the Long Knives exists, and the story is now widely understood as a purely literary construction by historians.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Tribe of Shabazz (Arabic: \u0642\u064e\u0628\u0650\u064a\u0644\u064e\u0629 \u0671\u0644\u0634\u064e\u0651\u0628\u064e\u0627\u0632\u0651, romanized: qab\u012blah ash-shab\u0101zz) was, according to the Nation of Islam, a supposed ancient black nation that migrated into central Africa, led by a leader named Shabazz. The concept is found primarily in the writings of Wallace Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad. According to the Autobiography of Malcolm X, all the races except the white race were descendants of the Tribe of Shabazz.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Turkish History Thesis (T\u00fcrk Tarih Tezi) is a pseudohistorical thesis which posited the belief that the Turks moved from their ancestral homeland in Central Asia and migrated to China, India, the Balkans, the Middle East, and northern Africa in several waves, populating the areas which they had moved to and bringing civilization to their native inhabitants. The theory was developed within the context of pre-Nazi scientific racism, classifying the Turks as an \"Alpine subgroup\" of the Caucasian race. The intent of the theory was a rejection of Western European assertions that the Turks belonged to the \"yellow or mongol\" race. Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk took a personal interest in the subject after he was shown a French language book that claimed Turks \"belonged to the yellow race\" and were a \"secondaire\" people.In the aftermath of World War I, the Turks strove to prove that they were the equals of the Western nations, an attempt which had historical and racial connotations. The Turkish History Thesis created a third alternative to the existing narratives which claimed that Greece or Mesopotamia, or both, were the \"cradles\" of Western civilization. The thesis itself rested on a spurious intellectual foundation by claiming that the Turks had a Hittite ancestry which was of Central Asian Aryan origin. The thesis insisted that all Turkic peoples had a common racial origin and it also insisted that they had created a great civilization in their Central Asian homeland in prehistoric times and have preserved their language and racial characteristics ever since. According to the thesis, the Turks had originally migrated from Central Asia to China and from China, they migrated to India, where they founded the civilizations of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and from India, they migrated to other parts of the world.The Thesis was made known to the public during the First Turkish Historical Congress, which was held between 2 and 11 July 1932. The congress was attended by eighteen professors of the University of Istanbul (then known as Dar\u00fclf\u00fcn\u00fcn), of which some would be dismissed after the congress. 196 Turkish high school teachers were also mentioned in the protocol of the congress. The opening speech belonged to Mahmut Esat Bozkurt, during which he criticized the western scholars for their interpretation of the Turkish history. He claimed that the Central Asian Turks have departed the Stone Age 7000 years before the Europeans and then dispersed westwards as the first people to have brought civilization to the humans. Afet \u0130nan, an adoptive daughter of Mustafa Kemal Atat\u00fcrk and member of the Turkish history committee of the Turkish Hearths, pushed the view that the Turks were what was racially called \"brachycephalic\" and they have established a developed civilization around an \"inner sea\" which is located in Central Asia. According to her, they left after the \"inner sea\" dried up due to climate change and from there, they spread out and disseminated civilization to other cultures, including the cultures which existed in China, India, Egypt and Greece. The internal contradictions of the Turkish History Thesis became more pronounced in later decades as Colonel Kurtcebe sought to raise the modern Turkish people's awareness of its connection to Central Asia and the Mongols. He believed that an emphasis on Western-style historical education had caused the Turks to be uninterested in Mongolian history. This emphasis on Western-style historical education produced a confused doctrine which forced military publications to maintain the Turkish History Thesis's connection to European races, but at the same time, it promoted an image in which the Turkish military was superior to the military forces of all Western powers due to its roots in a Central Asian past.The thesis was influenced by the book T\u00fcrk Tarihinin Ana Hatlar\u0131 (The Mainlines of Turkish History) published by the Committee for the Study of the Turkish History (TOTTTH) of the Turkish Hearths and became a \"state dogma\" which was included in school textbooks. During Atat\u00fcrk's government, scholars like Hasan Re\u015fit Tankut and R\u0131fat Osman Bey were encouraged that the findings of their studies in history and social sciences be in line with the Turkish Historical Thesis and the Sun Language Theory. The Turkish Historical Thesis is connected with the Sun Language Theory published in 1935 which stipulates that all languages have their origin from the Turkish language. Prominent scholars like Zeki Velidi Togan and Nihal Ats\u0131z challenged the Turkish Historical Thesis lost their work at the University.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Pan-Turkism is a political movement that emerged during the 1880s among Turkic intellectuals of the Russian region of Kazan (Tatarstan), Caucasus (modern-day Azerbaijan) and the Ottoman Empire (modern-day Turkey), with its aim being the cultural and political unification of all Turkic peoples. Turanism is a closely-related movement but a more general term, because Turkism only applies to Turkic peoples. However, researchers and politicians who are steeped in Turkic ideology have used these terms interchangeably in many sources and works of literature.Although many of the Turkic peoples share historical, cultural and linguistic roots, the rise of a pan-Turkic political movement is a phenomenon of the 19th and 20th centuries. Ottoman poet Ziya G\u00f6kalp defined pan-Turkism as a cultural, academic, and philosophical and political concept advocating the unity of Turkic peoples. Pan-Turkism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories known as Pseudo-Turkology.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Two Babylons, subtitled Romanism and its Origins, is a book that started out as a religious pamphlet published in 1853 by the Presbyterian Free Church of Scotland theologian Alexander Hislop (1807\u201365).\nIts central theme is the argument that the Catholic Church is the Babylon of the Apocalypse which is described in the Bible. The book delves into the symbolism of the image which is described in the Book of Revelation \u2013 the woman with the golden cup \u2013 and it also attempts to prove that many of the fundamental practices of the Church of Rome, and its Modus Operandi in general, stem from non-scriptural precedents. It analyzes modern Catholic holidays, including Christmas and Easter, attempts to trace their roots back to pagan festivals and attempts to show that many other accepted doctrines (such as Jesus' crucifixion on a Cross) may not be correct. Hislop provides a detailed comparison of the ancient religion which was established in Babylon (allegedly by the Biblical king Nimrod and his wife, Semiramis) by drawing on a variety of historical and religious sources, in order to show that the modern Papacy and the Catholic Church are the same system as the Babylon that was mentioned by the apostle Paul in the first century (when he commented on the iniquity that was already creeping into the 1st century Christian church) and the author of Revelation. Most modern scholars have rejected the book's arguments as erroneous and based on a flawed understanding of the Babylonian religion, but variations of them are accepted among some groups of Christian religions evangelical Protestants.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Vedic Mathematics is a book written by the Indian monk Bharati Krishna Tirtha, and first published in 1965. It contains a list of mathematical techniques, which were falsely claimed to have been retrieved from the Vedas and containing of all mathematical knowledge.Krishna Tirtha failed to produce the sources, and scholars unanimously note it to be a mere compendium of tricks for increasing the speed of elementary mathematical calculations sharing no overlap with historical mathematical developments during the Vedic period. However, there has been a proliferation of publications in this area and multiple attempts to integrate the subject into mainstream education by right-wing Hindu nationalist governments.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Vietnam stab-in-the-back myth asserts that the United States' defeat in the Vietnam War was caused by various American groups, such as civilian policymakers, the media, anti-war protesters, the United States Congress or political liberals.  Used primarily by right-wing war hawks, the name \"stab-in-the-back\" is analogous to the German stab-in-the-back myth, which claims that internal forces caused the German defeat in World War I. Unlike the German myth, the American variant lacks an antisemitic aspect. Jeffrey Kimball wrote that the United States' defeat \"produced a powerful myth of betrayal that was analogous to the archetypal Dolchsto\u00dflegende legend of post-World War I Germany\".The myth was a \"stronger version of the argument that antiwar protest encouraged the enemy, suggested that the antiwar movement might in the end commit the ultimate act of treachery, causing the loss of an otherwise winnable war\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Voyage That Shook The World is a 2009 dramatised documentary film commissioned by Creation Ministries International, a Christian Young Earth creationist organisation, and produced by Fathom Media. It was released to mark the 200th anniversary of Charles Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of his seminal work On the Origin of Species.The film includes interviews with scholars, academics and scientists covering a wide range of views. These include some who accept the scientific consensus on evolution as well as proponents of intelligent design and young earth creationism. It features wild-life footage from the Galapagos Islands as well as on-location footage from Argentina, Chile, Tierra del Fuego and the United Kingdom. The film's dramatised sequences were shot on location in Tasmania, Australia.A historian featured in the film has stated that the creationist backing of the film had been concealed when he agreed to take part, that the editing of his words could give a false impression of his views, and that the film presents a historically distorted portrait of Darwin. Creation Ministries agreed that they had set up a \"front company\" to approach experts. They denied any deception and stated that one of the interviewees had admitted that while the producers choose comments they \"didn't distort what we said\", and compared their approach to that used by the BBC in making documentaries.The three historians featured in the film subsequently issued a statement that they had been misrepresented by the film company's selective reconstruction of Darwin's voyage.\nCMI countered these claims with extended quotes from the interviews of the historians. Their response was described as appearing to be sound in specific aspects by American skeptic Jim Lippard, who had not seen the film at that time. Having seen the film, he described it as trying to hide its own creationism, which becomes increasingly apparent as the film progresses.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Waffen-SS im Einsatz  (Waffen-SS in Action) is a 1953 book in German by Paul Hausser, a former high-ranking SS commander and a leader of the Waffen-SS lobby group HIAG. As part of the organisation's historical-negationist agenda, it advanced the idea of the purely military role of the Waffen-SS.The first major work by one of the HIAG leaders, it was published by Plesse Verlag, owned by a right-wing politician and publisher Waldemar Sch\u00fctz. Hausser's book, along with those by other key HIAG members Felix Steiner and Kurt Meyer, has been characterised by the historian Charles Sydnor as one of the \"most important works of [Waffen-SS] apologist literature.\"", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Walam Olum or Walum Olum, usually translated as \"Red Record\" or \"Red Score,\" is purportedly a historical narrative of the Lenape (Delaware) Native American tribe. The document has provoked controversy as to its authenticity since its publication in the 1830s by botanist and antiquarian Constantine Samuel Rafinesque. Ethnographic studies in the 1980s and analysis in the 1990s of Rafinesque's manuscripts have produced significant evidence that the document is a hoax.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Warsaw concentration camp (German: Konzentrationslager Warschau, KL Warschau; see other names) was a German concentration camp in occupied Poland during World War II, formed on the base of the now-nonexistent G\u0119si\u00f3wka prison, in what is today the Warsaw neighbourhood of Muran\u00f3w. It was created on the order of Reichsf\u00fchrer-SS Heinrich Himmler and operated from July 1943 to August 1944.\nLocated in the ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto, KL Warschau first functioned as a camp in its own right, but was demoted to a branch of the Majdanek concentration camp in May 1944. In late July that year, due to the Red Army approaching to Warsaw, the Nazis started to evacuate the camp. Around 4,000 inmates were forced to march on foot to Kutno, 120 km (75 mi) away; those who survived were then transported to Dachau. On 5 August 1944, KL Warschau was captured by Battalion Zo\u015bka during the Warsaw Uprising, liberating 348 Jews who were still left on its premises. It was the only German camp in Poland to be liberated by anti-Nazi resistance forces, rather than by Allied troops. After the Red Army definitively expelled the Germans from Warsaw in January 1945, the new communist administration continued to run the buildings as a forced labour camp, and then as a prison, until it was closed in 1956. All the camp's premises were demolished in 1965.\nThe Encyclopedia on Camps and Ghettos says that a total of 8,000 to 9,000 inmates were held there, while Bogus\u0142aw Kopka estimates the number at at least 7,250 prisoners, all but 300 of whom were Jews from various European countries, in particular from Hungary and Greece. They were used as forced labour to clean the ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto and to find and sort whatever precious items were still left on its territory, with the ultimate goal of creating a park in the former ghetto's area. The camp and adjacent ruins were also used by the German administration as a place of execution, the victims being Polish political prisoners, Jews caught on the \"Aryan side\", and generally people rounded up on Warsaw streets. About 4,000 to 5,000 prisoners died during the camp's existence, while the total number of people murdered in the camp is estimated at 20,000.The camp, which played a comparatively minor role in the Holocaust and thus seldom appears in mainstream historiography, has been at the centre of a conspiracy theory, first promoted by Maria Trzci\u0144ska, a Polish judge who served for 22 years as a member of the Chief Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. The theory, refuted by mainstream historians, contends that KL Warschau was an extermination camp operating a giant gas chamber inside a tunnel near Warszawa Zachodnia railroad station and that 200,000 mainly non-Jewish Poles were gassed there.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Watergate scandal was a major political scandal in the United States involving the administration of U.S. President Richard Nixon from 1972 to 1974 that led to Nixon's resignation. The scandal stemmed from the Nixon administration's continual attempts to cover up its involvement in the June 17, 1972 break-in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Washington, D.C., Watergate Office Building. After the five perpetrators were arrested, the press and the U.S. Justice Department connected the cash found on them at the time to the Committee for the Re-Election of the President. Further investigations, along with revelations during subsequent trials of the burglars, led the U.S. House of Representatives to grant the U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary additional investigative authority\u2014-to probe into \"certain matters within its jurisdiction\"\u2014 and led the U.S. Senate to create the U.S. Senate Watergate Committee. The resulting Senate Watergate hearings were broadcast \"gavel-to-gavel\" nationwide by PBS, and they aroused public interest. Witnesses testified that Nixon had approved plans to cover up his administration\u2019s involvement in the break-in, and that there was a voice-activated taping system in the Oval Office. Throughout the investigation, Nixon\u2019s administration resisted its probes, and this led to a constitutional crisis.Several major revelations and egregious presidential actions obstructing the investigation later in 1973 prompted the House to commence an impeachment process against Nixon. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Nixon had to release the Oval Office tapes to government investigators. The Nixon White House tapes revealed that he had conspired to cover up activities that took place after the break-in and had later tried to use federal officials to deflect attention from the investigation. The House Judiciary Committee approved three articles of impeachment against Nixon for obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress. With his complicity in the cover-up made public, and his political support completely eroded, Nixon resigned from office on August 9, 1974. It is generally believed that, if he had not done so, he would have been impeached by the House and removed from office by a trial in the Senate. He is the only U.S. president to have resigned from office. On September 8, 1974, Nixon's successor, Gerald Ford, pardoned him.\nThere were 69 people indicted and 48 people\u2014many of them top Nixon administration officials\u2014convicted. The metonym Watergate came to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration, including bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom Nixon or his officials were suspicious; ordering investigations of activist groups and political figures; and using the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the Internal Revenue Service as political weapons. The use of the suffix -gate after an identifying term has since become synonymous with public scandal, especially political scandal.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Wendish question (Hungarian: Vendk\u00e9rd\u00e9s, Slovene: Vendsko vpra\u0161anje, Prekmurje dialect: Vendsko p\u00edtanje, or Vendi\u0161ko pitanje) in Hungarian Nationalist and Chauvinist politics concerns the origin and nomenclature of the Hungarian Slovenes.\nThe traditional Hungarian term for the Slovenes living in Hungary was \"Wend\" (Hungarian: Vend). Many Slovenes in Hungary accepted this nomenclature, although in their dialect, they always referred to themselves as \"Slovenes\". In the last decades of the 19th century, and especially during the Horthy regime, the term \"Wend\" was used in order to emphasize the difference between the Slovenes of historic Hungary and other Slovenes.\nThe term Wend received popular use among the emigre community in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.  This same community vigorously opposed the including of Prekmurje into the new Yugoslavia, lobbying the US Trianon negotiators against such inclusion.\nThe border between Hungary and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was finally regulated by the Treaty of Trianon on June 4, 1920. The territory inhabited by Slovenes (the so-called Vendvid\u00e9k) was divided by the watershed of the two rivers R\u00e1ba and Mura. The Mura region (Prekmurje), including the areas of Murska Sobota and Lendava, went to Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, while the Raba Region (Porabje) including nine communes around Szentgotth\u00e1rd, became part of Hungary. After this separation, the two regions' economy, politics, culture and ethnicity developed independently.\nAfter the German invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, Hungary annexed the regions lost in 1920 including Slovenian Prekmurje. It was expedient to argue that the inhabitants of the Prekmurje region were not Slovenes after all, helping to substantiate Hungary's claim to Prekmurje. S\u00e1ndor Mikola, a well-known Hungarian physicist hailing from Slovenian Prekmurje, used his influence to publicize this view in his book A Vends\u00e9g m\u00faltja \u00e9s jelene (The past and present of the Wends). In the book he describes how the Wends were descended from the Celts, but assimilated into the surrounding Slavic population. This theory has no scientific foundation and is not linguistically substantiated in the language of this population.\nPrekmurje remained a part of SFR Yugoslavia and SR Slovenia when the Trianon boundaries were restored after World War II.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Anne Whateley is the name given to a woman who is sometimes supposed to have been the intended wife of William Shakespeare before he married Anne Hathaway. Most scholars believe that Whateley never existed, and that her name in a document concerning Shakespeare's marriage is merely a clerical error. However, several writers on Shakespeare have taken the view that she was a real rival to Hathaway for Shakespeare's hand. She has also appeared in imaginative literature on Shakespeare and in Shakespeare authorship speculations. Shakespeare's biographer Russell A. Fraser describes her as \"a ghost\", \"haunting the edges of Shakespeare's story\". She has also been called \"the first of the Shakespearean Dark Ladies\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Who Were the Shudras? is a history book published by Indian social reformer and polymath B. R. Ambedkar in 1946. The book discusses the origin of the Shudra Varna. Ambedkar dedicated the book to Jyotirao Phule (1827\u20131890).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The witch-cult hypothesis is a discredited theory that the witch trials of the Early Modern period were an attempt to suppress a pre-Christian, pagan religion that had survived the Christianisation of Europe. According to its proponents, the witch cult revolved around the worship of a Horned God of fertility, the underworld, the hunt and the hunted, whose Christian persecutors called the Devil, and whose followers participated in nocturnal rites at the witches' Sabbath.\nThe theory was pioneered by two German scholars, Karl Ernst Jarcke and Franz Josef Mone, in the early nineteenth century, and was adopted by French historian Jules Michelet, American feminist Matilda Joslyn Gage, and American folklorist Charles Leland later that century. The hypothesis received its most prominent exposition when it was adopted by a British Egyptologist, Margaret Murray, who presented her version of it in The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921), before further expounding it in books such as The God of the Witches (1931) and in her contribution to the Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.  Although the \"Murrayite theory\" proved popular among sectors of academia and the general public in the early and mid-twentieth century, it was never accepted by specialists in the Early Modern witch trials, who publicly discredited it through in-depth research during the 1960s and 1970s.\nSpecialists in European witchcraft beliefs view the pagan witch-cult theory as pseudohistorical. There is an academic consensus among experts that those accused and executed as witches were not followers of any witch religion, whether pre-Christian or Satanic. Critics highlight that the theory rested on a highly selective use of evidence from the trials, thereby heavily misrepresenting the events and the actions of both the accused and their accusers. Further, they point out that it relied on the mistaken assumption that the claims made by accused witches were truthful, and not distorted by coercion and torture. They also note that, despite claims that the witch cult was a pre-Christian survival, there is no evidence of such a pagan witch cult throughout the intervening Middle Ages.\nThe witch-cult hypothesis influenced literature, being adapted into fiction in works by John Buchan, Robert Graves and others. It greatly influenced the origins of Wicca, a contemporary Pagan new religious movement that emerged in mid-twentieth-century Britain, that claimed to be the survival of the pagan witch-cult. Since the 1960s, Carlo Ginzburg and other scholars have argued that surviving elements of pre-Christian religion in European folk culture influenced Early Modern stereotypes of witchcraft, but scholars still debate how this may relate, if at all, to the Murrayite witch-cult hypothesis.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Worlds in Collision is a book by Immanuel Velikovsky published in 1950. The book postulates that around the 15th century BC, the planet Venus was ejected from Jupiter as a comet or comet-like object and passed near Earth (an actual collision is not mentioned). The object allegedly changed Earth's orbit and axis, causing innumerable catastrophes that are mentioned in early mythologies and religions from around the world. The book has been heavily criticized as a work of pseudoscience and catastrophism, and many of its claims are completely rejected by the established scientific community as they are not supported by any available evidence.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In the beliefs of the Nation of Islam (NOI), Yakub (sometimes spelled Yacub or Yaqub) was a black scientist who lived 6,600 years ago and began the creation of the white race/whites. He is said to have done this through a form of selective breeding which is referred to as \"grafting\", while he was living on the island of Patmos. The Nation of Islam's theology states that Yakub is the biblical Jacob. \nThe story has caused disputes within the NOI during its history. Under its current leader Louis Farrakhan, the NOI continues to assert that the story of Yakub is true, claiming that modern science is consistent with it. Despite the NOI's self-proclamations of consistency with modern science, there are no reputable scientific studies that support this assertion.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Zeitgeist is a series of three documentary films released between 2007 and 2011 that present a number of conspiracy theories, as well as proposals for broad social and economic changes. The films, Zeitgeist: The Movie (2007), Zeitgeist: Addendum (2008) and Zeitgeist: Moving Forward (2011) are all directed by Peter Joseph.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Zeitgeschichtliche Forschungsstelle Ingolstadt e. V. (Ingolstadt Research Institute for Contemporary Historical Research registered association, ZFI, also known as Institut f\u00fcr Zeitgeschichtsforschung Ingolstadt) is a historical revisionist association located in Dunsdorf, Bavaria.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In futures studies and the history of technology, accelerating change is a perceived increase in the rate of technological change throughout history, which may suggest faster and more profound change in the future and may or may not be accompanied by equally profound social and cultural change.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Against The Grain: A Deep History of the Earliest States is a 2017 book by James C. Scott that sets out to undermine what he calls the \"standard civilizational narrative\" that suggests humans chose to live settled lives based on intensive agriculture because this made people safer and more prosperous. Instead, he argues, people had to be forced to live in the early states, which were hierarchical, beset by malnutrition and disease, and often based on slavery. The book has been praised for re-opening some of the biggest questions in human history. A review in Science concludes that the book's thesis \"is fascinating and represents an alternative, nuanced, if somewhat speculative, scenario on how civilized society came into being.\"", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "American exceptionalism is the idea that the United States is inherently different from other nations. Proponents of it argue that the values, political system, and historical development of the U.S. are unique in human history, often with the implication that it is both destined and entitled to play a distinct and positive role on the world stage.Political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset traces the origins of American exceptionalism to the American Revolution, from which the U.S. emerged as \"the first new nation\" with a distinct ideology. This ideology, which Lipset called Americanism, but is often also referred to as American exceptionalism, is based on liberty, equality before the law, individual responsibility, republicanism, and laissez-faire economics; these principles are sometimes collectively referred to as \"American exceptionalism\", and entail the U.S. being perceived both domestically and internationally as superior to other nations or having a unique mission to transform the world.The theory of exceptionalism in the U.S. developed over time and can be traced to many sources. French political scientist and historian Alexis de Tocqueville was the first writer to describe the country as \"exceptional\" following his travels there in 1831. The earliest documented use of the specific term \"American exceptionalism\" is by American communists in intra-communist disputes in the late 1920s.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Anthropometric history is the study of the history of human height and weight. It has historical roots. In the 1830s, Adolphe Quetelet and Louis R. Villerm\u00e9 studied the physical stature of populations. In the 1960s, French historians analyzed the relationship between socio-economic variables and human height. Anthropometric history was established as field of study in the late 1970s when economic historians Robert Fogel, John Komlos, Richard Steckel and other academics began to study the history of human physical stature and its relationship to economic development. A branch of cliometrics, it uses trends and cross-sectional patterns in human physical stature to understand historical processes.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Arab Awakening is a 1938 book by George Antonius, published in London by Hamish Hamilton. It is viewed as the foundational textbook of the history of modern Arab nationalism. According to Martin Kramer, The Arab Awakening \"became the preferred textbook for successive generations of British and American historians and their students\".It generated an ongoing debate over such issues as the origins of Arab nationalism, the significance of the Arab Revolt of 1916, and the machinations behind the post-World War I political settlement in the Middle East.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Archaic globalization is a phase in the history of globalization, and conventionally refers to globalizing events and developments from the time of the earliest civilizations until roughly 1600 (the following period is known as early modern globalization). Archaic globalization describes the relationships between communities and states and how they were created by the geographical spread of ideas and social norms at both local and regional levels.States began to interact and trade with others within close proximity as a way to acquire coveted goods that were considered a luxury. This trade led to the spread of ideas such as religion, economic structures and political ideals. Merchants became connected and aware of others in ways that had not been apparent. Archaic globalization is comparable to present day globalization on a much smaller scale. It not only allowed the spread of goods and commodities to other regions, but it also allowed people to experience other cultures. Cities that partook in trading were bound together by sea lanes, rivers, and great overland trade routes, some of which had been in use since antiquity. Trading was broken up according to geographic location, with centers between flanking places serving as \"break-in-bulk\" and exchange points for goods destined for more distant markets. During this time period the subsystems were more self-sufficient than they are today and therefore less vitally dependent upon one another for everyday survival. While long-distance trading came with many trials and tribulations, still so much of it went on during this early time period. Linking the trade together involved eight interlinked subsystems that were grouped into three large circuits, which encompassed the western European, the Middle Eastern, and the Far Eastern circuits. This interaction during trading was early civilization's way to communicate and spread many ideas that caused modern globalization to emerge and allowed a new aspect to present-day society.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The book, The Automated Society, by Masse Bloomfield defines the history of humanity beginning over two million years ago and ending over a hundred thousand years in the future. The book's history diagram is based on biological punctuated equilibrium and a parallel cultural evolution. The predictions of the future follow what has happened in the past.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In international relations theory, the bargaining model of war is a method of representing the potential gains and losses and ultimate outcome of war between two actors as a bargaining interaction. A central puzzle that motivates research in this vein is the \"inefficiency puzzle of war\": why do wars occur when it would be better for all parties involved to reach an agreement that goes short of war? In the bargaining model, war between rational actors is possible due to uncertainty and commitment problems. As a result, provision of reliable information and steps to alleviate commitment problems make war less likely. It is an influential strand of rational choice scholarship in the field of international relations.\nThomas Schelling was an early proponent of formalizing conflicts as bargaining situations. Stanford University political scientist James Fearon brought prominence to the bargaining model in the 1990s. His 1995 article \"Rationalist Explanations for War\" is the most assigned journal article in International Relations graduate training at U.S. universities. The bargaining model of war has been described as \"the dominant framework used in the study of war in the international relations field.\"", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In Marxist theory, society consists of two parts: the base (or substructure) and superstructure. The base refers to the mode of production which includes the forces and relations of production (e.g. employer\u2013employee work conditions, the technical division of labour, and property relations) into which people enter to produce the necessities and amenities of life. The superstructure refers to society's other relationships and ideas not directly relating to production including its culture, institutions, political power structures, roles, rituals, religion, media, and state. The relation of the two parts is not strictly unidirectional. The superstructure can affect the base. However the influence of the base is predominant.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Big History Project was co-founded by Bill Gates and David Christian to enable the global teaching of the subject of Big History, which is described as \"the attempt to understand, in a unified way, the history of Cosmos, Earth, Life and Humanity.\" It is a course that covers history from the Big Bang through to the present in an interdisciplinary way. The Big History Project \"is dedicated to fostering a greater love and capacity for learning among high school students\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Marc L\u00e9opold Benjamin Bloch (; French: [ma\u0281k le\u0254p\u0254ld b\u025b\u0303\u0292am\u025b\u0303 bl\u0254k]; 6 July 1886 \u2013 16 June 1944) was a French historian. He was a founding member of the Annales School of French social history. Bloch specialised in medieval history and published widely on Medieval France over the course of his career. As an academic, he worked at the University of Strasbourg (1920 to 1936), the University of Paris (1936 to 1939), and the University of Montpellier (1941 to 1944).\nBorn in Lyon to an Alsatian Jewish family, Bloch was raised in Paris, where his father\u2014the classical historian Gustave Bloch\u2014worked at Sorbonne University. Bloch was educated at various Parisian lyc\u00e9es and the \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure, and from an early age was affected by the antisemitism of the Dreyfus affair. During the First World War, he served in the French Army and fought at the First Battle of the Marne and the Somme. After the war, he was awarded his doctorate in 1918 and became a lecturer at the University of Strasbourg. There, he formed an intellectual partnership with modern historian Lucien Febvre. Together they founded the Annales School and began publishing the journal Annales d'histoire \u00e9conomique et sociale in 1929. Bloch was a modernist in his historiographical approach, and repeatedly emphasised the importance of a multidisciplinary engagement towards history, particularly blending his research with that on geography, sociology and economics, which was his subject when he was offered a post at the University of Paris in 1936.\nDuring the Second World War Bloch volunteered for service, and was a logistician during the Phoney War. Involved in the Battle of Dunkirk and spending a brief time in Britain, he unsuccessfully attempted to secure passage to the United States. Back in France, where his ability to work was curtailed by new antisemitic regulations, he applied for and received one of the few permits available allowing Jews to continue working in the French university system. He had to leave Paris, and complained that the Nazi German authorities looted his apartment and stole his books; he was also forced to relinquish his position on the editorial board of Annales. Bloch worked in Montpellier until November 1942 when Germany invaded Vichy France. He then joined the French Resistance, acting predominantly as a courier and translator. In 1944, he was captured in Lyon and executed by firing squad. Several works\u2014including influential studies like The Historian's Craft and Strange Defeat\u2014were published posthumously.\nHis historical studies and his death as a member of the Resistance together made Bloch highly regarded by generations of post-war French historians; he came to be called \"the greatest historian of all time\". By the end of the 20th century, historians were making a more sober assessment of Bloch's abilities, influence, and legacy, arguing that there were flaws to his approach.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Bonapartism (French: Bonapartisme) is the political ideology supervening from Napoleon Bonaparte and his followers and successors. The term was used to refer to people who hoped to restore the House of Bonaparte and its style of government. In this sense, a Bonapartiste was a person who either actively participated in or advocated for conservative, monarchist and imperial political factions in 19th-century France. After Napoleon, the term was applied to the French politicians who seized power in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, ruling in the French Consulate and subsequently in the First and Second French Empires. The Bonapartistes desired an empire under the House of Bonaparte, the Corsican family of Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon I of France) and his nephew Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III of France).In recent years, the term has been used more generally for a political movement that advocates an authoritarian centralised state, with a strongman charismatic leader based on anti-elitist rhetoric, army support, as well as conservatism. Examples of such leaders are Indonesia's Sukarno and Burma's General Ne Win.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Fernand Braudel (French: [f\u025b\u0281n\u0251\u0303 b\u0281od\u025bl]; 24 August 1902 \u2013 27 November 1985) was a French historian and leader of the Annales School.  His scholarship focused on three main projects: The Mediterranean (1923\u201349, then 1949\u201366), Civilization and Capitalism (1955\u201379), and the unfinished Identity of France (1970\u201385). He was a member of the Annales School of French historiography and social history in the 1950s and 1960s. He was a student of Henri Hauser.\n\nBraudel emphasized the role of large-scale socioeconomic factors in the making and writing of history. He can also be considered one of the precursors of world-systems theory.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Budapest School (Hungarian: Budapesti iskola; German: Budapester Schule) was a school of thought, originally of Marxist humanism, but later of post-Marxism and dissident liberalism that emerged in Hungary in the early 1960s, belonging to so-called Hungarian New Left. Its members were students or colleagues of Georg Luk\u00e1cs. The school was originally oriented towards developing Lukacs' later works on social ontology and aesthetics, but quickly began to challenge the paradigm of Lukacsian-Marxism, thus reconstructing contemporary critical theory.  Most of the members later came to abandon Marxism. The school also critiqued the \"dictatorship over needs\" of the Soviet states. Most of the members were forced into exile by the pro-Soviet Hungarian government.\nIn a letter to The Times Literary Supplement  February 15, 1971, Georg Luk\u00e1cs drew attention to \"The Budapest School of Marxism\", and helped attract attention to the school from Western Marxism.\nMembers of the school include \u00c1gnes Heller, Ferenc Feh\u00e9r, Gy\u00f6rgy M\u00e1rkus, Istv\u00e1n M\u00e9sz\u00e1ros, Mih\u00e1ly Vajda, and Maria M\u00e1rkus, among others. The Budapest School's writings have been read and researched widely since the 1960s.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In intellectual history and the history of political thought, the Cambridge School is a loose historiographical movement traditionally associated with the University of Cambridge, where many of those associated with the school held or continue to hold academic positions, including Quentin Skinner, J. G. A. Pocock, Peter Laslett, John Dunn and James Tully, as well as David Runciman and Raymond Geuss.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In Karl Marx's critique of political economy and subsequent Marxian analyses, the capitalist mode of production (German: Produktionsweise) refers to the systems of organizing production and distribution within capitalist societies. Private money-making in various forms (renting, banking, merchant trade, production for profit and so on) preceded the development of the capitalist mode of production as such. The capitalist mode of production proper, based on wage-labour and private ownership of the means of production and on industrial technology, began to grow rapidly in Western Europe from the Industrial Revolution, later extending to most of the world.The capitalist mode of production is characterized by private ownership of the means of production, extraction of surplus value by the owning class for the purpose of capital accumulation, wage-based labour and\u2014at least as far as commodities are concerned\u2014being market-based.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The capitalist peace, or capitalist peace theory, or commercial peace, posits that market openness contributes to more peaceful behavior among states, and that developed market-oriented economies are less likely to engage in conflict with one another. Along with the democratic peace theory and institutionalist arguments for peace, the commercial peace forms part of the Kantian tripod for peace. Prominent mechanisms for the commercial peace revolve around how capitalism, trade interdependence, and capital interdependence raise the costs of warfare, incentivize groups to lobby against war, make it harder for leaders to go to war, and reduce the economic benefits of conquest.Scholars have debated the empirical and theoretical validity of the commercial peace thesis, as well as the mechanisms behind the theory. According to Erik Gartzke and Jiakun Jack Zhang, the evidence on the relationship between economic interdependence and conflict is inconclusive.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The circumscription theory is a  theory of the role of warfare in state formation in political anthropology, created by anthropologist Robert Carneiro. The theory has been summarized in one sentence by Schacht: \u201cIn areas of circumscribed agricultural land, population pressure led to warfare that resulted in the evolution of the state\u201d. The more circumscribed an agricultural area is, Carneiro argues, the sooner it politically unifies.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A civilization (or civilisation) is any complex society characterized by the development of a political state, social stratification,  urbanization, and symbolic systems of communication beyond natural spoken language (namely, a writing system).\n\nCivilizations are intimately associated with additional characteristics such as centralization, the domestication of plant and animal species (including humans), specialization of labour, culturally-ingrained ideologies of progress, monumental architecture, taxation, societal dependence upon farming, and expansionism.Historically, \"a civilization\" has often been understood as a larger and \"more advanced\" culture, in implied contrast to smaller, supposedly less advanced cultures. In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of nomadic pastoralists, Neolithic societies or hunter-gatherers; however, sometimes it also contrasts with the cultures found within civilizations themselves. Civilizations are organized densely-populated settlements divided into hierarchical social classes with a ruling elite and subordinate urban and rural populations, which engage in intensive agriculture, mining, small-scale manufacture and trade. Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human beings.Civilization, as its etymology (see below) suggests, is a concept originally associated with towns and cities. The earliest emergence of civilizations is generally connected with the final stages of the Neolithic Revolution in West Asia, culminating in the relatively rapid process of urban revolution and state-formation, a political development associated with the appearance of a governing elite.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Classical Marxism refers to the economic, philosophical and sociological theories expounded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels as contrasted with later developments in Marxism, especially Marxism\u2013Leninism.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Cliodynamics () is a transdisciplinary area of research that integrates cultural evolution, economic history/cliometrics, macrosociology, the mathematical modeling of historical processes during the longue dur\u00e9e, and the construction and analysis of historical databases.Cliodynamics treats history as science. Its practitioners develop theories that explain such dynamical processes as the rise and fall of empires, population booms and busts, and the spread and disappearance of religions. These theories are translated into mathematical models. Finally, model predictions are tested against data. Thus, building and analyzing massive databases of historical and archaeological information is one of the most important goals of cliodynamics.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Cliometrics (, also ), sometimes called new economic history or econometric history, is the systematic application of economic theory, econometric techniques, and other formal or mathematical methods to the study of history (especially social and economic history). It is a quantitative approach to economic history (as opposed to qualitative or ethnographic).There has been a revival in 'new economic history' since the late 1990s.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (titled Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive for the British edition) is a 2005 book by academic and popular science author Jared Diamond, in which the author first defines collapse:  \"a drastic decrease in human population size and/or political/economic/social complexity, over a considerable area, for an extended time.\"  He then reviews the causes of historical and pre-historical instances of societal collapse\u2014particularly those involving significant influences from environmental changes, the effects of climate change, hostile neighbors, trade partners, and the society's response to the foregoing four challenges\u2014and considers the success or failure different societies have had in coping with such threats.\nWhile the bulk of the book is concerned with the demise of these historical civilizations, Diamond also argues that humanity collectively faces, on a much larger scale, many of the same issues, with possibly catastrophic near-future consequences to many of the world's populations.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Isidore Marie Auguste Fran\u00e7ois Xavier Comte (French: [o\u02c8\u0261yst k\u0254\u0303t] (listen); 19 January 1798 \u2013 5 September 1857) was a French philosopher and writer who formulated the doctrine of positivism. He is often regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term. Comte's ideas were also fundamental to the development of sociology; indeed, he invented the term and treated that discipline as the crowning achievement of the sciences.Influenced by the utopian socialist Henri de Saint-Simon, Comte developed positive philosophy in an attempt to remedy the social disorder caused by the French Revolution, which he believed indicated imminent transition to a new form of society. He sought to establish a new social doctrine based on science, which he labelled 'positivism'. He had a major impact on 19th-century thought, influencing the work of social thinkers such as John Stuart Mill and George Eliot. His concept of Sociologie and social evolutionism set the tone for early social theorists and anthropologists such as Harriet Martineau and Herbert Spencer, evolving into modern academic sociology presented by \u00c9mile Durkheim as practical and objective social research.\nComte's social theories culminated in his \"Religion of Humanity\", which presaged the development of non-theistic religious humanist and secular humanist organisations in the 19th century. He may also have coined the word altruisme (altruism).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Conceptual history (also the history of concepts or, from German, Begriffsgeschichte) is a branch of historical and cultural studies that deals with the historical semantics of terms. It sees the etymology and the change in meaning of terms as forming a crucial basis for contemporary cultural, conceptual and linguistic understanding. Conceptual history deals with the evolution of paradigmatic ideas and value systems over time, such as \"liberty\" or \"reform\". It argues that social history \u2013 indeed all historical reflection \u2013 must begin with an understanding of historically contingent cultural values and practices in their particular contexts over time, not merely as unchanging ideologies or processes.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Conflict theories are perspectives in sociology and social psychology that emphasize a materialist interpretation of history, dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance toward existing social arrangements, and political program of revolution or, at least, reform. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro-level analysis of society.\nKarl Marx is regarded as the father of social conflict theory, which is a component of the four major paradigms of sociology. Certain conflict theories set out to highlight the ideological aspects inherent in traditional thought. While many of these perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory does not refer to a unified school of thought, and should not be confused with, for instance, peace and conflict studies, or any other specific theory of social conflict.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Creative destruction (German: sch\u00f6pferische Zerst\u00f6rung) is a concept in economics which since the 1950s is the most readily identified with the Austrian-born economist Joseph Schumpeter who derived it from the work of Karl Marx and popularized it as a theory of economic innovation and the business cycle.  It is also sometimes known as Schumpeter's gale.\nAccording to Schumpeter, the \"gale of creative destruction\" describes the \"process of industrial mutation that continuously revolutionizes the economic structure from within, incessantly destroying the old one, incessantly creating a new one\". In Marxian economic theory the concept refers more broadly to the linked processes of the accumulation and annihilation of wealth under capitalism.The German sociologist Werner Sombart has been credited with the first use of these terms in his work Krieg und Kapitalismus (War and Capitalism, 1913). In the earlier work of Marx, however, the idea of creative destruction or annihilation (German: Vernichtung) implies not only that capitalism destroys and reconfigures previous economic orders, but also that it must ceaselessly devalue existing wealth (whether through war, dereliction, or regular and periodic economic crises) in order to clear the ground for the creation of new wealth.In Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942), Joseph Schumpeter developed the concept out of a careful reading of Marx's thought (to which the whole of Part I of the book is devoted), arguing (in Part II) that the creative-destructive forces unleashed by capitalism would eventually lead to its demise as a system (see below). Despite this, the term subsequently gained popularity within mainstream economics as a description of processes such as downsizing in order to increase the efficiency and dynamism of a company. The Marxian usage has, however, been retained and further developed in the work of social scientists such as David Harvey, Marshall Berman, Manuel Castells and Daniele Archibugi.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Critical Path is a book written by US author and inventor R. Buckminster Fuller with the assistance of Kiyoshi Kuromiya. First published in 1981, it is alongside Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth one of Fuller's best-known works. Vast in its scope, it describes Fuller's own vision of the development of human civilization, economic history, and his highly original economic ideology based, amongst other things, on his detailed description of why scarcity of resources need no longer be a decisive factor in global politics.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Cultural ecology is the study of human adaptations to social and physical environments. Human adaptation refers to both biological and cultural processes that enable a population to survive and reproduce within a given or changing environment. This may be carried out diachronically (examining entities that existed in different epochs), or synchronically (examining a present system and its components). The central argument is that the natural environment, in small scale or subsistence societies dependent in part upon it, is a major contributor to social organization and other human institutions. In the academic realm, when combined with study of political economy, the study of economies as polities, it becomes political ecology, another academic subfield. It also helps interrogate historical events like the Easter Island Syndrome.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Cultural globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings and values around the world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations. This process is marked by the common consumption of cultures that have been diffused by the Internet, popular culture media, and international travel. This has added to processes of commodity exchange and colonization which have a longer history of carrying cultural meaning around the globe. The circulation of cultures enables individuals to partake in extended social relations that cross national and regional borders The creation and expansion of such social relations is not merely observed on a material level. Cultural globalization involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge with which people associate their individual and collective cultural identities. It brings increasing interconnectedness among different populations and cultures. The idea of cultural globalization emerged in the late 1980s, but was diffused widely by Western academics throughout the 1990s and early 2000s. For some researchers, the idea of cultural globalization is reaction to the claims made by critics of cultural imperialism in the 1970s and 1980s.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Cultural materialism is an anthropological research orientation first introduced by Marvin Harris in his 1968 book The Rise of Anthropological Theory, as a theoretical paradigm and research strategy. It is said to be the most enduring achievement of that work. Harris subsequently developed a full elaboration and defense of the paradigm in his 1979 book Cultural Materialism. To Harris social change is dependent of three factors: a society's infrastructure, structure, and superstructure.Harris's concept of cultural materialism was influenced by the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, as well as their theories as modified by Karl August Wittfogel and his 1957 book, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power. Yet this  materialism is distinct from Marxist dialectical materialism, as well as from philosophical materialism. Thomas Malthus's work encouraged Harris to consider reproduction of equal importance to production. The research strategy was also influenced by the work of earlier anthropologists including Herbert Spencer, Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan who, in the 19th century, first proposed that cultures evolved from the less complex to the more complex over time. Leslie White and Julian Steward and their theories of cultural evolution and cultural ecology were instrumental in the reemergence of evolutionist theories of culture in the 20th century and Harris took inspiration from them in formulating cultural materialism.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Cybernetic Culture Research Unit (CCRU) was an experimental cultural theorist collective formed in late 1995 at Warwick University, England and gradually separated from academia until it dissolved in 2003. It garnered reputation for its idiosyncratic and surreal \"theory-fiction\" which incorporated cyberpunk and Gothic horror, and its work has since had an online cult following related to the rise in popularity of accelerationism. Warwick University maintains that the CCRU was never a sanctioned academic project, with some faculty going so far as to assert that the CCRU \"has never existed\". The CCRU are strongly associated with their former leading members, Sadie Plant and Nick Land.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Dawn of Everything: A New History of Humanity is a 2021 book by anthropologist and anarchist activist David Graeber, and archaeologist David Wengrow. It was first published in the United Kingdom on 19 October 2021 by Allen Lane (an imprint of Penguin Books).Drawing attention to the diversity of early human societies, it critiques traditional narratives of history's linear development from primitivism to civilization. Instead, The Dawn of Everything posits that humans lived in large, complex, but decentralized polities for millennia. It relies on archaeological evidence to show that early societies were diverse and developed numerous political structures.Graeber and Wengrow finished the book around August 2020. Its American edition is 704 pages long, including a 63-page bibliography. It was a finalist for the Orwell Prize for Political Writing (2022).\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Decline of the West (German: Der Untergang des Abendlandes), or more literally, The Downfall of the Occident, is a two-volume work by Oswald Spengler. The first volume, subtitled Form and Actuality, was published in the summer of 1918. The second volume, subtitled Perspectives of World History, was published in 1922. The definitive edition of both volumes was published in 1923.Spengler introduced his book as a \"Copernican overturning\"\u2014a specific metaphor of societal collapse\u2014involving the rejection of the Eurocentric view of history, especially the division of history into the linear \"ancient-medieval-modern\" rubric. According to Spengler, the meaningful units for history are not epochs but whole cultures which evolve as organisms. He recognized at least eight high cultures: Babylonian, Egyptian,\nChinese, Indian, Mesoamerican (Mayan/Aztec), Classical (Greek/Roman, \"Apollonian\"), Arabian (\"Magian\"), and Western or European (\"Faustian\"). In his framework, the terms \"culture\" and \"civilization\" were given non-standard definitions and cultures are described as having lifespans of about a thousand years of flourishing, and a thousand years of decline. The final stage of each culture is, in his word use, a \"civilization\".\nSpengler also presented the idea of Muslims, Jews and Christians, as well as their Persian and Semitic forebears, being \"Magian\"; Mediterranean cultures of antiquity such as Ancient Greece and Rome being \"Apollonian\"; and modern Westerners being \"Faustian\".\nAccording to Spengler, the Western world was ending and the final season, the \"winter\" of Faustian Civilization, was being witnessed. In Spengler's depiction, Western Man was a proud but tragic figure because, while he strives and creates, he secretly knows the actual goal will never be reached.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Deglobalization or deglobalisation is the process of diminishing interdependence and integration between certain units around the world, typically nation-states. It is widely used to describe the periods of history when economic trade and investment between countries decline. It stands in contrast to globalization, in which units become increasingly integrated over time, and generally spans the time between periods of globalization. While globalization and deglobalisation are antitheses, they are no mirror images.\nThe term of deglobalization has derived from some of the very profound change in many developed nations, where trade as a proportion of total economic activity until the 1970s was below previous peak levels in the early 1910s. This decline reflects that their economies become less integrated with the rest of the world economies in spite of the deepening scope of economic globalization. At the  global level only two longer periods of deglobalization occurred, namely in the 1930s during the Great Depression and 2010s, when following the Great Trade Collapse the period of the World Trade Slowdown set in. \nThe occurrence of deglobalization has strong proponents who have claimed the death of globalization, but is also contested by leading academics such as Michael Bordo who argues that it is too soon to give a good diagnosis and Mervyn Martin  who argues that US and UK policies are rational answers to essential temporary problems of even strong nations\nWhile as with globalization, deglobalization can refer to economic, trade, social, technological, cultural and political dimensions, much of the work that has been conducted in the study of deglobalization refers to the field of international economics.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Democratic rationalization is term used by Andrew Feenberg in his article \"Subversive Rationalization: Technology, Power and Democracy with technology.\"  Feenberg argues against the idea of technological determinism citing flaws in its two fundamental theses. The first is the thesis of unilinear progress.  This is the belief that technological progress follows a direct and predictable path from lower to higher levels of complexity and that each stage along this path is necessary for progress to occur (Feenberg 211).\nThe second is the thesis of determination by the base.  This is the concept that  in a society where a technology had been introduced, that society must organize itself or adapt to the technology (Feenberg 211). In his argument against the former thesis Feenberg says that constructivist studies of technology will lead us to realize that there is not a set path by which development of technologies occur but rather an emerging of similar technologies at the same time leading to a multiplicity of choices.  These choices are made based upon certain social factors and upon examining them we will see that they are not deterministic in nature (Feenberg 212).\nArguing against the latter thesis, Feenberg calls to our attention social reforms that have been mandated by governments mainly in regards to the protection of its citizens and laborers.  Most of the time these mandates are widely accepted after being passed through the governing body. At which point technology and industry will reform and re-evolve to meet the new standards in a way that has greater efficiency than it did so previously (Feenberg 214)", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Despotism (Greek: \u0394\u03b5\u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, despotism\u00f3s) is a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power.  Normally, that entity is an individual, the despot; but (as in an autocracy) societies which limit respect and power to specific groups have also been called despotic.Colloquially, the word despot applies pejoratively to those who use their power and authority to oppress their populace, subjects, or subordinates. More specifically, the term often applies to a head of state or government. In this sense, it is similar to the pejorative connotations that are associated with the terms tyrant and dictator.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Dialectical materialism is a philosophy of science, history, and nature developed in Europe and based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxist dialectics, as a materialist philosophy, emphasizes the importance of real-world conditions and the presence of contradictions within things, in relation to but not limited to class, labor, and socioeconomic interactions. This is in contrast to the idealist Hegelian dialectic, which emphasizes the observation that contradictions in material phenomena could be resolved by analyzing them and synthesizing a solution whilst retaining their essence. Marx supposed that the most effective solution to the problems caused by said contradictory phenomena was to address and rearrange the systems of social organization at the root of the problems.Dialectical materialism accepts the evolution of the natural world and the emergence of new qualities of being at new stages of evolution. As Z. A. Jordan noted, \"Engels made constant use of the metaphysical insight that the higher level of existence emerges from and has its roots in the lower; that the higher level constitutes a new order of being with its irreducible laws; and that this process of evolutionary advance is governed by laws of development which reflect basic properties of 'matter in motion as a whole'.\"The formulation of the Soviet version of dialectical and historical materialism in the 1930s by Joseph Stalin (such as in Stalin's book Dialectical and Historical Materialism) became the official interpretation taught in Soviet education, while other interpretations and conceptions of dialectical materialism, such as Mao's On Contradiction, exist across the world.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations is a 19th-century comprehensive survey of world religions by the American author, Hannah Adams. It was first published in Boston, Massachusetts in 1817.\nIn 1817, appeared A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations, dedicated as before to John Adams. This was a popular book from the first. It was published in England with a preface and additions by Mr. Andrew Fuller; also in another form by Mr. Thomas Williams, who likewise made alterations. Adams acknowledged herself indebted to both these editions for some of the improvements in her fourth edition. It received the notice of Jared Sparks in the North American Review; he pronounced it the best manual of the kind he knew of. \"It has the peculiar merit,\" he added, \"of the strictest candor and impartiality; and so completely has the author divested herself of all in lividual prepossessions, that it may be doubted whether from a single passage in the whole work her own religious sentiments can be inferred. This freedom from personal bias, in exhibiting the views of others, especially on topics rarely touched without calling out private opinion, inspires confidence in her statements, as well as respect for her judgment and Christian charity.\"", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The driftwood theory (Finnish: ajopuuteoria, Swedish: drivvedsteorin) states that Finnish involvement in the Second World War as an aggressor was the cause of inadvertent decisions made on the basis of a limited choice of policies.\nThe first arguments that Finland drifted into the Continuation War were made for the war responsibility trials in 1945 by the Hornborg committee, whose final report criticized Finnish political leadership for being passive and fatalistic. In the actual war responsibility trials of 1945\u20131946, the defense claimed that the defendants lacked active responsibility for the outbreak and continuation of the conflict.\nIn 1948, the professor and historian Arvi Korhonen anonymously published the book Finland in the World War II, in which he interpreted Finland as having acted only as the defender of Western society against communism, and denied all collaboration with Germany. During the war, the German ambassador Wipert von Bl\u00fccher had written in 1950 that Finland had been at the great powers' mercy, entirely without the possibility of an independent political solution. In his memoirs, Bl\u00fccher used the analogy of a piece of driftwood to describe Finland's situation: \"In the battle of great powers the free will of small states has very narrow limits. Finland was drawn into the whirlpools of great power politics the way a swift Finnish stream snatches a driftwood.\"\nOpposing viewpoints also formed, and in 1957 American Charles Leonard Lundin published Finland in the Second World War, in which he emphasized Finns' activeness and guilt in the war. However, the work contained factual errors, which inspired Arvi Korhonen to write Operation Barbarossa and Finland, again representing Finland as the innocent victim of great-power politics. Korhonen cited Bl\u00fccher and established the driftwood theory, according to which Finland was forced into involvement in the world war.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Dunning School is a historiographical school of thought regarding the Reconstruction period of American history (1865\u20131877), supporting conservative elements against the Radical Republicans who introduced civil rights in the South. It is named for Columbia University professor William Archibald Dunning, who taught many of its followers.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Dynastic cycle (traditional Chinese: \u671d\u4ee3\u5faa\u74b0; simplified Chinese: \u671d\u4ee3\u5faa\u73af; pinyin: Ch\u00e1od\u00e0i X\u00fanhu\u00e1n) is an important political theory in Chinese history. According to this theory, each dynasty of China rises to a political, cultural, and economic peak and then, because of moral corruption, declines, loses the Mandate of Heaven, and falls, only to be replaced by a new dynasty. The cycle then repeats under a surface pattern of repetitive motifs.It sees a continuity in Chinese history from early times to the present by looking at the succession of empires or dynasties, implying that there is little basic development or change in social or economic structures. John K. Fairbank expressed the doubts of many historians when he wrote that \"the concept of the dynastic cycle... has been a major block to the understanding of the fundamental dynamics of Chinese history.\"\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, written by the political scientist John M. Hobson in 2004, is a book that argues against the historical theory of the rise of the West after 1492 as a \"virgin birth\", but rather as a product of Western interactions with a more technically and socially advanced Eastern civilization.\nThe text reinterprets Eurocentric ideas of Europe's contributions to world development. For example, it provides evidence that a complex system of global trade existed long before Mercantilist Europe, that social and economic theories in the Enlightenment came from encounters with new cultures rather than with Greek and Roman heritage, and that modern European hegemony resulted from situational advantages rather than from inherent superior traits.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Economic determinism is a socioeconomic theory that economic relationships (such as being an owner or capitalist, or being a worker or proletarian) are the foundation upon which all other societal and political arrangements in society are based. The theory stresses that societies are divided into competing economic classes whose relative political power is determined by the nature of the economic system. \nIn the writing of American history the term is associated with historian Charles A. Beard (1874\u20131948), who was not a Marxist but who emphasized the long-term political contest between bankers and business interest on the one hand, and agrarian interests on the other.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Empire and Communications is a book published in 1950 by University of Toronto professor Harold Innis. It is based on six lectures Innis delivered at Oxford University in 1948. The series, known as the Beit Lectures, was dedicated to exploring British imperial history. Innis, however, decided to undertake a sweeping historical survey of how communications media influence the rise and fall of empires. He traced the effects of media such as stone, clay, papyrus, parchment and paper from ancient to modern times.Innis argued that the \"bias\" of each medium toward space or toward time helps to determine the nature of the civilization in which that medium dominates. \"Media that emphasize time are those that are durable in character such as parchment, clay and stone,\" he writes in his introduction. These media tend to favour decentralization. \"Media that emphasize space are apt to be less durable and light in character, such as papyrus and paper.\" These media generally favour large, centralized administrations. Innis believed that to persist in time and to occupy space, empires needed to strike a balance between time-biased and space-biased media. Such a balance is likely to be threatened, however, when monopolies of knowledge exist favouring some media over others.Empire and Communications examines the impact of media such as stone, clay, papyrus and the alphabet on the empires of Egypt and Babylonia. It also looks at the oral tradition in ancient Greece; the written tradition and the Roman Empire; the influence of parchment and paper in medieval Europe and the effects of paper and the printing press in modern times.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The End of History and the Last Man is a 1992 book of political philosophy by American political scientist Francis Fukuyama which argues that with the ascendancy of Western liberal democracy\u2014which occurred after the Cold War (1945\u20131991) and the dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991)\u2014humanity has reached \"not just ... the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: That is, the end-point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.\" For the book, which is an expansion of his essay \"The End of History?\" (published in the summer of 1989, months before the fall of the Berlin Wall), Fukuyama draws upon the philosophies and ideologies of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Karl Marx, who define human history as a linear progression, from one socioeconomic epoch to another.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Friedrich Engels ( ENG-(g)\u0259lz, German: [\u02c8f\u0281i\u02d0d\u0281\u026a\u00e7 \u02c8\u0294\u025b\u014bl\u0329s]), sometimes anglicised as Frederick Engels (28 November 1820 \u2013 5 August 1895), was a German philosopher, critic of political economy, historian, political theorist and revolutionary socialist. He was also a businessman, journalist and political activist, whose father was an owner of large textile factories in Salford (Lancashire, England) and Barmen, Prussia (now Wuppertal, Germany).Engels developed what is now known as Marxism together with Karl Marx. In 1845, he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research in English cities. In 1848, Engels co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Marx and also authored and co-authored (primarily with Marx) many other works. Later, Engels supported Marx financially, allowing him to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death, Engels edited the second and third volumes of Das Kapital. Additionally, Engels organised Marx's notes on the Theories of Surplus Value which were later published as the \"fourth volume\" of Das Kapital. In 1884, he published The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State on the basis of Marx's ethnographic research.\nOn 5 August 1895, aged 74, Engels died of laryngeal cancer in London. Following cremation, his ashes were scattered off Beachy Head, near Eastbourne.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The English School of international relations theory (sometimes also referred to as liberal realism, the International Society school or the British institutionalists) maintains that there is a 'society of states' at the international level, despite the condition of anarchy (that is, the lack of a global ruler or world state). The English school stands for the conviction that ideas, rather than simply material capabilities, shape the conduct of international politics, and therefore deserve analysis and critique. In this sense it is similar to constructivism, though the English School has its roots more in world history, international law and political theory, and is more open to normative approaches than is generally the case with constructivism.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The European Miracle: Environments, Economies and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia is a book written by Eric Jones in 1981 to refer to the sudden rise of Europe during the late Middle Ages. Ahead of the Islamic and Chinese civilizations, Europe steadily rose since the Early modern period to a complete domination of  world trade and politics that remained unchallenged until the early 20th century.\nThis process started with the first European contacts and subsequent colonization of great expanses of the world. The Industrial Revolution further reinforced it.\nJones's book gave rise to the term European miracle. It is closely related to the idea of the Great Divergence, but the latter's focuses, rather than the origins of the rise of Europe during the Renaissance, is the 18th-century culmination of the process and the subsequent \"imperial century\" of Britain.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Fourierism () is the systematic set of economic, political, and social beliefs first espoused by French intellectual Charles Fourier (1772\u20131837). Based upon a belief in the inevitability of communal associations of people who worked and lived together as part of the human future, Fourier's committed supporters referred to his doctrines as associationism. Political contemporaries and subsequent scholarship has identified Fourier's set of ideas as a form of utopian socialism\u2014a phrase that retains mild pejorative overtones.\nNever tested in practice at any scale in Fourier's lifetime, Fourierism enjoyed a brief boom in the United States of America during the mid-1840s owing largely to the efforts of his American popularizer, Albert Brisbane (1809\u20131890), and the American Union of Associationists, but ultimately failed as a social and economic model. The system was briefly revived in the mid-1850s by Victor Considerant (1808\u20131893), a French disciple of Fourier's who unsuccessfully attempted to relaunch the model in Texas in the 1850s.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Frankfurt School (German: Frankfurter Schule) is a school of social theory and critical philosophy associated with the Institute for Social Research, at Goethe University Frankfurt in 1929. Founded in the Weimar Republic (1918\u20131933), during the European interwar period (1918\u20131939), the Frankfurt School initially comprised intellectuals, academics, and political dissidents dissatisfied with the contemporary socio-economic systems (capitalist, fascist, communist) of the 1930s. The Frankfurt theorists proposed that social theory was inadequate for explaining the turbulent political factionalism and reactionary politics occurring in 20th century liberal capitalist societies. Critical of both capitalism and of Marxism\u2013Leninism as philosophically inflexible systems of social organization, the School's critical theory research indicated alternative paths to realizing the social development of a society and a nation.The Frankfurt School perspective of critical investigation (open-ended and self-critical) is based upon Freudian, Marxist and Hegelian premises of idealist philosophy. To fill the omissions of 19th-century classical Marxism, which did not address 20th-century social problems, they applied the methods of antipositivist sociology, of psychoanalysis, and of existentialism. The School's sociologic works derived from syntheses of the thematically pertinent works of Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Karl Marx, of Sigmund Freud and Max Weber, and of Georg Simmel and Georg Luk\u00e1cs.Like Karl Marx, the Frankfurt School concerned themselves with the conditions (political, economic, societal) that allow for social change realized by way of rational social institutions. Their emphasis on the critical component of social theory derived from their attempts to overcome the ideological limitations of positivism, materialism, and determinism by returning to the critical philosophy of Kant and his successors in German idealism \u2013 principally the philosophy of Hegel, which emphasized dialectic and contradiction as intellectual properties inherent to the human grasp of material reality.\nSince the 1960s, the critical-theory work of the Institute for Social Research has been guided by J\u00fcrgen Habermas's work in communicative rationality, linguistic intersubjectivity, and \"the philosophical discourse of modernity.\" More recently, the \"third generation\" critical theorists  Nikolas Kompridis, Raymond Geuss, and Axel Honneth have opposed Habermas's propositions, claiming he has undermined the original social-change purposes of critical-theory-problems, such as what should reason mean; analysis of the conditions necessary to realize social emancipation; and critiques of contemporary capitalism.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Ernest Andr\u00e9 Gellner FRAI (9 December 1925 \u2013 5 November 1995) was a British-Czech philosopher and social anthropologist described by The Daily Telegraph, when he died, as one of the world's most vigorous intellectuals, and by The Independent as a \"one-man crusader for critical rationalism\".His first book, Words and Things (1959), prompted a leader in The Times and a month-long correspondence on its letters page over his attack on linguistic philosophy. As the Professor of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method at the London School of Economics for 22 years, the William Wyse Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Cambridge for eight years, and head of the new Centre for the Study of Nationalism in Prague, Gellner fought all his life\u2014in his writing, teaching and political activism\u2014against what he saw as closed systems of thought, particularly communism, psychoanalysis, relativism and the dictatorship of the free market. Among other issues in social thought, modernization theory and nationalism were two of his central themes, his multicultural perspective allowing him to work within the subject-matter of three separate civilizations: Western, Islamic, and Russian. He is considered one of the leading theoreticians on the issue of nationalism.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "\"The Geographical Pivot of History\" is an article submitted by Halford John Mackinder in 1904 to the Royal Geographical Society that advances his heartland theory. In this article, Mackinder extended the scope of geopolitical analysis to encompass the entire globe.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Ghaza or Ghazi thesis (from Ottoman Turkish: \u063a\u0632\u0627, \u0121az\u0101, \"holy war,\" or simply \"raid\") is a historical paradigm first formulated by Paul Wittek which has been used to interpret the nature of the Ottoman Empire during the earliest period of its history, the fourteenth century, and its subsequent history. The thesis addresses the question of how the Ottomans were able to expand from a small principality on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire into a centralized, intercontinental empire. According to the Ghaza thesis, the Ottomans accomplished this by attracting recruits to fight for them in the name of Islamic holy war against the non-believers. Such a warrior was known in Ottoman Turkish as a ghazi, and thus this thesis sees the early Ottoman state as a \"Ghazi State,\" defined by an ideology of holy war. The Ghaza Thesis dominated early Ottoman historiography throughout much of the twentieth century before coming under increasing criticism beginning in the 1980s. Historians now generally reject the Ghaza Thesis, and consequently the idea that Ottoman expansion was primarily fueled by holy war, but disagree about what hypothesis to replace it with.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Globalization, or globalisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. Globalization has accelerated since the 18th century due to advances in transportation and communications technology. This increase in global interactions has caused a growth in international trade and the exchange of ideas, beliefs, and culture. Globalization is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration that is associated with social and cultural aspects. However, disputes and international diplomacy are also large parts of the history of globalization, and of modern globalization.\nEconomically, globalization involves goods, services, data, technology, and the economic resources of capital. The expansion of global markets liberalizes the economic activities of the exchange of goods and funds. Removal of cross-border trade barriers has made the formation of global markets more feasible. Advances in transportation, like the steam locomotive, steamship, jet engine, and container ships, and developments in telecommunication infrastructure, like the telegraph, Internet, mobile phones, and smartphones, have been major factors in globalization and have generated further interdependence of economic and cultural activities around the globe.Though many scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times, others trace its history to long before the European Age of Discovery and voyages to the New World, and some even to the third millennium BCE. The term globalization first appeared in the early 20th century (supplanting an earlier French term mondialization), developed its current meaning some time in the second half of the 20th century, and came into popular use in the 1990s. Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s, and in the late 19th century and early 20th century drove a rapid expansion in the connectivity of the world's economies and cultures. The term global city was subsequently popularized by sociologist Saskia Sassen in her work The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (1991).In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people, and the dissemination of knowledge. Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization, economics, sociocultural resources, and the natural environment. Academic literature commonly divides globalization into three major areas: economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Globalization, the flow of information, goods, capital, and people across political and geographic boundaries, allows infectious diseases to rapidly spread around the world, while also allowing the alleviation of factors such as hunger and poverty, which are key determinants of global health. The spread of diseases across wide geographic scales has increased through history. Early diseases that spread from Asia to Europe were bubonic plague, influenza of various types, and similar infectious diseases.\nIn the current era of globalization, the world is more interdependent than at any other time. Efficient and inexpensive transportation has left few places inaccessible, and increased global trade in agricultural products has brought more and more people into contact with animal diseases that have subsequently jumped species barriers (see zoonosis).Globalization intensified during the Age of Exploration, but trading routes had long been established between Asia and Europe, along which diseases were also transmitted. An increase in travel has helped spread diseases to natives of lands who had not previously been exposed. When a native population is infected with a new disease, where they have not developed antibodies through generations of previous exposure, the new disease tends to run rampant within the population.Etiology, the modern branch of science that deals with the causes of infectious disease, recognizes five major modes of disease transmission: airborne, waterborne, bloodborne, by direct contact, and through vector (insects or other creatures that carry germs from one species to another). As humans began traveling over seas and across lands which were previously isolated, research suggests that diseases have been spread by all five transmission modes.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Great Divergence or European miracle is the socioeconomic shift in which the Western world (i.e. Western Europe and the parts of the New World where its people became the dominant populations) overcame pre-modern growth constraints and emerged during the 19th century as the most powerful and wealthy world civilization, eclipsing Ottoman Turkey, Mughal India, Qing China, Tokugawa Japan, and Joseon Korea.\nScholars have proposed a wide variety of theories to explain why the Great Divergence happened, including geography, culture, institutions, colonialism, resources and just pure chance. There is disagreement over the nomenclature of the \"great\" divergence, as a clear point of beginning of a divergence is traditionally held to be the 16th or even the 15th century, with the commercial revolution and the origins of mercantilism and capitalism during the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery, the rise of the European colonial empires, proto-globalization, the Scientific Revolution, or the Age of Enlightenment. Yet the largest jump in the divergence happened in the late 18th and 19th centuries with the Industrial Revolution and Technological Revolution. For this reason, the \"California school\" considers only this to be the great divergence.Technological advances, in areas such as railroads, steamboats, mining, and agriculture, were embraced to a higher degree in the West than the East during the Great Divergence. Technology led to increased industrialization and economic complexity in the areas of agriculture, trade, fuel and resources, further separating the East and the West. Western Europe's use of coal as an energy substitute for wood in the mid-19th century gave it a major head start in modern energy production. In the twentieth century, the Great Divergence peaked before the First World War and continued until the early 1970s; then, after two decades of indeterminate fluctuations, in the late 1980s it was replaced by the Great Convergence as the majority of Third World countries reached economic growth rates significantly higher than those in most First World countries.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (subtitled A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years in Britain) is a 1997 transdisciplinary non-fiction book by Jared Diamond. In 1998, it won the Pulitzer Prize for general nonfiction and the Aventis Prize for Best Science Book. A documentary based on the book, and produced by the National Geographic Society, was broadcast on PBS in July 2005.The book attempts to explain why Eurasian and North African civilizations have survived and conquered others, while arguing against the idea that Eurasian hegemony is due to any form of Eurasian intellectual, moral, or inherent genetic superiority. Diamond argues that the gaps in power and technology between human societies originate primarily in environmental differences, which are amplified by various positive feedback loops. When cultural or genetic differences have favored Eurasians (for example, written language or the development among Eurasians of resistance to endemic diseases), he asserts that these advantages occurred because of the influence of geography on societies and cultures (for example, by facilitating commerce and trade between different cultures) and were not inherent in the Eurasian genomes.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Within the field of social evolution, Hamiltonian spite is a term for spiteful behaviours occurring among conspecifics that have a cost for the actor and a negative impact upon the recipient.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (; German: [\u02c8\u0261e\u02d0\u0254\u0281k \u02c8v\u026alh\u025blm \u02c8f\u0281i\u02d0d\u0281\u026a\u00e7 \u02c8he\u02d0\u0261l\u0329]; 27 August 1770 \u2013 14 November 1831) was a German philosopher. He is considered one of the most important figures in German idealism and one of the founding figures of modern Western philosophy, with his influence extending to the entire range of contemporary philosophical issues, from epistemology, logic, and metaphysics to aesthetics, philosophy of history, philosophy of religion, philosophy of law, and the history of philosophy.  \nHegel was born in 1770 in Stuttgart, during the height of the Romantic period in Germany, and lived through and was heavily influenced by the French and American revolutions, as well the Napoleonic wars. He attended the Tubinger Stift seminary with Friedrich Holderlin and Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling, both of whom exerted a strong influence on him philosophically. After receiving his PhD in 1800, he worked as a lecturer at the University of Jena, where he also wrote and published his most famous work, The Phenomenology of Spirit in 1807. However, after Napoleon defeated the Prussian army in the Battle of Jena\u2013Auerstedt in 1806, he had difficulty finding work in the following semester. He moved to Bamberg, where he worked as a newspaper editor, and then worked as a headmaster in Nuremberg, where he published his second major work, The Science of Logic which brought him fame and a position at the University of Heidelberg. Two years later, Hegel took a position as a professor of philosophy at the University of Berlin, where he lectured on his philosophical system and attracted a large following that cemented his reputation as one of the most famous and influential philosophers of the 19th century. \nHegel's philosophical system is split into three parts: Logic, Nature, and Spirit ('Geist'). In his Phenomenology, he introduces his philosophical system and develops a successive process by which knowledge obtained from sense-perception is refined and moved towards a greater understanding. In his Logic, as well as the Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences that he compliled as a textbook for his lectures, he further expands upon the different parts of his system. Many of the ideas in his system are also expanded upon further in his Elements of the Philosophy of Right and in posthumously published lecture notes that were compiled by his students on Aesthetics, Philosophy of Religion, Philosophy of History, and the History of Philosophy.\nHegel influenced a wide variety of thinkers and writers. In the decade following his death, two distinct movements formed, the conservative Right Hegelians and the more radical Young Hegelians, who included David Strauss, Ludwig Feuerbach, and Bruno Bauer. Both of these schools of Hegelianism went on to influence a variety of other philosophical movements including Marxism, Existentialism, and British idealism. In the 20th century, Hegel's philosophy has also influenced existentialists such as Martin Heidegger and \"Neo-Hegelians\" such as Alexandre Koj\u00e8ve. His philosophy continues to exert influence in modern times across many contemporary philosophical movements in both the Analytic and Continental traditions.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Hegelianism is the philosophy of G. W. F. Hegel in which reality has a conceptual structure. Pure Concepts are not subjectively applied to sense-impressions but rather things exist for actualizing their a priori pure concept. The concept of the concept is called the Idea by Hegel.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The heroic theory of invention and scientific development is the view that the principal authors of inventions and scientific discoveries are unique heroic individuals\u2014i.e., \"great scientists\" or \"geniuses\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Historical determinism is the stance that events are historically predetermined or currently constrained by various forces. Historical determinism can be understood in contrast to its negation, i.e. the rejection of historical determinism.\nSome political philosophies (e.g. Stalinism, Maoism and Marxism), assert a historical materialism of either predetermination or constraint, or both.\nUsed as a pejorative, it is normally meant to designate a rigid finalist or mechanist conception of historical unfolding that makes the future appear as an inevitable and predetermined result of the past.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Historical materialism is Karl Marx's theory of history. Marx locates historical change in the rise of class societies and the way humans labor together to make their livelihoods. For Marx and his lifetime collaborator, Engels, the ultimate cause and moving power of historical events are to be found in the economic development of society and the social and political upheavals wrought by changes to the mode of production. Historical materialism provides a challenge to the view that historical process has come to a close and that capitalism is the end of history. Although Marx never brought together in one published work a systemic or comprehensive description of historical materialism, his key ideas are woven into variety of works from the 1840s onward. Since Marx's time, the theory has been modified and expanded. It now has many Marxist and non-Marxist variants.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Historical realism is a writing style or subgenre of realistic fiction centered on historical events and periods.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Historiometry is the historical study of human progress or individual personal characteristics, using statistics to analyze references to geniuses, their statements, behavior and discoveries in relatively neutral texts. Historiometry combines techniques from cliometrics, which studies economic history and from psychometrics, the psychological study of an individual's personality and abilities.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The history of mentalities or histoire des mentalit\u00e9s (French; lit.\u2009'history of attitudes') is the body of historical works aimed at describing and analyzing the ways in which people of a given time period thought about, interacted with, and classified the world around them, as opposed to the history of particular events, or economic trends. The history of mentalities has been used as a historical tool by several historians and scholars from various schools of history. Notably, the historians of the Annales School helped to develop the history of mentalities and construct a methodology from which to operate. In establishing this methodology, they sought to limit their analysis to a particular place and a particular time.:\u200a7\u200a This approach lends itself to the intensive study that characterizes microhistory, another field which adopted the history of mentalities as a tool of historical analysis.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "This article delineates the history of modernisation theory. Modernisation refers to a model of a progressive transition from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society. The theory particularly focuses on the internal factors of a country while assuming that, with assistance, \"traditional\" or 'pre-modern' countries can be brought to development in the same manner which more developed countries have. Modernisation theory attempts to identify the social variables that contribute to social progress and development of societies, and seeks to explain the process of social evolution. Modernisation theory is subject to criticism originating among socialists and free-market ideologies, world-systems theorists, globalisation theorists and dependency theorists among others. Modernisation theory not only stresses the process of change, but also the responses to that change. It also looks at internal dynamics while referring to social and cultural structures and the adaptation of new technologies.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is a six-volume work by the English historian Edward Gibbon. It traces Western civilization (as well as the Islamic and Mongolian conquests) from the height of the Roman Empire to the fall of Byzantium in the fifteenth century. Volume I was published in 1776 and went through six printings. Volumes II and III were published in 1781; volumes IV, V, and VI in 1788\u20131789.The six volumes cover the history, from 98 to 1590, of the Roman Empire, the history of early Christianity and then of the Roman State Church, and the history of Europe, and discusses the decline of the Roman Empire among other things.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A hydraulic empire, also known as a hydraulic despotism,  hydraulic society, hydraulic civilization, or water monopoly empire, is a social or government structure which maintains power and control through exclusive control over access to water. It arises through the need for flood control and irrigation, which requires central coordination and a specialized bureaucracy.Often associated with these terms and concepts is the notion of a water dynasty. This body is a political structure which is commonly characterized by a system of hierarchy and control often based on class or caste. Power, both over resources (food, water, energy) and a means of enforcement such as the military, is vital for the maintenance of control.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Imperium: The Philosophy of History and Politics is a 1948 book by Francis Parker Yockey, using the pen name Ulick Varange, that argues for a pan-European fascist regime. Imperium presents an antisemitic theory of history, asserting that the Holocaust was a hoax, and is dedicated to Adolf Hitler.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Industrial civilization refers to the state of civilization following the Industrial Revolution, characterised by widespread use of powered machines.  The transition of an individual region from pre-industrial society into an industrial society is referred to as the process of industrialisation, which may occur in different regions of the world at different times. Individual regions may specialise further as the civilisation continues to advance, resulting in some regions transitioning to a service economy, or information society, or post-industrial society (these are still dependent on industry, but allow individuals to move out of manufacturing jobs). The present era is sometimes referred to as the Information Age . De-industrialization of a region may occur for a range of reasons.Industrial civilization has allowed a significant growth both in world population, thanks to mechanised agriculture and advances in modern medicine, and in the standard of living.\nSuch a civilization is mostly dependent on fossil fuel, with efforts underway to find alternatives for energy production. Some areas have exhibited de-industrialization as certain industries go into decline, or are superseded.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Great Britain, continental Europe, and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system. Output greatly increased, and a result was an unprecedented rise in population and in the rate of population growth.\nTextiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.:\u200a40\u200aThe Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological and architectural innovations were of British origin. By the mid-18th century, Britain was the world's leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean. Britain had major military and political hegemony on the Indian subcontinent; particularly with the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal, through the activities of the East India Company. The development of trade and the rise of business were among the major causes of the Industrial Revolution.:\u200a15\u200aThe Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in history.  Comparable only to humanity's adoption of agriculture with respect to material advancement, the Industrial Revolution influenced in some way almost every aspect of daily life. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists have said the most important effect of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population in the western world began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830. Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s, with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships and hot blast iron smelting. New technologies, such as the electrical telegraph, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These innovations included new steel making processes, mass-production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools, and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In sociology, industrial society is a society driven by the use of technology and machinery to enable mass production, supporting a large population with a high capacity for division of labour. Such a structure developed in the Western world in the period of time following the Industrial Revolution, and replaced the agrarian societies of the pre-modern, pre-industrial age. Industrial societies are generally mass societies, and may be succeeded by an information society. They are often contrasted with traditional societies.Industrial societies use external energy sources, such as fossil fuels, to increase the rate and scale of production. The production of food is shifted to large commercial farms where the products of industry, such as combine harvesters and fossil fuel-based fertilizers, are used to decrease required human labor while increasing production. No longer needed for the production of food, excess labor is moved into these factories where mechanization is utilized to further increase efficiency. As populations grow, and mechanization is further refined, often to the level of automation, many workers shift to expanding service industries.\nIndustrial society makes urbanization desirable, in part so that workers can be closer to centers of production, and the service industry can provide labor to workers and those that benefit financially from them, in exchange for a piece of production profits with which they can buy goods. This leads to the rise of very large cities and surrounding suburb areas with a high rate of economic activity.\nThese urban centers require the input of external energy sources in order to overcome the diminishing returns of agricultural consolidation, due partially to the lack of nearby arable land, associated transportation and storage costs, and are otherwise unsustainable. This makes the reliable availability of the needed energy resources high priority in industrial government policies.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Industrious Revolution was a period in early modern Europe lasting from approximately 1600 to 1800 in which household productivity and consumer demand increased despite the absence of major technological innovations that would mark the later Industrial Revolution. Proponents of the Industrious Revolution theory argue that the increase in working hours and individual consumption traditionally associated with the Industrial Revolution actually began several centuries earlier, and were largely a result of choice rather than coercion.:\u200a122\u200a The term was originally coined by the Japanese demographic historian Akira Hayami to describe Japan during the Tokugawa era.:\u200a78\u200a The theory of a pre-industrial Industrious Revolution is contested by some historians.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The term information revolution describes current economic, social and technological trends beyond the Industrial Revolution.\nMany competing terms have been proposed that focus on different aspects of this societal development.\nThe British polymath crystallographer J. D. Bernal  introduced the term \"scientific and technical revolution\" in his 1939 book The Social Function of Science to describe the new role that science and technology are coming to play within society. He asserted that science is becoming a \"productive force\", using the Marxist Theory of Productive Forces. After some controversy, the term was taken up by authors and institutions of the then-Soviet Bloc. Their aim was to show that socialism was a safe home for the scientific and technical (\"technological\" for some authors) revolution, referred to by the acronym STR. The book Civilization at the Crossroads, edited by the Czech philosopher Radovan Richta (1969), became a standard reference for this topic.Daniel Bell (1980) challenged this theory and advocated post-industrial society, which would lead to a service economy rather than socialism. Many other authors presented their views, including Zbigniew Brzezinski (1976) with his \"Technetronic Society\".\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "An information society is a society where the usage, creation, distribution, manipulation and integration of information is a significant activity. Its main drivers are information and communication technologies, which have resulted in rapid information growth in variety and is somehow changing all aspects of social organization, including education, economy, health, government, warfare, and levels of democracy. The people who are able to partake in this form of society are sometimes called either computer users or even digital citizens, defined by K. Mossberger as \u201cThose who use the Internet regularly and effectively\u201d. This is one of many dozen internet terms that have been identified to suggest that humans are entering a new and different phase of society.Some of the markers of this steady change may be technological, economic, occupational, spatial, cultural, or a combination of all of these.\nInformation society is seen as a successor to industrial society. Closely related concepts are the post-industrial society (post-fordism), post-modern society, computer society and knowledge society, telematic society,  society of the spectacle (postmodernism), Information Revolution and Information Age, network society (Manuel Castells) or even liquid modernity.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Paul Michael Kennedy  (born 17 June 1945) is a British historian specialising in the history of international relations, economic power and grand strategy. He has published prominent books on the history of British foreign policy and great power struggles.  He emphasises the changing economic power base that undergirds military and naval strength, noting how declining economic power leads to reduced military and diplomatic weight.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Ibn Khaldun (; Arabic: \u0623\u0628\u0648 \u0632\u064a\u062f \u0639\u0628\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0631\u062d\u0645\u0646 \u0628\u0646 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0628\u0646 \u062e\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0636\u0631\u0645\u064a, Ab\u016b Zayd \u2018Abd ar-Ra\u1e25m\u0101n ibn Mu\u1e25ammad ibn Khald\u016bn al-\u1e24a\u1e0dram\u012b; 27 May 1332 \u2013 17 March 1406) was a Muslim Arab sociologist, philosopher, and historian widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest social scientists of the Middle Ages, who made major contributions in the areas of historiography, sociology, economics, and demography.His best-known book, the Muqaddimah or Prolegomena (\"Introduction\"), which he wrote in six months as he states in his autobiography, influenced 17th-century and 19th-century Ottoman historians such as K\u00e2tip \u00c7elebi, Mustafa Naima and Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, who used its theories to analyze the growth and decline of the Ottoman Empire. Ibn Khaldun interacted with Tamerlane, the founder of the Timurid Empire.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A knowledge society generates, shares and makes available to all members of the society knowledge that may be used to improve the human condition. A knowledge society differs from an information society in that the former serves to transform information into resources that allow society to take effective action while the latter only creates and disseminates the raw data. The capacity to gather and analyze information has existed throughout human history. However, the idea of the present-day knowledge society is based on the vast increase in data creation and information dissemination that results from the innovation of information technologies. The UNESCO World Report addresses the definition, content and future of knowledge societies.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "David Kolb (born 1939) is an American philosopher and the Charles A. Dana Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at Bates College in Maine.\nKolb received a B.A. from Fordham University in 1963 and an M.A. in 1965.  He later received a M.Phil. from Yale University in 1970 and a Ph.D. in 1972.  Kolb's Dissertation was titled \"Conceptual Pluralism and Rationality.\" Most of Kolb's writing deals with \"what it means to live with historical connections and traditions at a time when we can no longer be totally defined by that history.\"  Professor Kolb taught at the University of Chicago before moving to Bates in 1977 and teaching there until 2005, when he took emeritus status.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Jerzy W\u0142adys\u0142aw Kolendo (9 June 1933, Brze\u015b\u0107, Poland \u2013 28 February 2014, Warsaw) was an acknowledged Polish authority on the history and archaeology of Ancient Rome. He was an exponent of the French Annales school, an epigraphist and specialist in the relations between the Barbaricum and the early Roman Empire.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Nikolay Nikolaevich Kradin (Russian: \u041a\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043d \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0439 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447; born in Onokhoy, Buryatia, Russian SFSR on April 17, 1962) is a Russian anthropologist and archaeologist. Since 1985 he has been a Research Fellow of the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnology, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Vladivostok. He was Head and Professor of the Department of Social Anthropology in the Far-Eastern National Technical University (1999 - 2011), and also Head and Professor of the Department of World History, Archaeology and  Anthropology in the Far-Eastern Federal University (2011 - 2016). Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences since 2011 and full Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences since 2022.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The law of the handicap of a head start (original Dutch: Wet van de remmende voorsprong), first-mover disadvantage, or dialectics of lead, is a theory that suggests that an initial head start in a given area may result in a handicap in the long term. The term was coined in 1937 by Jan Romein, a Dutch journalist and historian, in his essay \"The dialectics of progress\" (\"De dialectiek van de vooruitgang\"), part of the series \"The unfinished past\" (Het onvoltooid verleden). The mirror image of the law \u2013 an initial arrears in a given area may stimulate a development leading to a long-term advantage \u2013 is known as the law of the stimulative arrears.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Henri Lefebvre ( l\u0259-FEV-r\u0259, French: [\u0251\u0303\u0281i l\u0259f\u025bv\u0281]; 16 June 1901 \u2013 29 June 1991) was a French Marxist philosopher and sociologist, best known for pioneering the critique of everyday life, for introducing the concepts of the right to the city and the production of social space, and for his work on dialectical materialism, alienation, and criticism of Stalinism, existentialism, and structuralism. In his prolific career, Lefebvre wrote more than sixty books and three hundred articles. He founded or took part in the founding of several intellectual and academic journals such as Philosophies, La Revue Marxiste, Arguments, Socialisme ou Barbarie, Espaces et Soci\u00e9t\u00e9s.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Leninism is a political ideology developed by Russian Marxist revolutionary Vladimir Lenin that proposes the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat led by a revolutionary vanguard party, as the political prelude to the establishment of communism. The function of the Leninist vanguard party is to provide the working classes with the political consciousness (education and organisation) and revolutionary leadership necessary to depose capitalism in the Russian Empire (1721\u20131917). Leninist revolutionary leadership is based upon The Communist Manifesto (1848) identifying the communist party as \"the most advanced and resolute section of the working class parties of every country; that section which pushes forward all others.\" As the vanguard party, the Bolsheviks viewed history through the theoretical framework of dialectical materialism, which sanctioned political commitment to the successful overthrow of capitalism, and then to instituting socialism; and, as the revolutionary national government, to realize the socio-economic transition by all means.In the aftermath of the October Revolution (1917), Leninism was the dominant version of Marxism in Russia and the basis of soviet democracy, the rule of directly elected soviets. In establishing the socialist mode of production in Bolshevik Russia\u2014with the Decree on Land (1917), war communism (1918\u20131921), and the New Economic Policy (1921\u20131928)\u2014the revolutionary r\u00e9gime suppressed most political opposition, including Marxists who opposed Lenin's actions, the anarchists and the Mensheviks, factions of the Socialist Revolutionary Party and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries. The Russian Civil War (1917\u20131922), which included the seventeen-army Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War (1917\u20131925), and left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks (1918\u20131924) were the external and internal wars which transformed Bolshevik Russia into the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR), the core republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).As revolutionary praxis, Leninism originally was neither a proper philosophy nor a discrete political theory. Leninism comprises politico-economic developments of orthodox Marxism and Lenin's interpretations of Marxism, which function as a pragmatic synthesis for practical application to the actual conditions (political, social, economic) of the post-emancipation agrarian society of Imperial Russia in the early 20th century. As a political-science term, Lenin's theory of proletarian revolution entered common usage at the fifth congress of the Communist International (1924), when Grigory Zinoviev applied the term Leninism to denote \"vanguard-party revolution.\" The term Leninism was accepted as part of CPSU's vocabulary and doctrine around 1922, and in January 1923, despite objections from Lenin, it entered the public vocabulary.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Gerhard Emmanuel \"Gerry\" Lenski, Jr. (August 13, 1924 \u2013 December 7, 2015) was an American sociologist known for contributions to the sociology of religion, social inequality, and introducing the ecological-evolutionary theory.  He spent much of his career as a professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he served as chair of the Department of Sociology, 1969\u201372, and as chair of the Division of Social Sciences, 1976-78.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The longue dur\u00e9e (French pronunciation: \u200b[l\u0254\u0303\u0261 dy\u0281e]; English: the long term) the French Annales School approach to the study of history. It gives priority to long-term historical structures over what Fran\u00e7ois Simiand called histoire \u00e9v\u00e9nementielle (\"evental history\", the short-term time-scale that is the domain of the chronicler and the journalist), concentrating instead on all-but-permanent or slowly evolving structures, and substitutes for elite biographies the broader syntheses of prosopography. The crux of the idea is to examine extended periods of time and draw conclusions from historical trends and patterns.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Madilog by Iljas Hussein (the pen name of Tan Malaka), first published in 1943, official first edition 1951, is the magnum opus of Tan Malaka, the Indonesian national hero and is the most influential work in the history of modern Indonesian philosophy. Madilog is an Indonesian acronym that stands for Materialisme Dialektika Logika (literally, Materialism Dialectics Logics). It is a synthesis of Marxist dialectical materialism and Hegelian logic. Madilog was written in Batavia where Malaka was hiding during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, disguised as a tailor.\nIf Malaka's essay \"Naar de Republiek Indonesi\u00eb\" (\"Towards a Republic of Indonesia\") published in 1928, under the Dutch East Indies government, stands as a formulation of the national identity of Indonesia, then Madilog stands as an anticlimax of his ideas in the sense of building the Indonesian character in modern society. Although Madilog is based on Marxism, it neither implements the Marxist view nor tries to establish a cultural pattern based on Marxism. Madilog is purely Malaka's nationalist perspective by way of being influenced by Hegelian dialectics, Feuerbach's materialism, Marx's views of scientific reason, and logical positivism. The book is to be a new alternative to the usual Indonesian way of thinking and movement, of a people living on thousands of islands, with hundreds languages and cultures, with most believing in mystical logic (Indonesian: logika mistika). In the first three chapters, the book emphasizes that Indonesian social classes differ from those of European society, thus unmodified Marxism cannot be applied due to ontological differences.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Malthusianism is the idea that population growth is potentially exponential while the growth of the food supply or other resources is linear, which eventually reduces living standards to the point of triggering a population die off. This event, called a Malthusian catastrophe (also known as a Malthusian trap, population trap, Malthusian check, Malthusian crisis, Malthusian spectre, or Malthusian crunch) occurs when population growth outpaces agricultural production, causing famine or war, resulting in poverty and depopulation. Such a catastrophe inevitably has the effect of forcing the population (quite rapidly, due to the potential severity and unpredictable results of the mitigating factors involved, as compared to the relatively slow time scales and well-understood processes governing unchecked growth or growth affected by preventive checks) to \"correct\" back to a lower, more easily sustainable level. Malthusianism has been linked to a variety of political and social movements, but almost always refers to advocates of population control.These concepts derive from the political and economic thought of the Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, as laid out in his 1798 writings, An Essay on the Principle of Population. Malthus suggested that while technological advances could increase a society's supply of resources, such as food, and thereby improve the standard of living, the resource abundance would enable population growth, which would eventually bring the per capita supply of resources back to its original level.  Some economists contend that since the industrial revolution, mankind has broken out of the trap. Others argue that the continuation of extreme poverty indicates that the Malthusian trap continues to operate. Others further argue that due to lack of food availability coupled with excessive pollution, developing countries show more evidence of the trap. A similar, more modern concept, is that of human overpopulation.\nNeo-Malthusianism is the advocacy of human population planning to ensure resources and environmental integrities for current and future human populations as well as for other species. In Britain the term 'Malthusian' can also refer more specifically to arguments made in favour of preventive birth control, hence organizations such as the Malthusian League. Neo-Malthusians differ from Malthus's theories mainly in their support for the use of contraception. Malthus, a devout Christian, believed that \"self-control\" (i.e., abstinence) was preferable to artificial birth control. He also worried that the effect of contraceptive use would be too powerful in curbing growth, conflicting with the common 18th century perspective (to which Malthus himself adhered) that a steadily growing population remained a necessary factor in the continuing \"progress of society\", generally. Modern neo-Malthusians are generally more concerned than Malthus with environmental degradation and catastrophic famine than with poverty.\nMalthusianism has attracted criticism from diverse schools of thought, including Marxists and socialists, libertarians and free market enthusiasts, feminists and human rights advocates, characterising it as excessively pessimistic, misanthropic or inhuman. Many critics believe Malthusianism has been discredited since the publication of Principle of Population, often citing advances in agricultural techniques and modern reductions in human fertility. Some modern proponents believe that the basic concept of population growth eventually outstripping resources is still fundamentally valid, and that positive checks are still likely to occur in humanity's future if no action is taken to intentionally curb population growth. In spite of the variety of criticisms against it, the Malthusian argument remains a major discourse based on which national and international environmental regulations are promoted.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Mandate of Heaven (Chinese: \u5929\u547d; pinyin: Ti\u0101nm\u00ecng; Wade\u2013Giles: T'ien-ming; lit. 'Heaven's will') is a Chinese political philosophy that was used in ancient and imperial China to legitimize the rule of the King or Emperor of China. According to this doctrine, heaven  (\u5929, Tian) \u2013 which embodies the natural order and will of the universe \u2013 bestows the mandate on a just ruler of China, the \"Son of Heaven\". If a ruler was overthrown, this was interpreted as an indication that the ruler was unworthy and had lost the mandate. It was also a common belief that natural disasters such as famine and flood were divine retributions bearing signs of Heaven's displeasure with the ruler, so there would often be revolts following major disasters as the people saw these calamities as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn.\n\nThe Mandate of Heaven does not require a legitimate ruler to be of noble birth, depending instead on how well that person can rule. Chinese dynasties such as the Han and Ming were founded by men of common origins, but they were seen as having succeeded because they had gained the Mandate of Heaven. The concept is in some ways similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings; however, unlike the European concept, it does not confer an unconditional right to rule. Retaining the mandate is contingent on the just and able performance of the rulers and their heirs.\nIntrinsic to the concept of the Mandate of Heaven was the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler. The Mandate of Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that had few other checks. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that Heaven had withdrawn its mandate from the ruler. Throughout Chinese history, times of poverty and natural disasters were often taken as signs that heaven considered the incumbent ruler unjust and thus in need of replacement.\nThe concept of the Mandate of Heaven was first used to support the rule of the kings of the Zhou dynasty (1046\u2013256 BC), and legitimize their overthrow of the earlier Shang dynasty (1600\u20131069 BC). It was used throughout the history of China to legitimize the successful overthrow and installation of new emperors, including by non-Han Chinese dynasties such as the Qing (1636\u20131912).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Karl Marx's theory of alienation describes the estrangement (German: Entfremdung) of people from aspects of their human nature (Gattungswesen, 'species-essence') as a consequence of the division of labor and living in a society of stratified social classes. The alienation from the self is a consequence of being a mechanistic part of a social class, the condition of which estranges a person from their humanity.The theoretical basis of alienation is that the worker invariably loses the ability to determine life and destiny when deprived of the right to think (conceive) of themselves as the director of their own actions; to determine the character of said actions; to define relationships with other people; and to own those items of value from goods and services, produced by their own labour. Although the worker is an autonomous, self-realized human being, as an economic entity this worker is directed to goals and diverted to activities that are dictated by the bourgeoisie\u2014who own the means of production\u2014in order to extract from the worker the maximum amount of surplus value in the course of business competition among industrialists.\nIn the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 (1932), Karl Marx expressed the Entfremdung theory\u2014of estrangement from the self. Philosophically, the theory of Entfremdung relies upon The Essence of Christianity (1841) by Ludwig Feuerbach, which states that the idea of a supernatural god has alienated the natural characteristics of the human being. Moreover, Max Stirner extended Feuerbach's analysis in The Ego and its Own (1845) that even the idea of 'humanity' is an alienating concept for individuals to intellectually consider in its full philosophic implication. Marx and Friedrich Engels responded to these philosophical propositions in The German Ideology (1845).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Marxism is a left-wing to far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand class relations and social conflict as well as a dialectical perspective to view social transformation. It originates from the works of 19th-century German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As Marxism has developed over time into various branches and schools of thought, currently no single, definitive Marxist theory exists.Some Marxist schools of thought place greater emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while rejecting or modifying other aspects. Some schools have sought to combine Marxian concepts and non-Marxian concepts which has then led to widely varying conclusions.Marxism has had a profound impact on global academia, having influenced many fields, including anthropology, archaeology, art theory, criminology, cultural studies, economics, education, ethics, film theory, geography, historiography, literary criticism, media studies, philosophy, political science, political economy, psychology, science studies, sociology, urban planning, and theater.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Meliorism (Latin melior, better) is the idea that progress is a real concept leading to an improvement of the world. It holds that humans can, through their interference with processes that would otherwise be natural, produce an outcome which is an improvement over the aforementioned natural one.\nMeliorism, as a conception of the person and society, is at the foundation of contemporary liberal democracy and human rights and is a basic component of liberalism.Another important understanding of the meliorist tradition comes from the American Pragmatic tradition.  One can read about it in the works of Lester Frank Ward, William James, and John Dewey. In James' works, however, meliorism does not pinpoint to progressivism and/or optimism. For James   meliorism stands in the middle between optimism and pessimism, and treats the salvation of the world as a probability rather than a certainty or impossibility. In the case of a meliorist praxis, the activist contemporary of the Pragmatists Jane Addams  stripped progressive ideals of any elitist privilege calling for a \"lateral progress\" whose concern was squarely with the common people.Meliorism has also been used by Arthur Caplan to describe positions in bioethics that are in favor of ameliorating conditions which cause suffering, even if the conditions have long existed (e.g. being in favor of cures for common diseases, being in favor of serious anti-aging therapies as they are developed).\nA closely related concept discussed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Marquis de Condorcet is that of perfectibility of man. \nCondorcet's statement, \"Such is the object of the work I have undertaken; the result of which will be to show, from reasoning and from facts, that no bounds have been fixed to the improvement of the human faculties; that the perfectibility of man is absolutely indefinite; that the progress of this perfectibility, henceforth above the control of every power that would impede it, has no other limit than the duration of the globe upon which nature has placed us.\" anticipates James' meliorism.\nRousseau's treatment is somewhat weaker.Modern thinkers in this tradition are Hans Rosling and Max Roser. Roser expressed a melioristic position in the mission statement for Our World in Data. He said that all three statements are true at the same time \"The world is much better. The world is awful. The world can be much better.\" Like William James before him Rosling held a halfway position between optimism and pessimism that emphasized humanity's capacity to improve their world.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In the Marxist theory of historical materialism, a mode of production (German: Produktionsweise, \"the way of producing\") is a specific combination of the:\n\nProductive forces: these include human labour power and means of production (tools, machinery, factory buildings, infrastructure, technical knowledge, raw materials, plants, animals, exploitable land).\nSocial and technical relations of production: these include the property, power and control relations (legal code) governing the means of production of society, cooperative work associations, relations between people and the objects of their work, and the relations among the social classes.Marx said that a person's productive ability and participation in social relations are two essential characteristics of social reproduction, and that the particular modality of those social relations in the capitalist mode of production is inherently in conflict with the progressive development of the productive capabilities of human beings. A precursor concept was Adam Smith's mode of subsistence, which delineated a progression of types of society based upon how the citizens of a society provided for their material needs.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The concept of multiple discovery (also known as simultaneous invention) is the hypothesis that most scientific discoveries and inventions are made independently and more or less simultaneously by multiple scientists and inventors. The concept of multiple discovery opposes a traditional view\u2014the \"heroic theory\" of invention and discovery.  Multiple discovery is analogous to convergent evolution in biological evolution.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Myth of the Machine is a two-volume book taking an in-depth look at the forces that have shaped modern technology since prehistoric times. The first volume, Technics and Human Development, was published in 1967, followed by the second volume, The Pentagon of Power, in 1970.  The author, Lewis Mumford, shows the parallel developments between human tools and social organization mainly through language and rituals. It is considered a synthesis of many theories Mumford developed throughout his prolific writing career. Volume 2 was a Book-of-the-Month Club selection.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Theories on the existence of nationalism in the Middle Ages may belong to the general paradigms of ethnosymbolism and primordialism or perennialism. Several scholars of nationalism support the existence of nationalism in the Middle Ages (mainly in Europe). This school of thought differs from modernism, which suggests that nationalism developed after the late 18th century and the French Revolution.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Neolithic Revolution, or the (First) Agricultural Revolution, was the wide-scale transition of many human cultures during the Neolithic period from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement, making an increasingly large population possible. These settled communities permitted humans to observe and experiment with plants, learning how they grew and developed. This new knowledge led to the domestication of plants into crops.Archaeological data indicates that the domestication of various types of plants and animals happened in separate locations worldwide, starting in the geological epoch of the Holocene 11,700 years ago. It was the world's first historically verifiable revolution in agriculture. The Neolithic Revolution greatly narrowed the diversity of foods available, resulting in a downturn in the quality of human nutrition compared with that obtained previously from foraging.The Neolithic Revolution involved far more than the adoption of a limited set of food-producing techniques. During the next millennia it transformed the small and mobile groups of hunter-gatherers that had hitherto dominated human pre-history into sedentary (non-nomadic) societies based in built-up villages and towns. These societies radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food-crop cultivation, with activities such as irrigation and deforestation which allowed the production of surplus food. Other developments that are found very widely during this era are the domestication of animals, pottery, polished stone tools, and rectangular houses. In many regions, the adoption of agriculture by prehistoric societies caused episodes of rapid population growth, a phenomenon known as the Neolithic demographic transition.\nThese developments, sometimes called the Neolithic package, provided the basis for centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g. writing), densely populated settlements, specialization and division of labour, more trade, the development of non-portable art and architecture, and greater property ownership. The earliest known civilization developed in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia (c.\u2009 6,500 BP); its emergence also heralded the beginning of the Bronze Age.The relationship of the above-mentioned Neolithic characteristics to the onset of agriculture, their sequence of emergence, and empirical relation to each other at various Neolithic sites remains the subject of academic debate, and varies from place to place, rather than being the outcome of universal laws of social evolution. The Levant saw the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BCE, followed by sites in the wider Fertile Crescent.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The New Qing History (simplified Chinese: \u65b0\u6e05\u53f2\u5b66\u6d3e; traditional Chinese: \u65b0\u6e05\u53f2\u5b78\u6d3e) is a historiographical school that gained prominence in the United States in the mid-1990s by offering a wide-ranging revision of history of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. Orthodox historians tend to emphasize the power of the Han people to \"sinicize\" their conquerors in their thought and institutions. In the 1980s and early 1990s, American scholars began to learn Manchu and took advantage of newly opened Chinese- and Manchu-language archives. This research found that the Manchu rulers were savvy in manipulating their subjects and from the 1630s through at least the 18th century, emperors developed a sense of Manchu identity and used traditional Han Chinese culture and Confucian models to rule, while blending with models from other ethnic groups across the vast empire, including those from northern China, the Eurasian Steppe, Inner Asia, and Central Asia. According to some scholars, at the height of their power, the Qing regarded the Han Chinese as only a part, although a very important part, of a much wider empire that extended into the Inner Asian territories of Mongolia, Tibet, Manchuria and Xinjiang.Some scholars like Ping-ti Ho have criticized the approach for exaggerating the Manchu character of the dynasty, and some in China accuse the American historians in the group of imposing American concerns with race and identity or even of imperialist misunderstanding to weaken China. Still others in China agree that this scholarship has opened new vistas for the study of Qing history.The use of \"New Qing History\" as an approach is to be distinguished from the multi-volume history of the Qing dynasty that the Chinese State Council has been writing since 2003, which is also occasionally called \"New Qing History\" in English. In fact, this state project, a revision of the 1930s Draft History of Qing, is specifically written to refute the New Qing History.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny is a 1999 book by Robert Wright, in which the author argues that biological evolution and cultural evolution are shaped and directed first and foremost by \"non-zero-sumness\" i.e., the prospect of creating new interactions that are not zero-sum.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "O'Rahilly's historical model is a theory of the history of prehistoric Ireland in the Iron Age put forward by the linguist T. F. O'Rahilly in 1946. It was based on his study of the influences on the Irish language and a critical analysis of Irish mythology.\nHe distinguished four separate waves of Celtic invaders:\n\nThe Cruithne or Priteni (c. 700 \u2013 500 BC)\nThe Builg or \u00c9rainn/Iverni (c. 500 BC)\nThe Laigin, Fir Domnann and G\u00e1lioin (c. 300 BC)\nThe Goidels or Gaels (c. 100 BC)O'Rahilly's work was and remains influential but much of his linguistic work has since been refuted by noted authors such as Kenneth H. Jackson and John T. Koch and is not generally the accepted model.  Irish archaeologists have fairly consistently failed to support the theory, as archaeological evidence of these waves of settlement is lacking.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State: in the Light of the Researches of Lewis H. Morgan (German: Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums und des Staats) is an 1884 philosophical treatise by Friedrich Engels. It is partially based on notes by Karl Marx to Lewis H. Morgan's book Ancient Society (1877). The book is an early historical materialist work and is regarded as one of the first major works on family economics.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Orthodox Marxism is the body of Marxist thought that emerged after the death of Karl Marx (1818\u20131883) and which became the official philosophy of the majority of the socialist movement as represented in the Second International until the First World War in 1914. Orthodox Marxism aims to simplify, codify and systematize Marxist method and theory by clarifying the perceived ambiguities and contradictions of classical Marxism.\nThe philosophy of orthodox Marxism includes the understanding that material development (advances in technology in the productive forces) is the primary agent of change in the structure of society and of human social relations and that social systems and their relations (e.g. feudalism, capitalism and so on) become contradictory and inefficient as the productive forces develop, which results in some form of social revolution arising in response to the mounting contradictions. This revolutionary change is the vehicle for fundamental society-wide changes and ultimately leads to the emergence of new economic systems.In the term orthodox Marxism, the word \"orthodox\" refers to the methods of historical materialism and of dialectical materialism\u2014and not the normative aspects inherent to classical Marxism, without implying dogmatic adherence to the results of Marx's investigations.One of the most prominent historical proponents of orthodox Marxism was the Czech-Austrian theorist Karl Kautsky.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Ottoman Decline Thesis or Ottoman Decline Paradigm (Turkish: Osmanl\u0131 Gerileme Tezi) is an obsolete historical narrative which once played a dominant role in the study of the history of the Ottoman Empire. According to the decline thesis, following a golden age associated with the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520\u20131566), the empire gradually entered into a period of all-encompassing stagnation and decline from which it was never able to recover, lasting until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in 1923. This thesis was used throughout most of the twentieth century as the basis of both Western and Republican Turkish understanding of Ottoman history. However, by 1978, historians had begun to reexamine the fundamental assumptions of the decline thesis.After the publication of numerous new studies throughout the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, and the reexamination of Ottoman history through the use of previously untapped sources and methodologies, academic historians of the Ottoman Empire achieved a consensus that the entire notion of Ottoman decline was a myth \u2013 that in fact, the Ottoman Empire did not stagnate or decline at all, but rather continued to be a vigorous and dynamic state long after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent. The decline thesis has been criticized as \"teleological\", \"regressive\", \"Orientalist\", \"simplistic\", and \"one-dimensional\", and described as \"a concept which has no place in historical analysis\". Scholars have thus \"learned better than to discuss [it].\"Despite this dramatic paradigm shift among professional historians, the decline thesis continues to maintain a strong presence in popular history, as well as academic history written by scholars who are not specialists on the Ottoman Empire. In some cases this is due to the continued reliance by non-specialists on outdated and debunked works, and in others to certain political interests benefiting from the continued perpetuation of the decline narrative.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A paradigm shift, a concept brought into the common lexicon by the American physicist and philosopher Thomas Kuhn, is a fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline. Even though Kuhn restricted the use of the term to the natural sciences, the concept of a paradigm shift has also been used in numerous non-scientific contexts to describe a profound change in a fundamental model or perception of events.\nKuhn presented his notion of a paradigm shift in his influential book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962).\nKuhn contrasts paradigm shifts, which characterize a Scientific Revolution, to the activity of normal science, which he describes as scientific work done within a prevailing framework or paradigm. Paradigm shifts arise when the dominant paradigm under which normal science operates is rendered incompatible with new phenomena, facilitating the adoption of a new theory or paradigm.As one commentator summarizes:\n\nKuhn acknowledges having used the term \"paradigm\" in two different meanings. In the first one, \"paradigm\" designates what the members of a certain scientific community have in common, that is to say, the whole of techniques, patents and values shared by the members of the community. In the second sense, the paradigm is a single element of a whole, say for instance Newton\u2019s Principia, which, acting as a common model or an example... stands for the explicit rules and thus defines a coherent tradition of investigation. Thus the question is for Kuhn to investigate by means of the paradigm what makes possible the constitution of what he calls \"normal science\". That is to say, the science which can decide if a certain problem will be considered scientific or not. Normal science does not mean at all a science guided by a coherent system of rules, on the contrary, the rules can be derived from the paradigms, but the paradigms can guide the investigation also in the absence of rules. This is precisely the second meaning of the term \"paradigm\", which Kuhn considered the most new and profound, though it is in truth the oldest.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Parametric determinism is a Marxist interpretation of the course of history. It was formulated by Ernest Mandel and can be viewed as one variant of Karl Marx's historical materialism or as a philosophy of history.\nIn an article critical of the analytical Marxism of Jon Elster, Mandel explains the idea as follows: Dialectical determinism as opposed to mechanical, or formal-logical determinism, is also parametric determinism; it permits the adherent of historical materialism to understand the real place of human action in the way the historical process unfolds and the way the outcome of social crises is decided. Men and women indeed make their own history. The outcome of their actions is not mechanically predetermined. Most, if not all, historical crises have several possible outcomes, not innumerable fortuitous or arbitrary ones; that is why we use the expression 'parametric determinism' indicating several possibilities within a given set of parameters.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Path dependence is a concept in economics and the social sciences, referring to processes where past events or decisions constrain later events or decisions. It can be used to refer to outcomes at a single point in time or to long-run equilibria of a process. Path dependence has been used to describe institutions, technical standards, patterns of economic or social development, organizational behavior, and more.In common usage, the phrase can imply two types of claims. The first is the broad concept that \"history matters\", often articulated to challenge explanations that pay insufficient attention to historical factors. This claim can be formulated simply as \"the future development of an economic system is affected by the path it has traced out in the past\" or \"particular events in the past can have crucial effects in the future.\" The second is a more specific claim about how past events or decisions affect future events or decisions in significant or disproportionate ways, through mechanisms such as increasing returns, positive feedback effects, or other mechanisms.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Peterhouse School of History was named after the Cambridge college of the same name where the history taught concentrated on 'high politics'. That is, the study of 'fifty or sixty politicians in conscious tension with one another', in the words of the late Maurice Cowling, the most prominent member of the Peterhouse school.\nHistorians generally considered to be part of the Peterhouse school have been Michael Bentley, Alistair B. Cooke, Maurice Cowling, John Adamson,  Edward Norman and John Vincent. Although some are no longer at Peterhouse and Cowling himself was not comfortable with the label (preferring \"Peterhouse Right\") these historians, Cowling stated, also:\n\n...share common prejudices - against the higher liberalism and all sorts of liberal rhetoric...and in favour of irony, geniality and malice as solvents of enthusiasm, virtue and political elevation.\nThe Peterhouse school see politicians making policy decisions with self-interest their primary goal and ideological principles acting as a kind of smoke screen to cover their true intentions or held because they are politically convenient at the time. Peterhouse historians reject biography as, Cowling argues, it \"abstracts a man whose public action should not be abstracted\" because politicians' actions cannot be properly understood in isolation but only by their interaction with fellow politicians. Cowling also claimed that the Peterhouse school treated Parliament as an instrument of class warfare and that it borrowed from The Spectator's political columnist Henry Fairlie and Robert Blake's central chapters of his The Unknown Prime Minister the realisation of parliamentary politics as \"a spectacle of ambition and manoeuvre\".Maurice Cowling believed that the term had been coined by John Joseph Lee, a professor at University College Cork but previously a Fellow of Peterhouse. In Cowling's own words:\n\nWhat Professor Lee meant, however, was not a philosophical position but what he called, with a historian's rancour, the \"high-political\" works which had been written about the history of nineteenth- and twentieth-century English politics by Professor J.R. Vincent, Dr. A.B. Cooke, Dr. Andrew Jones, and myself in the years between 1965 and 1976.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The planetary phase of civilization is a term created by the Global Scenario Group (GSG) to describe the contemporary era in which increasing global interdependence and risks are binding the world into a unitary socio-ecological system. Characteristics of this phase include economic globalization, biospheric destabilization, mass migration, new global institutions, the Internet, new forms of transboundary conflict, and shifts in culture and consciousness.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In sociology, the post-industrial society is the stage of society's development when the service sector generates more wealth than the manufacturing sector of the economy.\nThe term was originated by Alain Touraine and is closely related to similar sociological theoretical concepts such as post-Fordism, information society, knowledge economy, post-industrial economy, liquid modernity, and network society. They all can be used in economics or social science disciplines as a general theoretical backdrop in research design.\nAs the term has been used, a few common themes, including the ones below have begun to emerge.\n\nThe economy undergoes a transition from the production of goods to the provision of services.\nKnowledge becomes a valued form of capital; see Human capital.\nProducing ideas is the main way to grow the economy.\nThrough processes of globalization and automation, the value and importance to the economy of blue-collar, unionized work, including manual labor (e.g., assembly-line work) decline, and those of professional workers (e.g., scientists, creative-industry professionals, and IT professionals) grow in value and prevalence.\nBehavioral and information sciences and technologies are developed and implemented. (e.g., behavioral economics, information architecture, cybernetics, game theory and information theory.)", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Primitive communism is a way of describing the gift economies of hunter-gatherers throughout history, where resources and property hunted or gathered are shared with all members of a group in accordance with individual needs. In political sociology and anthropology, it is also a concept (often credited to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels) that describes hunter-gatherer societies as traditionally being based on egalitarian social relations and common ownership. A primary inspiration for both Marx and Engels were Lewis H. Morgan's descriptions of \"communism in living\" as practised by the Haudenosaunee of North America. In Marx's model of socioeconomic structures, societies with primitive communism had no hierarchical social class structures or capital accumulation.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A progress trap is the condition human societies experience when, in pursuing progress through human ingenuity, they inadvertently introduce problems they do not have the resources or political will to solve, for fear of short-term losses in status, stability or quality of life. This prevents further progress and sometimes leads to societal collapse.\nThe syndrome appears to have been first described by Walter Von Kr\u00e4mer, in his series of 1989 articles under the title Fortschrittsfalle Medizin. The specific neologism \"progress trap\" was introduced independently in 1990 by Daniel B. O'Leary with his study of the behavioral aspects of this condition: The Progress Trap \u2013 Science, Humanity and Environment.The term later gained attention following the historian and novelist Ronald Wright's 2004 book and Massey Lecture series A Short History of Progress, in which he sketches world history so far as a succession of progress traps. With the documentary film version of Wright's book Surviving Progress, backed by Martin Scorsese, the concept achieved wider recognition.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (German: Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus) is a book written by Max Weber, a German sociologist, economist, and politician. Begun as a series of essays, the original German text was composed in 1904 and 1905, and was translated into English for the first time by American sociologist Talcott Parsons in 1930. It is considered a founding text in economic sociology and a milestone contribution to sociological thought in general.\nIn the book, Weber wrote that capitalism in Northern Europe evolved when the Protestant (particularly Calvinist) ethic influenced large numbers of people to engage in work in the secular world, developing their own enterprises and engaging in trade and the accumulation of wealth for investment. In other words, the Protestant work ethic was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated emergence of modern capitalism. In his book, apart from Calvinists, Weber also discusses Lutherans (especially Pietists, but also notes differences between traditional Lutherans and Calvinists), Methodists, Baptists, Quakers, and Moravians (specifically referring to the Herrnhut-based community under Count von Zinzendorf's spiritual lead).\nIn 1998, the International Sociological Association listed this work as the fourth most important sociological book of the 20th century, after Weber's Economy and Society, Mills' The Sociological Imagination, and Merton's Social Theory and Social Structure. It is the 8th most cited book in the social sciences published before 1950.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Proto-globalization or early modern globalization is a period of the history of globalization roughly spanning the years between 1600 and 1800, following the period of archaic globalization. First introduced by historians A. G. Hopkins and Christopher Bayly, the term describes the phase of increasing trade links and cultural exchange that characterized the period immediately preceding the advent of so-called \"modern globalization\" in the 19th century.Proto-globalization distinguished itself from modern globalization on the basis of expansionism, the method of managing global trade, and the level of information exchange. The period of proto-globalization is marked by such trade arrangements as the East India Company, the shift of hegemony to Western Europe, the rise of larger-scale conflicts between powerful nations such as the Thirty Years' War, and a rise of new commodities\u2014most particularly slave trade. The Triangular Trade made it possible for Europe to take advantage of resources within the western hemisphere. The transfer of plant and animal crops and epidemic diseases associated with Alfred Crosby's concept of The Columbian Exchange also played a central role in this process. Proto-globalization trade and communications involved a vast group including European, Muslim, Indian, Southeast Asian and Chinese merchants, particularly in the Indian Ocean region.\nThe transition from proto-globalization to modern globalization was marked with a more complex global network based on both capitalistic and technological exchange; however, it led to a significant collapse in cultural exchange.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Qing conquest theory proposes that the actions and policies of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty held China back, and led to the Great Divergence in which China lost its early modern economic and industrial lead over the West. The theory seeks to explain why Europe could experience an industrial revolution, but China did not. Theory supporters, some of whom may be motivated by anti-Qing sentiment, claim that advances in science and technology and economic development in the Song and Ming dynasties moved China toward a modern age, however, the restrictions placed on commerce and industry and the persecution of non-orthodox thought after the transition from Ming to Qing in the 17th century caused China to gradually stagnate and fall behind the West.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Carroll Quigley (; November 9, 1910 \u2013 January 3, 1977) was an American historian and theorist of the evolution of civilizations. He is remembered for his teaching work as a professor at Georgetown University, and for his writing about global conspiracies, in which he argued that an Anglo-American banking elite have worked together for centuries to spread certain values globally.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Renegade thesis explains the emergence of the Beylik of Osman and, in particular, the successes during the Rise of the Ottoman Empire and Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire with the successful integration of local renegades of all classes, combined with the following policy of meritocracy. The first example of a significant renegade is K\u00f6se Mihal, and Stephan Gerlach describes in his diary very much that often during that time prominent French, Italian, Spanish and Hungarian noblemen became Turkish renegades. \n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Within the Marxist movement, revisionism represents various ideas, principles and theories that are based on a significant revision of fundamental Marxist premises that usually involve making an alliance with the bourgeois class.\nThe term revisionism is most often used by those Marxists who believe that such revisions are unwarranted and represent a \"watering down\" or abandonment of Marxism\u2014one such common example is the negation of class struggle. As such, revisionism often carries pejorative connotations and the term has been used by many different factions. It is typically applied to others and rarely as a self-description. By extension, people who view themselves as fighting against revisionism have often self-identified as anti-revisionists.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Rostow's stages of economic growth model is one of the major historical models of economic growth. It was published by American economist Walt Whitman Rostow in 1960. The model postulates that economic growth occurs in five basic stages, of varying length:\nThe traditional society\nThe preconditions for take-off\nThe take-off\nThe drive to maturity\nThe age of high mass-consumptionRostow's model is one of the more structuralist models of economic growth, particularly in comparison with the \"backwardness\" model developed by Alexander Gerschenkron, although the two models are not mutually exclusive.\nRostow argued that economic take-off must initially be led by a few individual economic sectors. This belief echoes David Ricardo's comparative advantage thesis and criticizes Marxist revolutionaries' push for economic self-reliance in that it pushes for the \"initial\" development of only one or two sectors over the development of all sectors equally. This became one of the important concepts in the theory of modernization in social evolutionism.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Seeds of Change: Five Plants That Transformed Mankind is a 1985 book by Henry Hobhouse which explains how the history of the world since Columbus linked America to Europe and has been changed by five plants.  It describes how mankind's discovery, usage and trade of sugar, tea, cotton, the potato, and quinine have influenced history to make the modern world.\nIn the second edition of the book,  Seeds of Change: Six Plants that Transformed Mankind, he adds the coca plant to the list.  In 2004, he published a follow-up book Seeds of Wealth: Four Plants That Made Men Rich covering timber, wine, rubber, and tobacco.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal is an attempt to refute the doomsday argument (that there is a credible link between the brevity of the human race's existence and its expected extinction) by applying the same reasoning to the lifetime of the doomsday argument itself.\nThe first researchers to write about this were P. T. Landsberg and J. N. Dewynne in 1997; they applied belief in the doomsday argument to itself, and claimed that a paradox results.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Seshat: Global History Databank (named after Seshat, the ancient Egyptian goddess of wisdom, knowledge, and writing) is an international scientific research project of the nonprofit Evolution Institute. Founded in 2011, the Seshat: Global History Databank gathers data into a single, large database that can be used to test scientific hypotheses. The Databank consults directly with expert scholars to code what historical societies and their environments were like in the form of accessible datapoints and thus forms a digital storehouse for data on the political and social organization of all human groups from the early modern back to the ancient and neolithic periods. The organizers of this research project contend that the mass of data then can be used to test a variety of competing hypotheses about the rise and fall of large-scale societies around the globe which may help science provide answers to global problems.The Seshat: Global History Databank claims to be a scientific approach to historical research and its large dataset, though compiled with the intention of being theory-neutral, is frequently of interest to researchers of cliodynamics. The main goal of cliodynamics researchers is to use the scientific method to produce the data necessary to empirically test competing theories. A large interdisciplinary and international team of experts helps the Seshat project to produce a database that is historically rigorous enough to study the past using well-established scientific techniques. Seshat data may be used with sociocultural evolutionary theory or cultural evolutionary theory to identify long-term dynamics that may have had significant effects on the course of human history.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A Short History of Progress is a non-fiction book and lecture series by Ronald Wright about societal collapse. The lectures were delivered as a series of five speeches, each taking place in different cities across Canada as part of the 2004 Massey Lectures which were broadcast on the CBC Radio program, Ideas. The book version was published by House of Anansi Press and released at the same time as the lectures. The book spent more than a year on Canadian best-seller lists, won the Canadian Book Association's Libris Award for Non-Fiction Book of the Year, and was nominated for the British Columbia's National Award for Canadian Non-Fiction. It has since been reprinted in a hardcover format with illustrations and also in Kindle and EPUB\ndigital formats.\nWright, an author of fiction and non-fiction works, uses the fallen civilisations of Easter Island, Sumer, Rome, and Maya, as well as examples from the Stone Age, to see what conditions led to the downfall of those societies. He examines the meaning of progress and its implications for civilizations\u2014past and present\u2014arguing that the twentieth century was a time of runaway growth in human population, consumption, and technology that has now placed an unsustainable burden on all natural systems.\nIn his analysis of the four cases of fallen civilizations, he notes that two (Easter Island and Sumer) failed due to depletion of natural resources\u2014\"their ecologies were unable to regenerate.\"  The other two failed in their heartlands, \"where ecological demand was highest,\" but left remnant populations that survived. He asks the question: \"Why, if civilizations so often destroy themselves, has the overall experiment of civilization done so well?\"  For the answer, he says, we must look to natural regeneration and human migration.:\u200a102\u200a  While some ancient civilizations were depleting their ecologies and failing, others were rising. Large expanses of the planet were unsettled. The other factor, evident in both Egypt and China, was that due to abundant resources (e.g., topsoil), farming methods (ones that worked with, rather than against, natural cycles), and settlement patterns, these civilizations had greater longevity.:\u200a103\u2013104\u200aChanges brought on by the exponential growth of human population (at the time of the book's publication, over six billion and adding more than 200 million people every three years) and the worldwide scale of resource consumption, have altered the picture, however.  Ecological markers indicate that human civilization has now surpassed (since the 1980s) nature's capacity for regeneration.  We are now using more than 125 percent of nature's yearly output.  \"If civilization is to survive, it must live on the interest, not the capital of nature\".:\u200a129\u200a  He concludes that \"now is our chance to get the future right\"\u2014the collapse of human civilization is imminent if we do not act now to prevent it.:\u200a132\u200a", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Smihula waves (or Smihula cycles, Smihula waves of technological revolutions, economic waves of technological revolutions) are long-term  waves of technological progress which are reflected also in  long-term economic waves.  They are a crucial notion of Daniel \u0160mihula's  theory of technological progress.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Social cycle theories are among the earliest social theories in sociology. Unlike the theory of social evolutionism, which views the evolution of society and human history as progressing in some new, unique direction(s), sociological cycle theory argues that events and stages of society and history generally repeat themselves in cycles. Such a theory does not necessarily imply that there cannot be any social progress. In the early theory of Sima Qian and the more recent theories of long-term (\"secular\") political-demographic cycles as well as in the Varnic theory of P.R. Sarkar an explicit accounting is made of social progress.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Social Darwinism refers to various theories and societal practices that purport to apply biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology, economics and politics, and which were largely defined by scholars in Western Europe and North America in the 1870s. Social Darwinism holds that the strong see their wealth and power increase while the weak see their wealth and power decrease. Social Darwinist definitions of the strong and the weak vary, and also differ on the precise mechanisms that reward strength and punish weakness. Many such views stress competition between individuals in laissez-faire capitalism, while others, emphasizing struggle between national or racial groups, support eugenics, racism, imperialism and/or fascism.Social Darwinism declined in popularity as a purportedly scientific concept following the First World War, and was largely discredited by the end of the Second World War\u2014partially due to its association with Nazism and partially due to a growing scientific consensus that eugenics and scientific racism were groundless. Later reference to social Darwinism was usually pejorative.Some groups, including creationists such as William Jennings Bryan, argued that social Darwinism is a logical consequence of Darwinism. Academics such as Steven Pinker have argued this is a fallacy of appeal to nature as natural selection is a description of a biological phenomenon and does not imply that this phenomenon is morally desirable in human society. While most scholars recognize some historical links between the popularisation of Darwin's theory and forms of social Darwinism, they also maintain that social Darwinism is not a necessary consequence of the principles of biological evolution. Social Darwinism is generally accepted to be a pseudoscience.Scholars debate the extent to which the various social Darwinist ideologies reflect Charles Darwin's own views on human social and economic issues. His writings have passages that can be interpreted as opposing aggressive individualism, while other passages appear to promote it. Darwin's early evolutionary views and his opposition to slavery ran counter to many of the claims that social Darwinists would eventually make about the mental capabilities of the poor and indigenous peoples in the European colonies. After the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, one strand of Darwin's followers, led by Sir John Lubbock, argued that natural selection ceased to have any noticeable effect on humans once organised societies had been formed. However, some scholars argue that Darwin's view gradually changed and came to incorporate views from other theorists such as Herbert Spencer. Spencer published his Lamarckian evolutionary ideas about society before Darwin first published his hypothesis in 1859, and both Spencer and Darwin promoted their own conceptions of moral values. Spencer supported laissez-faire capitalism on the basis of his Lamarckian belief that struggle for survival spurred self-improvement which could be inherited. An important proponent in Germany was Ernst Haeckel, who popularized Darwin's thought and his personal interpretation of it, and used it as well to contribute to a new creed, the monist movement.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Social savings is a growth in accounting techniques in order to evaluate the historical implications of new technology on economic growth. Developed in 1950 by American economic historian and scientist Robert Fogel, explains the methodology works to estimate the cost-savings of the new technology compared with the next best alternative. The first oral presentation was at the 1960 Purdue Cliometrics meeting, and the first published version was in the Journal of economic history in 1962.\nA recent survey can be found in \"economic and history: surveys in Cliometrics\", edited by David Greasley and Les Oxley and published by Wiley-Blackwell in 2011. The relevant chapter is entitled \"social savings\" and is by Tim Leunig, London School of Economics. [1]", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Societal collapse (also known as civilizational collapse) is the fall of a complex human society characterized by the loss of cultural identity and of socioeconomic complexity, the downfall of government, and the rise of violence. Possible causes of a societal collapse include natural catastrophe, war, pestilence, famine,  economic collapse,  population decline, and mass migration. A collapsed society may revert to a more primitive state, be absorbed into a stronger society, or completely disappear.\nVirtually all civilizations have suffered such a fate, regardless of their size or complexity, but some of them later revived and transformed, such as China, India, and Egypt. However, others never recovered, such as the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, the Maya civilization, and the Easter Island civilization. Societal collapse is generally quick but rarely abrupt. However, some cases involve not a collapse but only a gradual fading away, such as the British Empire since 1918.Anthropologists, (quantitative) historians, and sociologists have proposed a variety of explanations for the collapse of civilizations involving causative factors such as environmental change, depletion of resources, unsustainable complexity, invasion, disease, decay of social cohesion, rising inequality, secular decline of cognitive abilities, loss of creativity, and misfortune. However, complete extinction of a culture is not inevitable, and in some cases, the new societies that arise from the ashes of the old one are evidently its offspring, despite a dramatic reduction in sophistication. Moreover, the influence of a collapsed society, such as the Western Roman Empire, may linger on long after its death.The study of societal collapse, collapsology, is a topic for specialists of history, anthropology, sociology, and political science. More recently, they are joined by experts in cliodynamics and study of complex systems.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (; Russian: \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0440\u0438\u0301\u043c \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u0301\u043d\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0421\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0301\u043a\u0438\u043d; 4 February [O.S. 23 January] 1889 \u2013 10 February 1968) was a Russian-American sociologist and political activist, who contributed to the social cycle theory.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler (German: [\u02c8\u0254svalt \u02c8\u0283p\u025b\u014bl\u0250]; 29 May 1880 \u2013 8 May 1936) was a German historian and philosopher of history whose interests included mathematics, science, and art and their relation to his organic theory of history. He is best known for his two-volume work, The Decline of the West (Der Untergang des Abendlandes), published in 1918 and 1922, covering world history. Spengler's model of history postulates that human cultures and civilizations are akin to biological entities, each with a limited, predictable, and deterministic lifespan.\nSpengler predicted that about the year 2000, Western civilization would enter the period of pre\u2011death emergency whose countering would lead to 200 years of Caesarism (extra-constitutional omnipotence of the executive branch of government) before Western civilization's final collapse.\nSpengler is regarded as a nationalist and an anti-democrat, and he was a prominent member of the Conservative Revolution. Consequently, he criticised Nazism due to its excessive racialist elements. He saw Benito Mussolini, and entrepreneurial types, like the mining magnate Cecil Rhodes, as examples of the impending Caesars of Western culture, notwithstanding his stark criticism of Mussolini's imperial adventures.He strongly influenced other historians, including Franz Borkenau and especially Arnold J. Toynbee and other successors including Francis Parker Yockey, Carroll Quigley, and Samuel P. Huntington. John Calvert notes that Spengler's critique of the West is popular with Islamists.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In economic development, the staples thesis is a theory of export-led growth based on Canadian experience. The theory \"has its origins in research into Canadian social, political, and economic history carried out in Canadian universities...by members of what were then known as departments of political economy.\" From these groups of researchers, \"the two most prominent scholars following this approach were Harold Innis and W.A. Mackintosh.\"", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Stranger King theory offers a framework to understand global colonialism. It seeks to explain the apparent ease whereby many indigenous peoples subjugated themselves to an alien colonial power and places state formation by colonial powers within the continuum of earlier, similar but indigenous processes.\nIt highlights the imposition of colonialism not as the result of the breaking of the spirit of local communities by brute force, or as reflecting an ignorant peasantry's acquiescence in the lies of its self-interested leaders, but as a people's rational and productive acceptance of an opportunity offered.\nThe theory was developed by Marshall Sahlins in the Pacific region and is described by David Henley using the North Sulawesi region in Indonesia as his prime case study. The Stranger King theory suggests similarities and divergences between pre-colonial and colonial processes of state-formation enabling to build with insight on the historiography of the colonial transition in the Asia-Pacific part of the world.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Strauss\u2013Howe generational theory, devised by William Strauss and Neil Howe, describes a theorized recurring generation cycle in American history and Western history. According to the theory, historical events are associated with recurring generational personas (archetypes). Each generational persona unleashes a new era (called a turning) lasting around 20\u201325 years, in which a new social, political, and economic climate (mood) exists. They are part of a larger cyclical \"saeculum\" (a long human life, which usually spans between 80 and 100 years, although some saecula have lasted longer). The theory states that a crisis recurs in American history after every saeculum, which is followed by a recovery (high). During this recovery, institutions and communitarian values are strong. Ultimately, succeeding generational archetypes attack and weaken institutions in the name of autonomy and individualism, which eventually creates a tumultuous political environment that ripens conditions for another crisis.Strauss and Howe laid the groundwork for their theory in their book Generations (1991), which discusses the history of the United States as a series of generational biographies going back to 1584. In their book The Fourth Turning (1997), the authors expanded the theory to focus on a fourfold cycle of generational types and recurring mood eras  to describe the history of the United States, including the Thirteen Colonies and their British antecedents. However, the authors have also examined generational trends elsewhere in the world and described similar cycles in several developed countries.Academic response to the theory has been mixed, with some applauding Strauss and Howe for their \"bold and imaginative thesis\", while others have criticized the theory as being overly deterministic, unfalsifiable, and unsupported by rigorous evidence. Former U.S. Vice President Al Gore, who graduated from Harvard University with Strauss, called Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584 to 2069 the most stimulating book on American history he'd ever read. He even sent a copy to each member of Congress. The theory has been influential in the fields of generational studies, marketing, and business management literature. Strauss\u2013Howe generational theory has also been described by some historians and journalists as pseudoscientific, \"kooky\", and \"an elaborate historical horoscope that will never withstand scholarly scrutiny\". Academic criticism has focused on the lack of rigorous empirical evidence for their claims, as well as the authors' view that generational groupings are more powerful than other social groupings, such as economic class, race, sex, religion, and political parties.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In social science, the structural-demographic theory (SDT, also known as Demographic Structural Theory) uses  mathematical modeling to explain and predict outbreaks of political instability in complex societies. It originated in the work of sociologist Jack Goldstone and has recently been developed further by the quantitative historians Peter Turchin, Andrey Korotayev, Leonid Grinin and Sergey Nefedov.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Technics and Civilization is a 1934 book by American philosopher and historian of technology Lewis Mumford.  The book presents the history of technology and its role in shaping and being shaped by civilizations.  According to Mumford, modern technology has its roots in the Middle Ages rather than in the Industrial Revolution. It is the moral, economic, and political choices we make, not the machines we use, Mumford argues, that have produced a capitalist industrialized machine-oriented economy, whose imperfect fruits serve the majority so imperfectly.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Technological determinism is a reductionist theory that assumes that a society's technology progresses by following its own internal logic of efficiency, while determining the development of the social structure and cultural values, therefore technological progress is fundamentally an anti-democratic force. The term is believed to have originated from Thorstein Veblen (1857\u20131929), an American sociologist and economist. The most radical technological determinist in the United States in the 20th century was most likely Clarence Ayres who was a follower of Thorstein Veblen and John Dewey. William Ogburn was also known for his radical technological determinism and his theory on cultural lag.\nThe first major elaboration of a technological determinist view of socioeconomic development came from the German philosopher and economist Karl Marx, who argued that changes in technology, and specifically productive technology, are the primary influence on human social relations and organizational structure, and that social relations and cultural practices ultimately revolve around the technological and economic base of a given society. Marx's position has become embedded in contemporary society, where the idea that fast-changing technologies alter human lives is pervasive. \nAlthough many authors attribute a technologically determined view of human history to Marx's insights, not all Marxists are technological determinists, and some authors question the extent to which Marx himself was a determinist. Furthermore, there are multiple forms of technological determinism.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A technological revolution is a period in which one or more technologies is replaced by another, novel technology in a short amount of time. It is an era of accelerated technological progress characterized by new innovations whose rapid application and diffusion typically cause an abrupt change in society.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Technology society and life or technology and culture refers to the inter-dependency, co-dependence, co-influence, and co-production of technology and society upon one another. Evidence for this synergy has been found since humanity first started using simple tools. The inter-relationship has continued as modern technologies such as the printing press and computers have helped shape society. The first scientific approach to this relationship occurred with the development of tektology, the \"science of organization\", in early twentieth century Imperial Russia. In modern academia, the interdisciplinary study of the mutual impacts of science, technology, and society, is called science and technology studies.\nThe simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic tools. The prehistoric discovery of how to control fire and the later Neolithic Revolution increased the available sources of food, and the invention of the wheel helped humans to travel in and control their environment. Developments in historic times have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale, such as the printing press, telephone, and Internet.\nTechnology has developed advanced economies, such as the modern  global economy, and has led to the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce by-products known as pollution, and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earth's environment. Innovations influence the values of society and raise new questions in the ethics of technology. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics.\nPhilosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar reactionary movements criticize the pervasiveness of technology, arguing that it harms the environment and alienates people. However, proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The theory of historical trajectory is part of Karl Marx's historical materialism. This theory has been analyzed by Erik Olin Wright, whose work has been cited in relation to it.According to Wright, while Marx's theory of social change is often regarded as obsolete, it is nonetheless an important and likely still the \"most ambitious attempt to construct a scientific theory of alternatives to capitalism\". What Marx attempted was to develop a deterministic theory of \"long term impossibility of capitalism\". According to Marx, the very same problems that should make capitalism fail should also provide the means for the new, more democratic and egalitarian society to arise.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Third Period is an ideological concept adopted by the Communist International (Comintern) at its Sixth World Congress, held in Moscow in the summer of 1928. It set policy until reversed when the Nazis took over Germany in 1933.The Comintern's theory was based on its economic and political analysis of world capitalism, which posited the division of recent history into three periods. These included a \"First Period\" that followed World War I and saw the revolutionary upsurge and defeat of the working class, as well as a \"Second Period\" of capitalist consolidation for most of the decade of the 1920s. According to the Comintern's analysis, the current phase of world economy from 1928 onward, the so-called \"Third Period,\" was to be a time of widespread economic collapse and mass working class radicalization. This economic and political discord would again make the time ripe for proletarian revolution if militant policies were rigidly maintained by communist vanguard parties, the Comintern believed.\nCommunist policies during the Third Period were marked by pronounced hostility to political reformism and political organizations espousing it as an impediment to the movement's revolutionary objectives. In the field of trade unions, a move was made during the Third Period towards the establishment of radical dual unions under communist party control rather than continuation of the previous policy of attempting to radicalize existing unions by \"boring from within.\"\nThe rise of the Nazi Party to power in Germany in 1933 and the annihilation of the organized communist movement there shocked the Comintern into reassessing the tactics of the Third Period. From 1934, new alliances began to be formed under the aegis of the so-called \"Popular Front.\" The Popular Front policy was formalized as the official policy of the world communist movement by the Seventh World Congress of the Comintern in 1935.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Three Eras is a Judeo-Christian scheme of periodization in historiography, called also  Vaticinium Eliae (prophecy of Elijah or Elias). A three-period division of time appears in the Babylonian Talmud: the period before the giving of the law (Torah); the period subject to the law; and the period of the Messiah. This scheme was later adapted to Christian use, with three periods corresponding to the persons of the Trinity. In that form it was taken up by Joachim of Fiore; it had been held in a similar form a little earlier by the Amalricians.After the Protestant Reformation the scheme of the \"prophecy of Elias\" was popularised by Philip Melanchthon and his Lutheran collaborators, using Carion's Chronicle as a vehicle, heavily edited into due form. The three periods were 'without the law', 'under law', and 'under grace'. With each period attributed a length of two millennia, the scheme was applied to predict the end of time (or at least the commencement of a final seventh millennium). This was done by Johann Heinrich Alsted in the 17th century. The scheme was widely influential in its tripartite structure, seen also in the chronology of Achilles Pirmin Gasser.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Arnold Joseph Toynbee  (; 14 April 1889 \u2013 22 October 1975) was an English historian, a philosopher of history, an author of numerous books and a research professor of international history at the London School of Economics and King's College London. From 1918 to 1950, Toynbee was considered a leading specialist on international affairs; from 1924 to 1954 he was the Director of Studies at Chatham House, in which position he also produced 34 volumes of the Survey of International Affairs, a \"bible\" for international specialists in Britain.He is best known for his 12-volume A Study of History (1934\u20131961). With his prodigious output of papers, articles, speeches and presentations, and numerous books translated into many languages, Toynbee was a widely read and discussed scholar in the 1940s and 1950s. By the 1960s his magnum opus had fallen out of favour among mainstream historians, due to recognition that Toynbee favoured myths, allegories and religion over factual data.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In sociology, traditional society refers to a society characterized by an orientation to the past, not the future, with a predominant role for custom and habit. Such societies are marked by a lack of distinction between family and business, with the division of labor influenced primarily by age, gender, and status.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Triadization (or triadisation) is a proposed alternative to the theory of globalization. It states that political, economic and socio-cultural integration have been limited to three regions of the world: Japan and the newly industrialized countries of Southeast Asia, Western Europe and North America.Outside of these regions, according to the theory, the effects of so-called \"globalization\" have not been felt, and hence it cannot be truly called \"global\". Instead, the economic interdependence between the countries of the \"triad\" supposedly leads to the alienation of the developing world. This alienation is described by the theory as the result of the fact that \"fragmentation of the world into regional blocks is taking place, featured in the tendency to strengthen economic interdependence and transactions within them but not among them\". This further entrenches the position of the triad, and prevents the growth of the rest of the world.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "There is widespread disagreement among historians about the turning point of the American Civil War. A turning point in this context is an event that occurred during the conflict after which most modern scholars would agree that the eventual outcome was inevitable. While the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863 is the event most widely cited as the military climax of the American Civil War (often in combination with the siege of Vicksburg, which concluded a day later), there were several other decisive battles and events throughout the war which have been proposed as turning points. These events are presented here in chronological order. Only the positive arguments for each are given.\nAt the time of an event, the fog of war often makes it impossible to recognize all of the implications of any specific outcome. Only hindsight can fully reveal the endpoint and all of the developments that led up to it. For this reason, contemporary observers may lack confidence in predicting a turning point. Many of the turning points of the Civil War cited here would not have been recognized as such at the time.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The United States factor is a view of modern history that promotes the United States as the contingent reason for the Allied Powers winning both world wars and for preventing any powerful rival political regime from becoming mainstream in the 21st century world.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Institute for Social Research (German: Institut f\u00fcr Sozialforschung, IfS) is a research organization for sociology and continental philosophy, best known as the institutional home of the Frankfurt School and critical theory. Currently a part of Goethe University Frankfurt, it has historically also been affiliated with Columbia University in New York City.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In anthropology and archaeology, the urban revolution is the process by which small, kin-based, illiterate agricultural villages were transformed into large, socially complex, urban societies.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Veritism was a socio-philosophical ideology promoted by the \"Veritism Foundation\" (apparently now defunct). It argues that humanity has been presented with no conclusive evidence lending credence to the existence of a specific deity, or supreme entity and thus has no justification for reaching any kind of conclusions on the nature of such a being other than that (as represented by humanity's current state) it is a benign force.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Vienna School of History is an influential school of historical thinking based at the University of Vienna. It is closely associated with Reinhard Wenskus, Herwig Wolfram and Walter Pohl. Partly drawing upon ideas from sociology and critical theory, scholars of the Vienna School have utilized the concept of ethnogenesis to reassess the notion of ethnicity as it applies to historical groups of peoples such as the Germanic tribes. Focusing on Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, the Vienna School has a large publishing output, and has had a major influence on the modern analysis of barbarian identity.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A View of Religions is an 18th-century comprehensive survey of world religions by the American author, Hannah Adams. First published in Boston, Massachusetts in 1784, it was a pioneering work in that it represented denominations from the perspective of their adherents, without imposing Adams' own preferences. The book was divided into sections and passed through several editions, which included minor changes in the name of the work. It was reprinted in England. A View of Religions was Adams' first and principal literary work. It was the result of her dissatisfaction with the prejudice of most writers on the various religious sects. She began thinking on the subject after reading a manuscript from Thomas Broughton's Historical Dictionary of all Religions from the Creation of the World to the Present Times (1742).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein (; September 28, 1930 \u2013 August 31, 2019) was an American sociologist and economic historian. He is perhaps best known for his development of the general approach in sociology which led to the emergence of his world-systems approach. He was a Senior Research Scholar at Yale University from 2000 until his death in 2019, and published bimonthly syndicated commentaries through Agence Global on world affairs from October 1998 to July 2019.He was the 13th president of International Sociological Association (1994\u20131998).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some are So Rich and Some So Poor is a 1995 book by historian and economist David Landes (1924\u20132013). Landes attempted to explain why some countries and regions experienced near miraculous periods of explosive growth while the rest of the world stagnated. The book compared the long-term economic histories of different regions, specifically Europe, United States, Japan, China, the Arab world, and Latin America. In addition to analyzing economic and cliometric figures, he credited intangible assets, such as culture and enterprise, to explain economic success or failure.\nLandes was Emeritus Professor of Economics and Coolidge Professor of History at Harvard University.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "White's law, named after Leslie White and published in 1943, states that, other factors remaining constant, \"culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased, or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work is increased\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Karl August Wittfogel (6 September 1896 \u2013 25 May 1988) was a German-American playwright, historian, and sinologist. He was originally a Marxist and an active member of the Communist Party of Germany, but after the Second World War Wittfogel was an equally-fierce anti-communist.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "World-systems theory (also known as world-systems analysis or the world-systems perspective) is a multidisciplinary approach to world history and social change which emphasizes the world-system (and not nation states) as the primary (but not exclusive) unit of social analysis.\"World-system\" refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries, and the periphery countries. Core countries focus on higher-skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials. This constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries. Nonetheless, the system has dynamic characteristics, in part as a result of revolutions in transport technology, and individual states can gain or lose their core (semi-periphery, periphery) status over time. This structure is unified by the division of labour. It is a world-economy rooted in a capitalist economy. For a time, certain countries become the world hegemon; during the last few centuries, as the world-system has extended geographically and intensified economically, this status has passed from the Netherlands, to the United Kingdom and (most recently) to the United States.Components of the world-systems analysis are longue dur\u00e9e by Fernand Braudel, \"development of underdevelopment\" by Gunder Frank, and the single-society assumption. Longue dur\u00e9e is the concept of the gradual change through the day-to-day activities by which social systems are continually reproduced. \"Development of underdevelopment\" described that the economic processes in the periphery are the opposite of the development in the core. Poorer countries are impoverished to enable a few countries to get richer. Lastly, the single-society assumption opposes the multiple-society assumption and includes looking at the world as a whole.World-systems theory has been examined by many political theorists and sociologists to explain the reasons for the rise and fall of states, income inequality, social unrest, and imperialism.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A yuga, in Hinduism, is generally used to indicate an age of time.In the Rigveda, a yuga refers to generations, a long period, a very brief period, or a yoke (joining of two things). In the Mahabharata, the words yuga and kalpa (a day of Brahma) are used interchangeably to describe the cycle of creation and destruction.The names  \"Yuga\" and \"Age\" commonly denote a catur-yuga (pronounced Chatur Yuga), a cycle of four world ages, for example, in the Surya Siddhanta and Bhagavad Gita (part of the Mahabharata), unless expressly limited by the name of one of its minor ages: Krita (Satya) Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, or Kali Yuga.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A Yuga Cycle (a.k.a. chatur yuga, maha yuga, etc.) is a cyclic age (epoch) in Hindu cosmology. Each cycle lasts for 4,320,000 years (12,000 divine years) and repeats four yugas (world ages): Krita (Satya) Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga.As a Yuga Cycle progresses through the four yugas, each yuga's length and humanity's general moral and physical state within each yuga decrease by one-fourth. Kali Yuga, which lasts for 432,000 years, is believed to have started in 3102 BCE. Near the end of Kali Yuga, when virtues are at their worst, a cataclysm and a re-establishment of dharma occur to usher in the next cycle's Satya Yuga, prophesied to occur by Kalki.There are 71 Yuga Cycles in a manvantara (age of Manu) and 1,000 Yuga Cycles in a kalpa (day of Brahma).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "2011 submarine cable disruption refers to two incidents of submarine communications cables cut off on 25 December 2011. The first cut off occurred to SEA-ME-WE 3 at Suez canal, Egypt and the second cut off occurred to i2i which took place between Chennai, India and Singapore line. Both the incidents had caused the internet disruptions and slowdowns for users in the South Asia and Middle East in particular UAE.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Abdi-Ri\u0161a was a ruler-'mayor' of Eni\u0161asi, during the period of the Amarna letters correspondence (1350\u20131335 BC). Another mayor of Eni\u0161asi, \u0160atiya, is found in the Amarna letters corpus. The name \"Abdi-Ri\u0161a\" means \"servant-Ri\u0161a\".\nAbdi-Ri\u0161a is only referenced in his own letter EA 363, a letter to pharaoh, (EA for 'el Amarna').\nLetter no. 363 is a unique letter, being part of a letter\u2013series, (by the same scribe):\n\nEA 174-(1), \"Report on Amqu (1)\"\nEA 175-(2), \"Report on Amqu (2)\"\nEA 176-(3), \"Report on Amqu (3)\"\nEA 363-(4), \"Report on Amqu (4)\"the Amqu being the \"Beqaa Valley area\" of Lebanon. As letter EA 363 was discovered later, (in a separate in-situ deposit), than the original letters of the Amarna letters correspondence, it is undamaged.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Abiba\u2019l Inscription is a Phoenician inscription from Byblos on the base of a throne on which a statue of Sheshonq I was placed. It is held at the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin.\nIt was found in 1895, published in 1903.It was acquired by Charles Clermont-Ganneau via the Danish diplomat Julius Loytved.Currently in the archives of the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin, VA 3361.It is known as KAI 5, and is one of thirteen significant inscriptions discovered in Byblos.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Aboiteau farming on reclaimed marshland is a labor-intensive method in which earthen dikes are constructed to stop high tides from inundating marshland.  \nA wooden sluice or aboiteau (plural aboiteaux) is built into the dike, with a hinged door (clapper valve) that swings open at low tide to allow fresh water to drain from the farmland but swings shut at high tide to prevent salt water from inundating the fields. After several years, the rainwater drained from the marsh eliminates the soil's salinity, making it suitable for farming.\nAboiteau farming is intimately linked with the story of French Acadian colonization of the shores of Canada's Bay of Fundy in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Acadians constructed earthen dikes to isolate areas of salt marsh from repeated inundation by the tides. Noted Acadian dikes include the diking of the tidal marshes at Grand-Pr\u00e9 (in contemporary Nova Scotia) in the early 1680s. Around 1755, 13,000 acres of salt marsh were reclaimed using this dike for pasturage and intensive agricultural production.In the Kamouraska region of the St. Lawrence Valley of Quebec, aboiteau diking of salt marshes was closely tied to the modernization of agriculture in the 19th and early 20th centuries.A rare original \"aboiteau\" is the jewel of the West Pubnico Acadian Museums' artifacts. In 1990, local residents found a couple of boards sticking out of an eroding beach on Double Island, West Pubnico.  They returned to the site in 1996 to remove the aboiteau, to preserve and display it at the museum.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Academy of American Franciscan History was founded in 1943 in Washington, D.C. as an institution to promote scholarship on the history of the Franciscan Order in the Americas. The inauguration of the Academy \"brought together a large group of scholars in the Latin American field,\" including Howard Mumford Jones, John Tate Lanning, and Carlos E. Casta\u00f1eda. The core members of the Academy included Antonine Tibesar O.F.M. and Maynard Geiger, O.F.M., with Roderick Wheeler, O.F.M., serving as its first director.  A number of non-Franciscans pursuing the history of the order were made corresponding members of the Academy, including John Tate Lanning, France V. Scholes, Herbert E. Bolton, and George P. Hammond. The Academy is a research institute, now based in Oceanside, California, on the campus of Mission San Luis Rey and is affiliated with the Franciscan School of Theology.  Fr. Antonine Tibesar, O.F.M. was succeeded by its first lay academic director John Frederick Schwaller. Its current director is Jeffrey Burns, (PhD University of Notre Dame), who also holds a faculty position at the Franciscan School of Theology.  The Academy's books, reference works, and pamphlets remain in the Washington, D.C. area, in Takoma Park, Maryland.  Its rare books and archival material are part of the library at University of San Diego. There is a finding aid for its microfilm collection. The academy is the publisher of the quarterly peer reviewed scholarly journal, The Americas, a leading journal in Latin American studies founded in 1944, published by Cambridge University Press and available electronically via Project MUSE. The editorial office is at Drexel University  in Philadelphia. The journal has from its foundation \"published articles unrelated to the Franciscans.\"The Academy also publishes a monograph series and scholarly editions of writings of Franciscans, such as St Jun\u00edpero Serra.  The Academy also supports dissertation research on the Franciscans in the Americas.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Adherbal (Punic: \ud802\udd00\ud802\udd03\ud802\udd13\ud802\udd01\ud802\udd0f\ud802\udd0b, \u02bfDRB\u02beL) was a Carthaginian noble who served as the governor of Gadir (Cadiz) during the Second Punic War. He was also a Carthaginian military commander in this war under the command of Mago Barca. He was one of the lesser generals of the Punic War and was often trying to prove his worth. He is perhaps best known for his defeat in the naval Battle of Carteia in 206 BC while attempting to leave Carthaginian Spain with valuable prisoners. His fleet was defeated near the ancient city of Carteia by G. Laelius.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The American Association for the History of Medicine is an American professional association dedicated to the study of medical history.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The American Society for Legal History is a learned society dedicated to promoting scholarship and teaching in the field of legal history.\nIt was founded in 1956 and has an international scope, despite being based in the United States. It sponsors the peer-reviewed journal Law and History Review and the book series Studies in Legal History, both of which are published by Cambridge University Press. In 1957, the Society established the American Journal of Legal History, which the Society originally published as its official journal. The journal was later acquired by the Temple University Beasley School of Law. It has been a member of the American Council of Learned Societies since 1973.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Ammittamru I (Known by some sources as Amishtammru I or Amistammru I) was a king of the ancient Syrian city of Ugarit who ruled c. 1350 BC.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Ammittamru II was a king of the ancient Syrian city of Ugarit who ruled from 1260 to 1235 BC. He reigned for 25 years, being the son of former king Niqmepa, who was famously forced to sign a treaty of vassalization to the Hittites.\nHis mother Ahatmilku supported his succession to the throne after the death of his father. She banished two of her sons to Alashiya (Cyprus), when they contested this, but made sure they had sufficient supplies.Like all other Ugaritan kings, very few references of him exist. However, he is known to be a contemporary of Bente\u0161ina of the Amurru. Ammittamru II married Bente\u0161ina's daughter whose mother was Kilu\u0161-\u1e2aepa, daughter of \u1e2aattu\u0161ili III. He later expelled his wife after she had committed serious misconduct and sent her back to Amurru. He then demanded her extradition in order to punish her for her deeds, but \u0160au\u0161gamuwa of the Amurru refused to extradite the lady because he feared her execution. As tension arose between the two vassals, Hittite king Tud\u1e2baliya IV interfered in the matter, as an escalating conflict between two important vassals would not have been in his favor. Hence, Hittite viceroy in Carchemish, Ini-Te\u0161\u0161up, decided that the ex-wife would have to be extradited and \u0160au\u0161gamuwa should be paid 1400 shekels of gold to in return.\nAmmittamru II is assumed to have used the seal of his grandfather, Niqmaddu II instead of the dynastic seal that reads: \"Yaqarum, son of Niqmaddu, king of Ugarit\", that was normally used by Ugaritan kings.Ammittamru II determined his son Ibiranu as his successor during his lifetime.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Ammunira was a king of Beirut in the mid-fourteenth century BCE. He is mentioned in several of the Amarna letters, and authored letters EA 141-43 (EA for 'el Amarna').", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Ammurapi (Hittite: \ud808\udd20\ud808\ude2c\ud808\ude8f\ud808\udc49 am-mu-ra-p\u00ed) was the last Bronze Age ruler and king (c. 1215 to 1180 BC) of the ancient Syrian city of Ugarit. Ammurapi was a contemporary of the Hittite King Suppiluliuma II. He wrote a preserved vivid letter RS 18.147 (Nougayrol et al. (1968 Ugaritica V): 87-9 no. 24) in response to a plea for assistance from the king of Alashiya.Ammurapi wrote:\n\nMy father behold, the enemy's ships came (here); my cities(?) were burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots(?) are in the Land of Hatti, and all my ships are in the Land of Lukka?...Thus, the country is abandoned to itself. May my father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us. \nThis letter dramatically highlights the desperate situation facing Ugarit while it was also under attack by the invading Sea Peoples.\nUgarit would become one of the many states of the ancient Near East that were destroyed or abandoned during the Bronze Age collapse.\nSuppiluliuma II was responsible for the divorce settlement between Ammurapi and a Hittite woman, but it did not cause a problem between the Kingdom of Ugarit and the Hittite Empire; instead it demonstrated the relationship between both kingdoms.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Amqu (also Amka, Amki, Amq) is a region (now in eastern Lebanon), equivalent to the Beqaa Valley region, named in the 1350\u20131335 BC Amarna letters corpus.\nIn the Amarna letters, two other associated regions appear to be east(?) and north(?), and are often mentioned in association with Amqu, namely Nuha\u0161\u0161e, and Niya-Niye (or Nii). A third hypothetical region, either adjacent or within the region of Amqu, is Subaru, as according to the letter corpus possessions or people were sold: \"at the land of Subaru\".\nThe affairs in the region are often associated with Hatti, or the King of Hatti-(to the north), or with Etakkama of Qid\u0161u/Qinsa-(also Kissa)-(i.e. Kadesh).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Appel de Blois is an initiative in 2008 by Libert\u00e9 pour l\u2019Histoire to work against legislative authorities criminalizing the past through the legislative, thus putting more and more obstacles in the way of historical research. It was signed by historians such as Carlo Ginzburg, Eric Hobsbawn, and Jacques Le Goff. The appeal, which was directed at the European public, particularly scholars, historians, and academics, called for the rejection of \"moralisation\" and \"judicialisation\" of history through the codification of the so-called memory laws.The initiative asks people to sign up under this:\n\nConcerned about the retrospective moralization of history and intellectual censure, we call for the mobilization of European historians and for the wisdom of politicians.\nHistory must not be a slave to contemporary politics nor can it be written on the command of competing memories. In a free state, no political authority has the right to define historical truth and to restrain the freedom of the historian with the threat of penal sanctions.\nWe call on historians to marshal their forces within each of their countries and to create structures similar to our own, and, for the time being, to individually sign the present appeal, to put a stop to this movement toward laws aimed at controlling history memory.\nWe ask government authorities to recognize that, while they are responsible for the maintenance of the collective memory, they must not establish, by law and for the past, an official truth whose legal application can carry serious consequences for the profession of history and for intellectual liberty in general.\n\nIn a democracy, liberty for history is liberty for all.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Archaeological Ensemble of T\u00e1rraco is inscribed as UNESCO world heritage site since 2000. It is situated in Tarragona.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Argippaeans or Argippaei are a people mentioned by Herodotus in his The Histories. They were cited to be living north of the Scythians and much of the scholarship points to them being a tribe near the Ural Mountains. There are scholars who believe that Herodotus could be talking about the Mongolians based on their physical description as well as their culture.Herodotus only relied on secondary sources for his account, drawing from descriptions of Greeks and Scythians such as the detail about the Argippaeans as bald people. They were said to have settled in a land that is flat and deep-soiled. This was believed to be in the outliers of the Altai mountains while the T'ien Shan lies on the other side. just before an impenetrable barrier of mountains called eremos.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Ar-Halba was the third known ruler of Ugarit, an Ancient Syrian city state in northwestern Syria, reigning for no less than two years, possibly from 1315 to 1313 BC. Succeeding king Niqmaddu II.Very little is known about his short reign, as he is only mentioned in six juridical texts. The one that gives the most information about him is his 'Last will', where he warns his brothers not to marry his wife Kubaba after his death, contrary to the levirate custom. The intriguing letter gave room to plenty of spectaculation about him, with his non-Semitic name that stands out amongst all Ugaritan kings further enhancing the mystery, with some even suggesting that he was not the legitimate heir to the throne.Later on, he was supposedly forced by the Hittite king Mursili II to abdicate the throne, in favour of his brother, Niqmepa. He was probably sent to exile afterwards.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "An armless wonder was a person without arms who was exhibited, usually at a circus sideshow. Typically (but not exclusively) a woman, she would perform various tricks using her feet and toes, such as smoking a cigarette or writing. Frequently, she would have a supply of visiting cards which, for an extra charge, she would sign with her feet and give to onlookers.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Association for History and Computing (AHC) is an organization dedicated to the use of computers in historical research.\nThe AHC is an international organization with the aim of promoting the use of computers in all types of historical study, both for teaching and research. \nIt was originally proposed at a conference at Westfield College, University of London, in March 1986. It was founded during a second conference at the same location a year later in March 1987.\nThe Association oversees a journal, History and Computing, published by the Edinburgh University Press.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Asturicani are a tribe mentioned by Ptolemy (v. 9. \u00a7 7) as dwelling adjacent to the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea). A source cited this tribe as one of those located in Anatolia along with Ancyra, Balbura, and Carura, among others. The settlement's believed proximity to the Sea of Azov also  William Smith equates them with the Aspurgiani. There are scholars who explain that this association could be based on the way the settlement may not be a tribe but a political party or a military colony. Aspurgiani is also believed to be the same.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Baal Lebanon inscription, known as KAI 31, is a Phoenician inscription found in Limassol, Cyprus in eight bronze fragments in the 1870s. At the time of their discovery, they were considered to be the second most important finds in Semitic palaeography after the Mesha stele.It was purchased in 1876 by Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau from a Limassol merchant named Laniti.\nIt is the only Phoenician inscription to suggest a \"colonial\" system amongst the Phoenician domains.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A place in ancient Israel, Baal-Gad was a Canaanite town in the valley of Lebanon at the foot of Hermon, near the source of Jordan River (Josh. 13:5; 11:17; 12:7). It was the most northern point to which Joshua's conquests extended. It probably derived its name from the worship of Baal.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Ba\u02bbalat or Ba\u02bbalat Gebal, 'Lady of Byblos', was the goddess of the city of Byblos, Phoenicia in ancient times. She was sometimes known to the Greeks as Baaltis or Atargatis.Ba\u02bbalat Gebal was generally identified with the pan-Semitic goddess \u02bbAshtart (Astarte) and, like \u02bbAshtart, equated with the Greek goddess Aphrodite. However, Sanchuniathon presents Ba\u02bbalat Gebal as a sister of \u02bbAshtart and Asherah, and calls Ba\u02bbalat Gebal by  the name Dione, meaning that he identified her either with Asherah or with the mother of Greek Aphrodite, the Titan goddess Dione. According to Sanchuniathon, Baaltis/Dione, like Asherah and \u02bbAshtart, was the sister of 'El and they had daughters together. He states that it was El who gave the city of Byblos to her.\nBa\u02bbalat Gebal was distinguished in iconography from \u02bbAshtart or other aspects of \u02bbAshtart or similar goddesses by two, tall, upright feathers in her headdress.\nThe temple of Ba\u02bbalat Gebal in Byblos was built around 2700 BC. Dedications from Egyptians begin appearing from the second to the 6th Egyptian dynasties. Two of these inscriptions equate Ba\u02bbalat Gebal with the Egyptian goddess Hathor. Frank Moore Cross writes that at Sinai Ba\u02bbalat seems to have referred to Hathor and possibly to Qud\u0161u (see Qetesh), who is Asherah.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A bailleur, a French term, is a land owner who outsourced uncultivated parcels of land as part of an early Middle Age sharecropping system known as complant \u2014 a precursor to the m\u00e9tayage system. Under this system, a laborer known as a prendeur would agree to cultivate land owned by the bailleur in exchange for ownership of the crop and its production. For use of the bailleur's soil, the prendeur promised a share (normally a third to two-thirds) of the crop's production or its revenue to the bailleur. The length of this partnership varied and sometimes would extend over generations.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Bakran tribe   or Bagran tribe within prehistoric Armenia had connections with the Bagratuni Dynasty of Armenia and later Georgia and the Tirikan tribe with the Armenian King Tigranes the Great. The reconstruction of Lake Van immediately east of the country of the Bakran tribe. This is the area Tigrans family/clan was supposed to have dominated prior to its rise to the Armenian throne.The Bakran tribe has given its name to the city of Diyarbak\u0131r, also engendered the Bagratid royal house, which ruled intermittently, first over the Armenians and later over the Georgians, with major interruptions from the 9th through the beginning of the 19th century. The original domain of the early Bagratids was in fact the area of Diyarbak\u0131r to Bing\u00f6l in northwest Kurdistan, according to Tergewondian.Armenian Research Center collection\nAuthor\t\nEdition\tillustrated, reprint\nPublisher\t, \nISBN 0844817279, 97", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Banu Salim or Banu Saleem or Bani Salim was a tribe during the Islamic prophet Muhammad's era. They participated in the Al Kudr Invasion. On Khalid ibn Walid's return from Nakhla expedition to destroy al-Uzza, Khalid bin Al-Waleed at the head of 350 horsemen of Helpers, Emigrants and Banu Saleem was despatched once again in the same year 8 A.H in the Expedition of Khalid ibn al-Walid (Banu Jadhimah) to the habitation of Bani Khuzaimah bedouins, who were Sabaeans.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Baradostian culture was an Upper Paleolithic flint industry culture found in the Zagros region in the border-country between Iraq and Iran. It was preceded by the Middle Paleolithic Mousterian culture, directly overlying it without an intervening bladelet industry. This culture is known for the high percentage of burins and some of these were similar to the distinctive nosed profile of the Aurignacian burins. Baradost is one of the mountains in the Zagros Mountains in Iraq.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Beef rings are cooperative groups of six to twenty-four farms, with each member of the cooperative being required to supply one animal over the course of the summer to the cooperative for slaughter they are either done locally on the farm or at a slaughterhouse at the member's expense.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Bishop Street (Russian: \u0415\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0443\u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430, also known as Piskuplya, Russian: \u041f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u043f\u043b\u044f \u2013 ancient form of \"bishop's\") was the main street of the Novgorod Detinets in the Middle Ages. The street was buried by the 18th century, its precise location is a subject of considerable historical and archeological research.The earliest attempts to locate the street date to early 19th century, when Eugene Bolkhovitinov placed the early wooden Cathedral of St. Sophia (ca. 989) on Piskuplya, high up on the bank of Volkhov river, behind the old government offices built in the 18th century. I. Krasov in 1851 (S. Troyanovski dates the publication 1853) suggested that the street r\u0430n past the church of Andrew Stratelates, but the locations of the ends of it were unclear.In 1938 A. A. Strokov and V. A. Bogusevich directed archaeological excavations near the Savior's gatehouse (Russian: \u0421\u043f\u0430\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0448\u043d\u044f, built in end of the 15th century), when a section of a wood-paved street was unearthed at a depth of 1.9 m. Since these archeologists expected one end of Piskuplya to be located next to Saviour gate, they had identified the pavement with this street and dated its lowest level as 10th century construction, out of total 15 levels. Troyanovsky argues that the interpretation by Strokov and Bogusevich is dubious, as the 15th century level is located just 1.75 m above the purported 10th century one, thus the buildup of the occupation layer was supposed to be an improbably low 0.35 m per century. An attempt to find continuation of Piskuplya near the Church of Andrew Stratelates in 1940 failed.\u0422he chronicles date the street back to at least 1049, as they mention that the wooden Cathedral of St. Sophia was located on this street. The wooden building burned down and was replaced by the current stone one by 1049. The chronicle record, however, is contradictory, as it mentions that the wooden construction was replaced by the Boris and Gleb Church; archeological and historical data clearly place the latter away from the Bishop Street. Valentin Yanin in 1977 identified this placement as an error made by a 15th century scribe.Yanin in 1982 suggested that Piskuplya ran between Fedorovskaya and South towers of the Detinets, and the wooden Sophia cathedral was located at its southern end.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Bithia or Bitia was a Phoenician, Carthaginian, and Roman town located near Chia in the extreme south of Sardinia, Italy. Most of the ruins have been submerged underwater.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A blade mill was a variety of water mill used for sharpening newly fabricated blades, including scythes, swords, sickles, and knives.  \nIn the Sheffield area, they were known as cutlers wheels, scythesmiths wheels, etc.  Examples are preserved in Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet.  They also existed in the 17th century and 18th century in Birmingham and in connection with the scythe industry in Belbroughton and Chaddesley Corbett in north Worcestershire.  There were also small numbers in other areas of England.  \nA water wheel was used to turn a grind stone, which wore down from being up to two metres in diameter to a 'cork' of a fraction of this size.  The dust generated by the process was bad for the grinder's health, and many of them died young from 'grinder's disease'.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Boresch III of Ossegg and Riesenburg (died before 1312) was a Bohemian aristocrat of the House of Riesenburg.\nThe son of Boresch II (also Bohuslav II) was a member of the regional court (Landgericht) in 1291. At the end of the 13th century ore mining flourished on the Riesenburg estates. On 22 March 1302 he signed a treaty with the abbot of Ossegg, wherein he agreed to share the mining profits with Osek Abbey.\nFollowing the death of King Wenceslaus II and the murder of his successor, Wenceslaus III one year later, a new wave of violence swept through Bohemia, as the powerful princes attempted to extend their estates and wealth during the interregnum. Church assets were seized, but attempts were also made to rectify the injustices of the past.\nBoresch, too, could not resist further extending his power. In 1307 he was named as the owner of Sayda, this time however not as part of the Bohemian Empire but as an enfeoffment from the Margraviate of Meissen.\nHe was only mentioned once more before his death. In the treaty documents of 1312 his name no longer appears.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Bormanum (Ancient Greek: \u0392\u03cc\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd) was an ancient city mentioned by Ptolemy. It was located between the Middle Danube and the Tisza River, in what was considered the territory of the Iazyges Metanast\u00e6.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Bric-\u00e0-brac (French: [b\u0281i.ka.b\u0281ak]) or bric-a-brac (from French), first used in the Victorian era, refers to lesser objets d'art forming collections of curios, such as elaborately decorated teacups and small vases, compositions of feathers or wax flowers under glass domes, decorated eggshells, porcelain figurines, painted miniatures or photographs in stand-up frames, and so on. \nIn middle-class homes bric-\u00e0-brac was used as ornament on mantelpieces, tables, and shelves, or was displayed in curio cabinets: sometimes these cabinets have glass doors to display the items within while protecting them from dust. Today, bric-\u00e0-brac refers to a selection of items of modest value, often sold in street markets and charity shops, and may be more commonly known in colloquial English as \"knick knacks\". In Yiddish such items are known as tchotchkes. \nEdith Wharton and Ogden Codman Jr., in The Decoration of Houses (1897), distinguished three gradations of quality in such \"household ornaments\": bric-\u00e0-brac, bibelots (trinkets) and objets d'art.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The British Society for the History of Pharmacy (BSHP) is an organisation in the United Kingdom devoted to the history of pharmacy. It was established in 1967, although its roots date to 1952, when the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society established a history of pharmacy committee. The society has published a journal, Pharmaceutical Historian, from the beginning. Since 2017 it has been issued by BSHP on behalf of the International Society for the History of Pharmacy. From its foundation, BSHP has been keen to encourage the study of pharmacy history amongst students. This advocacy role has included providing lecturers for history courses at Schools of Pharmacy.The organisation is affiliated with the International Society for the History of Pharmacy and the British Society for the History of Medicine. Its president is Chris Duffin.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Buzhans (Ukrainian: \u0411\u0443\u0436\u0430\u043d\u0438) were one of the tribal unions of Early Slavs, which supposedly formed East Slavs in Southern Russia and Volga region. They are mentioned as Buzhane in the Rus' Primary Chronicle. Several localities in Russia are claimed to be connected to the Buzhans, like for example Sredniy Buzhan in the Orenburg Oblast, Buzan and the Buzan river in the Astrakhan Oblast.\nSome theories say that the name of the tribes could be connected to Western Bug, in Ukraine, where they actually originated. According to the Bavarian Geographer, the Buzhans had 230 \"cities\" (fortresses). Some historians believe that the Buzhans and the Volhynians used to be called the Dulebes.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Byblos bronze spatulas are a number bronze spatulas found in Byblos, two of which were inscribed. One contains a Phoenician inscription (known as the Azarba'al Spatula, KAI 3 or TSSI III 1) and one contains an inscription in the Byblos syllabary.\nThey were published in Maurice Dunand's Fouilles de Byblos (volume I, 1926\u20131932, numbers 1125 and 2334, plate XXXII).\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Calcutta Historical Society was a learned society of Indian history founded in 1907. It published a journal Bengal, Past & Present, of which Walter K. Firminger was the first editor.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Camarata (Punic: \ud802\udd0a\u202c\ud802\udd0c\u202c\ud802\udd00\u202c, KM\u02be) was a Carthaginian and Roman port on the Mediterranean near Siga in Mauretania. Under the Romans, it was part of the province of Mauretania Caesariensis. Its ruins are thought to be those at the mouth of the Wadi Ghazer at Sidi Djeloul in Sidi Safi, Algeria. The maritime town was near Siga.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Cambridge History of Britain is a series of textbooks published by the Cambridge University Press aimed at first-year undergraduates and above. It covers the history of Britain from c. 500 to the present day in four volumes.\nThe volumes are:\n\nNaismith, Rory (2021). Early Medieval Britain c.500-1000. ISBN 978-1-1084-2444-8.\nCrouch, David (2017). Medieval Britain c.1000-1500. ISBN 978-0-5211-90718.\nMiller, John (2017). Early Modern Britain c.1450-1750. ISBN 978--1107-01511-1.\nVernon, James (2017). Modern Britain c.1750 to the Present. ISBN 978-1-1076-8600-7.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A caphar was a toll or duty imposed by the Turks on the Christian merchants who traded their merchandise from Aleppo to Jerusalem. The term was derived from the Arabic term kifhara, which means \"defence\" or \"protection\". Individuals who manned these posts or leaders of armed groups who offered protection to merchants also claimed the right as a Caphar.The caphar was introduced by the Christians themselves when they controlled the Holy Land. The toll originally supported troops and forces who were posted in the more difficult passes, to prevent pillaging from Arabs. But the Turks, who continued  and even raised the toll, abused the practice, exacting arbitrary sums from the Christian merchants and travellers. This was on the pretense of guarding them from Arabs, with whom they frequently kept an understanding, and even favored their pillaging.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Capitulary of Ver was issued by King Carloman in 884. It is often known as the last Carolingian capitulary. It deals with issues including Viking attacks, the creation of guilds, the relation between kings and bishops, and the maintenance of peace.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "John of Carlowitz (Hans von Carlowitz, born 1527; died 24 April 1578) was a German official. In 1575, he was appointed governor of the District of Schwarzenberg and Crottendorf. He held this position until his death in 1578. He was buried in St. Mary's Church, Dohna. He was the instigator of the so-called Saukrieg or \"Pig War\", the last mediaeval feud in Saxony, He was the son of John Carlowitz the Elder, Lord of Beimendorf and Lindig.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Carthalo (Punic: \ud802\udd12\ud802\udd13\u202c\ud802\udd15\u202c\ud802\udd07\u202c\ud802\udd0b\u202c\ud802\udd11, QRT\u1e24L\u1e62, \"Saved by Melqart\"; Greek: \u039a\u03b1\u03c1\u03b8\u03ac\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd, Karth\u00e1l\u014dn; died around 209 BC) was an officer in Hannibal's army during the Second Punic War.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Centum gravamina teutonicae nationis, or Gravamina for short, was a list of \"one hundred grievances [see gravamen] of the German nation\" directed at the Catholic Church in Germany, brought forward by the German princes, F\u00fcrsten, assembled at the Diet of Nuremberg in 1522\u201323.  They were in fact the second book of grievances (Secundum Gravaminum Libellus), the first being the Gravamina Nationis Germanicae et Sacri Romani Imperii Decem (ten grievances of the German nation and the Holy Roman Empire) that had been circulating in manuscript in the years leading up to the Protestant Reformation since 1455, when first presented by Dietrich von Erbach, the Archbishop of Mainz. Their first English editor and translator writes of them:\n\n It must be borne in mind that this detail of \"Grievances\" is not an attack made on the Church of Rome and her priesthood by seceders, by \"Protestants\", anxious to chronicle and exaggerate abuses to strengthen their own position, but they were \"grievances\" of those who, having no desire to leave the Roman Church, felt how grievously the corruptions complained of pressed upon its members and impaired its efficacy.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Cerro del Villar, located in the mouth of Guadalhorce river, southern Spain, was a Phoenician city founded in the ninth century BC. It was abandoned possibly in 584 BC. Since 2003, there have not been any archeological excavations. Previous excavations were directed by Mar\u00eda Eugenia Aubet.It was declared Bien de Inter\u00e9s Cultural on 9 June 1998.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Chester County History Center (CCHC), formerly the Chester County Historical Society, is a nonprofit historical society, founded in 1893, dedicated to collecting, preserving, and exhibiting the history of Chester County, Pennsylvania and the surrounding area. The History Center is located at 225 North High Street in downtown West Chester.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Chuchle battle was a student brawl fought in a Chuchle restaurant on June 29, 1881, resulting in several wounds and a general hangover, a swatch of Czech and German chauvinism in the late 19th century, just before the Charles-Ferdinand University was divided into  Czech Charles-Ferdinand University and German Charles-Ferdinand University part in 1882.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Comit\u00e9 d'Information et de Liaison pour l'Arch\u00e9ologie, l'\u00c9tude et la Mise en Valeur du Patrimoine Industriel (CILAC) is a French non-profit organisation. Its aims are to assist the work of associations, learned societies and museums interested in the conservation and protection of the world's industrial heritage and to act as a lobby group in respect of issues which are important to its members.\nThe CILAC edits the journal L'Arch\u00e9ologie industrielle and an electronic newsletter.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Civilized Core refers to the four advanced civilizations that emerged during the 1st millennium BC, during the earlier Iron Age after the collapse of the Bronze Age civilizations that preceded them.\nA primary characteristic of these civilizations was monocentrism and, together with historical developments such as hereditary rule, it led to a new era of statehood for several civilizations. Accounts also hold that there are evidence that show \"uncivilized\" periphery has provided technologically superior tools and technologies to the civilized core as demonstrated in the case of the spread of European and North Caucasian shaft-hole axes in advanced civilizations of the Asia Minor. Chinese written sources dating from the latter time frame of the 1st millennium BC also spoke of being \"compelled to borrow technology and weapon forms from the \"wild peoples\" of the steppes and foothills of Central Asia.\"These were, in order of emergence, the civilizations of\n\nThe Mediterranean, developing from scattered Phoenician settlements to the emergence of Ancient Greece in the 7th century BCE and culminating in the Hellenistic civilization in the 4th century BCE, by the 3rd century BCE stretching its influence throughout the Mesopotamian and into the Indian sphere.\nMesopotamia (Babylonia and Assyria), culminating in the unified Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE\nZhou China, culminating in the Han Empire in the 3rd century BCE\nIron Age India, the Mahajanapadas culminating in the Maurya Empire in the 4th century BCE", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Consensus Tigurinus or Consensus of Zurich was a document intended to bring unity to the Protestant churches on their doctrines of the sacraments, particularly the Lord's Supper. John Calvin, who stood in between the Lutheran view of Real Presence and the Zwinglian view of pure symbolism, wrote the first draft of the document in November 1548, with notes by Heinrich Bullinger. In the document, Calvin emphasized that there is great meaning in sacramental symbols but it does not have power to act on its own.The document taught:\n\nthat the Sacraments are not in and of themselves effective and conferring grace, but that God, through the Holy Spirit, acts through them as means; that the internal effect appears only in the elect; that the good of the Sacraments consists in leading us to Christ, and being instruments of the grace of God, which is sincerely offered to all; that in baptism we receive the remission of sins, although this proceeds primarily not from baptism, but from the blood of Christ; that in the Lord's Supper we eat and drink the body and blood of Christ, not, however, by means of a carnal presence of Christ's human nature, which is in heaven, but by the power of the Holy Spirit and the devout elevation of our soul to  heaven.Calvin sent the document to the Swiss churches, but the Synod at Berne opposed Calvin's view strongly and continued to do so until after Calvin's death. In May 1549, Calvin met with William Farel and Bullinger in Zurich, and the three revised the document into its final form, which was published in Zurich and Geneva in 1551. The Latin original was translated into German by Bullinger and French by Calvin.The Consensus Tigurinus attempted to coalesce the Calvinist and the advanced Zwinglian doctrines while standing opposed to transubstantiation, the Roman Catholic view, and sacramental union, the Lutheran view. It was accepted by the churches in Zurich, Geneva,  Saint Gall, Schaffhausen, the Grisons, Neuch\u00e2tel, and eventually by Basel, and brought them into harmony with one another. It was \"favorably received\" in France, England, and parts of Germany, but while Melancthon said that he understood the Swiss for the first time and would no longer write against them, it was attacked by the Gnesio-Lutheran Joachim Westphal and \"became the innocent occasion of the second sacramental war.\"Calvin refused to answer the published attacks until these started to strain the Lutheran-Reformed relations, particularly Westphal's claim that those writing in support of the document were Sacramentarians. According to Westphal in his Farrago of Confused and Divergent Opinions on the Lord's Supper, Zwingli and Calvin were heretics since they rejected the position of the literal eating of Christ's body in the Lord's Supper.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In a historical context, a covenant applies to formal promises that were made under oath, or in less remote history, agreements in which the name actually uses the term 'covenant', implying that they were binding for all time.One of the earliest attested covenants between parties is the so-called Mitanni treaty, dating to the 14th or 15th century BC, between the Hittites and the Mitanni. Key elements of this type of Hittite international covenant treaty included a preamble identifying the king, a historical prologue that detail the monarch's deeds, the stipulated obligations of the vassal state, where the covenant would be stored, as well as an outline of the blessings if the document is obeyed and curses if the terms were broken.Historically, certain treaties and compacts have been given the name \"covenant\", notably the Solemn League and Covenant that marked the Covenanters, a Protestant political organization important in the history of Scotland. The term 'covenant' appears throughout Scottish, English and Irish history.\nThe term covenant could be used in English to refer to either the Bundesbrief of 1291, which established the confederacy of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden. It is also used to refer to the Pfaffenbrief of 1370. These documents led to the formation of the Swiss state or \"Eidgenossenschaft\". In this usage the German \"Eid\" is being translated as \"covenant\" rather than \"oath\" in order to reflect its written status.\nIn modern law, covenant is described as \"a promise or agreement under consideration, or guarantee between two parties\" and is distinguished from modern contract by the seal or symbol of guarantee.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Dali  (or Dhali; Greek: \u0394\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9; Turkish: Dali) is a large village in Cyprus, located south east of the capital Nicosia and close to the ancient city of Idalion. In 2001, it had a population of 5,834. By 2011, the population had almost doubled to 10,466.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Death messengers, in former times, were those who were dispatched to spread the news that an inhabitant of their city or village had died.  They were to wear unadorned black and go door to door with the message, \"You are asked to attend the funeral of the departed __________ at (time, date, and place).\"  This was all they were allowed to say, and were to move on to the next house immediately after uttering the announcement.  This tradition persisted in some areas to as late as the mid-19th century.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Diogenes of Phoenicia (Ancient Greek: \u0394\u03b9\u03bf\u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2; fl.\u2009529\u2013532) was a 6th-century Greek philosopher. He is known mainly for the fact that Agathias mentions him as one of the seven well-known philosophers who influenced the Academy in its final years. Diogenes was born in Phoenicia, and like most other academy leaders of that time, a native of the Middle East.Diogenes was one of the philosophers who, after the closure of the Academy in 529, moved to the Sassanid Empire, and took with him a large number of works of Greek philosophy, which eventually ended up being translated into the Syrian, Hebrew, Arabic and Persian languages. The philosophers later returned to the West, but their fates afterwards are unknown.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Dromography (Gr. \u03b4\u03c1\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, dromos \"way, street, route, corridor\" + \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03c9, grapho \"I write\") is the comparative study of organisation, history, geography and logistics of local, regional and global \ntrade routes, and other movement, transportation and communication networks. Dromography is one of the auxiliary disciplines of research on world history.The introduction of this neologism or its definition is attributed to T. Matthew Ciolek. The term is considered a close cousin of \"dromograph\", which is a device used to record the circulation of blood.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Dublin Rising 1916-2016 is a website launched by Google to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Easter Rising in Dublin, Ireland. The website tours the streets of Dublin, while allowing the user to interact with statements and photographs. It is narrated by Colin Farrell while guiding the user to various important buildings and events in the rising of the Irish republic.\nLaunched on 12 January 2016 by Taoiseach Enda Kenny and Minister for Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht Heather Humphreys, the goal of website is to educate people on how Ireland fought for independence.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "East Dane is an Anglo-Saxon ethnonym which was used in the epic Beowulf as a kenning for the Geats, the people of G\u00f6taland without Scania in southern Sweden.\nIt was also used in an Anglo-Saxon runic poem describing the first appearance of the god Frey (called Ing, see Yngvi):\n\nIng w\u00e6s \u00e6rest mid E\u00e1stdenum\ngesewen secgum, o\u00f0 he s\u00ed\u00f0\u00f0an e\u00e1st\nofer w\u00e6g gew\u00e1t. w\u00e6n \u00e6fter ran.\n\u00feus Heardingas \u00feone h\u00e6le nemdon.Ing was first amidst the East Danes\nso seen, until he went eastward\nover the sea. His wagon ran after.\nThus the Heardings named that hero.In Scandinavian mythology (Ynglinga saga and Gesta Danorum), the first appearance of Frey was localised to Sweden and Old Uppsala, where he founded the Temple at Uppsala:\nThe Ynglinga saga:\n\nFrey built a great temple at Upsal, made it his chief seat, and gave it all his taxes, his land, and goods. Then began the Upsal domains, which have remained ever since.[1]Gesta Danorum:\n\nAlso Frey, the regent of the gods, took his abode not far from Upsala, where he exchanged for a ghastly and infamous sin-offering the old custom of prayer by sacrifice, which had been used by so many ages and generations. For he paid to the gods abominable offerings, by beginning to slaughter human victims.[2]Since Dane was used as a generic expression for Scandinavian, it can be hypothesized that the name East Dane of the runic poem refers to Scandinavians living east of the Danes proper (i.e. Swedes and Geats).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Edmonton Hundred Historical Society is a historical society devoted to the study of the area covered by the Edmonton Hundred (a hundred being an ancient division of a county). The society is a registered charity No. 299073. David Pam, FRHS, was the president until his death in 2014.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "An emporium refers to a trading post, factory, or market of Classical antiquity, derived from the Ancient Greek: \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03cc\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, romanized: (emp\u00f3rion), which becomes Latin: emporium. The plural is emporia in both languages, although in Greek the plural undergoes a semantic shift to mean \"merchandise\".  Emporium is a term that has also been used to describe the centres of heightened trade during the Early Middle Ages.Emporia varied greatly in their level of activity.  Some seem to have functioned much like the permanent European trading colonies in China, India and Japan in the early modern period or those of the mediaeval Italian maritime republics in the Levant. Others were probably annual events for a few days or weeks like the medieval Champagne fairs or modern trade fairs.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Euroa in Phoenicia (also spelled Eur\u0153a in Ph\u0153nicia) is a former city, which also hosted a bishopric. It remains a Latin Catholic titular see", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Expert determination is a historically accepted form of dispute resolution invoked when there is not a formulated dispute in which the parties have defined positions that need to be subjected to arbitration, but rather both parties are in agreement that there is a need for an evaluation.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The exploration of the Americas includes:\n\nExploration of North America\nColonization of the Mexico\nVoyages of Christopher Columbus", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The F. S. Baird Machine Shop, located at 632 East Adams Street between North 6th and North 7th Streets in downtown Phoenix, Arizona, is part of Heritage Square, a collection of historic buildings dating from the city's earliest days.  It was built in 1928 by Kathryn Baird, who opened a machine shop there with her son Arthur in 1929. After Arthur left the business in 1931, George W. Wilson operated a machine shop business in the building until 1933, followed by various other owners until 1941.  Between 1947 and 1964, a variety of industrial shops occupied the space.  In 1978, the city of Phoenix purchased the vacant building to add it to Heritage Square, which is anchored by the nearby Rosson House.  It is currently the site of a pizza restaurant.The one-bay building has a pitched truss roof with stepped parapet eaves, segmented arch double-hung wood windows and a double-hung entrance in the center. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Fashoda syndrome, or a 'Fashoda complex', is the name given to a tendency within French foreign policy in Africa, giving importance to asserting French influence in areas which might be becoming susceptible to British influence. It refers to the Fashoda incident, which is considered the climax of the imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa, drawing these two nations to the brink of war in their bid to control the African Upper Nile region.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A feud letter (German: Fehdebrief or Absagebrief) was a document in which a feud was announced, usually with few words, in medieval Europe. The letter had to be issued three days in advance to be legally valid.\nTo prevent the feud from becoming a case of murder and thus become punishable by law, those involved had to abide by the following rules:\n\nThe feud, whether between knights or between the nobility and towns, had to be initiated by a formal feud letter.\nKilling innocent parties was forbidden.\nRazing of houses and laying waste to the land were allowed.\nDuring the feud, fighting was not permitted in churches or at home, and the parties were to be allowed to go to and to return from church or court without being molested.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Feudal maintenance under feudal systems of government, was the money payment to soldiers who fought in the interest and at the command of their lord.  Such soldiers comprised private armies, each with uniquely identifiable livery.  The system of feudal government under which maintenance was paid was most notably present in Europe during the late 15th century.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Princes' Concordat (German: F\u00fcrsten-Konkordat) was an agreement concluded in January 1447 between Pope Eugenius IV and the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. It outlined generous concessions on the part of the Pope, particularly covering the appointment of Church positions, in exchange for the support of the German princes.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Genoese map is a 1457 world map.  The map relied extensively on the account of the traveler to Asia Niccolo da Conti, rather than the usual source of Marco Polo. The author is not known, but is a more modern development than the Fra Mauro world map, with fairly good proportions given to each continents.  The map also depicts a three-masted European ship in the Indian Ocean, something which had not occurred yet at the time.A Genoese flag in the upper northwest corner of the map establishes this map's origin, along with the coat of arms of the Spinolas, a prominent Genoese mercantile family. Niccol\u00f2 de'Conti was from a noble mercantile family; at an early age he decided to follow in the family tradition by establishing a lucrative trading operation in the East.[1]\nThe Genoese map's sea monsters reflect the cartographer's interest in exotic wonders, which is everywhere in evidence on the map, and typical of the scientific outlook of the early modern period, which was driven by curiosity and took a great interest in marvels. The demon-like monster in particular is evidence of the cartographer's research in recent travel literature to find sea monsters for his map.\nThis map was done in rich color and was not made particularly used for anything but for display. They say this map was sent to the Portuguese court in 1474 and then to Columbus and this is the map that he used to travel the India sea to the Atlantic but was never proven. The map is now the property of the Italian government and is to be found in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale of Florence.\nThe oval form is not unknown among medieval maps. Hugh of Saint Victor had described the world as being the shape of Noah's Ark, and Ranulf Higden world maps were oval. A standard way of describing the earth was to compare it to an egg. The main purpose of the analogy seems to have been to describe the various spheres surrounding the earth (egg white, shell), but the idea of an egg shape could have been derived from these works. Another possibility is that the oval form represents the mandorla, or nimbus, which surrounded Christ in many medieval works of art.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The German Historical Institutes (GHI), German: Deutsche Historische Institute, (DHI) are six independent academic research institutes of the Max Weber Foundation dedicated to the study of historical relations between Germany and the host countries in which they are based.The institutes are:\n\nGerman Historical Institute in Rome (established in 1888)\nGerman Historical Institute Paris (1958)\nGerman Historical Institute London (1976)\nGerman Historical Institute Washington DC (1987)\nGerman Historical Institute Warsaw (1993)\nGerman Historical Institute Moscow (2005)\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Germania Flugzeugwerke GmbH was a German aircraft manufacturer during World War I. The company was established in 1914 at Leipzig.  During 1915 and 1916, the company produced license built Rumpler C.I reconnaissance biplanes for the Luftstreitkr\u00e4fte at Leipzig-Mockau Airport. The company also repaired other types of aircraft and maintained their own flight school to train pilots. The following types of 1919 were not yet reichsluftamt with an approval for the civil aviation: DFW C V, Ru. C I a, Germ. C IV. There were 17 aircraft of the Germania Reichsluftamt aircraft works when approved.\nThe company was liquidated in 1922 after the Treaty of Versailles.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Great Binge is a 21st-century neologism, coined by amateur historian Gradus Protus van den Belt, describing the period in history covering roughly 1870 to 1914. It is so known because of the widespread use and availability of narcotics such as opium, heroin, cocaine, morphine, and absinthe. During this period these drugs were widely available and incredibly popular among both men and women of many social classes in many parts of the world. They were marketed to both adults and children, often included in patent medicines such as cough syrups, pain relievers, and asthma medicines. They were administered to infants and women with menstrual cramps, and included in food and beverages such as Coca-Cola. Literary characters such as Sherlock Holmes were portrayed using morphine and cocaine. Holmes is described as having a particular penchant for overt injections of a 7% solution of cocaine, though only when lacking adequate mental stimulation.\nThe period ended with a series of laws regulating narcotic drugs in various countries and internationally.  The International Opium Convention, signed in The Hague in 1912 by 11 countries and entering into force in 1915, was the first stab at a comprehensive drug control treaty internationally and inspired domestic drug control laws such as the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act in the United States.\"Binge\" is 19th century slang, although the meaning has evolved. However, the specific application of the term \"great binge\" relative to drug use and popular attitudes towards drug use circa 1870\u20131914 is relatively recent. As well as its use by Bryars and Harper cited above, it was used by British author and comedian Stephen Fry to describe this period in \"More Fool Me\" and by academic Nicholas J. Saunders in 'The Poppy: A History of Conflict, Loss, Remembrance, and Redemption', speaking primarily of the US, to describe a 19th-century \"characterised by various narcotics that were legal, widely available, widely consumed and deeply embedded in popular culture\". Popular use goes back a little further. Esquire Magazine used it in this context in 2009: Dracula \"appeared right in the middle of what historians call the Great Binge, a period in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when cocaine and heroin use ran rampant\". A Canadian psychologist, Romeo Vitelli, used the term online in a post dated September 2, 2007.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Great German Pilgrimage of 1064\u20131065 was a large pilgrimage to Jerusalem which took place a generation before the First Crusade.\nIt originated in the Kingdom of Germany in 1064, and was led by Archbishop Siegfried of Mainz, Bishop William of Utrecht, Bishop Otto of Ratisbon (modern-day Regensburg), and Bishop Gunther of Bamberg. There were between seven and twelve thousand pilgrims on the journey. The pilgrimage passed through Hungary, Bulgaria, Patzinakia, and Constantinople, just as the First Crusade would over thirty years later, with similar results: the pilgrims were treated harshly wherever they went, and were ushered off into Anatolia once they reached Constantinople.\nThey passed through Anatolia, which had not yet been conquered by the Seljuk Turks, as it was by the time of the crusade. Their troubles increased when they reached Latakia; there they met other pilgrims who warned them of the dangers to the south, and when they reached Tripoli, Lebanon, they were attacked by the emir of the city, but were saved by a storm which they regarded as a miracle.\nOn Holy Thursday they reached Caesarea, and on Good Friday they were attacked by Bedouin bandits. According to the longer version of the Annals of Altaich William of Utrecht was killed in battle, (although he actually survived and lived until 1076). The pilgrims fled to a nearby fort. On Easter Sunday the Bedouin leaders met with Gunther there and agreed to a truce, but the Bedouins threatened to kill the pilgrims anyway. Gunther had them killed and hung over the walls as a deterrent to further attacks.\nOn Easter Monday the Fatimid governor of Ramla drove off the Bedouins and freed the pilgrims, who then rested in Ramla for two weeks. They arrived in Jerusalem on April 12. After thirteen days they returned to Ramla, and later took ships back to Latakia and returned to Germany.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A guard tower is any military tower used for guarding an area. These towers are usually operated by military personnel, and are structures built in areas of established control. These include military bases and cities occupied by military forces. This type of fortification is a variation on the tower incorporated into the walls of castles from history, and are, in the modern day, equipped with such facilities as heavier weapons than those carried by infantry and searchlights. \n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The hall boy or hallboy was a position held by a young male domestic worker on the staff of a great house, usually a young teenager. The name derives from the fact that the hall boy usually slept in the servants' hall.Like his female counterpart, the scullery maid, the hall boy would have been expected to work up to 16 hours per day, seven days per week.  His duties were often among the most disagreeable in the house, such as emptying chamber pots for the higher-ranking servants. In the absence of a boot boy, he also cleaned the boots not just of the family members but also those of the butler and those of the visitors. The hall boy also waited on more senior servants when they took their meals in the servants hall.The hall boy was the lowest-ranked male servant, but he could rise to a higher position in the household, eventually becoming a valet or butler. Arthur Inch, a former butler who acted as a technical consultant for the film Gosford Park and the television series Downton Abbey, stated in an interview that he began his life in service as a hall boy at the age of 15.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Hamilcar (Punic: \ud802\udd07\ud802\udd0c\ud802\udd0b\ud802\udd0a, \u1e24MLK) was a general who succeeded to the command of the Carthaginians in the First Punic War. He defeated Rome's allies at the Battle of Thermae in 259 BC and killed 4,000\u20136,000 of them with the help of surprise and good use of military intelligence. He then captured the towns of Enna and Camarina that same year with the assistance of traitors. He was defeated at the Battle of Tyndaris in 257 BC, losing 18 ships and sinking 9 Roman ships. He failed to prevent the Roman landing in Africa, being defeated at the Ecnomus in 256 BC, one of the largest naval battles in antiquity, with the loss of 94 ships, to the Romans' 24. After the Roman invasion of Africa, Hamilcar was recalled by Carthage from Sicily. He was defeated at the Battle of Adys in 255 BC by Marcus Atilius Regulus.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Hannibal (Punic: \ud802\udd07\u202c\ud802\udd0d\ud802\udd01\u202c\ud802\udd0f\u202c\ud802\udd0b\u202c, \u1e24NB\u02bfL), distinguished by Polybius as Hannibal the Rhodian (Greek: \u1f08\u03bd\u03bd\u03af\u03b2\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1fec\u03cc\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, Hann\u00edbas epikalo\u00famenos Rh\u00f3dios) was a prominent Carthaginian. During the First Punic War, when the Romans were besieging Lilybaeum, he entered the city with provisions and troops in a bold move in full view of the Romans. \nHe was able to use the superior speed of his specially built ship to avoid the Roman fleet and gain valuable intelligence that he reported to the Carthaginian commander Adherbal and to the Carthaginian Senate. The Romans finally caught and defeated him making use of a captured Carthaginian quadrireme. The Romans used his ship to thwart subsequent Carthaginian blockade runners and modeled their subsequent naval vessels on it.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In early modern scholarship, a cult to a supposed Heliopolitan Triad of Jupiter, Mercury (or Dionysus) and Venus was thought to have originated in ancient Canaanite religion, adopted and adapted firstly by the Greeks, and then by the Romans when they colonised the city of Heliopolis (modern Baalbeck) in the Beqaa Valley of Lebanon. The Canaanite god Ba\u02bfal (Hadad) was equated with Jupiter Heliopolitanus as sun-god, Astarte or Atargatis with Venus Heliopolitana as his wife, and Adon, the god of spring, with either Mercury or Dionysus as third member of the triad, son of Heliopolitan Venus and Heliopolitan Jupiter.The Romans were thought to have built magnificent temples for the Heliopolitan Triad as the ruling deities of Heliopolis, rather in the manner of the colonial temples built to their own Capitoline triad, and for much the same reasons; to foster a Roman identity and co-operation. The take-over of Heliopolis involved the establishment of Roman priesthoods and magistracies; but only two inscriptions at Heliopolis and 4 at Beirut are dedicated to Jupiter, Venus and Mercury. Nearly 30 at Heliopolis and 11 at Beirut are dedicated to Jupiter alone.The recognition and promotion of local deities in forms that recalled the structure and relationships of Rome's Capitoline Triad was a long-standing feature of Rome's expansion, an appeal to what was held in common by different cultures in their empire. At the same time, the value of local deities was in their uniquely local identity and differences. For scholars exploring those identities and differences, seeking out and finding Triads with somewhat mystifyingly distant connections was a legitimate and self-perpetuating feature of Middle Eastern studies; observed differences and similarities of cults and deities could be explained as aspects of syncretism. Kropp asserts that especially with reference to Heliopolis, compounded identities such as Jupiter-Haddad, or Venus-Atargatis, et al are \"never addressed with Semitic names, and rarely if ever depicted with visual contaminations. [...] Our difficulties in keeping them apart are thus no licence to conflate them. The principle should be not to multiply names and epithets more than absolutely necessary.\"Scholarly reexamination of the archaeological and iconographic evidence suggests that the notion of a Heliopolitan Triad is a modern scholarly artefact, deriving from Roman perceptions of functional similarities between their own and local deities, the naming of local deities after Roman ones, and Roman deities after local ones, sometimes on very slender grounds. Some very late (4th century) and extravagant claims by Macrobius for multiple aspects of single or compounded identities involve a plethora of Roman, Greek and mid-eastern deities, including Jupiter of Heliopolis as a sun-god, at least partly on the grounds that \"Helios\" is a Greek name for the sun, and the sun-god. There is, however, no archaeological, epigraphic or iconographic evidence for any stable, familial or functionally effective triple grouping within the near-endless and various native Heliopolitan or Canaanite pantheons, and none for the clear equivalence of leading Roman and Heliopolitan deities either prior to the likely Roman occupation during Rome's civil wars, in Julius Caesar's time at the earliest, or its promotion as a colony some 100 years later.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Helsinki Process on Globalization and Democracy is a joint initiative of Finland and Tanzania that resulted from the Helsinki Conference of December 2002. According to the Finnish government, \"the Helsinki Process searches for novel and empowering solutions to the dilemmas of global governance. It aims to offer a forum for open and inclusive dialogue between major stakeholders\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A historic site or heritage site is an official location where pieces of political, military, cultural, or social history have been preserved due to their cultural heritage value. Historic sites are usually protected by law, and many have been recognized with the official national historic site status. A historic site may be any building, landscape, site or structure that is of local, regional, or national significance. Usually this also means the site must be at least 50 years or older.\n \nThe U.S. National Park Service defines a historic site as the \"location of a significant event, a prehistoric or historic occupation or activity, or a building or structure, whether standing, ruined, or vanished, where the location itself possesses historic, cultural, or archeological value regardless of the value of any existing structure\".Historic sites can also mark public crimes, such as Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum in Phnom Penh, Cambodia or Robben Island, South Africa. Similar to museums focused on public crimes, museums attached to memorials of public crimes often contain a history component, as is the case at the Oklahoma City National Memorial & Museum.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In the study of collectibles, historic value means an increase in value because of historical aging.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The History and Public Policy Program (HAPP) is a program at the Woodrow Wilson Center. It focuses on the relationship between history and policy making and seeks to foster open, informed and non-partisan dialogue on historically relevant issues. The Program is a hub for a wide network of scholars, journalists, policy makers, archivists, and teachers focused on the uses and lessons of history in decision making. Through informed dialogue, the Program seeks to explore the advantages as well as the dangers of using historical lessons in making current policy decisions.\nHAPP builds on the pioneering work of the Cold War International History Project in the archives of the former communist world, but seeks to move beyond integrating historical documents into the scholarly discourse. The program focuses on new historical materials which provide fresh, unprecedented insights into the inner workings and foreign policies of the US and foreign powers, laying the groundwork for policymakers to gain a more nuanced and informed understanding of specific countries and regions, as well as issues such as nuclear proliferation, border disputes, and crisis management. By fostering open, informed, and non-partisan dialogue between all sides, HAPP seeks to facilitate a better understanding of the lessons of history.\nThe Program coordinates advanced research on diplomatic history (through the work of the Cold War International History Project); regional security issues (through its North Korea International Documentation Project); nuclear history (through its Nuclear Proliferation International History Project); and global military and security issues such as its work on the history of the Warsaw Pact and European Security (with European Studies at the Wilson Center).\nHAPP's Digital Archive contains once-secret documents from governments all across the globe, uncovering new sources and providing fresh insights into the history of international relations and diplomacy.The Program operates in partnership with governmental and non-governmental institutions and partners in the US and throughout the world to foster openness, transparency, and dialogue. In cooperation with the American Historical Association's National History Center, HAPP hosts the Washington History Seminar, a weekly in-depth discussion of important new historical research and perspectives in international and national affairs.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Honeyman inscription, also known as the Archaic Cyprus inscription, is a seven-line Phoenician gravestone inscription found in Cyprus and first published in 1939. It is the oldest detailed Phoenician inscription found in Cyprus.It was first published in 1939 by Professor Alexander Mackie Honeyman in a review of the Phoenician inscriptions in the Cyprus Museum. Its provenance is unknown, but it is made from red sandstone typical of Kokkinochoria. On the basis of letter forms and grammatical peculiarities the writing was dated to c.900 BCE (or rather the first half of the ninth century) by William F. Albright.It is currently in the Cyprus Museum (no. 397).\nIt is also known as KAI 30.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Illyro-Roman is a term used in historiography and anthropological studies for the Romanized Illyrians within the ancient Roman provinces of Illyricum, Moesia, Pannonia and Dardania. The term 'Illyro-Roman' can also be used to describe the Roman settlers who colonized Illyricum. \n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Industrial heritage refers to the physical remains of the history of technology and industry, such as manufacturing and mining sites, as well as power and transportation infrastructure. Another definition expands this scope so that the term also covers places used for social activities related to industry such as housing, museums, education or religious worship, among other structures with values from a variety of fields in order to highlight the interdisciplinary character of industrial heritage. It is also argued that it includes the so-called sociofacts or aspects of social and institutional organizations, and mentifacts that constitute the attitudinal characteristics and value systems industrial heritage sites.The scientific study of industrial remains is called industrial archaeology. The industrial heritage of a region is an aspect of its cultural heritage. It also forms part of a location's identity as it serves as evidence of progress and landmark achievements. The international organization dedicated to the study and preservation of such is The International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage, known as TICCIH. These initiatives are partly driven by an interest in innovation and ingenuity or efforts to compensate for irreparable loss.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Irbis (fl. 650 or 652) was according to a number of Russian sources the founder of the Khazar Khaganate. The Khazars traced their origin to the Turkic Ashina clan in modern Mongolia.Peter Golden notes that Chinese and Arabic reports are almost identical, making the connection a strong one, and conjectures that Khazar leader may have been Irbis Seguy, who lost power or was killed around 651.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Ithobaal III (Latin Ithobalus, Hebrew Ethbaal) was recorded by Josephus as the king on the list of kings of Tyre reigning 591/0\u2013573/2 BCE at the time of the first fall of Jerusalem, and therefore the subject of Ezekiel's cherub in Eden. During his time, Josephus also wrote that Nebuchadnezzar II besieged Tyre for 13 years, which probably covered 585 to 573 BC. The precise year it began is difficult to pinpoint with scholars divided as to whether it started in 598, the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar's reign, or 585, which was Ithobaal III's seventh year as king. There are even those who proposed an earlier date - around 603-590 - citing that the Babylonians would have attacked it first before launching a campaign against Egypt. The city, according to the oracles of Ezekiel was not captured. Ithobaal himself survived the siege with the prophet acknowledging that \"King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon made his army labor hard against Tyre... yet neither he nor his army got anything\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "An itinerant poet or strolling minstrel (also known variously as a gleeman, circler, or cantabank) was a wandering minstrel, bard, musician, or other poet common in medieval Europe but extinct today. Itinerant poets were from a lower class than jesters or jongleurs, as they did not have steady work, instead travelling to make a living.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Johns Hopkins Hospital Historical Club was a society devoted to studying the history of medicine. Founded on 10 November 1890 by more than 30 people including William Osler, William H. Welch, William Stewart Halsted, and Howard A. Kelly, its first meeting was held at the library of the Johns Hopkins Hospital on 30 November. As a precursor to the William H. Welch Institute of the History of Medicine founded at Johns Hopkins in 1929, the Historical Club was instrumental to the development of the discipline of medical history.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Kfarhazir  (Arabic: \u0643\u0641\u0631 \u062d\u0632\u064a\u0631)    is a village in the Koura District of Lebanon. It is 350 meters above sea level, and has an area of 12.1 square kilometres (4.69 sq mi) - the largest town in Koura by size, with a population of about 60000. The population are Greek Orthodox and Maronite.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Kingdom of Macedonia was a prospective state that was expected to be federated with the Kingdom of Bulgaria, the Kingdom of Greece, the Kingdom of Serbia, the Kingdom of Montenegro as well as the Kingdom of Romania in a sort of Balkan federation. The ruler of the kingdom was proposed to be the Prince Harald of Denmark.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Nine Latin American nations became charter members of the League of Nations when it was founded in 1919. The number grew to fifteen states by the time the first League Assembly met in 1920 and later, several others joined in the decade that followed. Although only Brazil had any participation in World War I (and a minor role at that), these nations supported the idealistic principles of the League and felt it offered some measure of juridical protection from the interventionist policies of the United States in the period between the Spanish-American War (1898) and the proclamation of the non-interventionist Good Neighbor Policy by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933. Latin American nations also felt that being members of the League would bring prestige and notoriety to Latin America. All twenty Latin American countries were members of the League at one point, yet they were never all members at the same time.\nTo guarantee Latin American representatives in the Assembly and Council, an unofficial bloc was established early on. This movement, in turn led to the creation of a special Latin American Liaison Bureau. Latin American delegates emphasized their contributions and hopes for world peace which eventually would anticipate their actions in the United Nations.\nThe Latin American nations became increasingly disillusioned with the League in the 1920s. This was partly due to the failure of the United States to join the League, and partly because the major powers in the League paid little attention to Latin America\u2019s problems. The League did have some role in two conflicts in South America in the 1930s: the Leticia dispute between Colombia and Peru, and the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay.\nWhile Latin American delegates were frequently frustrated with the political institutions of the League, they participated avidly in the so-called \"technical\" bodies. In the field of intellectual cooperation, for instance, they  introduced a number of initiatives \u2013 such as translation into French of major Latin American literary works, or the elaboration of a history of the Americas \u2013 that became hallmarks of cultural internationalism. Also in the field of public health and nutrition there were productive exchanges between Geneva and Latin American actors.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The legislatures of communist states included:\n\nCongress of Soviets and Supreme Soviet in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics\nPeople's Chamber and Chamber of States in the German Democratic Republic\nGreat National Assembly in the People's Republic of Romania and the Socialist Republic of Romania\nFederal Assembly in the Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia and Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\nPeople's Great Khural in the People's Republic of Mongolia\nNational Assembly of People's Power in the Republic of Cuba\nNational Assembly of Vietnam in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam\nNational People's Congress in the People's Republic of China\nNational Assembly in the Democratic People's Republic of Laos\nKampuchean People's Representative Assembly in Democratic Kampuchea\nNational Assembly in the People's Republic of Kampuchea\nPeople's Assembly of Albania in the People's Republic of Albania and Socialist People's Republic of Albania\nSejm in the Polish People's Republic\nNational Assembly in the People's Republic of Bulgaria\nParliament in the People's Republic of Hungary\nNational Assembly and Federal Assembly in the Republic of Czechoslovakia and the Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia\nSupreme People's Council in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen\nPeople's National Assembly in the People's Republic of the Congo\nPeople's Assembly in the People's Republic of Mozambique\nNational Assembly in the People's Republic of Angola\nRevolutionary National Assembly in the People's Republic of Benin\nSupreme Revolutionary Council and People's Assembly in the Democratic Republic of Somalia\nNational Shengo in the People's Democratic Republic of EthiopiaDue to their vanguard status, Communist parties were either the sole party represented in these legislatures, or held permanent majorities. In the latter case, the Communist parties were the dominant partners in popular fronts that were the sole organizations allowed to contest elections. The minor parties in these fronts were subservient to the Communist party, and had to accept the party's \"leading role\" as a condition of their continued existence.\nThe legislatures were vested with great lawmaking powers on paper, and in most cases all other government institutions were nominally subordinated to them. In practice, the doctrine of democratic centralism resulted in the legislatures being rubber stamps which held very little real power. They did little more than give legal sanction to decisions already made at the highest levels of the Communist parties. Legislative sessions were infrequent, usually only once or twice a year, and consequently legislative power was often vested in some form of standing committee elected by the legislature, usually titled presidium or state council, between its sessions.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "This article lists notable officers that served in the Napoleonic Wars (1803\u20131815) in the Royal Navy.\nThey are ordered by immediate rank (e.g. admiral and vice admiral not Vice Admiral of the Red and Vice Admiral of the White) and then by surname.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The long 18th century is a phrase used by many British historians to cover a more natural historical period than the simple use of the standard calendar definition. They expand the century to include larger British historical movements, with their subsequent \"long\" 18th century typically running from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Other definitions, perhaps those with a more social or global interest, extend the period further to, for example, 1660\u20131830. Possibly the earliest proponent of the long eighteenth century was Sir John Robert Seeley, who in 1883 defined the eighteenth century as \"the period which begins with the Revolution of 1688 and ends with the peace of 1815\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Lord of Caboet or Lord Arnau de Caboet was a Catalan nobleman. He played an influential role in the creation of Andorra, which was established by Charlemagne as one of the buffer states that kept the Moors from invading France. In 11th century, an account cited how the lord protected the Bishop of Urgel from military action conducted by neighboring lords through a defensive agreement. The title was fought over by the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix, who became the heir of Lord Caboet through marriage. The lord's family later merged with the house of Castellbo with the marriage between Viscount Arnau de Castellbo and the lord's descendant Arnaua de Caboet.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Magistra Vitae is a Latin expression, used by Cicero in his De Oratore as a personification of history, means \"life's teacher\". Often paraphrased as Historia est Magistra Vitae, it conveys the idea that the study of the past should serve as a lesson to the future, and was an important pillar of classical, medieval and Renaissance historiography.\nThe complete phrase, with English translation, is:\n\nCicero, De Oratore, II, 36.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Mago II, also known as Magon (Punic: \ud802\udd0c\ud802\udd02\u202c\ud802\udd0d\u202c, MGN), was Shofet of Carthage from 396 to 375 BCE, and was a member of the Magonid dynasty. He became Shofet after the suicide of Himilco II in 396 BCE and was succeeded by Mago III (or Himilco Mago) in 375 BCE.\nHis reign started during wars with the Greeks of Sicily, who under the leadership of Dionysius I of Syracuse had defeated his predecessor. He quelled a rebellion in Libya, and made peace with Syracuse at the expense of his Sicilian allies the Sicels.\nWar broke out again at the end of his reign and he died in the Carthaginian defeat of the Battle of Cabala, he was succeeded by his son, also called Mago \"Himilco Mago\" who led the Carthaginians to a great victory against Dionysius at the battle of Cronium.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Mallarino\u2013Bidlack Treaty (also known as the Bidlack Treaty and Treaty of New Granada) was a treaty signed between New Granada (today Colombia and Panama) and the United States, on December 12, 1846. U.S. minister Benjamin Alden Bidlack negotiated the pact with New Granada's commissioner Manuel Mar\u00eda Mallarino.\nOfficially, it was entitled Tratado de Paz, Amistad, Navegaci\u00f3n y Comercio (Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Commerce and Navigation), and was meant to represent an agreement of mutual cooperation. It granted the U.S. significant transit rights over the Panamanian isthmus, as well as military powers to suppress social conflicts and independence struggles targeted against Colombia. Under the Bidlack-Mallarino Treaty, the U.S. intervened militarily many times on the isthmus, usually against civilians, peasant guerrillas, or Liberal Party independence struggles. After the beginning of the California Gold Rush of 1848, the U.S. spent seven years constructing a trans-isthmian Panama Railway. The end result of the treaty, however, was to give the United States a legal opening in politically and economically influencing the Panama isthmus, which was part of New Granada at the time, but was later to become the independent country of Panama in accordance with the wishes of the United States. In 1903, however, the United States failed to gain access to a strip on the isthmus for the construction of a canal, and reversed its position on Panamanian secession from the Republic of Colombia.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Marinus of Thrace (Greek: \u039c\u03b1\u03c1\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2) (floruit c. 385 until 420\u2013423 at latest) was briefly undisputed Arian Archbishop of Constantinople after the death of bishop Demophilus around 386. He was, however, displaced by Dorotheus of Antioch around 387 or 388. When Dorotheus arrived from Syria, he was immediately installed as the new archbishop, having been considered by his sect to be better qualified for the office than Marinus. It was also cited that the sect has been unhappy with Marinus' deposition, particularly as he represented the views of his party, which became associated with the positions taken by Selenas bishop of the Goths. A key difference, for instance, was the manner by which Dorotheus denied the eternal fatherhood of God while Marinus asserted it.Thenceforth Marinus withdrew from communion with those Arians who followed Dorotheus and, with a group of followers who grew numerous enough to be considered a distinct sect of Arians, maintained a rival network of churches and oratories. The sect held, in contrast to the Arians under Dorotheus, that 'the Father had always been the Father, even when the son was not.' Those who sided with Dorotheus remained in possession of their churches while those who sided with Marinus had to build new ones. This sect became known as the Psathyrians, which included Theoctistus -  one of its most prominent champions - who was by profession a cake-seller (\u03c8\u03b1\u03b8\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03ce\u03bb\u03b7\u03c2). The schism between the sects would be healed by the former consul Plinta during the reign of Theodosius II.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Marqod, also known as Baal-Marqod (Lord of the Dance), was  a Phoenician god of healing and dancing. His name is from a common Semitic root for dancing; hence Hebrew \u05e8\u05b8\u05e7\u05b7\u05d3 (raqad), Aramaic \u05e8\u05e7\u05d3, and Arabic \u0631\u064e\u0642\u064e\u0635\u064e (raqa\u1e63a), all meaning \"to dance.\" It is unknown if Marqod was considered the creator of dancing or if dancing was merely the proper way to worship the deity. This may be evidence that the Phoenicians were the first ancient Near Eastern culture to have a specific deity devoted to dance.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Masub inscription is a Phoenician inscription found at Khirbet Ma'sub (also Masoub) near Al-Bassa/Betzet. The inscription is from 221 BC. It is also known as KAI 19.It is considered to originate from Umm al-Amad, Lebanon, around 6km to the north, on the basis of the reference to the temple in the inscription. In Dunand and Duru's catalogue of Umm al Amad inscriptions, it is number iv.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The creation of the Max Planck Harvard Research Center for the Archaeoscience of the Ancient Mediterranean (MHAAM) was announced in February 2017 at Harvard University. It was inaugurated with a workshop and a signing ceremony at Harvard University on October 10, 2017, when the president of the Max Planck Society, Martin Stratmann, and Harvard's vice-provost for international affairs signed a five-year agreement.The center is a collaboration between the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History (MPISHH) and the Initiative for the Science of the Human Past at Harvard (SoHP). The center's co-directors are Johannes Krause (MPISHH) and Michael McCormick (History Department, Harvard University and chair SoHP); David Reich (Department of Genetics, Harvard University), and Philipp Stockhammer (MPISHH and LMU Munich) serve as deputy directors.\nIts initial research projects focus on genetic and other biomolecular archaeological evidence for migrations in the ancient Mediterranean, and the genetics and historical impact of ancient pathogens.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In human geography, McNeill's law is the process outlined in William H. McNeill's book Plagues and Peoples.  The process described concerns the role of microbial disease in the conquering of people-groups. Particularly, it describes how diseases such as smallpox, measles, typhus, scarlet fever, and sexually-transmitted diseases have significantly reduced native populations so that they are unable to resist colonization.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Mdina steles are two Phoenician language inscriptions found near the city of Mdina (ancient Maleth), Malta, in 1816. The findspot is disputed; the oldest known description places it near the Tal-Virt\u00f9 Church. The surviving stele is currently in the National Museum of Archaeology, Malta; the other stele has been considered lost for more than a century.They were widely publicized by Wilhelm Gesenius as Melitensia Tertia and Melitensia Quarta (\"Maltese 3rd\" and \"Maltese 4th\"). They are also known as KAI 61A,B or CIS i 123A,B.\nStele 61B has been dated to the sixth century BCE on the basis of letter forms.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A memory institution is an organization maintaining a repository of public knowledge, a generic term used about institutions such as libraries, archives, heritage (monuments & sites) institutions, aquaria and arboreta, and zoological and botanical gardens, as well as providers of digital libraries and data aggregation services which serve as memories for given societies or mankind. Memory institutions serve the purpose of documenting, contextualizing, preserving and indexing elements of human culture and collective memory. These institutions allow and enable society to better understand themselves, their past, and how the past impacts their future.  These repositories are ultimately preservers of communities, languages, cultures, customs, tribes, and individuality. Memory institutions are repositories of knowledge, while also being actors of the transitions of knowledge and memory to the community. These institutions ultimately remain some form of collective memory. Increasingly such institutions are considered as a part of a unified documentation and information science perspective.\nArchives are repositories that collect, organize, preserve, and allow for access to the institution\u2019s primary source materials which include letters, reports, accounts, minute books, photographs, and manuscripts of the government, businesses, and members of the community.  Most archival collections include permanent and valuable records of historical and evidential value. Archives fall in line with memory institutions because they provide surrogates for collective human memory. Archives collect materials to help communities, institutions, nations to better understand themselves, their past, understand the present and prepare for the future. Libraries are defined as a collection of resources that are made available to the community in the form of print materials such as books and periodicals by information professionals. Beyond books and periodicals, libraries also offer a variety of services and programs to the community in which they serve with the goal of educating and advancing society. Museums are a place where objects that contain permanent historical and cultural value such as works of art, three-dimensional objects, and scientific specimens.  Museum can be characterized as historical, scientific, art institutions, heritage institutions, aquaria and arboreta, and zoological and botanical gardens.Lorcan Dempsey may have introduced the term into popular use in library and information science, although others, such as Joan Schwarz, used it earlier. It also appeared in a 1972 report to the Council on Library Resources.Helena Robinson (2012) criticized the term when she wrote, \"[r]ather than revealing the essential affiliation between museums, libraries and archives, their sweeping classification as 'memory institutions' in the public sector and the academy oversimplifies the concept of memory, and marginalises domain-specific approaches to the cataloguing, description, interpretation and deployment of collections that lead museums, libraries and archives to engage with history, meaning and memory in significantly different ways.\"", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Meninx (Greek: \u039c\u1fc6\u03bd\u03b9\u03b3\u03be, M\u0113\u0302ninx) is a Tunisian archaeological site located on the southeastern coast of the island of Djerba, near the present city of Henchir El Kantara. It stretches 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) long and 800 meters (2,600 ft) wide, some of which has probably been submerged by the sea. The theater is at 33.688\u00b0 N, 10.925\u00b0 E. \nIt was originally a trading post founded by the Phoenicians but reached its apogee in Roman times, when it became the chief town of the island, which was also called Meninx at the time. Meninx town was a major producer of priceless murex dye, and is cited by Pliny the Elder as second only to Tyre in this regard.\nThe first archaeologists to investigate the site highlighted thermal baths, an amphitheater, a theater, a basilica and probably a forum. Moreover, the ground was strewn with vestiges, such as bases of white marble columns, granite columns, capitals as well as numerous statues. In 1942, excavations were carried out by Paul-Marie Duval, and the site started to be thoroughly investigated in 2017.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The term minority reign or royal minority refers to the period of a sovereign's rule when he or she is legally a minor. Minority reigns are of their nature times when politicians and advisors can be especially competitive. Some scholars claim that, in Britain, primogeniture, the growth of conciliar government, and the emergence of the Parliament as a representative and administrative force all occurred within the context of the minority reigns.Minority reigns also characterized a period in the Roman Empire from 367 to 455, the years that preceded the reign of Valentinian III, who also became emperor at the age of six. The succession of child-turned-adult emperors led to the so-called infantilization of the imperial office, which had taken hold during the long reign of Honorius, Valentinian's predecessor. Here, the imperial office operated within a severely curtailed system compared to its authority a century prior.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Misor was the name of a deity appearing in a theogeny provided by Roman era Phoenician writer Philo of Byblos in an account preserved by Eusebius in Praeparatio Evangelica, and attributed to the still earlier Sanchuniathon. He was one of two children of the deities Amunos and Magos. The other named was Sydyk. It is said that these two were the first to discover the use of salt. The names \"Misor\" and \"Sydyk\" mean \"Straight\" and \"Just\" (or, in another translation, \"Well-freed\" and \"Just\").\nMisor's son was named Taautus, and believed to be the inventor of the first written alphabet.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Mochus (Greek: \u039c\u03c9\u03c7\u03cc\u03c2), also known as Mochus of Sidon and Mochus the Phoenician, is listed by Diogenes La\u00ebrtius along with Zalmoxis the Thracian and Atlas of Mauretania, as a proto-philosopher. Athenaeus claimed that he authored a work on the history of Phoenicia. Strabo, on the authority of Posidonius, speaks of one Mochus or Moschus of Sidon as the author of the atomic theory and says that he was more ancient than the Trojan war. He is also referred to by Josephus, Tatian, and Eusebius.According to Robert Boyle, the father of modern chemistry, \"\u2018Learned men attribute the devising of the atomical hypothesis to one Moschus a Phenician\". Isaac Newton, Isaac Causabon, John Selden, Johannes Arcerius, Henry More, and Ralph Cudworth also credit Mochus of Sidon as the author of the atomic theory and some of them tried to identify Mochus with Moses the Israelite lawbringer.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Monastic settlements are areas built up in and around the development of monasteries with the spread of Christianity. To understand Christian monastic settlements, we must understand a brief history of Christian monasticism. Monasticism was a movement especially associated with Early Christianity that began in the late 3rd century to the 4th century in Egypt when early Christians realizing that martyrdom wasn\u2019t much of an option when the Roman empire relaxed Christian persecutions. It was begun by key monks who were known then as \u201cThe Desert Fathers\u201d and later, there were female monasteries run by women who later came to be known as \u201cThe Desert Mothers\u201d. The most famous Desert Father was Abba Anthony and the most famous Desert Mother was Amma Syncletica.ost of the Christians took to the deserts and arid areas to deny themselves of the social environments and people in order to focus on God and prayer. They denied themselves of a comfortable life often resorting to eating what grew in the deserts as well as living frugally and in poverty. With time, monasticism came to impact the church and even the papacy and there came about two variants of monasticism: The Eastern Monastic movement and the Western Monastic movement. Inspired by the Eastern monastic movements, new monastic movements sprung up in western Europe after the Roman empire fell apart and newer kingdoms like the Franks, Britannia and Germanic tribes sprung up. The papacy was at its infancy and places like the Isles of Britannia had monks that established monasteries along its coastlines. One of the forerunners was St. Augustine whose Rule became encoded in the future doctrine of the Roman clergy of the church.These settlements are of historic interest as the development of a monastery typically spurred other settlement developments over many hundred of years which may be rich in historical artifacts enabling understanding of social orders and the spread of culture and technologies. For instance, there were monastic settlements (e.g. Wadi al-Natrun), which developed a kind of council, which adopted the responsibility of communication between the monastery and the world. There are also settlements that performed specialized tasks such as the preservation of religious texts as demonstrated by a distinctive literature called apophthegmata (sayings) recorded and preserved by men and women living in the community around Nitria. Celtic Christianity also had the so-called \"double-monasteries\", where men and women could live within the same monastic settlement, spawning a community settled by supporters, which was governed by unique rules and intentions, particularly concerning gender relations and spiritual equality.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Hannibal (Punic: \ud802\udd07\u202c\ud802\udd0d\ud802\udd01\u202c\ud802\udd0f\u202c\ud802\udd0b\u202c, \u1e24NB\u02bfL), distinguished by Polybius as Hannibal Monomachus (Greek: \u1f09\u03bd\u03bd\u03af\u03b2\u03b1\u03c2 \u039c\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2, Hann\u00edbas Monom\u00e1khos), was a friend and staff officer of the great Carthaginian general Hannibal. His epithet means \"One who Fights Alone\" or \"Gladiator\". He is most famous for wrongly prophesying that during the march from Spain to Italy, the Carthaginians would likely run out of supplies and would need resort to cannibalism. In the end, this was unnecessary for Hannibal Barca's soldiers. The story of Hannibal Monomachus is given in book IX of Polybius' Histories.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "N. de Morena or N. de Morera, name given to him by his contemporary Fray Juan de Torquemada and by most authors, was a European ship pilot in the 1577\u20131580 expedition of Sir Francis Drake. In ill health, he was reportedly left at New Albion in 1579 and once he recovered he walked to Mexico (then New Spain).  In doing so, he likely was the first European to see San Francisco Bay and likely established the incorrect idea that California was an island.  In only few and non-contemporaneous references, the name is given as \"N. de Morena.\"", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Moret Law was a form of freedom of wombs, which was implemented by Spain in Cuba and Puerto Rico, and named after Segismundo Moret who was Spain's Minister of Overseas Territories at the time. This law implemented the abolition of slavery incrementally in Spain's Caribbean colonies. It drew from older Later American manumission traditions such as the way favorite slaves have been previously liberated under certain conditions.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Myriandus (Greek: \u039c\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 M\u016br\u00edandos, from Hittite m\u016bri-, \"grape cluster\", and -anda, a place name suffix; by folk etymology with Greek andr-, \"man\", also spelled Myriandrus: \u039c\u03c5\u03c1\u03af\u03b1\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 M\u016br\u00edandros) was an ancient Phoenician port on the Mediterranean Sea's Gulf of Alexandretta. Its ruins are located near the modern city of \u0130skenderun in southern Turkey.\nHerodotus records the entire Gulf of Alexandretta as Marandynian Bay (Ancient Greek: \u039c\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03cc\u03bb\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2), after Myriandus. (Later classical geographers would subsequently name the bay after nearby Issus.) Stephanus of Byzantium also called it Marandynian gulf.Xenophon claimed that Myriandus was the border town between Cilicia and Syria. (Herodotus, meanwhile, placed the line further south at Ras al-Bassit in what is now Syria. Xenophon also say that it was an Emporium.In 333 BC, Alexander the Great encamped near the city and intended to attack on the army of Darius III of Persia, but at the night a heavy tempest and storm detained him in his camp. In the end the battle took place near Issus.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Neurohistory is an interdisciplinary approach to history that leverages advances in neuroscience to tell new kinds of stories about the past, but especially of deep history. This is achieved by incorporating the advances in neurosciences into historiographical theory and methodology in the attempt to reconstruct the past It was first proposed by Harvard professor Daniel Lord Smail in his work and it offers historians a way to engage critically with the implicit folk psychologies in the interpretation of evidence.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "New Western Pomerania (German: Neuvorpommern or Neu-Vorpommern) was that part of Western Pomerania that went to Prussia under the terms of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. \nThe territory of New Western Pomerania corresponded to that area of earlier region of Swedish Pomerania that had been left after the Treaty of Stockholm in 1720; thus it covered Western Pomerania north of the Peene, including the island of  R\u00fcgen. The name New Western Pomerania and R\u00fcgen (Neuvorpommern und R\u00fcgen) was also used, which emphasised the territory of R\u00fcgen. As early as 1720, the area of Swedish Pomerania that had been ceded to Prussia was called, by contrast, Old Western Pomerania (Altvorpommern).\nNew Western Pomerania was part of the Prussian province of Pomerania and, from 1818, formed the government region of Stralsund, but for a time, retained a special legal status. For example, from the old councils (St\u00e4nde) of New Western Pomerania, a new Regional Parliament for New Western Pomerania and R\u00fcgen (Kommunallandtag von Neuvorpommern und R\u00fcgen) was formed in 1823, which existed until 1881. The Pomeranian Provincial Parliament, also formed in 1823, was elected separately by New Western Pomerania, Old Western Pomerania and Eastern Pomerania (Hinterpommern). With the gradual loss of its special status, the name New Western Pomerania also became uncommon.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Niqmaddu III was the seventh known ruler and king of Ugarit, an Ancient Syrian citystate in northwestern Syria, reigning from 1225 to 1220 BC, succeeding king Ibiranu. He took his name from the earlier Amorite ruler Niqmaddu, meaning \"Addu has vindicated\" to strengthen the supposed origins of his Ugaritic dynasty in the Amorites.A text from the Urtenu archives mentions that he was married to an unnamed Hittite princess. He is mentioned in many juridical texts, most notably in a lawsuit between him and \"Kumiya-Ziti\", probably a rich merchant from Ura. The author of the tablet is \"Nu?me Ra\u0161ap?\", which is detailed as a well-known scribe who was known from the days of Ammittamru II, and another legal text details him, the \"Case of Kililya the priest of Istar\", which is witnessed by the same witnesses and written by the same scribe.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Northern Inspectorate of Greenland also known as North Greenland was a Danish inspectorate on Greenland consisting of the trading centers and missionary stations along the northwest coast of the island.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Obidiaceni were an ancient people dwelling along the Palus Maeotis in antiquity. Strabo describes them as living among the Maeotae, Sindi, Dandarii, Toreatae, Agri, Arrechi, Tarpetes, Sittaceni, Dosci, and Aspurgiani, among others. The Obidiaceni is one of the Maeotae tribes, who lived in the 1st millennium BC on the east and the southeast coast of the Azov sea.\nRussian scientists, archeologists, historians and ethnographers in the Soviet period concluded that the Maeotae is one of the tribes of the Adyghe people (Circassians). \nIn the Great Soviet Encyclopedia in the article about the Adyghe people) it reads\"Living in the basin of the river Kuban part of the tribes (Adyghe people), as a rule, be indicated (names) of ancient historians under the collective name 'Maeotae'.\" In the article the Maeotae it is written.\"Maeotae were engaged in farming and fishing. Part of the Maeotae by the language was akin to the Adygs (Circassians), the part of the Iranians. In the 4th\u20133rd centuries BC many of Maeotae included in the composition of the Bosporan kingdom.\"", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Octamasadas was a Scythian king, the son of King Ariapeithes, who lived around 446 BC. He came to power after he deposed and replaced his half-brother Scylas.  Octamasadas was the son of Teres I\u2019s daughter, making Octamasadas Teres\u2019 grandson. Teres I was the father of Sitalces (431\u2013424 BC) and Sparadocos (448\u2013440 BC), Thracian kings.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Old Western Pomerania or Old Hither Pomerania (German: Altvorpommern or Alt-Vorpommern) was that part of Western Pomerania that went to Prussia under the terms of the Treaty of Stockholm in 1720. \n\nThe name Old Western Pomerania was first used when that area of Swedish Pomerania that had been remained with Sweden after the Treaty of Stockholm, later transferred to Prussia under the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and was named New Western Pomerania or New Hither Pomerania. \nWhilst New Hither Pomerania enjoyed a  special legal status within the Prussian state after 1815, this was not the case for Old  Western Pomerania or Farther Pomerania  (Hinterpommern). Nevertheless, the Pomeranian Provincial Parliament, also formed in 1823, was elected separately by New Western Pomerania, Old Western Pomerania and Farther Pomerania. Whilst New Western Pomerania was given its own Regional Parliament (for New Western Pomerania and R\u00fcgen) in 1823, a joint Regional Parliament for Old Hither Pomerania and Farther Pomerania was formed. Both regional parliaments continued to exist until 1881. \nWith the gradual loss of New Hither Pomerania's special status, the names New and Old Western Pomerania also fell out of use.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Operation Sand Flea was a series of training exercises for the December 1989 invasion of Panama by the United States. These troop movements and practice assaults were conducted in part as training to defend the Panama Canal (a contingency then called Purple Storm), but were also intended simply to affirm the right of the US military to engage in them. Conducted in the summer of 1989, these seemingly endless movements, also known as \"Freedom of Movement Drills,\" overwhelmed the ability of the Panamanians to observe, analyze and understand the activities. In this way, this program desensitized the Panama Defense Force (PDF) to the coming invasion.The exercises were part of Operation Nimrod Dancer.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Operation Windmill (OpWml) was the United States Navy's Second Antarctica Developments Project, an exploration and training mission to Antarctica in 1947\u20131948. This operation was a follow-up to the First Antarctica Development Project known as Operation Highjump. The expedition was commanded by Commander Gerald L. Ketchum, USN, and the flagship of Task Force 39 was the icebreaker USS Burton Island. \nMissions during Operation Windmill varied including supply activities, helicopter reconnaissance of ice flows, scientific surveys, underwater demolition surveys, and convoy exercises. Malcolm Davis collected live animals, such as penguins and leopard seals, for zoological studies.The icebreaker USS Edisto (AG-89) sailed on 1 November 1947 for the Panama Canal to rendezvous with the Burton Island for the expedition.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Brotherhoods (Ukrainian: \u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430, bratstva; literally, \"fraternities\") were the unions of Eastern Orthodox citizens or lay brothers affiliated with individual churches in the cities throughout the Ruthenian part of the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth such as Lviv, Wilno, Lutsk, Vitebsk, Minsk, and Kyiv. Their structure resembled that of Western medieval confraternities and trade guilds.The Orthodox brotherhoods, first documented in 1463 (Lviv Dormition Brotherhood), were consolidated in the aftermath of the Union of Brest (1596) in order to oppose the conversion of Orthodox Christians to the Eastern Catholic Churches, the Counter-Reformation, and both real and imagined Polonization. The brotherhoods attempted to resist state-supported Catholic missionary activity by publishing books in the Cyrillic script and by financing a network of Orthodox schools which offered education in both Old Church Slavonic and the Ruthenian language. The famous Kyiv Mohyla Academy grew out of one such school under the umbrella of the Brotherhood Monastery in Kyiv. The Dormition Church, Lviv was financed by the  brotherhood of the same name; its members also supported the Cossack risings in the east of Ukraine. The powerful Ostrogski family provided political support for their activities.\nThe activity of the Orthodox fraternities helped preserve the national culture of Ukraine and Belarus throughout the Counter-Reformation era. Most were closed in the course of the 18th century when Greek-Catholic proselytism had been forbidden by the House of Romanov. Some were revived in the late 19th century in order to stem \"atheist propaganda\" of the Nihilists. The Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius promoted national awareness, helping the Ukrainians of Imperial Russia discover their national identity. The Ostrog bratstvo was reinstituted by Countess Bludova, an ardent admirer of the Ostrogski family.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Oualidia (Moroccan Arabic: \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0629 l-walidiya) is a village in Morocco's Atlantic coast in the Casablanca-Settat region and at the border of Merrakch-Asfi. It is situated between El Jadida and Asfi and is located beside a protected natural lagoon and has been called Morocco's \"oyster capital,\" a reference to the significant role shellfish harvesting plays in the local economy.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Pactum Lotharii was an agreement signed on 23 February 840, between Republic of Venice and the Carolingian Empire, during the respective governments of Pietro Tradonico and Lothair I. This document was one of the first acts to testify to the separation between the nascent Republic of Venice and the Byzantine Empire: for the first time the Doge, on his own initiative, undertook agreements with the Western world.\nThe treaty included a commitment on the part of the Venetians to help the empire in its campaign against the Slavic tribes. In return, it guaranteed Venice's neutrality as well as its security from the mainland. However, the treaty did not end the Slavic plunderings since by 846, the Slavs were still recorded menacing cities such as the fortress of Carolea. This underscored the way the pact was more symbolic because it merely reiterated the agreements that had been already made in the past between the two empires. It concerned the rights of land use and administration of justice.\nIt is also a valuable document that allows to know precisely the territory of the ancient Venetian duchy. The boundaries thus coincided with the old limit of the lagoons (the most extensive of currents), and the mainland reached even the Abbey of St. Hilary and the area of the ancient Altinum.\nThe Pactum was renewed by kings Charles III (887), Berengar I (888), Guy (891), Rudolf (925), Hugh (927), Otto I (967) and Otto III (983).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Pan-Latinism is an ideology that promotes the unification of the Romance-speaking peoples. Pan-Latinism first arose in prominence in France particularly from the influence of Michel Chevalier (1806\u20131879) who contrasted the \"Latin\" peoples of the Americas with the \"Anglo-Saxon\" peoples there. 19th century French writer Stendhal spoke of \"Latinism\" as an imperial idea that the Latins should rule over their non-Latin neighbours. It was later adopted by Napoleon III, who declared support for the cultural unity of Latin peoples and presented France as the modern leader of the Latin peoples to justify French intervention in Mexican politics that led to the creation of the pro-French Second Mexican Empire. Sociologist Ren\u00e9 Maunier writes that the medieval Italian poet Dante toyed with the idea of European domination by Latins in his treatise De Monarchia, which celebrated the \"world empire\" of the Romans.In the aftermath of France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the creation of a state of Germany, the French political theorist Gabriel Hanotaux rejected claims that the era of imperial dominance of the Latin peoples, particularly the French, was over and that the new era was one of imperial dominance of the Anglo-Saxon, Germanic and Slavic peoples. Hanotaux claimed that the Latin peoples had an imperial role to play in colonization of Africa and that they should have imperial holdings including Africa and South America. The Anglo-Saxon peoples' imperial holdings should be North America, the Germanic peoples should have Central Europe, and the Slavic peoples should have Siberia.A democratic and confederal form of pan-Latinism arose through the influence of Occitan French figure Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Mistral, who advocated regional autonomy for Occitania in France. He also advocated pan-Latinism after he had contacted Catalans who supported autonomy of Catalonia alongside Latin unity. Mistral influenced Jean Charles-Brun, whose Le r\u00e9gionalisme, in turn, impressed Mistral. Charles-Brun advocated an international Latinism and the creation of a democratic conf\u00e9d\u00e9ration latine (\"Latin Confederation\") but rejected proposals of a \"Latin Empire\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Parliamentary cretinism (German: parlamentarische Kretinismus) is a pejorative for the belief that a socialist society can be achieved by peaceful, parliamentary means. It is perpetuated by parliamentarians through their rhetoric that ignore real-word situations (e.g. class struggle). The term, which was cited as a malady,  is said to confine adherents to an imaginary world, keeping them from the knowledge and realities of the external world.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Phameas (fl. 2nd Century BC), sometimes also known as Hamilcar or Himilco Phameas, was a Carthaginian officer during the Third Punic War.He is first mentioned in the preliminary hostilities between Rome and Carthage (149 BC), as either a notable cavalry leader or the leader of the Carthaginian cavalry. Greco-Roman historians speak positively of him, with Polybius depicting him as \"in the prime of life, of great personal vigor, and - what is most important in a soldier - a good and bold rider\". Appian calls him \"a man eager for fighting\".\nHis forces carried out several attacks on disorganised and scattered Roman units and scouting parties, causing much damage among Roman forces. One of his more well-known engagements was the Battle of Lake Tunis, where he annihilated several foraging parties sent by consul Lucius Marcius Censorinus, and playing a role in the Carthaginian repulse of the Roman assault. However, he was unable to break the well-organised groups of Scipio Aemilianus.\nThe Romans eventually managed to curtail his activities by assaulting his hidden raiding bases.In early 148 BC, Scipio and Phameas came to an understanding, and the latter defected to the Romans, along with 2,200 of his cavalry. For this, he was richly rewarded. Appian writes that he was given:\n\na purple robe with gold clasps, a horse with gold trappings, a complete suit of armor, and 10,000 drachmas of silver money, ... 100 minas of silver plate and a tent completely furnished.\nAfter this, he is not mentioned in the sources. It is possible that he was given Roman citizenship.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Persian Empire, including modern Lebanon, eventually fell to Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia. He attacked Asia Minor, defeated the Persian troops in 333 BC, and advanced toward the Lebanese coast. Initially the Phoenician cities made no attempt to resist, and they recognized his suzerainty. However, when Alexander tried to offer a sacrifice to Melqart, Tyre's god, the city resisted. Alexander besieged Tyre in retaliation in early 332 BC. After seven months of resistance, the city fell, and its people were sold into slavery (See Siege of Tyre (332 BC)). Despite his early death in 323 BC, Alexander's conquest of the eastern Mediterranean Basin left a Greek imprint on the area. The Phoenicians, being a cosmopolitan people amenable to outside influences, adopted aspects of Greek civilization with ease.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A prendeur, a French term, is a labourer working as part of an early Middle Age sharecropping system known as complant, a precursor to the m\u00e9tayage system. Under this system, the prendeur would cultivate land owned by a bailleur. In exchange for using the bailleur's soil, the prendeur promised a share of the crop or its revenue. The length of this partnership varied and sometimes would extend over generations.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Beit Professorship of Commonwealth History is one of the senior professorships in history at the University of Oxford.  It was established in 1905 as the Beit Professorship of Colonial History. It is the first imperial professorship in the United Kingdom. The post is held in conjunction with a fellowship at Balliol College, Oxford.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Smuts Professorship of Commonwealth History was established on 25 October 1952 as the Smuts Professorship of the History of the British Commonwealth; it was retitled in 1994. The professorship is assigned to the Faculty of History at the University of Cambridge.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Vere Harmsworth Professorship of Imperial and Naval History is one of the senior professorships in history at the University of Cambridge. After the Beit Professorship of Colonial History at Oxford (founded in 1905) and the Rhodes Professorship of Imperial History at King's College London (founded in 1919), it is the third oldest chair in its subject in the world.\nIn 1919 Harold Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Rothermere endowed a \"Professorship of Naval History\" at Cambridge with a donation of \u00a320,000, in memory of his son Vere who was killed at the Battle of Ancre in November 1916.  In 1932 the Royal Empire Society successfully campaigned for Cambridge to accept the renaming of the chair to \"The Professorship of Imperial and Naval History\", under which rubric a new professor was appointed in 1934. Among the holders of this prestigious chair, only Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond has specialized in naval history, while the others have tended to be scholars of imperial history.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Rhodes Professorship of Imperial History was one of the senior professorships in history at King's College London. Endowed by the Rhodes Trust in 1919, it was axed in 2022 over links to the colonial legacy of its namesake Cecil Rhodes. It was the second oldest academic chair in its subject in the world after the  Beit Professorship of Colonial History at  Oxford (founded in 1905).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Chair of Modern History at the University of Glasgow was founded in 1893 as the Chair of History.  In 1956 the title was changed to Modern History to reflect the establishment of the Edwards Chair of Medieval History. It is the second-oldest chair of history in the United Kingdom outside of Oxbridge.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Putlog holes or putlock holes are small holes made in the walls of structures to receive the ends of poles (small round logs) or beams, called putlogs or putlocks, to support a scaffolding. Putlog holes may extend through a wall to provide staging on both sides of the wall.\nA historically common type of scaffolding, putlog holes date from ancient Roman buildings. The term putlock and the newer term putlog date from the 17th century and are still used today. Putlogs may be supported on the outer ends by vertical poles (standards), cantilevered by one end being firmly embedded in the wall, or cantilevered by penetrating the wall to provide scaffolds on both sides. Putlogs may be sawn off flush with the wall if they cannot be removed, but exterior putlog holes are typically filled in as the scaffold is removed to prevent water from entering the walls. Interior putlog holes may be left open, particularly if not in a finished space.\nThe inconsequential size and the spacing of the holes meant that they did not affect the solidity of the walls, and in well-preserved castles, like Beaumaris, the ancient putlog holes can be seen to this day.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "\"Ratio scripta\", or \"written reason\", was the assessment of Roman law commonly held in Europe during the Medieval period. It emerged during the revival of Roman law, serving as the basis of the ius commune. It was also used to evaluate the validity of leges propria or the local customs and positive legislation. Ratio scripta is also used to denote the popular opinion of Roman law held during the Medieval period. It could also mean the written opinion of a tribunal explaining its decision over a case.Ratio scripta was the basis of the popularity of the Roman law in medieval Europe. According to scholars, the Roman law was widely adopted because ratio or reason meant the law. In France, for instance, the Roman law is often invoked as a standard and as a reference to the law in general.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Rescates was a term for the smuggling trade in the sixteenth-century Spanish Caribbean. The word is derived from the Spanish verb rescatar, \"to ransom\" or \"to rescue.\"\nOne of the earliest records that cited this phenomenon was a document written in November 1598 by Baltzar de Castro, a royal standard-bearer of the city of Santo Domingo, which described a plan to address the rescates menace in Hispaniola. He stated that \"from the port of Santo Domingo alone, more than a million [ducat's worth] of sugar, ginger, and other products... not counting the gold, silver, and pearls\" were traded and contributed to the royal coffers. However, such prosperous state of affairs collapsed due to the rescates and that \"all the vecinos, the church, the monasteries, and the hospitals, were so poor and were invaded and robbed.\"An account claimed that the smuggling activities was ambiguous since the contraband trading relationship involved willing participation on the local side while, in some, it was coerced. For instance, some local functionaries called alcalde ordinarios sent to investigate rescate ports were also involved in the trade as well.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Rochester Oral History Archive (ROHA) Project is based in Rochester, Michigan. ROHA's goal is to collect memories about the city of Rochester and compile them in a publicly accessible, digital format. The project benefits not only residents of Rochester but also non-residents who are interested in the city's history.ROHA is funded by grants from both the Meadow Brook Writing Project, part of the National Writing Project, and Building the Civic \u2018Net, an initiative that gives grants to projects that find creative ways to engage in civic culture using the internet.Residents of Rochester aged 55 and older are invited to share their memories via digital recording sessions at collection events or privately scheduled interviews. Researchers use a provided list of prompts to interview residents, whose memories are recorded in mp3 format and donated to the Rochester Oral History Archive. ROHA then uploads these files to the project website where they can be accessed by the general public.\nFirst year composition students at Oakland University have the opportunity to participate as interviewers.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (RARE) was an expedition from 1947\u20131948 which researched the area surrounding the head of the Weddell Sea in Antarctica.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Rostock Inheritance Agreement (German: Rostocker Erbvertrag) describes several agreements reached by the Hanseatic city of Rostock with the dukes of Mecklenburg as landlords.\n\nThe First Rostock Inheritance Agreement was reached in 1573 between the city of Rostock and John Albert I of Mecklenburg. Through the agreement the city recognised the duke's sovereignty.\nThe Second Rostock Inheritance Agreement of 1788, agreed with Duke Frederick Francis I set aside renewed disagreements between the parties that had arisen under his predecessor, Duke Frederick of Mecklenburg and awarded special rights to the city until 1918.The inheritance agreements should not be confused with the State Constitutional Heritable Settlement (Landesgrundgesetzlicher Erbvergleich; LGGEV) of 1755, which Duke  Christian Louis agreed with the duchy's estates (Landst\u00e4nde) combining the knights' federation (Ritterschaft) and the chartered cities eligible for the estates (Seest\u00e4dte and Landst\u00e4dte forming together the Landschaft), which also included the city of Rostock. This led to a permanent involvement of the estates in the government of the state and from then on blocked constitutional development in the modern sense. The strength of the estates, opposing dynastic divisions, kept Mecklenburg together, at times partitioned into several branch duchies with each its own government but one common body of the estates. And the power of the estates held down the dominance of the monarchs and successfully blocked absolutism in Mecklenburg.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Sacralism is the confluence of church and state wherein one is called upon to change the other. It also denotes a perspective that views church and state as tied together instead of separate entities so that people within a geographical and political region are considered members of the dominant ecclesiastical institution.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Santini Collection is an archive of musical scores dating back to the 18th century, originally the collection of Fortunato Santini, a Catholic priest born in a Roman orphanage in 1778. The archive contains autograph manuscripts by George Frideric Handel and Alessandro Scarlatti, and in some cases preserved the only copies of these works for many years.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "\u0160atiya, also Satiya, or Shatiya was the ruler-'mayor' of Eni\u0161asi, during the Amarna letters period of 1350\u20131335 BC. In the entire correspondence of 382\u2013letters, his name is only referenced in his own letter to the Ancient Egyptian pharaoh, EA 187, (EA for 'el Amarna'). \u0160atiya's city/city-state of Eni\u0161asi is only referenced in one other letter, authored by another mayor of Eni\u0161asi, Abdi-Ri\u0161a.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Settler society is a theoretical term in early modern and modern history that describes a common link between modern, predominantly European, attempts to permanently settle in other areas of the world. It is used to distinguish settler colonies from resource extraction colonies. The term came to wide use in the 1970s as part of the discourse on decolonization, particularly to describe older colonial units.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Sexi (Punic: \ud802\udd11\u202c\ud802\udd0a\u202c\ud802\udd11\u202c, \u1e62K\u1e62), also known as Ex, was a Phoenician colony at the present-day site of Almu\u00f1\u00e9car on southeastern Spain's Mediterranean coast.\nThe Roman name for the place was Sexi Firmum Iulium. Alternative transcriptions of the Phoenician name of the city in Latin include Secks, Seks, Sex, Eks, Seksi and Sexsi.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Shahar is the god of dawn in the pantheon of Ugarit. Shahar is described as a child of El along with a twin, Shalim, the god of dusk. As the markers of dawn and dusk, Shahar and Shalim also represented the temporal structure of the day.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The term short 20th century, originally proposed by Iv\u00e1n Berend (Hungarian Academy of Sciences) but defined by Eric Hobsbawm, a British Marxist historian and author, refers to the period of 78 years between the years 1914 and 1991. The period begins with the start of the First World War and ends with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The chain of events represented such significant changes in world history as to redefine the era.\nThe First World War caused the end of the German, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires. The Second World War was greatly influenced by the outcome of the First World War. The Cold War was a result of the Second World War and ended with the fall of the Soviet Union.\nThe term is analogous to the long 19th century, also coined by Hobsbawm, denoting the period 1789 to 1914, and to the long 18th century, or approximately 1688 to 1815.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Shunamitism (also referred to as gerocomy) is the practice of an old man sleeping with, but not necessarily having sex with, a young virgin to preserve his youth. It is considered an esoteric youth-enhancing method. The rationale was that the heat and moisture of the young woman would transfer to the old man and revitalize him.The term is based on the biblical story of King David and Abishag. The young woman, who was from Shunem, was also referred to as a Shunammite.  When King David was old and could not stay warm, his servants found Abishag to sleep with him, though he had no intimate relations with her: therefore, she was still a virgin.Among scientific physicians, Thomas Sydenham (17th century) prescribed shunamitism for his patients. The Dutch Herman Boerhaave (18th century) also recommended this method to an old Burgomaster, citing it can restore strength and spirits.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Singing Class movement was a mid-19th century social phenomenon in the United Kingdom which sought to teach sight-singing to children at primary school age, and which ultimately resulted in the formation of a large number of church choirs and choral societies.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Socialist History Society (SHS) is a British-based organisation which publishes a twice-yearly journal (Socialist History) mainly about the history of the socialist and labour movements in Britain. It also publishes a series of pamphlets on single themes once or twice a year, and a members' newsletter. It holds lectures, film screenings and similar events in London, on its own and jointly with other groups, and organises occasional conferences. \nIt was founded in 1992 as the successor to the Communist Party Historians Group, but the SHS is not now linked to any political party or ideological tendency instead making full membership available to anybody regardless of party affiliation. The SHS now publishes a twice-yearly journal Socialist History and a series of monographs called \"Occasional Papers\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de l'histoire de France (SHF) (English: Society of the History of France) was established on 21 December 1833 at the instigation of the French minister of Public Instruction, Fran\u00e7ois Guizot, in order to contribute to the renewal of historical scholarship fuelled by a widespread interest in national history, typical of the Romantic period. On 31 July 1851 it was approved by President Louis-Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte as being of public interest. For over 175 years, the SHF has been one of the main forces in the publishing of texts and documents on French history. Many leading French historians of the 19th and 20th centuries have been elected to its annual presidency. Its field was initially limited to the period before 1789, but the SHF later absorbed the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d'histoire contemporaine (1927).\nIts series of critical editions and its periodicals (Bulletin and Annuaire, combined since 1863 under the title Annuaire-Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de l'histoire de France ABSHF) amount to over 500 volumes, containing considerable historical source material: mainly chronicles, memoirs, journals and letters, but also other documents such as financial or judicial records. A large proportion of all volumes published up to 1940 are now freely accessible online, through the digital library of the Biblioth\u00e8que nationale de France, Gallica, and Google Books.\nThe SHF gathers twice a year for a lecture on a historical subject and, on occasions, holds conferences for a wider audience.\nMembership is open to both professional historians and serious amateurs interested in supporting and taking part in the activities of the SHF.\nAmong other resources, the SHF website provides the complete catalogue of publications (with links to all titles available for reading or buying online) and a general index of articles and documents published in the Annuaire-Bulletin from 1911 to the present.\nThe Current President is Claude Gauvard", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Society for the Study of French History (SSFH) is a society in the United Kingdom established to promote research in French history.\nThe society was founded in 1968 by Richard Bonney and granted charitable status in 1992.It publishes the journal French History and holds an annual conference.The society's trustees include Richard Bonney, Malcolm Crook, William Doyle, Michael Jones and Pamela Pilbeam.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of states headed by the Serer Lamanes.  The Lamanes (or Lamans) have a historical, economic and religious significance in Serer countries.  The following pre-colonial kingdoms and new states (post-independence) were for a long time dominated by the Serer Lamanic class :\n\nKingdom of Sine\nKingdom of Saloum\nKingdom of Baol\nKingdom of Jolof\nKingdom of Waalo\nKingdom of Tekrur", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Strandhogg  in old Norse was a Viking tactic consisting of a coastal raid with the intention of capturing livestock and indigenous peoples for the slave trade. This tactic was enhanced by Viking longships' shallow draft.The Vikings had already developed spy networks from their many commercial encounters with vicus. These spies informed them of the local customs, the dates of religious feasts, helped with translation and indicated places to plunder and personalities to be removed and held for ransom. It happened that Vikings made these raids against their own countrymen as well. Harald I, known as Harald Fairhair, prohibited strandh\u00f6gg on the Norwegian territory.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Subuk (died 922?) was a ghulam who gained the governorship of Azerbaijan in 919 and held it for three years.\nIn 919, Subuk's master, the Sajid Yusuf Ibn Abu'l-Saj, was captured by forces of the caliph, with whom he had been at war. Acting in order to protect Yusuf's interests, Subuk took control of Azerbaijan. After defeating a caliphal army, he was recognized as governor of the province by al-Muqtadir. For the next three years, he awaited the return of Yusuf. The latter was freed from prison and returned to Azerbaijan in 922; Subuk had died by that time.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Sumur (Biblical Hebrew: \u05e6\u05b0\u05de\u05b8\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9\u200e [collective noun denoting the city inhabitants]; Egyptian: Smr; Akkadian: Sumuru; Assyrian: Simirra) was a Phoenician city in what is now Syria. Zemar was a major trade center. The city has also been referred to in English publications as Simyra, \u1e62imirra, \u1e62umra, Sumura, \u1e62imura, Zemar, and Zimyra.Sumur (or \"Sumura\") appears in the Amarna letters (mid-14th century BCE); Ahribta is named as its ruler. It was under the guardianship of Rib-Addi, king of Byblos, but was conquered by Abdi-Ashirta's expanding kingdom of Amurru. Pro-Egyptian factions may have seized the city again, but Abdi-Ashirta's son, Aziru, recaptured Sumur. Sumur became the capital of Amurru.It is likely, although not completely certain, that the \"Sumur\" of the Amarna letters is the same city later known as \"Simirra.\" Simirra was claimed as part of the Assyrian empire by Tiglath-Pileser III in 738 BCE, but rebelled against Assyria in 721 at the beginning of the reign of Sargon II.It has been linked by Maurice Dunand and N. Salisby to the archaeological site of Tell Kazel in 1957.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Swedish\u2013American Historical Society was founded in 1949 to record \"the achievements of the Swedish pioneers\" in North America. It has published numerous books since then and also publishes a scholarly journal titled the Swedish\u2013American Historical Quarterly, formerly the  Swedish Pioneer Historical Quarterly.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Taautus of Byblos, according to the Phoenician writer Sanchuniathon, was the son of Misor and the inventor of writing, who was bequeathed the land of Egypt by Cronus.\nSanchuniathon's writings, through the translation of Philo, were transmitted to us by Eusebius in his work Praeparatio evangelica.  Eusebius says that Philo placed Sanchuniathon's works into nine books.  In the introduction to the first book, he makes this preface concerning Sanchuniathon:\n\n\u201cThese things being so, Sanchuniathon, who was a man of much learning and great curiosity, and desirous of knowing the earliest history of all nations from the creation of the world, searched out with great care the history of Taautus, knowing that of all men under the sun Taautus was the first who thought of the invention of letters, and began the writing of records: and he laid the foundation, as it were, of his history, by beginning with him, whom the Egyptians called Thouth, and the Alexandrians Thoth, translated by the Greeks into Hermes.\u201d\nPhilo further says that Taautus wrote the work Commentaries, in which he discussed the creation.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Tautalus was a chieftain of the Lusitanians, a proto-Celtic tribe from western Hispania. He replaced Viriathus at the last year of the Lusitanian War.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Temple of Hercules Gaditanus, Temple of Melqart or Temple of Hercules-Melqart was a place of worship in Antiquity in the southern outskirts of Gadir-Gades (current-day C\u00e1diz) perhaps dating as early as the 8th century BCE. Operating under Tyrian, Carthaginian and Roman rule, it once was one of the most important sanctuaries in the Western World. It was paid respect by the likes of Hannibal, Scipio Africanus and Caesar.It was initially dedicated to Phoenician god Melqart and then to Hercules.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Thymiaterium or Thymiaterion (Ancient Greek: \u0398\u03c5\u03bc\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd) was an ancient Carthaginian colony in present-day Morocco. It was founded by Hanno the Navigator on his journey of exploration beyond the Pillars of Hercules. The city is mentioned in the Periplus (\u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2). The manuscript is a copy of another Greek work which translated the Punic original and is part of the Codex Palatines Graecus 398 which belongs to the Heidelberg University.According to Hanno, he founded the colony, the first of his journey, two days' sail past the Pillars of Hercules. Schoff, citing Karl M\u00fcller, identified it with the town of Mehedia, currently known as Mehdya.\nThe location of Thymiaterium is also given at Mehedia in the Atlas of Ancient & Classical Geography.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "In vacuum tube technology, a top cap is a terminal at the top of the tube envelope that connects one of the electrodes, the other electrodes being connected via the tube socket.\nTop caps have most commonly been used for:\n\nAmplifier or similar tube control grid connection, to provide greater circuit stability by isolating the low-signal circuit from the rest of the tube connections.\nAnode connection, to isolate the high-tension circuit, allowing higher voltages to be used.\nPhysical convenience. Grid top caps on frequency converters could be connected directly to an adjacent coil; Anode top caps on output tubes could be connected by flying leads directly to an output transformer. Shorter leads generally mean greater stability.A few amplifier tubes used two top caps, symmetrically placed, one for anode and the other for grid.\n\nIn audio amplifier tube application, the top cap was originally used for the grid connection, and a serviceman could apply a moist finger to the terminal to confirm that the stage and subsequent circuits were working by listening for the hum this produced in the loudspeaker. This practice led to some nasty accidents when anode top caps were first introduced to amplifier stages (they had been used on rectifiers for some time).\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Toreatae (Greek: \u03a4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u1fb6\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, Strabo xi. 2. 11) or Toretae (Greek: \u03a4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03af, Steph. B. s. v.; Dionys. Per. 682; Plin. vi. 5; Mela, i. 2; Avien. Orb. Terr. 867) were a tribe of the Maeotae in Asiatic Sarmatia. Strabo describes them as living among the Maeotae, Sindi, Dandarii, Agri, Arrechi, Tarpetes, Obidiaceni, Sittaceni, Dosci, and Aspurgiani, among others. (xi. 2. 11) \nPtolemy (v. 9. \u00a7 9) mentions a \u03a4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74 \u1f00\u03ba\u03c1\u1f70 in Asiatic Sarmatia; and in another passage (iii. 5. \u00a7 25) he  speaks of the \u03a4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b5\u03ba\u03ba\u03ac\u03b4\u03b1\u03b9 (Toreccadae) as a people in European Sarmatia, who are perhaps the same as the Toretae or Toreatae.\n\nThe Toreatae were one of the Maeotae tribes, who lived in the 1st millennium BC on the eastern and south-eastern coast of the Azov sea. Russian archeologists, historians and ethnographers in the Soviet period concluded that Maeotae was one of the names of the tribes of the Adyghe people (or Circassians): in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (in the article Adyghe people)  was written:Living in the basin of the river Kuban were some of the tribes of the (Adyghe people), who generally were given the collective name \"Maeotae\" by ancient historians.\nThe Maeotae, engaged in farming and fishing, were thought by other Soviet writers to be a mixture of speakers of Adyghe language and an Iranian language. In the 4th\u20133rd centuries BC many of them were incorporated into the Bosporan kingdom.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Tripolis (Greek: \u03a4\u03c1\u03af\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c2; meaning \"three cities\") was a maritime district in ancient Phoenicia. The center of the confederation of the three Phoenician cities of Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus. Through the ages, it evolved to become the present Lebanese city of Tripoli.\nDuring the 3rd Century, Tripolis was the site of a Roman mint from around 270 to 286.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Triss\u00fam (Ancient Greek: \u03a4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u03cc\u03bd) was an ancient city mentioned by Ptolemy. It was located between the Middle Danube and the Tisza River, in what was considered the territory of Metanasian Iazyges.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Tyre Cistern inscription is a Phoenician inscription on a white marble block discovered in the castle-palace of the Old City of Tyre, Lebanon in 1885 and acquired by Peter Julius L\u00f6ytved, the Danish vice-consul in Beirut. It was the first Phoenician inscription discovered in modern times from Tyre.\nOne side of the parallelepiped-shaped cistern contains a Phoenician inscription which is broken and includes nine incomplete lines; it has been dated on paleographic grounds to the middle of the 3rd century BCE. The cistern (water outlet) likely part of a naos; according to the inscription it was donated by a man named Adonibaal.\nIt is currently kept in the Louvre (AO 1441).", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Uscenum or V\u00e9skenon (Ancient Greek: \u039f\u1f54\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd / \u039f\u1f54\u03b5\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd.) was an ancient city mentioned by Ptolemy. It was located between the Middle Danube and the Tisza River, in what was considered the territory of the Iazyges Metanast\u00e6.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Vava\u02bbu Code was instituted in Vava\u02bbu, Tonga in 1839, by King George Tupou I. It contained the country's first ever written laws, and formed the bases of the first constitution of the Kingdom. It delineated an ordered society where the monarch, chiefs, and subjects live in mutual obligation and also guaranteed the rights of the commoners for the first time. Along with the legal system it set up, the Code established the sovereign's intention creating a government \"by law\", one that is respected by the Europeans.\n\n", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The relationship between war and genocide is a subject of scholarly analysis and debate. According to Norman Naimark, war greatly increases the risk of genocide: \"if there weren\u2019t other very good reasons to prevent war, the correlation between war and genocide is a good one\".", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "A wardmote was a meeting of the inhabitants of a ward, or a court held in the ward, to try defaults in matters relating to the watch, police, and the like.\nThe term is used in York, London, and Faversham, and was also used by the Chartists.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "The Yehawmilk stele, de Clercq stele, or Byblos stele, also known as KAI 10 and CIS I 1, is a Phoenician inscription from c.450 BC found in Byblos at the end of Ernest Renan's Mission de Ph\u00e9nicie. Yehawmilk (Phoenician \ud802\udd09\ud802\udd07\ud802\udd05\ud802\udd0c\ud802\udd0b\ud802\udd0a\u200e ), king of Byblos, dedicated the stele to the city\u2019s protective goddess Ba'alat Gebal.It was first published in full by Melchior de Vog\u00fc\u00e9 in 1875. In the early 1930s, the bottom right corner of the stele was discovered by Maurice Dunand. The main part of the stele is in the Louvre, whilst the bottom right part is in the National Museum of Beirut.", "label": "History"}, {"sentence": "Verb displacement as it relates to prose, is a technique used to impart a lyrical or poetic feel to a phrase, sentence, or paragraph. This technique finds particular expression in minimalist literature. \nSpecifically, verb displacement involves only those verbs that can be displaced by the word \"is\" or its past tense \"was.\" For instance, in this excerpt from the novel For Whom the Bell Tolls, instead of writing \"He died in April,\" Ernest Hemingway displaces the verb \"died\" with \"is,\" and thereby creates a more lyrical effect:\n\n\"Kashkin,\" Robert Jordan said. \"That would be Kashkin.\"\n\"Yes,\" said Pablo. \"It was a very rare name. Something like that. What became of him?\"\n\"He is dead since April.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Western canon is the body of high culture literature, music, philosophy, and works of art that is highly valued in the West: works that have achieved the status of classics. However, not all these works originate in the Western world, and such works are also valued throughout the world. It is \"a certain Western intellectual tradition that goes from, say, Socrates to Wittgenstein in philosophy, and from Homer to James Joyce in literature\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Whitehall farces were a series of five long-running comic stage plays at the Whitehall Theatre in London, presented by the actor-manager Brian Rix, in the 1950s and 1960s. They were in the low comedy tradition of British farce, following the Aldwych farces, which played at the Aldwych Theatre between 1924 and 1933.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Aberrant decoding or aberrant reading is a concept used in fields such as communication and media studies, semiotics, and journalism about how messages can be interpreted differently from what was intended by their sender. The concept was proposed by Umberto Eco in an article published first in 1965 in Italian and in 1972 in English.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Academy of Theatre, Radio, Film and Television (Slovene: Akademija za gledali\u0161\u010de, radio, film in televizijo or AGRFT) is an academy of the University of Ljubljana in Ljubljana, Slovenia. It is the only college and graduate school in Slovenia with a similar curriculum. It is composed of three colleges: the College for Theatre and Radio, the College for Film and Television, and College for Screen and Play Writing. In addition, a Center for Theatre and Film Studies is included in the academy. The current dean is Ale\u0161 Vali\u010d.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An anti-fan is someone who enjoys writing, discussing or in some cases making derivative works about a piece of media, but solely for the purpose of railing against or parodying it.\nIt can also be a person with hatred towards a celebrity or icon.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An audience is a group of people who participate in a show or encounter a work of art, literature (in which they are called \"readers\"), theatre, music (in which they are called \"listeners\"), video games (in which they are called \"players\"), or academics in any medium. Audience members participate in different ways in different kinds of art. Some events invite overt audience participation and others allow only modest clapping and criticism and reception.\nMedia audience studies have become a recognized part of the curriculum. Audience theory offers scholarly insight into audiences in general. These insights shape our knowledge of just how audiences affect and are affected by different forms of art. The biggest art form is the mass media. Films, video games, radio shows, software (and hardware), and other formats are affected by the audience and its reviews and recommendations.\nIn the age of easy internet participation and citizen journalism, professional creators share space, and sometimes attention with the public. American journalist Jeff Jarvis said, \"Give the people control of media, they will use it. The corollary: Don't give the people control of media, and you will lose. Whenever citizens can exercise control, they will.\" Tom Curley, President of the Associated Press, similarly said, \"The users are deciding what the point of their engagement will be \u2014 what application, what device, what time, what place.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Audience studies is a discipline and field of study, a sub-set of media studies, that investigates the processes of media audiences using different methodologies to test and develop theories of audiences' processes of reception. Much of the field borrows concepts from literary theory and research approaches from cultural studies. The primary media of study are film and television and the field intersects in many ways, including its methods used and its focus on everyday media audiences, with fan studies (as popularly established by Henry Jenkins). Audience studies emerged as a field in the early 20th century as a form of market research, but slowly, with the rise of film studies, became popular in an academic context.Audience studies research is frequently published in journals such as the Journal of British Cinema and Television, Participations: Journal of Audience & Reception Studies, and Transformative Works and Cultures. Such research is frequently used by censorship institutions such as the BBFC to understand public opinion on censorship and ask questions about the effects of violent media. The study of the \"effects\" of violent media on audiences is a key debate within audience studies, with many audience studies experts criticizing theories of \"copycat violence\" and reviews of previous studies conducted for the BBFC finding no evidence to substantiate claims of the role of violent media in inspiring crime. The media violence debate, however, is only a small part of a wider academic sub-field which seeks to understand the relationships between media and its audiences through conducting empirical research.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Australian Teachers Of Media or ATOM is an independent, not-for-profit, professional association that promotes the study of media and screen literacy. The membership of ATOM includes a collective of educators from across all subject disciplines at all levels of education, the screen media industry and, increasingly, the general public interested in the media. The national organisation is responsible for the ATOM Awards that have been presented annually since 1982. The awards celebrate the best of Australian screen content from the education sector and screen industry professionals, and now feature the 1 Minute Film Competition and ATOM Photo Comp.\nATOM publishes Australia's longest running film publication, Metro Magazine and Screen Education; creates and distributes education resources including study guides; and hosts professional development for teachers and screenings.\nATOM aims to foster and encourage a generation of students who are both multi-literate and technologically savvy.Through the publishing of both Metro Magazine  and Screen Education and through convening the ATOM Awards and the ATOM Australian International Multimedia Awards, ATOM actively promotes media literacy in Australia and internationally.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Berkeley Media Studies Group (BMSG) conducts research on the influence of mass media over public health and social issues. The BMSG works with community groups, journalists, and public health professionals to use \"the power of the media\" to advance healthy public policy. BMSG's goal is to use their research to support media and policy efforts of public health advocates. It was founded in 1993 in Berkeley, California, by Lawrence Wallack, DrPH, then-professor of public health at the University of California at Berkeley, and Lori Dorfman, DrPH. It is a project of the Public Health Institute of Oakland, California.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Best Enemies is an education resource and film created by Ross and Darren Bark that discusses the cyber bullying problem in Australian schools, and explores how to tackle it and help students become pro-active in reporting and stopping it.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Binge-watching (also called binge-viewing) is the practice of watching entertainment or informational content for a prolonged time span, usually a single television show.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) was a research centre at the University of Birmingham, England. It was founded in 1964 by Stuart Hall and Richard Hoggart, its first director. From 1964 to 2002, the Centre played a \"critical\" role in developing the field of cultural studies.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Center for Media and Public Affairs (CMPA) is a self-described  nonpartisan and nonprofit research and educational organization that is affiliated with George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia.  It was founded in 1985 by political scientists S. Robert Lichter and his ex-wife Linda Lichter. It published a newsletter called Media Monitor from 1987 to 2010.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Center for research on Children, Adolescents and the Media (CCAM) at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands, was founded in 2005 by Patti Valkenburg. Since then, it has grown into one of the largest research centers in its kind worldwide. CCAM hosts 25 international researchers from 9 academic disciplines. It is part of the Amsterdam School of Communication Research ASCoR. Since 2009, CCAM researchers have organized an international master program on Youth and Media.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Cision Media Contacts Database (formerly known as Bacon's Media Directories) gathers information on media contacts and outlets (currently over 1.6 million, updating daily). Though a commercial resource, it has often been exploited for academic research applications. \nThe database is useful for marketing and public relations work. It has also been recommended for use in academic research and has indeed been leveraged as a key data source in peer-reviewed studies. As summarized by professor Philip M. Napoli, these directories are \"widely regarded as the best-available commercial database for identifying media outlets and media workers in the United States,\" especially as \"[t]he scale and scope of the data contained within Cision far exceed what can generally be gathered by academic researchers...\". However, some scholars critique the use of Cision in such research because its method of gathering data \"sweep[s] up problematic actors,\" such as bots, when aggregating data on media contacts.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Communication University of China (CUC) (Chinese: \u4e2d\u56fd\u4f20\u5a92\u5927\u5b66; pinyin: Zh\u014dnggu\u00f3 Chu\u00e1nm\u00e9i D\u00e0xu\u00e9) is a leading public university in Beijing. It is one of the China's key universities of 'Double First Class University Plan', directly administered by the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. CUC developed from what used to be a training center for technicians of the Central Broadcasting Bureau that was founded in 1954. In April 1959, it was upgraded to the Beijing Broadcasting Institute (BBI) (Chinese: \u5317\u4eac\u5e7f\u64ad\u5b66\u9662; pinyin: B\u011bij\u012bng Gu\u01cengb\u014d Xu\u00e9yu\u00e0n) approved by the State Council. In August 2004, BBI was renamed Communication University of China. CUC is located in the eastern part of Beijing near the ancient canal, which occupies 463,700 square meters of land and a total of 499,800 square meters of buildings.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics (2004), by Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, is a seminal study in the field of international comparative media system research. The study compares media systems of 18 Western democracies including nine Northern European countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland), five Southern European countries (France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain) and four Atlantic countries (Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, and the United States).\nThe conceptual framework developed in this study turned out to be an important contribution to the field of the comparative media systems research because it provides a systematic and applicable approach to analyze differences and similarities of the relationships between media and politics.\nSince the publication of Hallin and Mancini\u2019s book in 2004, there has been a vivid academic discussion (Recent developments), particularly with regards to the adequacy of their suggested framework for understanding variations between different systems around the world, located within different cultural, social, and/or political contexts. As a consequence, a flourishing progression within the field of comparative media system research can be stated.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In media studies, concision is a form of broadcast media censorship by limiting debate and discussion of important topics on the rationale of time allotment.Media critics such as Noam Chomsky contend that this practice, especially on commercial broadcasts with advertising, encourages broadcasters to exclude people and ideas that they judge cannot conform to the time limits of a particular program.  This leads to a limited number of \"the usual suspects\" who will say expected ideas that will not require extensive explanation such as mainstream political ones.\n\nThe beauty of concision, you know, saying a couple of sentences between two commercials, the beauty of that is you can only repeat conventional thoughts. Suppose I go on Nightline, whatever it is, two minutes, and I say Gaddafi is a terrorist, Khomeini is a murderer etcetera etcetera... I don't need any evidence, everyone just nods. On the other hand, suppose you're saying something that isn't just regurgitating conventional pieties, suppose you say something that's the least bit unexpected or controversial, people will quite reasonably expect to know what you mean. If you said that you'd better have a reason, better have some evidence. You can't give evidence if you're stuck with concision. That's the genius of this structural constraint.\nFurthermore, introducing controversial or unexpected statements that do not conform to those conventional ideas are discouraged as time inefficient because the person will be required to explain and support them in detail.  Since this can often take considerable time in itself and digress from the primary discussion topic of the broadcast, this is discouraged.  Alternatively, the explanation could be subject to extensive editing for time which could lead to an inadequate presentation of the subject's thoughts.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Connectivity refers broadly to social connections forged through mediated communications systems. That is, 'since the arrival of the World Wide Web and the spread of mobile communications, mediated connectivity has been quietly normalized as central to a consolidating \u2018global imaginary\u2019 One aspect of this is the ability of the social media to accumulate economic capital from the users' connections and activities on social media platforms by using certain mechanisms in their architecture. According to several scholars (van Dijck and Poell) \"it is a key element of social media logic, having a material and metaphorical importance in social media culture\".This concept originates from the technological term of \"connectivity\" but its application to the media field has acquired additional social and cultural implications. The increasing role of social media in everyday life serves as the basis of such connectivity in the 21st century. It shows the interrelations between the users activities on social media and at the same time the empowerment of the social media platforms with the data that was produced by the users and given to those services for granted.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Critical Commons is an online repository of user-generated media. The archive is a project of the Media Arts and Practice division of the USC School of Cinematic Arts. The project supports the fair use of copyrighted media by educators.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Critical data studies is the systematic study of data and its criticisms. The field was named by scholars Craig Dalton and Jim Thatcher. Prior to its naming, significant interest in critical data studies was generated by danah boyd and Kate Crawford, who posed a set of research questions for the critical study of big data and its impacts on society and culture. As its name implies, critical data studies draws heavily on the influence of critical theory which it applies to the study of data. Subsequently, others have worked to further solidify a field called critical data studies. Some of the other key scholars in this discipline include Rob Kitchin and Tracey P. Lauriault. Scholars have attempted to make sense of data through different theoretical frameworks, some of which include analyzing data technically, ethically, politically/economically, temporally/spatially, and philosophically. Some of the key academic journals related to critical data studies include the Journal of Big Data and Big Data and Society.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Culture of Connectivity: A Critical History of Social Media is a book by Jos\u00e9 van Dijck published by Oxford University Press in 2013 on social media platforms and their history. The author considers the histories of five social media platforms: Facebook, Twitter, Flickr, YouTube, and Wikipedia. She focuses on how their technological, social and cultural dimensions contribute to their current status.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Dead Media Project was initially proposed by science fiction writer Bruce Sterling in 1995 as a compilation of obsolete and forgotten communication technologies.  Sterling's original motivation for compiling the collection was to present a wider historical perspective on communication technologies that went beyond contemporary excitement for the internet, CD-ROMs and VR systems.  Sterling proposed that this collection take form as \"The Dead Media Handbook\" \u2014 a somber, thoughtful, thorough, hype-free, book about the failures, collapses and hideous mistakes of media. In raising this challenge he offers a \"crisp $50 dollar bill\" to the first person to publish the book, which he envisions as a \"rich, witty, insightful, profusely illustrated, perfectbound, acid-free-paper coffee-table book\".\nAfter articulated in the manifesto \"The Dead Media Project \u2014 A Modest Proposal and a Public Appeal,\" The Dead Media Project began as a number of persons collecting their notes and the spreading of the archive through a mailing list, moderated by Tom Jennings. This resulted in a large collective of \"field notes\" about obsolete communication technologies, about 600 in total archived online. The project lost momentum in 2001 and the mailing list died.\nThe project archive includes a wide variety of notes from Incan quipus, through Victorian phenakistoscopes, to the departed video games and home computers of the 1980s. Dead still-image display technologies include the stereopticon, the Protean View, the Zogroscope, the Polyorama Panoptique, Frith's Cosmoscope, Knight's Cosmorama, Ponti's Megalethoscope (1862), Rousell's Graphoscope (1864), Wheatstone's stereoscope (1832), and dead Viewmaster knockoffs.\nIn 2009, artist Garnet Hertz published a bookwork project titled \"A Collection of Many Problems (In Memory of the Dead Media Handbook)\" which strived to fulfill some of Bruce Sterling's vision for a handbook of obsolete media technologies.  In the book, Hertz presents images of many of the media technologies compiled through the Dead Media mailing list and invites readers to submit their sketches and ideas of a Dead Media Handbook.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Deepfakes (a portmanteau of \"deep learning\" and \"fake\") are synthetic media in which a person in an existing image or video is replaced with someone else's likeness. While the act of creating fake content is not new, deepfakes leverage powerful techniques from machine learning and artificial intelligence to manipulate or generate visual and audio content that can more easily deceive. The main machine learning methods used to create deepfakes are based on deep learning and involve training generative neural network architectures, such as autoencoders, or generative adversarial networks (GANs).Deepfakes have garnered widespread attention for their uses in creating child sexual abuse material, celebrity pornographic videos, revenge porn, fake news, hoaxes, bullying, and financial fraud. This has elicited responses from both industry and government to detect and limit their use.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A deviancy amplification spiral (also called deviance amplification) is a media hype phenomenon defined by media critics as a cycle of increasing numbers of reports on a category of antisocial behaviour or some other undesirable event, leading to a moral panic.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Earthscore is a notational system that enables collaborating videographers to produce a shared perception of environmental realities. The system optimizes the use of video and television in the context of the environmental movement by incorporating the cybernetic ideas of Gregory Bateson and the semiotics of Charles Sanders Peirce. The intent of the system is to generate human behaviors that comply with the self-correcting mechanisms of the\nEarth. Earthscore has been studied and utilized by university students and academics worldwide since 1992.Earthscore was developed and created by The New School professor and artist Paul Ryan, and originally published by NASA in 1990.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Electronic media are media that use electronics or electromechanical means for the audience to access the content. This is in contrast to static media (mainly print media), which today are most often created digitally, but do not require electronics to be accessed by the end user in the printed form. The primary electronic media sources familiar to the general public are video recordings, audio recordings, multimedia presentations, slide presentations, CD-ROM and online content. Most new media are in the form of digital media. However, electronic media may be in either analogue electronics data or digital electronic data format.\nAlthough the term is usually associated with content recorded on a storage medium, recordings are not required for live broadcasting and online networking.\nAny equipment used in the electronic communication process (e.g. television, radio, telephone, game console, handheld device) may also be considered electronic media.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Entertainment Software Rating Association (ESRA) is a self-regulatory organization that assigns age and content ratings in Iran. The system was established in 2007 by the Iran National Foundation of Computer Games and has the status of a research project.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Ethnovideography is a methodology of using video in the study of peoples, communities, groups or sub-groups. It espouses the use of video to document reality instead of \"creating\" realities. Hence, ethnovideographic presentations are unscripted. Narrations, background music, sound effects and special effects are not employed. The use of artificial lighting, obtrusive hardware, production crews and all but the simplest camera technique are discouraged.\nAlthough originally experimented upon by the Los Ba\u00f1os science community in the Philippines in the early 1990s as adjuncts to environmental impact assessments (EIAs), studies of indigenous knowledge systems and documentation of agricultural best practice, it traces its roots in the cin\u00e9ma v\u00e9rit\u00e9 movement of the 1950s and 1960s, the difference being its emphasis on small format or digital format video and its adoption of extra-sociological subjects. Being a methodology, ethnovideography is theory-based and adopts a set of procedures or protocols.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Face-ism or facial prominence is the relative prominence of the face in the portrayal of men and women; media tend to focus more on men's faces and women's bodies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Fan studies is an academic discipline that analyses fans, fandoms, fan cultures and fan activities, including fanworks. It is an interdisciplinary field located at the intersection of the humanities and social sciences, which emerged in the early 1990s as a separate discipline, and draws particularly on audience studies and cultural studies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Figure and ground is a concept drawn from Gestalt psychology by media theorist Marshall McLuhan in the early 1970s. This concept underpins the meaning of his famous phrase, \"The medium is the message\". The concept was an approach to what was called \"perceptual organization.\" He began to use the terms figure and ground as a way \"to describe the parts of a situation\" and \"to help explain his ideas about media and human communication.\" The concept was later employed to explain how a communications technology, the medium or figure, necessarily operates through its context, or ground.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Film studies is an academic discipline that deals with various theoretical, historical, and critical approaches to cinema as an art form and a medium. It is sometimes subsumed within media studies and is often compared to television studies.Film studies is less concerned with advancing proficiency in film production than it is with exploring the narrative, artistic, cultural, economic, and political implications of the cinema. In searching for these social-ideological values, film studies takes a series of critical approaches for the analysis of production, theoretical framework, context, and creation. Also, in studying film, possible careers include critic or production. Overall the study of film continues to grow, as does the industry on which it focuses.\nAcademic journals publishing film studies work include Sight & Sound, Film Comment, Film International, CineAction, Screen, Journal of Cinema and Media Studies, Film Quarterly, and Journal of Film and Video.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Jaap van Ginneken (born September 8, 1943 in Hilversum) is a Dutch psychologist and communication scholar.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Global village describes the phenomenon of the entire world becoming more interconnected as the result of the propagation of media technologies throughout the world. The term was coined by Canadian media theorist Marshall McLuhan in his books The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) and Understanding Media (1964). Literary scholar Sue-Im Lee describes how the term global village has come to designate \u201cthe dominant term for expressing a global coexistence altered by transnational commerce, migration, and culture\u201d (as cited in Poll, 2012). Economic journalist Thomas Friedman's definition of the global village as a world \u201ctied together into a single globalized marketplace and village\u201d is another contemporary understanding of the term (as cited in Poll, 2012).\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Graduate School of Media Communication and Performing Arts (Italian: Alta Scuola in Media, Comunicazione e Spettacolo, or ALMED) is an Italian educational institution of Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Hate-watching is the activity of watching a television show (or film) with the intention of acquiring amusement from the mockery of its content or subject. Closely related to anti-fan behaviours, viewers who partake in hate-watching derive pleasure and entertainment from a show's absurdities or failures. The act of hate-watching is premised on the audience engaging with a television text through a layer of irony.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In mass communication, the Hierarchy of Influences, formally known as the Hierarchical Influences Model, is an organized theoretical framework introduced by Pamela Shoemaker & Stephen D. Reese. It comprises five levels of influence on media content from the macro to micro levels: social systems, social institutions, media organizations, routine practices, and individuals. This framework was introduced in their book Mediating the Message: Theories of Influences on Mass Media Content.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Media studies encompasses the academic investigation of the mass media from perspectives such as sociology, psychology, history, semiotics, and critical discourse analysis. The purpose of media studies is to determine how media affects society.\nMedia studies in the United States is also known as Mass Communication and Communication Studies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The H\u00f6here Graphische Bundes-Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt (HGBLuVA) (\"Higher Federal Institution for Graphic Education and Research\"), now commonly known as \"die Graphische\", founded in 1888 in Vienna, is a vocational college for professions in visual communication and media technology in Austria.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The principle of individuation, or principium individuationis, describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinguished from other things.The concept appears in numerous fields and is encountered in works of Leibniz, Carl Gustav Jung, Gunther Anders, Gilbert Simondon, Bernard Stiegler, Friedrich Nietzsche, Arthur Schopenhauer, David Bohm, Henri Bergson, Gilles Deleuze, and Manuel De Landa.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Institute for Media and Communication Policy (IfM) was founded in 2005 as an independent research institution that is exclusively dedicated to issues surrounding media and communication policies. It was established in February 2006 in Berlin-Charlottenburg, but in November 2014 it moved to Cologne. The institute is funded by leading German public and private media organizations.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Interactive media normally refers to products and services on digital computer-based systems which respond to the user's actions by presenting content such as text, moving image, animation, video and audio.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Yasmin Jiwani is a feminist academic and activist. In her research, she examines the intersectionality of race and gender in media narratives of violence against women and representations of racialized peoples. Currently, Dr. Jiwani is a full professor in the Department of Communication Studies at Concordia University in Montreal, Quebec. She is the author of Discourses of Denial: Mediations of Race, Gender and Violence.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Katherine Singer Kov\u00e1cs Society for Cinema and Media Studies Book Award is a prestigious book award that is given annually for outstanding scholarship in cinema and media studies. The award is made annually by the Society for Cinema and Media Studies  and includes a prize of 1500 dollars. The prize is named in honour of Katherine Singer Kov\u00e1cs.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The knowledge gap hypothesis explains that knowledge, like other forms of wealth, is often differentially distributed throughout a social system.  Specifically, the hypothesis predicts that \"as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, segments of the population with higher  socioeconomic status tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status segments, so that the gap in knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease\". Phillip J. Tichenor, then Associate Professor of Journalism and Mass Communication, George A. Donohue, Professor of Sociology, and Clarice N. Olien, Instructor in Sociology \u2013 three University of Minnesota researchers \u2013 first proposed the knowledge gap hypothesis in 1970.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The theory of the least objectionable program (LOP) is a mediological theory explaining television audience behavior. It was developed in the 1960s by then executive of audience measurement at NBC, Paul L. Klein, who was greatly influenced by the media theorist Marshall McLuhan's Understanding Media.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Amanda D. Lotz is an American educator, television scholar, and media scholar based in Australia since 2019. She is known for her research in television studies, digital disruption, the economics of television and media companies, and also popularizing the terms network era, post-network era, and the multi-channel transition describing the television industry's transition to cable and to internet distribution.Lotz is Professor at Queensland University of Technology and program leader of the Transforming Media Industries research program in QUT's Digital Media Research Centre. Prior to joining QUT, she was a Professor of Communication Studies at the University of Michigan, an assistant professor at Denison University and a Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow at Washington University in St. Louis.\nHer areas of research are media industries, the economics of the television/cable industry, broadband distributed media, television studies, and gender and the media.\nShe holds a B.A. in communication from DePauw University, an M.A. in Telecommunication from Indiana University, and a Ph.D. in Radio, Television and Film from University of Texas.Lotz co-hosted the Media Business Matters Podcast, which focuses on recent stories in media and why they matter from 2016 to 2018. She was a Fellow at the Peabody Media Center.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Mass communication is the process of imparting and exchanging information through mass media to large segments of the population. It is usually understood for relating to various forms of media, as its technologies are used for the dissemination of information, of which journalism and advertising are part. Mass communication differs from other types of communication, such as interpersonal communication and organizational communication, because it focuses on particular resources transmitting information to numerous receivers. The study of mass communication is chiefly concerned with how the content of mass communication persuades or otherwise affects the behavior, the attitude, opinion, or emotion of the people receiving the information.\nNormally, transmission of messages to many recipients at a time is called mass communication. But in a complete sense, mass communication can be understood as the process of extensive circulation of information within regions and across the globe.\nThrough mass communication, information can be transmitted quickly to many people who generally stay far away from the sources of information. Mass communication is practiced multiple mediums, such as radio, television, social networking, billboards, newspapers, magazines, books, film, and the Internet. In this modern era, mass communication is being used to disperse information at an accelerated rate, often about politics and other charged topics. There are major connections between the media that is being consumed, via mass communication, and our culture, contributing to polarization and dividing people based on consequential issues.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Mass media influences spatial perception through journalistic cartography and spatial bias in news coverage.\n\"Journalism is one of the few industries that provide the general public the most of its information about places and geography,\", mass media is one of the significant factors in shaping perception of places. Moreover, mass media has been criticized for \"limited iconography that constructs the newscape-generic locations that are interchangeable from story to story, and which have come to give a restrictive and distorted worldview\". Lack of geographical balance in news coverage may lead to limitations of spatial knowledge, i.e., US media focuses on a limited number of nations and regions for international news coverage.When some news has an important geographic component, journalism concerns with a location of journalistic information. Use of maps becomes appropriate as \"a map is an efficient means for showing location and describing geographic relationships\". Mass media may use maps to show an event that have spatially distributed data like election results, the distribution of acid rain, radon contamination, weather forecast, traffic, or traveling routes; also describe a story of a battle, a geopolitical strategy, or an environmental threat. Geographers criticize journalistic cartography for deficiencies and constraints of map production. Maps in journalism are produced by graphic artists, who lack in cartographic training.Geographers have explored the spatial bias in news reporting. Spatial pattern of news is created by journalistic norms, which concern is national coverage, national interest, geographic stereotypes and accessibility to news events. As mass media provides live reporting from the scenes of the news events, journalism requires spatial proximity, event proximity, and broadcast proximity. Capitals, major financial centers and politically unstable places are highly geographically stereotyped and considered as newsworthy locations where important events happen often  Economic ties and social distance play also significant role in news coverage.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology started in 1963 as the Centre for Culture and Technology, initially a card pinned to the door of Marshall McLuhan's office in the English department at the University of Toronto. In 1965, McLuhan draft Constitution for the center read: \"The Centre is established to advance the understanding of the origins and effects of technology\" to \"investigation into the psychic and social consequences of technologies.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Mean world syndrome is a hypothesized cognitive bias wherein people may perceive the world to be more dangerous than it actually is, due to long-term moderate to heavy exposure to violence-related content on mass media.Proponents of the syndrome\u2014which was coined by communications professor George Gerbner in the 1970s\u2014assert that viewers who are exposed to violence-related content can experience increased fear, anxiety, pessimism and heightened state of alert in response to perceived threats. This is because media (namely television) consumed by viewers has the power to directly influence and inform their attitudes, beliefs and opinions about the world.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In cultural studies, media culture refers to the current Western capitalist society that emerged and developed from the 20th century, under the influence of mass media. The term alludes to the overall impact and intellectual guidance exerted by the media (primarily TV, but also the press, radio and cinema), not only on public opinion but also on tastes and values.\nThe alternative term mass culture conveys the idea that such culture emerges spontaneously from the masses themselves, like popular art did before the 20th century. The expression media culture, on the other hand, conveys the idea that such culture is the product of the mass media. Another alternative term for media culture is \"image culture.\"Media culture, with its declinations of advertising and public relations, is often considered as a system centered on the manipulation of the mass of society. Corporate media \"are used primarily to represent and reproduce dominant ideologies.\" Prominent in the development of this perspective has been the work of Theodor Adorno since the 1940s. Media culture is associated with consumerism, and in this sense called alternatively \"consumer culture.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Media Equation is a general communication theory that claims people tend to assign human characteristics to computers and other media, and treat them as if they were real social actors. The effects of this phenomenon on people experiencing these media are often profound, leading them to behave and to respond to these experiences in unexpected ways, most of which they are completely unaware of.Originally based on the research of Clifford Nass and Byron Reeves at Stanford University, the theory explains that people tend to respond to media as they would either to another person (by being polite, cooperative, attributing personality characteristics such as aggressiveness, humor, expertise, and even gender) \u2013 or to places and phenomena in the physical world \u2013 depending on the cues they receive from the media. Numerous studies that have evolved from the research in psychology, social science and other fields indicate that this type of reaction is automatic, unavoidable, and happens more often than people realize. Reeves and Nass (1996) argue that, \u201cIndividuals\u2019 interactions with computers, television, and new media are fundamentally social and natural, just like interactions in real life,\u201d (p. 5).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Media evaluation is a discipline of the external and logical social sciences and centres on the analysis of media content rating the exposure using a number of pre-designated criteria commonly including tonal value and presence of key messages. It is said to be one of the fastest growing areas of mass communications research. \nThe International Association for Measurement and Evaluation of Communication (AMEC) is the industry appointed trade body for companies and individuals involved in research, measurement and evaluation in editorial media coverage and related communications issues. To be a full member of AMEC, companies must be able to a) offer comprehensive media evaluation, research and interpretation services, b) been in business for at least two years and c) have media evaluation turnover in excess of \u00a3150,000 when applying.  In addition all companies abide by a strict code of ethics and must implement tight quality control procedures.  These conditions ensure that the media evaluation services offered are all to the very highest standard. Further detailed information on the industry  is available from AMEC's website. Another organisation is the Commission on Public Relations Measurement & Evaluation [1] which was formed under the auspices of the Institute for Public Relations in 1998. The Commission exists to establish standards and methods for public relations research and measurement, and to issue authoritative best-practices white papers.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Media literacy is an expanded conceptualization of literacy that includes the ability to access and analyze media messages as well as create, reflect and take action, using the power of information and communication to make a difference in the world. Media literacy is not restricted to one medium and is understood as a set of competencies that are essential for work, life, and citizenship. Media literacy education is the process used to advance media literacy competencies, and it is intended to promote awareness of media influence and create an active stance towards both consuming and creating media. Media literacy education is part of the curriculum in the United States and some European Union countries, and an interdisciplinary global community of media scholars and educators engages in knowledge sharing through scholarly and professional journals and national membership associations.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Media Practice Model is a media effects model used within the area of mass communication.  This model was developed by Jeanne R. Steele and Jane D. Brown in 1995, and it takes a practice perspective which means that it focuses on everyday activities and routines of media consumption. This theoretical framework was developed to better understand what drives teenagers to pick one media source over another, and what factors play a role in this decision. The Media Practice Model emphasizes the constant interaction between consumers and the media, and focuses on the dialectical aspect of this interaction, suggesting that it is the adolescents\u2019 individual characteristics, environment and daily practices that allow the media to have stronger or weaker effects on them (Steele & Brown, 1995).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Media psychology is the branch and specialty field in psychology that focuses on the interaction of human behavior with media and technology. Media psychology is not limited to mass media or media content; it includes all forms of mediated communication and media technology-related behaviors, such as the use, design, impact, and sharing behaviors. This branch is a relatively new field of study because of advancement in technology. It uses various methods of critical analysis and investigation to develop a working model of a user's perception of media experience. These methods are used for society as a whole and on an individual basis. Media psychologists are able to perform activities that include consulting, design, and production in various media like television, video games, films, and news broadcasting. Media psychologists are not considered to be those who are featured in media (such as counselors-psychotherapists, clinicians, etc.), rather than those who research, work or contribute to the field.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Market for Loyalties Theory is a media theory based upon neoclassical economics. It describes why governments and power-holders monopolize radio, satellite, internet and other media through censorship using regulations, technology and other controls. It has also been used to theorize about what happens when there is a loss of monopoly or oligopoly.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Watchdog journalism is a form of investigative journalism where journalists, authors or publishers of a news publication fact-check and interview political and public figures to increase accountability. Watchdog journalism usually takes on a form of beat reporting about specific aspects and issues", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Media weight is a term used in advertising to refer to the size of the audience reached by an advertising campaign. Media weight is determined by the number and placement of advertisements in media such as television commercials, online ads, or billboards.Media weight is usually expressed in the form of GRP\u2019s (Gross rating Points), AOTS (Average opportunity to see) and reach of target audience. The main use of media weights is to monitor how well the goals of a communication plan are being reached. There are different ways to measure media weight.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "MediaSmarts (French: HabiloM\u00e9dias; formerly the Media Awareness Network, MNet) is a Canadian non-profit organization based in Ottawa, Ontario, that focuses on digital and media literacy programs and resources. In particular, the organization promotes critical thinking via educational resources and analyzes the content of various types of mass media.\nSurveys and studies performed by MediaSmarts have explored youth media consumption, such as television and internet use, as well as media issues. In recent years, the organization's focus has shifted more heavily to digital literacy, although it continues to produce resources on traditional media. The funding for MediaSmarts is primarily derived from private sector sponsors and federal government grants. The group has also partnered with Microsoft and Bell Canada to produce web resources for teachers and parents to protect kids online.MediaSmarts has received a number of awards for its work, including awards from UNESCO Global Alliance for Partnerships on Media and Information and the Canadian Race Relations Foundation, as well as several online awards for web-based content.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Mediated quasi-interaction is a concept in communication science that describes a monological interaction between people, which is oriented towards an indefinite range of potential recipients. It involves a fundamental asymmetry between producers and receivers. Some examples of Mediated Quasi-Interaction are television, radio and newspapers and other forms of mass media.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Mediatization (or medialization) is a process whereby the mass media are influencing other sectors of society, including politics, business, culture, entertainment, sport, religion, education, etc. Mediatization is often understood as a process of change or a trend, similar to globalization and modernization, where the mass media are integrated to an increasing degree into other sectors of the society. Political actors, opinion makers, business organizations, civil society organizations, and others have to adapt their way of communication to a form that suits the needs and preferences of the mass media \u2013 the so-called media logic. Any person or organization who want to spread their messages to a larger audience have to adapt their messages and communication style to make it attractive for the mass media.The media have a major influence not only on public opinion, but also on the structure and processes of political communication, political decision-making and the democratic process. This is not a one-way influence. While the mass media have a profound influence on government and political actors, the politicians are also influencing the media through regulation, negotiation, selective access to information, etc.The concept of mediatization is still under development and there is no commonly agreed definition of the term. \nSome theorists reject precise definitions and operationalizations of mediatization, fearing that they would reduce the complexity of the concept and the phenomena it refers to, while others prefer a clear theory that can be tested, refined, or potentially refuted.The concept of mediatization is seen not as an isolated theory, but as a framework that holds the potential to integrate different theoretical strands, linking micro-level with meso- and macro-level processes and phenomena, and thus contributing to a broader understanding of the role of the media in the transformation of modern societies.The process of mediatization has been shaped by a technological development from newspapers to radio, television, internet, and interactive social media. Other important influences include changes in organization and economic conditions of the media, such as a growing importance of independent market-driven media, and a decreasing influence of state-sponsored, public service, and partisan media.The increasing influence of economic market forces is typically seen in trends such as tabloidization and trivialization, while news reporting and political coverage is often reduced to slogans, sound bites, spin, horse race reporting, celebrity scandals, populism, and infotainment.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Medientage M\u00fcnchen (Munich Media Days) are held annually in Munich as a congress of the communications industry. An exhibition is organized and occurs at the same time. Every year in October, media entrepreneurs, media makers, and media politicians meet for three days. In 2015 more than 6,200 participants attended the congress, exhibition and events around the Medientage M\u00fcnchen.The Medientage M\u00fcnchen 2015 took place from 21 to 23 October, at the International Congress Center (ICM) of Messe M\u00fcnchen with the support from the Bavarian State and the Bavarian Regulatory Authority for Commercial Broadcasting (Bayerische Landeszentrale f\u00fcr neue Medien \u2013 BLM).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A mult box is \"a metal box with multiple outputs of a single audio source (one microphone connected to twenty jacks so that twenty people can record that microphone).\" A mult box is sometimes called a press box, but that term is usually reserved for the sports media's section of an arena. It may also be called a press mult box or press bridge.  The sound engineer connects several microphones to allow all of them to get clean, high-quality audio.Reporters use a mult box frequently at press conferences, especially when politicians give such interviews in small spaces, where not all the reporters in a press pool can access the interviewee.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Multiliteracies is a term coined in the mid-1990s by the New London Group and is an approach to literacy theory and pedagogy.  This approach highlights two key aspects of literacy: linguistic diversity, and multimodal forms of linguistic expression and representation. The term was coined in response to two significant changes in globalized environments: the proliferation of diverse modes of communication through new communications technologies such as the internet, multimedia, and digital media, and the existence of growing linguistic and cultural diversity due to increased transnational migration. Multiliteracies as a scholarly approach focuses on the new \"literacy\" that is developing in response to changes in the way people communicate due to new technologies and new shifts in the usage of language within different cultures.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Multimedia studies is an interdisciplinary field of academic discourse focused on the understanding of technologies and cultural dimensions of linking traditional media sources with ones based on new media to support social systems.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Narcotizing dysfunction is a theory that as mass media inundates people on a particular issue, they become apathetic to it, substituting knowledge for action. It is suggested that the vast supply of communication Americans receive may elicit only a superficial concern with the problems of society. This would result in real societal action being neglected, while superficiality covers up mass apathy. Thus, it is termed \"dysfunctional\" as it indicates the inherent dysfunction of both mass media and social media during controversial incidents and events. The theory assumes that it is not in the best interests of people to form a social mass that is politically apathetic and inert. The term narcotizing dysfunction was identified in the article \"Mass Communication, Popular Taste and Organized Social Action\", by Paul F. Lazarsfeld, and Robert K. Merton.Mass media's overwhelming flow of information has caused the populace to become passive in their social activism. Because the individual is assailed with information about a huge range of issues and problems, and they are knowledgeable about or able to discuss these issues, they believe they are helping to resolve these issues. As more time is spent educating oneself on current issues, there is a decrease in time available to take organized social action. Courses of action may be discussed, but they are rather internalized and rarely come to fruition. In short, people have unwittingly substituted knowledge for action. People's consciences are clear, as they think they have done something to address the issue. However, being informed and concerned is not a replacement for action. Even though there are increasing numbers of political messages, information, and advertisements available through traditional media and online media, political participation continues to decline. People pay close attention to the media, but there is an overexposure of messages that can get confusing and contradictory so people do not get involved in the political process.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Narrative consumption is a media theory created by the Japanese critic Eiji \u014ctsuka in his 1989 book A Theory of Narrative Consumption (Monogatari sh\u014dhiron). \u014ctsuka developed the theory while working as an editor for Kadokawa. Narrative consumption was a large influence on Hiroki Azuma's theory of otaku and database consumption.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Nationwide Project was an influential media audience research project conducted by the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham, England, in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Its principal researchers were David Morley and Charlotte Brunsdon.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "New media studies is an academic discipline that explores the intersections of computing, science, the humanities, and the visual and performing arts. Janet Murray, a prominent researcher in the discipline, describes this intersection as \"a single new medium of representation, the digital medium, formed by the braided interplay of technical invention and cultural expression at the end of the 20th century\". The main factor in defining new media is the role the Internet plays; new media is effortlessly spread instantly. The category of new media is occupied by devices connected to the Internet, an example being a smartphone or tablet. Television and cinemas are commonly thought of as new media but are ruled out since the invention was before the time of the internet.\nNew media studies examines ideas and insights on media from communication theorists, programmers, educators, and technologists. Among others, the work of Marshall McLuhan is viewed as one of the cornerstones of the study of media theory. McLuhan\u2019s slogan, \"the medium is the message\" (elaborated in his 1964 book, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man), calls attention to the intrinsic effect of communications media.\nA program in new media studies may incorporate lessons, classes, and topics within communication, journalism, computer science, programming, graphic design, web design, human-computer interaction, media theory, linguistics, information science, and other related fields.\nNew media studies is the academic discipline which examines how our relationship with media has changed with the onset of global connectivity and the popularity of digital and user-generated content. New media studies seeks to connect computer sciences and innovations in new media with social sciences and the philosophy of technology.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A nod shot, noddy headshot or noddy is a type of camera reaction shot used in recorded news or current affairs interviews. They consist of nods and other similar \"listening gestures\" made by the interviewer. If only one camera is available at the interview site, then these shots are recorded after the actual interview takes place. The shots are spliced into the interview during the editing process to mask any cuts that have been made. This editing technique is universally \"read\" by audiences as expressing realism and therefore creates the illusion of a seamless dialogue in the interview.\nThe earliest use of the term recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary dates from 1982. It was explained more fully by John Fiske in 1987: \"the camera is then turned onto the interviewer who asks some of the questions again and gives a series of \"noddies,\" that is, reaction shots, nods, smiles, or expressions of sympathetic listening. These are then used to disguise later edits in the interviewee's speech... Without the \"noddy\", the visuals would show an obvious \"jump\" that would reveal the edit.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Nordic Information Centre for Media and Communication Research (Nordicom) is a non-profit knowledge center based at the University of Gothenburg that works to collect and communicate media and communication research and facts conducted in the Nordic countries. The purpose of Nordicom work is to develop the knowledge of media's role in society. This is done through: \n\nFollowing and documenting media development in terms of media structure, media ownership, media economy and media use.\nConducting the annual survey The Media Barometer, which measures the reach of various media outlets in Sweden.\nPublishing research literature, including the International research journal Nordicom Review and the periodic journal Nordicom Information (1979-2018).\nPublishing newsletters on media trends in the Nordic region and policy issues in Europe.\nContinuously compiling information on how media research in the Nordic countries is developing.\nThe international research conference NordMedia, which is arranged in cooperation with the national media and communication associations in the Nordic countries.Nordicom is financed by the Nordic Council of Ministers, the Swedish Ministry of Culture and the University of Gothenburg.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Online deliberation is a broad term used to describe many forms of non-institutional, institutional and experimental online discussions. The term also describes the emerging field of practice and research related to the design, implementation and study of deliberative processes that rely on the use of electronic information and communications technologies (ICT).\nAlthough the Internet and social media have fostered discursive participation and deliberation online through computer-mediated communication, the academic study of online deliberation started in the early 2000s.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Paley Center for Media, formerly the Museum of Television & Radio (MT&R) and the Museum of Broadcasting, founded in 1975 by William S. Paley, is an American cultural institution in New York with a branch office in Los Angeles, dedicated to the discussion of the cultural, creative, and social significance of television, radio, and emerging platforms for the professional community and media-interested public.\nIt was renamed The Paley Center for Media on June 5, 2007, to encompass emerging broadcasting technologies such as the Internet, mobile video, and podcasting, as well as to expand its role as a neutral setting where media professionals can engage in discussion and debate about the evolving media landscape.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Parasocial interaction (PSI) refers to a kind of psychological relationship experienced by an audience in their mediated encounters with performers in the mass media, particularly on television and on online platforms. Viewers or listeners come to consider media personalities as friends, despite having no or limited interactions with them. PSI is described as an illusionary experience, such that media audiences interact with personas (e.g., talk show hosts, celebrities, fictional characters, social media influencers) as if they are engaged in a reciprocal relationship with them. The term was coined by Donald Horton and Richard Wohl in 1956.A parasocial interaction, an exposure that garners interest in a persona, becomes a parasocial relationship after repeated exposure to the media persona causes the media user to develop illusions of intimacy, friendship, and identification. Positive information learned about the media persona results in increased attraction, and the relationship progresses. Parasocial relationships are enhanced due to trust and self-disclosure provided by the media persona. Media users are loyal and feel directly connected to the persona, much as they are connected to their close friends, by observing and interpreting their appearance, gestures, voice, conversation, and conduct. Media personas have a significant amount of influence over media users, positive or negative, informing the way that they perceive certain topics or even their purchasing habits.  Studies involving longitudinal effects of parasocial interactions on children are still relatively new, according to developmental psychologist Sandra L. Calvert.Social media introduces additional opportunities for parasocial relationships to intensify because it provides more opportunities for intimate, reciprocal, and frequent interactions between the user and persona. These virtual interactions may involve commenting, following, liking, or direct messaging. The consistency in which the persona appears could also lead to a more intimate perception in the eyes of the user.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Parasocial interaction (PSI) refers to a kind of psychological relationship experienced by an audience in their mediated encounters with performers in the mass media, particularly on television and on online platforms. Viewers or listeners come to consider media personalities as friends, despite having no or limited interactions with them. PSI is described as an illusionary experience, such that media audiences interact with personas (e.g., talk show hosts, celebrities, fictional characters, social media influencers) as if they are engaged in a reciprocal relationship with them. The term was coined by Donald Horton and Richard Wohl in 1956.A parasocial interaction, an exposure that garners interest in a persona, becomes a parasocial relationship after repeated exposure to the media persona causes the media user to develop illusions of intimacy, friendship, and identification. Positive information learned about the media persona results in increased attraction, and the relationship progresses. Parasocial relationships are enhanced due to trust and self-disclosure provided by the media persona. Media users are loyal and feel directly connected to the persona, much as they are connected to their close friends, by observing and interpreting their appearance, gestures, voice, conversation, and conduct. Media personas have a significant amount of influence over media users, positive or negative, informing the way that they perceive certain topics or even their purchasing habits.  Studies involving longitudinal effects of parasocial interactions on children are still relatively new, according to developmental psychologist Sandra L. Calvert.Social media introduces additional opportunities for parasocial relationships to intensify because it provides more opportunities for intimate, reciprocal, and frequent interactions between the user and persona. These virtual interactions may involve commenting, following, liking, or direct messaging. The consistency in which the persona appears could also lead to a more intimate perception in the eyes of the user.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The philosophy of technology is a sub-field of philosophy that studies the nature of technology and its social effects.\nPhilosophical discussion of questions relating to technology (or its Greek ancestor techne) dates back to the very dawn of Western philosophy.  The phrase \"philosophy of technology\" was first used in the late 19th century by German-born philosopher and geographer Ernst Kapp, who published a book titled Elements of a Philosophy of Technology (German title: Grundlinien einer Philosophie der Technik).\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Political Economy of Communications, news, or media, is a particular branch in Communication studies or media studies which studies the power relations (political economy) that shape the communication of information from the mass media to its publics. This concept has been developed by media and political economy scholars such as; Dallas Walker Smythe, Herbert Schiller, Graham Murdock, Peter Golding, Vincent Mosco, Dan Schiller, and Robert W. McChesney. PEC analyzes the power relations between the mass media system, information and communications technologies (ICTs) and the wider socioeconomic structure in which these operate, with a focus on understanding the historical and current state of technological developments.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Popular culture (also called mass culture or pop culture) is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of the practices, beliefs, and objects that are dominant or prevalent in a society at a given point in time. Popular culture also encompasses the activities and feelings produced as a result of interaction with these dominant objects. The primary driving force behind popular culture is mass appeal, and it is produced by what cultural analyst Theodor Adorno refers to as the \"culture industry\".Heavily influenced in modern times by mass media, this collection of ideas permeates the everyday lives of people in a given society. Therefore, popular culture has a way of influencing an individual's attitudes towards certain topics. However, there are various ways to define pop culture. Because of this, popular culture is something that can be defined in a variety of conflicting ways by different people across different contexts. It is generally viewed in contrast to other forms of culture such as folk cults, working-class culture, or high culture, and also through different academic perspectives such as psychoanalysis, structuralism, postmodernism, and more. The common pop-culture categories are: entertainment (such as film, music, television and video games), sports, news (as in people/places in the news), politics, fashion, technology, and slang.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The priming theory states that media images stimulate related thoughts in the minds of audience members.Grounded in cognitive psychology, the theory of media priming is derived from the associative network model of human memory, in which an idea or concept is stored as a node in the network and is related to other ideas or concepts by semantic paths.  Priming refers to the activation of a node in this network, which may serve as a filter, an interpretive frame, or a premise for further information processing or judgment formation.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Print culture embodies all forms of printed text and other printed forms of visual communication. One prominent scholar in the field is Elizabeth Eisenstein, who contrasted print culture, which appeared in Europe in the centuries after the advent of the Western printing-press (and much earlier in China where woodblock printing was used from 594 AD), to scribal culture. Walter Ong, by contrast, has contrasted written culture, including scribal, to oral culture. Ong is generally considered one of the first scholars to define print culture in contrast to oral culture.  These views are related as the printing press brought a vast rise in literacy, so that one of its effects was simply the great expansion of written culture at the expense of oral culture.  The development of printing, like the development of writing itself, had profound effects on human societies and knowledge. \"Print culture\" refers to the cultural products of the printing transformation.\nIn terms of image-based communication, a similar transformation came in Europe from the fifteenth century on with the introduction of the old master print and, slightly later, popular prints, both of which were actually much quicker in reaching the mass of the population than printed text.\nPrint culture is the conglomeration of effects on human society that is created by making printed forms of communication. Print culture encompasses many stages as it has evolved in response to technological advances. Print culture can first be studied from the period of time involving the gradual movement from oration to script as it is the basis for print culture. As the printing became commonplace, script became insufficient and printed documents were mass-produced. The era of physical print has had a lasting effect on human culture, but with the advent of digital text, some scholars believe the printed word may become obsolete.The electronic media, including the World Wide Web, can be seen as an outgrowth of print culture.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Public Opinion is a book by Walter Lippmann published in 1922. It is a critical assessment of functional democratic government, especially of the irrational and often self-serving social perceptions that influence individual behavior and prevent optimal societal cohesion. The detailed descriptions of the cognitive limitations people face in comprehending their sociopolitical and cultural environments, leading them to apply an evolving catalogue of general stereotypes to a complex reality, rendered Public Opinion a seminal text in the fields of media studies, political science, and social psychology.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Riepl's law is a hypothesis formulated by Wolfgang Riepl in 1913. It is frequently cited in discussions about newly emerging forms of media in the scientific community in German-speaking countries.Riepl, the chief editor of Nuremberg's biggest newspaper at the time, stated in his dissertation about ancient modes of news communications (original title: \"Das Nachrichtenwesen des Altertums mit besonderer R\u00fccksicht auf die R\u00f6mer\") that new, further developed types of media never replace the existing modes of media and their usage patterns. Instead, a convergence takes place in their field, leading to a different way and field of use for these older forms.\nThis hypothesis is still considered to be relevant, explaining the fact that new media never make the \"old\" media disappear. The principle forms the basis for Niels Ole Finnemann's analyses of the 5 majors matrices of media, stating \n\"the general principles in the transition from one matrix to another as follows: The emergence of a new medium is accompanied by:\na) a restructuring of the whole matrix implying\nb) a refunctionalisation of older media\nc) which often results in the development of new functions, eventually utilising hitherto un-used or even unknown qualities and functions of old media, \u2014 functions which may be as important as the new medium itself. E.g., the telegraph and innovation of print media: The telegraph allowed the transmission of news across a much wider space in a much shorter time, thereby also creating a platform for the development of a new print medium: printed newspapers.\nd) Finally we can also observe that new media often emerge because of\ninformation overload in older media.\" Niels Ole Finnemann. 2001. The Internet - A new communicational Infrastructure:p. 15. Papers from The Centre for Internet Research, University of Aarhus.\nSupport for the continued validity of Riepl's law came from the highly regarded CEO of the Alex Springer publishing group Mathias D\u00f6pfner who, in May 2006 wrote in a leading German newspaper Die Welt\n\"I believe in Riepl's law...Books have not replaced storytelling. Newspapers have not replaced books; radio has not replaced newspapers; and television has not replaced radio. It follows that the Internet will not replace television or newspapers\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "9.9 School of Convergence, also known as SoC, is a small media school in New Delhi, India. The school has Pramath Raj Sinha, the founding dean of Indian School of Business, as its dean.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Selective exposure is a theory within the practice of psychology, often used in media and communication research, that historically refers to individuals' tendency to favor information which reinforces their pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information. Selective exposure has also been known and defined as \"congeniality bias\" or \"confirmation bias\" in various texts throughout the years.According to the historical use of the term, people tend to select specific aspects of exposed information which they incorporate into their mindset. These selections are made based on their perspectives, beliefs, attitudes, and decisions. People can mentally dissect the information they are exposed to and select favorable evidence, while ignoring the unfavorable. The foundation of this theory is rooted in the cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger 1957), which asserts that when individuals are confronted with contrasting ideas, certain mental defense mechanisms are activated to produce harmony between new ideas and pre-existing beliefs, which results in cognitive equilibrium. Cognitive equilibrium, which is defined as a state of balance between a person's mental representation of the world and his or her environment, is crucial to understanding selective exposure theory. According to Jean Piaget, when a mismatch occurs, people find it to be  \"inherently dissatisfying\".Selective exposure relies on the assumption that one will continue to seek out information on an issue even after an individual has taken a stance on it. The position that a person has taken will be colored by various factors of that issue that are reinforced during the decision-making process. According to Stroud (2008), theoretically, selective exposure occurs when people's beliefs guide their media selections.Selective exposure has been displayed in various contexts such as self-serving situations and situations in which people hold prejudices regarding outgroups, particular opinions, and personal and group-related issues. Perceived usefulness of information, perceived norm of fairness, and curiosity of valuable information are three factors that can counteract selective exposure.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Semiotic democracy is a phrase first coined by John Fiske, a media studies professor, in his seminal media studies book Television Culture (1987). Fiske defined the term as the \"delegation of the production of meanings and pleasures to [television's] viewers.\":\u200a236\u200a Fiske discussed how rather than being passive couch potatoes that absorbed information in an unmediated way, viewers actually gave their own meanings to the shows they watched that often differed substantially from the meaning intended by the show's producer.\nSubsequently, this term was appropriated by the technical and legal community in the context of any re-working of cultural imagery by someone who is not the original author. Examples include fan fiction and slash fiction.\nLegal scholars are concerned that just as technology eases the process of cheaply making and distributing derivative works imbued with new cultural meanings available to wide public, copyright and right-to-publicity law is clamping down on and limiting these works, thus reducing their promulgation, and limiting semiotic democracy.Prof. Terry Fisher of Harvard Law School has written about semiotic democracy in the context of the crisis facing the entertainment industry and in terms of the ability of people to use the Internet in creative new ways.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The spiral of silence theory is a political science and mass communication theory proposed by the German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. It states that an individual's perception of the distribution of public opinion influences that individual's willingness to express their own political opinions. The main idea is that people influence each other's willingness to express opinions through social interaction. According to the spiral of silence theory, individuals will be more confident and outward with their opinion when they notice that their personal opinion is shared throughout a group.  But if the individual notices that their opinion is unpopular with the group they will be more inclined to be reserved and remain silent. The individual \"not isolating himself is more important than his own judgement\". This is a self-expressive act that can change the \"global environment of opinion\", shifting the perceptions of others and the willingness of individuals to express their own opinions.According to Glynn (1995), \"the major components of the spiral of silence include (1) an issue of public interest; (2) divisiveness on the issues; (3) a quasi-statistical sense that helps an individual perceive the climate of opinion as well as estimate the majority and minority opinion; (4) \"fear of isolation\" from social interaction; (5) an individual's belief that a minority (or \"different\") opinion isolates oneself from others; and (6) a \"hardcore\" group of people whose opinions are unaffected by others' opinions.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Stanford Web Credibility Project, which involves assessments of website credibility conducted by the Stanford University Persuasive Technology Lab, is an investigative examination of what leads people to believe in the veracity of content found on the Web.  The goal of the project is to enhance website design and to promote further research on the credibility of Web resources.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Structural pluralism is \"the potential for political competition in communities\".  The degree of structural pluralism is used to examine how societies are structured, and specifically is a way to explain coverage differences in media markets.  Structural pluralism is studied in philosophical, sociological and communication literature.\nStructural pluralism is what makes civic community a unique form of civil society (Morton, 2000). Structural pluralism represents the extent to which the community has an open and inclusive structure that permits minority voices and opinions to be heard when citizens and citizen groups are addressing community problems (Young, 1999).\nCommunities are discussed in terms of having common institutions, such as governing or other political bodies, religious, educational and economic institutions.  These bodies or institutions help to maintain the social order within the community.\nThis concept comes from the field of sociology, but prior to that, stems from writings by Hegel (1821) on civic society.  This comes also from the functionalist writings of \u00c9mile Durkheim and Herbert Spencer (Hindman, 1999).\nDurkheim writes that there are two organizating principle types of societies, that most like the premodern communities, called mechanical solidarity in which ethnic and extended families were central; and that called organic solidarity which examines the relationships of interdependence based on other components, such as work, and social organizations (Durkheim, 1933).  These are equated to today's rural and urban societies respectively.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Technological somnambulism is a concept used when talking about the philosophy of technology. The term was used by Langdon Winner in his essay Technology as forms of life. Winner puts forth the idea that we are simply in a state of sleepwalking in our mediations with technology. This sleepwalking is caused by a number of factors.  One of the primary causes is the way we view technology as tools, something that can be put down and picked up again.  Because of this view of objects as something we can easily separate ourselves from technology, and so we fail to look at the long term implications of using that object. A second factor is the separation of those who make the technology and those who use the technology. This division causes there to be little thought and research going into the effects of using/developing that technology. The third and most important idea is the way in which technology seems to create new worlds in which we live. These worlds are created by the restructuring of the common and seemingly everyday things around us. In most situations the changes take place with little attention or care from us because we are more focused on the menial aspects of the technology (Winner 105-107).The concept can be found in the earlier work of Marshall McLuhan, cf. Understanding Media, where he refers to a comment made by David Sarnoff expressing a socially deterministic view of \"value free\" technology whose value is solely defined by its usage as representing, \"...the voice of the current somnambulism\". Given that this piece by McLuhan has become standard reading in Media Theory it is reasonable to suspect that Winner encountered the concept there or elsewhere and then went on to develop it further.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The third-person effect  hypothesis predicts that people tend to perceive that mass media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves, based on personal biases. The third-person effect manifests itself through an individual's overestimation of the effect of a mass communicated message on the generalized other, or an underestimation of the effect of a mass communicated message on themselves.\nThese types of perceptions stem from a self-motivated social desirability (not feeling influenced by mass messages promotes self-esteem), a social-distance corollary (choosing to dissociate oneself from the others who may be influenced), and a perceived exposure to a message (others choose to be influenced by persuasive communication). Other names for the effect are \"Third-person perception\" and \"Web Third-person effect\". From 2015, the effect is named \"Web Third-person effect\" when it is verified in social media, media websites, blogs and in websites in general.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The term transformation (also \"transition\" or \"system change\") in the field of mediated cross-border communication refers to a media system's change from for instance authoritarian or communist structures to a new media system with different structures and control mechanisms.Compared to the studies of media systems, transformation research is focused on the collective and individual actors who \"demand, support, and manage change\". They can be found in governments, parties, NGOs, civil society organizations or interest groups. To the largest extent, transformation research addresses change from authoritarian to democratic media systems. Since transformation processes in media systems are always linked to the political and socioeconomic development, transformation research is not solely focused on the transformation of the media systems, but also on sectors like politics, economy, society, or culture.Transformation research is a comparative approach, since processes in different stages of the political or media system are compared. The approach is highly complex, because it combines comparison with the dimension of space and time, for instance by analyzing similar change processes of media systems in different world regions and times in history. This causes problems, because the changing systems can exhibit considerable differences between one another. Although there are differences between them, transformation processes often occur at the same time and significant similarities between the resulting patterns can be observed.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Transmediation is the process of translating a work into a different medium. The definition of what constitutes transmediation would depend on how medium is defined or interpreted. In Understanding media, Marshall McLuhan offered a quite broad definition of a medium as \"an extension of ourselves\": \"In a culture like ours, long accustomed to splitting and dividing all things as a means of control, it is sometimes a bit of a shock to be reminded that, in operational and practical fact, the medium is the message. This is merely to say that the personal and social consequences of any medium \u2014 that is, of any extension of ourselves \u2014 result from the new scale that is introduced into our affairs by each extension of ourselves, or by any new technology.\"From McLuhan's definition, it is possible to infer the definition of transmediation could involve at least two different dimensions: a sensory and semiotic translation. When referring to medium as a sensory mode, transmediation would require to move between sensory modes (e.g., visual to aural, aural to tactile). When referring to transmediation as semiotic translation, transmediation can refer to the process of \"responding to cultural texts in a range of sign systems \u2014 art, movement, sculpture, dance, music, and so on \u2014 as well as in words.\" Semali and Fueyo\nTransmediation may utilize more than one media form. All the components of a transmediated work are interlinked with each other to form the whole network. Therefore, transmediated works are closely linked to semiotics and technology in the context of digital media. Transmediation can include response to traditional printed texts, as well as multimedia materials including video, animation, a website, a podcast, a game, etc.\nTransmediation is closely linked to semiotics, which is the impact study of signs. Academic researchers and educators interested in transmediation are often also interested in media literacy, visual literacy, information literacy, and critical literacy.\nLeonard Shlain highlights the importance of engaging students in the process of transmediation when writing, \"Digital information comes in multiple forms, and students must learn to tell stories not just with words and numbers but also through images, graphics, color, sound, music, and dance. There is a grammar and literacy to each of these forms of communication. Bombarded with a wide variety of images regularly, students need sharp visual-interpretation skills to interact with the media analytically. Each form of communication has its own rules and grammar and should be taught in ways that lead students to be more purposeful, specific, and concise in communicating.\"\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Media transparency (or transparent media), also referred to as Media Opacity, is a concept that explores how and why information subsidies are being produced, distributed and handled by media professionals, including journalists, editors, public relations practitioners, government officials, public affairs specialists, and spokespeople. In short, media transparency reflects the relationship between civilization and journalists, news sources and government. According to a textual analysis of \u201cInformation Subsidies and Agenda Building: A Study of Local Radio News\u201d, an information subsidy is defined as \u201cany item provided to the media in order to gain time or space\u201d (Burns, 1998). In order to understand media transparency, one must gain an understanding of the different aspects in which media transparency is researched, understood, and explored. The following page will attempt to examine media transparency as it has grown and how it affects the modern world.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Transparency of media ownership refers to the public availability of accurate, comprehensive and up-to-date information about media ownership structures. A legal regime guaranteeing transparency of media ownership makes possible for the public as well as for media authorities to find out who effectively owns, controls and influences the media as well as media influence on political parties or state bodies.\n\nTransparency of media ownership is an essential component of any democratic media system. Experts, European organisations and NGOs agree that transparency of media ownership is crucial for media pluralism and democracy as, for instance, it provides the knowledge to take steps to address media concentration and conflict of interests. Moreover, public knowledge of media owners' identities can prevent abuses of media power, such as corruption in the media system, opaque media privatisation, undue influences over the media, etc., and makes possible that such abuses are recognised, assessed, publicised, debated and prevented. Transparency also ensures that ordinary citizens can be informed about the identity, interests and influences behind contents and news they consume, and that media market can function on a fair basis, especially, for instance, for new entrants in the market. Moreover, transparency of media ownership facilitates the public knowledge on the media environment; makes possible a critical assessment of the contents produced and strengthens debate on the way the media system operates. The importance of transparency of media ownership for any democratic and pluralist society has been broadly recognised by the European Parliament, the European Commission's High-Level Group on Media Freedom and Pluralism and the Council of Europe. In the last years, there has been an unprecedented debate at the global level around company ownership transparency which has been addressed, for example, by the Open Government Partnership and by the G8 governments in a 2014 statement setting the principles on media ownership transparency. In 2016, following the so-called \"Panama Papers\" scandal, the lack of records held by the Panama-based legal firm Mossack Fonseca, transparency of company ownership gained momentum in the public debate.To ensure that the public knows who effectively owns and influences the media, national legal frameworks should ensure the disclosure of at least the following essential basic information: name and contact details of the media outlets; constitutional documents; size of shareholdings over a given threshold; name and contact details of direct owners with a given percentage of shareholding; identity of the persons with indirect control or have a significant interest in a given media company; citizenship/residence status of individuals with at least a certain shareholding percentage; country of domicile of company with at least a given shareholding percentage. Importantly, to understand who really owns and controls a specific media outlet it is necessary to check who is beyond the official shareholdings and scrutinise indirect, controlling and beneficial ownership which refers on shares of a media company hold on behalf of another person.To be meaningful and easily accessible by the citizens and national media authorities, this information should be updated, searchable, free and reusable.Transparency of media ownership remains difficult to fulfill in most of European countries. While some EU member States have legislation ensuring transparency of media ownership in compliance to the best international standards, such legislation is still lacking in many member States and in some cases national legislation allows for hidden or indirect media ownership. A recent 2015 resolution by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, notes with concern that media outlets are frequently owned and controlled in an opaque-manner. This is due either to the lack of national transparency provisions or to non-transparent indirect or hidden ownership schemes, often linked to political, economic or religious interests and affiliations.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Transparency of media ownership is the public availability of accurate, comprehensive and up-to-date information about media ownership structures. A legal regime guaranteeing transparency of media ownership makes possible for the public as well as for media authorities to find out who effectively owns, controls and influences the media as well as media influence on political parties or state bodies. The disclosure of media ownership can be prescribed by generic regulation (commercial law) or by media-specific provision. Such measures may mandate the disclosure of information on media ownership structures to specific authorities or to the general public.\nTurkey has both generic company laws and media-specific regulations on transparency of the print, broadcasting and online media outlets. Despite the existence of such laws, according to some experts the existing regulatory framework does not guarantee the disclosure of crucial information and to know who actually owns and influences the media in Turkey.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A video essay is a piece of video content that, much like a written essay, advances an argument. Video essays take advantage of the structure and language of film to advance their arguments.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Medical humanities is an interdisciplinary field of medicine which includes the humanities (philosophy, ethics, history, comparative literature and religion), social science ( psychology, sociology, anthropology, cultural studies, health geography) and the arts (literature, theater, film, and visual arts) and their application to medical education and practice. The core strengths of the medical humanities are the imaginative nonconformist qualities and practices.Medical humanities uses interdisciplinary research to explore experiences of health and illness, often focusing on subjective, hidden, or invisible experience. This interdisciplinary strength has given the field a noted diversity and encouraged creative 'epistemological innovation'.Medical humanities is sometimes conflated with health humanities which also broadly links health and social care disciplines with the arts and humanities.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Centre for the Study of Medicine and the Body in the Renaissance (CSMBR) is an international institute of advanced studies in the history of medicine and science based at the Domus Comeliana in Pisa. The centre is currently the major Italian institution devoted to the medical humanities.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Deathcare (also death care, death-care or after-deathcare) is the planning, provision, and improvement of post-death services, products, policy, and governance. Here, deathcare functions to describe the industry of deathcare workers, the policy and politics surrounding deathcare provision, and as an interdisciplinary field of academic study.Deathcare, from the point of clinical death, has a diverse timeline. The first point of care often involves immediate healthcare professionals and responders closest to the person who has past away, including doctors, nurses, palliative and end-of-life care workers. From here, the care of deceased individuals has a culturally, religious, and personal course. This can involve a range of people from religious figures, morticians, to grave keepers - all of these roles formulating to what can be known as deathcare workers.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Medical Heritage Library (MHL) is a digital curation collaborative among several medical libraries which promotes  free and open access to quality historical resources in medicine. The MHL is currently digitizing books and journals and is working to expand to the digitization of archival materials and still images. In 2010, the MHL began digitizing titles, mainly monographs, in a variety of medical history and related fields including chemistry, nursing, dentistry, audiology, physiology, psychology, psychiatry, biological science, hydrotherapy, weather, veterinary medicine, gardening, physical culture, and alternative medicine chosen for their scholarly, educational, and research value. Since the inception of the project, materials in audio and video formats have been added to the collection.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Narrative Medicine is a discipline of applying the skill of analyzing literature to interviewing patients. A basic premise of Narrative Medicine is that how a patient speaks about their illness or problem is similar to a story in literature in that the account has a \"plot\" (how they relate what is going on) with \"characters\" (themselves and others in their lives) and is filled with \"metaphors\" (picturesque, emotional and symbolic ways of speaking), and becoming conversant in literary stories facilitates understanding the stories which patients bring. Narrative Medicine is a medical approach that utilizes patients' narratives in clinical practice, research, and education as a way to promote healing. Beyond the attempt to reach a more accurate diagnosis, it aims to address the relational and psychological dimensions that occur in tandem with physical illness, with an attempt to deal with the individual stories of patients. In doing this, narrative medicine aims not only to validate the experience of the patient, but also to encourage creativity and self-reflection in the physician.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Reflective writing is an analytical practice in which the writer describes a real or imaginary scene, event, interaction, passing thought, or memory and adds a personal reflection on its meaning. Many reflective writers keep in mind questions such as \"What did I notice?\", \"How has this changed me?\" or \"What might I have done differently?\" when reflecting.Thus, in reflective writing, the focus is on writing that is not merely descriptive. The writer revisits the scene to note details and emotions, reflect on meaning, examine what went well or revealed a need for additional learning, and relate what transpired to the rest of life.According to Kara Taczak, \"Reflection is a mode of inquiry: a deliberate way of systematically recalling writing experiences to reframe the current writing situation.\"The more someone reflectively writes, the more likely they are to regularly reflect in their everyday life, think outside the box, and challenge accepted practices.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Research and Humanities in Medical Education  (RHiME)is an open-access peer-reviewed academic journal published by the Medical Humanities Group at the University College of Medical Sciences and Guru Teg Bahadur Hospital, Delhi. It covers the role of the humanities in medical education, including the history of medicine, narrative medicine, graphic medicine, disability studies, and arts-based interventions, such as healing by means of Theatre of the Oppressed, poetry, literature, film, music and art. The journal was established in 2014. The editor-in-chief is Upreet Dhaliwal.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Dr Satendra Singh is a medical doctor at the University College of Medical Sciences and Guru Tegh Bahadur Hospital, Delhi. A physiologist by profession, he contracted poliomyelitis at the age of nine months but went on to complete a Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery from Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi Memorial Medical College, Kanpur and later on Doctor of Medicine in Physiology. He is the first ever Indian to win the prestigious Henry Viscardi Achievement Awards given to extraordinary leaders in global disability community. He is a noted disability activist especially for his sustained efforts in making public places accessible for disabled persons for which he was conferred National Award by President of India.  He is also the first Indian to be awarded the MacLean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics fellowship at the University of Chicago. Singh had been involved in the synthesis of epibatidine analogues, leading to the discovery of epiboxidine. In contrast to RTI-336, which positions a 3-tolyl group on the isoxazole ring to the DAT receptor, a phenyl group was too sterically encumbered to be tolerated in the case of the nicotinic receptors. Although aromatic moieties seem to be tolerated at the mGlu5 receptor in the case of ADX-47273.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Theatre of the Oppressed (TO)  describes theatrical forms that the Brazilian theatre practitioner Augusto Boal first elaborated in the 1970s, initially in Brazil and later in Europe. Boal was influenced by the work of the educator and theorist Paulo Freire and his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Boal's techniques use theatre as means of promoting social and political change in alignment originally with radical-left politics and later with centre-left ideology. In the Theatre of the Oppressed, the audience becomes active, such that as \"spect-actors\" they explore, show, analyse and transform the reality in which they are living.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Preventive and social medicine is a branch of medicine dealing with providing health services in areas of prevention,promotion and treatment of rehabilitative diseases. Studies in Preventive and social medicine are helpful in providing Guided care, medicine in environmental health, offering scholarly services, policy formulation, consulting, research in International work. While other fields of medicines deals with individual health,preventive medicines deals with community health.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Public health has been defined as \"the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals\". Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being.Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, oral health, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health. Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a country's overall health care system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.\nThere is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers, monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies.\nFrom the beginnings of human civilization, communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. In complex, pre-industrialized societies, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to the fact that it was the first modern urban nation worldwide. The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on sanitation (for example, the Liverpool and London sewerage systems), control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Museology or museum studies is the study of museums. It explores the history of museums and their role in society, as well as the activities they engage in, including curating, preservation, public programming, and education.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In libraries, art galleries, museums and archives, an accession number is a unique identifier assigned to, and achieving initial control of, each acquisition. Assignment of accession numbers typically occurs at the point of accessioning or cataloging.  The term is something of a misnomer, because the form accession numbers take is often alpha-numeric.If an item is removed from the collection, its number is usually not reused for new items.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Some African objects had been collected by Europeans for centuries, and there had been industries producing some types, especially carvings in ivory, for European markets in some coastal regions.  Between 1890 and 1918 the volume of objects greatly increased as Western colonial expansion in Africa led to the removal of many pieces of sub-Saharan African art that were subsequently brought to Europe and displayed. These objects entered the collections of natural history museums, art museums (both encyclopedic and specialist) and private collections in Europe and the United States. About 90% of Africa's cultural heritage is believed to be located in Europe, according to French art historians.Initially mostly seen as illustrating the ethnology of different African cultures, appreciation of pieces as artworks grew during the 20th century.  Only towards the end of the century was \"modern\" African art in fine art genres accepted as significant.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The American Institute for Conservation (AIC) is a national membership organization of conservation professionals, headquartered in Washington D.C.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Applied history is the effort to apply insights grounded in the study of the past to the challenges of the present, particularly in the area of policy-making. Applied history is closely associated with the field of public history, and the terms today are sometimes used interchangeably, though historically, public history has been a more encompassing term, engaging a broad range of audiences, subjects and methods, while applied history has been more narrowly focused on work associated with the development of domestic and foreign policy.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The art market is the marketplace of buyers and sellers trading in commodities, services, and works of art.\nThe art market operates in an economic model that considers more than supply and demand: it is a hybrid type of prediction market where art is bought and sold for values based not only on a work's perceived cultural value, but on both its past monetary value as well as its predicted future value. The market has been described as one where producers don't make work primarily for sale, where buyers often have no idea of the value of what they buy, and where middlemen routinely claim reimbursement for sales of things they have never seen to buyers they have never dealt with. Moreover, the market is not transparent; private sales data is not systematically available, and private sales represent about half of market transactions.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Art valuation, an art-specific subset of financial valuation, is the process of estimating the market value of works of art. As such, it is more of a financial rather than an aesthetic concern, however, subjective views of cultural value play a part as well. Art valuation involves comparing data from multiple sources such as art auction houses, private and corporate collectors, curators, art dealer activities, gallerists (gallery owners), experienced consultants, and specialized market analysts to arrive at a value. Art valuation is accomplished not only for collection, investment, divestment, and financing purposes, but as part of estate valuations, for charitable contributions, for tax planning, insurance, and loan collateral purposes. This article deals with the valuation of works of fine art, especially contemporary art, at the top end of the international market, but similar principles apply to the valuation of less expensive art and antiques.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Barcelona Charter, in full the European Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Traditional Ships in Operation is an informal but widely accepted standard for maintenance and restoration projects on historic watercraft that are still in operation as active sailing vessels.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The term bioarchaeology has been attributed to British archaeologist Grahame Clark who, in 1972, defined it as the study of animal and human bones from archaeological sites. Redefined in 1977 by Jane Buikstra, bioarchaeology in the United States now refers to the scientific study of human remains from archaeological sites, a discipline known in other countries as osteoarchaeology, osteology or palaeo-osteology. Compared to bioarchaeology, osteoarchaeology is the scientific study that solely focus on the human skeleton. The human skeleton is used to tell us about health, lifestyle, diet, mortality and physique of the past. Furthermore, palaeo-osteology is simple the study of ancient bones.In contrast, the term bioarchaeology is used in Europe to describe the study of all biological remains from archaeological sites. Although Clark used it to describe just human remains and animal remains (zoology/archaeozoology), increasingly modern archaeologists also include botanical remains (botany/archaeobotany)Bioarchaeology was largely born from the practices of New Archaeology, which developed in the United States in the 1970s as a reaction to a mainly cultural-historical approach to understanding the past.  Proponents of New Archaeology advocated using processual methods to test hypotheses about the interaction between culture and biology, or a biocultural approach. Some archaeologists advocate a more holistic approach to bioarchaeology that incorporates critical theory and is more relevant to modern descent populations.If possible, human remains from archaeological sites are analyzed to determine sex, age, and health. which all fall under the term 'Bioarchaeology'.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Byne's disease, more accurately known as Bynesian decay, is a peculiar and permanently damaging condition resulting from an ongoing chemical reaction which often attacks mollusk shells and other calcareous specimens that are in storage or on display for long periods of time. It is a form of efflorescence of salts formed by the reaction of acidic vapors with the basic calcareous surface. The efflorescence can sometimes superficially resemble a growth of mold. Although first described in the early 19th century, Bynesian decay was not well understood until almost a hundred years later. The condition is named after the man (Loftus Byne) who is best known for describing it in the late 19th century, even though he was not the first person to describe it in print. In addition, Byne mistakenly assumed that the condition was caused by bacteria, and thus the condition came to be referred to as a \"disease\".\nIn addition to mollusk shells, various other natural history specimens are susceptible to this form of decay, including eggshells and some fossils and mineral samples that are composed of calcium carbonate. This condition is of concern for museum scientists, and also for anyone who has a private collection of specimens of these kinds. In order to avoid Bynesian decay, the use of metal, non-reactive polymers and acid-free materials of archival quality are preferred over common paper, wood-based materials, ordinary glues and varnishes in collection environments. Management of affected specimens includes washing and thorough drying, with a subsequent reallocation to an archival setting.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A church treasure is the collection of historical art treasures belonging to a church, usually a monastery (monastery treasure), abbey, cathedral. Such \"treasure\" is usually held and displayed in the church's treasury or in a diocesan museum. Historically the highlight of church treasures was often a collection of reliquaries.\nAs a result of gifts and the desire to acquire sacred artifacts, many churches over the centuries gathered valuable and historic collections of altar plates, illuminated manuscripts of liturgical or religious books, as well as vestments, and other works of art or items of historical interest. Despite iconoclasm, secularism, looting, fire, the enforced sale of treasure in times of financial difficulty, theft and other losses, much of this treasure has survived or has even been repurchased.  Many large churches have been displaying their riches to visitors in some form for centuries.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The hobby of collecting includes seeking, locating, acquiring, organizing, cataloging, displaying, storing, and maintaining items that are of interest to an individual collector. Collections differ in a wide variety of respects, most obviously in the nature and scope of the objects contained, but also in purpose, presentation, and so forth. The range of possible subjects for a collection is practically unlimited, and collectors have realised a vast number of these possibilities in practice, although some are much more popular than others.\nIn collections of manufactured items, the objects may be antique or simply collectable. Antiques are collectable items at least 100 years old, while other collectables are arbitrarily recent. The word vintage describes relatively old collectables that are not yet antiques.\nCollecting is a childhood hobby for some people, but for others a lifelong pursuit or something started in adulthood. Collectors who begin early in life often modify their aims when they get older. Some novice collectors start purchasing items that appeal to them then slowly work at learning how to build a collection, while others prefer to develop some background in the field before starting to buy items. The emergence of the internet as a global forum for different collectors has resulted in many isolated enthusiasts finding each other.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A museum is distinguished by a collection of often unique objects that forms the core of its activities for exhibitions, education, research, etc. This differentiates it from an archive or library, where the contents may be more paper-based, replaceable and less exhibition oriented, or a private collection of art formed by an individual, family or institution that may grant no public access. A museum normally has a collecting policy for new acquisitions, so only objects in certain categories and of a certain quality are accepted into the collection.  The process by which an object is formally included in the collection is called accessioning and each object is given a unique accession number.\n\nMuseum collections, and archives in general, are normally catalogued in a collection catalogue, traditionally in a card index, but nowadays in a computerized database. Transferring collection catalogues onto computer-based media is a major undertaking for most museums. All new acquisitions are normally catalogued on a computer in modern museums, but there is typically a backlog of old catalogue entries to be computerized as time and funding allows.\nA museum's permanent collection are assets that the museum owns and may display, although space and conservation requirements often mean that most of a collection is not on display.  Museums often also host temporary exhibitions of works that may come all or partly from their permanent collection, or may be all or partly loaned (a \"loan exhibition\").  A travelling exhibition is shown in more than one venue; these tend to be either large loan exhibitions which may be exhibited at two or three venues in different countries, or selections from the collection of a large museum which tour to a number of regional museums.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In museums, the collection of cultural property or material is normally catalogued in a collection catalog (or collections catalog). Traditionally this was done using a card index, but nowadays it is normally implemented using a computerized database (known as a collection database) and may even be made available online.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Collection maintenance is an area of collections management that consists of the day-to-day hands on care of collections and cultural heritage. The primary goal of collections maintenance or preventive conservation is to prevent further decay of cultural heritage by ensuring proper storage and upkeep including performing regular housekeeping of the spaces and objects and monitoring and controlling storage and gallery environments. Collections maintenance is part of the risk management field of collections management. The professionals most involved with collections maintenance include collection managers, registrars, and archivists, depending on the size and scope of the institution. Collections maintenance takes place in two primary areas of the museum: storage areas and display areas. \nCollection maintenance and its tasks all work as a means to continually observe the condition of collections and ensure they are properly maintained and cared for. Because museums and repositories are stewards of cultural property in the public trust, they have a \u201cresponsibility to provide reasonable care for the objects entrusted\u201d to them. Museum's collections maintenance tasks can also involve assessing and implementing strategies to improve storage areas and containers while continuously monitoring environmental conditions that may affect objects. The collections management policy of an institution should include sections that address storage, integrated pest management, conservation, record management and documentation, inventories, and risk management. These policy sections should guide the scope of collections maintenance and designate responsibilities with staff members. A Collections Management Policy is considered a core document meant to support Collections Stewardship Core Standards and may be updated periodically to reflect best practices best served for a museum's specific collection.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Collections management involves the development, storage, and preservation of cultural property, as well as objects of contemporary culture (including contemporary art, literature, technology, and documents) in museums, libraries, archives and private collections. The primary goal of collections management is to meet the needs of the individual collector or collecting institution's mission statement , while also ensuring the long-term safety and sustainability of the cultural objects within the collector's care. Collections management, which consists primarily of the administrative responsibilities associated with collection development, is closely related to collections care, which is the physical preservation of cultural heritage. The professionals most influenced by collections management include collection managers, registrars, and archivists.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A Collections Management System (CMS), sometimes called a Collections Information System, is software used by the collections staff of a collecting institution or by individual private collectors and collecting hobbyists or enthusiasts.  Collecting institutions are primarily museums and archives and cover a very broad range from huge, international institutions, to very small or niche-specialty institutions such as local historical museums and preservation societies.  Secondarily, libraries and galleries are also collecting institutions.   Collections Management Systems (CMSs) allow individuals or collecting institutions to organize, control, and manage their collections' objects by \u201ctracking all information related to and about\u201d those objects. In larger institutions, the CMS may be used by collections staff such as registrars, collections managers, and curators to record information such as object locations, provenance, curatorial information, conservation reports, professional appraisals, and exhibition histories. All of this recorded information is then also accessed and used by other institutional departments such as \u201ceducation, membership, accounting, and administration.\"Though early Collections Management Systems were cataloging databases, essentially digital versions of card catalogs, more recent and advanced systems are being used to improve communication between museum staff and to automate and manage collections-based tasks and workflows. Collections Management Systems are also used to provide access to information about an institution's collections and objects to academic researchers, institutional volunteers, and the public, increasingly through online methods.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The conservation and restoration of outdoor murals is the process of caring for and maintaining murals, and includes documentation, examination, research, and treatment to insure their long-term viability, when desired.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Stained glass conservation refers to the protection and preservation of historic stained glass for present and future generations.  It involves any and all actions devoted to the prevention, mitigation, or reversal of the processes of deterioration that affect such glassworks and subsequently inhibit individuals' ability to access and appreciate them, as part of the world's collective cultural heritage. It functions as a part of the larger practices of cultural heritage conservation (conservation-restoration) and architectural conservation.\nStained glass is lauded as one of the most beautiful and compelling forms of architectural decoration; however, it is also one of the most vulnerable (Brown et al. 2002, xi).  The fabric of the glass itself, the paint or stain used to decorate it, and even the metal framework used to hold the design together are all at risk of deterioration, and will likely require conservation work to ensure their long-term survival. Historic glazing is subject to damage caused by continued exposure to pollution and the elements, on top of that resulting from inherent problems, such as the innate fragility of glass and any potential chemical instability of the materials involved (Brown et al. 2002, xi; Rauch 2004). Deterioration does not always occur gradually and may also occur suddenly and catastrophically, as the result of natural disasters (e.g. fire, extreme weather), accidents (e.g. improper handling, removal or treatment), or malicious damage (e.g. vandalism) (Brown et al. 2002, xi; Vogel et al. 2007).\nOwing to the delicate nature of the materials, and the incalculable historic and aesthetic value of stained glass work, any and all treatments should be planned and performed by professional conservators and craftspeople, who have been specially trained in the peculiarities of the medium. While preservation is the shared responsibility of all involved, including visitors, caretakers, and other stakeholders, it is imperative that professionals are consulted to ensure the continued integrity of the physical materials and their associated significance. For this reason, all projects should begin with a conservation plan that incorporates research in such topics as the history of the windows or building, the materials involved, and past alterations, as a key element of all conservation decisions. The type of conservation treatment employed should reflect this research, as well as the needs of the building as a whole, and should always be documented for reference in the future (CVMA 2004).\nFor information on the creation, construction, and history of stained glass windows see Stained glass.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific (CHCAP) undertakes research into issues of cultural heritage protection in Asia and the Pacific, including Australia.  Based in the Faculty of Arts and Education at Deakin University Melbourne, the Centre is closely connected with UNESCO, including its World Heritage Centre and especially its Asia Pacific Regional Office in Bangkok, Thailand. The Centre is also a member of Forum UNESCO, the Asian Academy for Heritage Management and AusHeritage.  The Cultural Heritage Centre's Director is Assoc Prof Andrea Witcomb, with distinguished Centre staff including Professor William Logan, UNESCO Chair in Heritage and Urbanism and Alfred Deakin Professor.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Cultural heritage management (CHM) is the vocation and practice of managing cultural heritage.  It is a branch of cultural resources management (CRM), although it also draws on the practices of cultural conservation, restoration, museology, archaeology, history and architecture. While the term cultural heritage is generally used in Europe, in the USA the term cultural resources is in more general use specifically referring to cultural heritage resources.  \nCHM has traditionally been concerned with the identification, interpretation, maintenance, and preservation of significant cultural sites and physical heritage assets, although intangible aspects of heritage, such as traditional skills, cultures and languages are also considered. The subject typically receives most attention, and resources, in the face of threat, where the focus is often upon rescue or salvage archaeology. Possible threats include urban development, large-scale agriculture, mining activity, looting, erosion or unsustainable visitor numbers. \nThe public face of CHM, and a significant source of income to support continued management of heritage, is the interpretation and presentation to the public, where it is an important aspect of tourism. Communicating with government and the public is therefore a key competence.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The cultural property storage typically falls to the responsibility of cultural heritage institutions, or individuals. The proper storage of these objects can help to ensure a longer lifespan for the object with minimal damage or degradation. With so many different types of artifacts, materials, and combinations of materials, keepers of these artifacts often have considerable knowledge of the best practices in storing these objects to preserve their original state.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Deaccessioning is the process by which a work of art or other object is permanently removed from a museum's collection to sell it or otherwise dispose of it.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Designation Scheme is an English system that awards \"Designated status\" to museum, library and archive collections of national and international importance. The Scheme is administered by Arts Council England (ACE).  As of 2020, 152 collections are officially designated.  National museums are not eligible for Designated status.\nThe Scheme was first launched in 1997 under the auspices of what eventually became the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council (MLA) and originally covered only museum collections. Harewood House became the first stately home to be awarded Designated status in 1998. The scheme was expanded to cover libraries and archives in 2005. Responsibility was transferred to the Arts Council in October 2011 following the closure of the MLA.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A destination painting or bucket list painting is a painting that in itself may inspire cultural tourism to a museum or other destination. Often such a work would be considered a \"masterpiece\". A more general characterization would be destination art.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A display case (also called showcase, display cabinet, or vitrine) is a cabinet with one or often more transparent tempered glass (or plastic, normally acrylic for strength) surfaces, used to display objects for viewing. A display case may appear in an exhibition, museum, retail store, restaurant, or house. Often, labels are included with the displayed objects, providing information such as description or prices. In a museum, the displayed cultural artifacts are normally part of the museum's collection, or are part of a temporary exhibition. In retail or a restaurant, the items are normally being offered for sale. A trophy case is used to display sports trophies or other awards.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Dublin Core, also known as the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES), is a set of fifteen \"core\" elements (properties) for describing resources. This fifteen-element Dublin Core has been formally standardized as ISO 15836, ANSI/NISO Z39.85, and IETF RFC 5013. The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI), which formulates the Dublin\nCore, is a project of the Association for Information Science and Technology (ASIS&T), a non-profit organization. The core properties are part of a larger set of DCMI Metadata Terms. \"Dublin Core\" is also used as an adjective for Dublin Core metadata, a style of metadata that draws on multiple Resource Description Framework (RDF) vocabularies, packaged and constrained in Dublin Core application profiles.The resources described using the Dublin Core may be digital resources (video, images, web pages, etc.) as well as physical resources such as books or works of art.\nDublin Core metadata may be used for multiple purposes, from simple resource description to combining metadata vocabularies of different metadata standards, to providing interoperability for metadata vocabularies in the linked data cloud and Semantic Web implementations.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "euromuse.net is an exhibition web portal, that, being a project of certain European museums, informs about the exhibitions of that museums, that mostly are based on cultural history and the history of arts of Europe.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "There are two types of exhibition catalogue (or exhibition catalog): a printed list of exhibits at an art exhibition; and a directory of exhibitors at a trade fair or business-to-business event.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A facsimile (from Latin fac simile, \"to make alike\") is a copy or reproduction of an old book, manuscript, map, art print, or other item of historical value that is as true to the original source as possible. It differs from other forms of reproduction by attempting to replicate the source as accurately as possible in scale, color, condition, and other material qualities. For books and manuscripts, this also entails a complete copy of all pages; hence, an incomplete copy is a \"partial facsimile\". Facsimiles are sometimes used by scholars to research a source that they do not have access to otherwise, and by museums and archives for media preservation and conservation. Many are sold commercially, often accompanied by a volume of commentary. They may be produced in limited editions, typically of 500\u20132,000 copies, and cost the equivalent of a few thousand United States dollars. The term \"fax\" is a shortened form of \"facsimile\" though most faxes are not reproductions of the quality expected in a true facsimile.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "\"Found in collection\" (FIC) is a term used by a museum to refer to \"undocumented objects that remain without status after all attempts to reconcile them to existing records of permanent collection and loan objects are completed\". Despite the best efforts of museum staff, museums often have FIC items. This term was developed so that collections with incomplete provenance would be handled ethically and with transparency. Depending on the paperwork and information accompanying the material, the museum has several choices in how to proceed.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Freedom Trail is a 2.5-mile-long (4.0 km) path through Boston, Massachusetts, that passes by 16 locations significant to the history of the United States. Marked largely with brick, it winds from Boston Common in downtown Boston through the North End to the Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown. Stops along the trail include simple explanatory ground markers, graveyards, notable churches and buildings, and a historic naval frigate. While most of the sites are free or suggest donations, the Old South Meeting House, the Old State House, and the Paul Revere House charge admission. The Freedom Trail is overseen by the City of Boston's Freedom Trail Commission and is supported in part by grants from various nonprofits and foundations, private philanthropy, and Boston National Historical Park.\nThe Freedom Trail was conceived by local journalist William Schofield, who in 1951 suggested building a pedestrian trail to link important local landmarks. Boston mayor John Hynes decided to put Schofield's idea into action. By 1953, 40,000 people were walking the trail annually.The National Park Service operates a visitor's center on the first floor of Faneuil Hall, where they offer tours, provide free maps of the Freedom Trail and other historic sites, and sell books about Boston and United States history.\nSome observers have noted the tendency of the Freedom Trail's narrative frame to omit certain historical locations, such as the sites of the Boston Tea Party and the Liberty Tree.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Glass disease, also referred to as sick glass or  glass illness, is a degradation process of glass that can result in weeping, crizzling, spalling, cracking and fragmentation.\nGlass disease is caused by an inherent instability in the chemical composition of the original glass formula. \nProperties of a particular glass will vary with the type and proportions of silica, alkali and alkaline earth in its composition.\nOnce damage has occurred it is irreversible, but decay processes can be slowed by climate control to regulate surrounding temperature, humidity, and air flow.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Gradhiva is an anthropological and museological journal, founded in 1986 by the poet and social scientist Michel Leiris and by the anthropologist Jean Jamin. It is since 2005 published by the Mus\u00e9e du Quai Branly in Paris.Its title derives from a novel by W. Jensen (Gradiva) which was the basis for a famous investigation by Sigmund Freud, and that strongly inspired the Surrealists. Leiris ans Jamin inserted an \"H\" in the word to highlight that the journal focused on the History of anthropology, and that the editing was done at the Mus\u00e9e de l'Homme in Paris. The title thus became the acronym \"Groupe de Recherches et d'Analyses Documentaires sur l'HIstoire et les Variations de l'Anthropologie}\" (\"Research and Documentary Analysis Group, History and Variations of Anthropology). It was edited by Jean Jamin between 1986 and 1996, by Fran\u00e7oise Zonabend from 1996 to 2006, and by Erwan Dianteill from 2006 until 2008.\nInitially dedicated to the history and the archives of anthropology, it maintained its original mission, yet latterly opened up to a greater extent to contemporary developments of anthropology and museology. Based on original examinations and the publication of archives, 'Gradhiva was open to a variety of disciplines: ethnology,  aesthetics, history, art history, sociology, literature and even music. Finally, it sought to develop an interaction between the text and images through high-quality and original iconography.\nIn 2007, the anthropologist Sally Price ended her review article on Gradhiva in The Museum Anthropology Review by saying:\n\nFor anyone who's interested in anthropology, history, and museums, this journal remains an essential resource, rich in its articles and beautiful in its presentation.\nGradhiva was published by the French publisher Jean Michel Place until 2004.\nIn 2009, the journal was retitled as Anthropology of Art, with a new direction.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Heritage conservation in Canada deals with actions or processes that are aimed at safeguarding the character-defining elements of a cultural resource so as to retain its heritage value and extend its physical life. Historic objects in Canada may be granted special designation by any of the three levels of government: the federal government, the provincial governments, or a municipal government.\nThe Heritage Canada Foundation acts as Canada's lead advocacy organization for heritage buildings and landscapes.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Heritage interpretation refers to all the ways in which information is communicated to visitors to an educational, natural or recreational site, such as a museum, park or science centre. More specifically it is the communication of information about, or the explanation of, the nature, origin, and purpose of historical, natural, or cultural resources, objects, sites and phenomena using personal or non-personal methods.  Some international authorities in museology prefer the term mediation for the same concept, following usage in other European languages.\nHeritage interpretation may be performed at dedicated interpretation centres or at museums, historic sites, parks, art galleries, nature centres, zoos, aquaria, botanical gardens, nature reserves and a host of other heritage sites. Its modalities can be extremely varied and may include guided walks, talks, drama, staffed stations, displays, signs, labels, artwork, brochures, interactives, audio-guides and audio-visual media. The process of developing a structured approach to interpreting these stories, messages and information is called interpretive planning. The thematic approach to heritage interpretation advocated by University of Idaho professor Sam Ham, the National Association for Interpretation, the US National Park Service, and others, is considered best practice.Those who practice this form of interpretation may include rangers, guides, naturalists, actors (who may wear period dress and do reenactments), museum curators, natural and cultural interpretive specialists, interpretation officers, heritage communicators, docents, educators, visitor services staff, interpreters or a host of other titles. The interpretive process is often assisted by new technologies such as visualizing techniques.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Cultural heritage tourism (or just heritage tourism) is a branch of tourism oriented towards the cultural heritage of the location where tourism is occurring.\nThe National Trust for Historic Preservation in the United States defines heritage tourism as \"traveling to experience the places, artifacts and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past\", and \"heritage tourism can include cultural, historic and  natural resources\".\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Historic preservation (US), heritage preservation or heritage conservation (UK), is an endeavor that seeks to preserve, conserve and protect buildings, objects, landscapes or other artifacts of historical significance. It is a philosophical concept that became popular in the twentieth century, which maintains that cities as products of centuries\u2019 development should be obligated to protect their patrimonial legacy. The term refers specifically to the preservation of the built environment, and not to preservation of, for example, primeval forests or wilderness.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "ICOFOM, the International Committee for Museology of the International Council of Museums (ICOM) was founded in 1977 at the initiative of Jan Jel\u00ednek, in order to promote research and theoretical thinking within the museum world. This committee became one of the most popular in International Council of Museums (ICOM). It addresses the study of the theoretical foundation that guides museum activities around the world or, more generally, the analysis of the different forms that museums can have.  The committee includes several hundred museologists from all over the world, organizes yearly symposia and publishes, among other monographs, the annual journal ICOFOM Study Series, available online.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "International Museum Day (IMD) is an international day held annually on or around 18 May, coordinated by the International Council of Museums (ICOM). The event highlights a specific theme which changes every year reflecting a relevant theme or issue facing museums internationally. IMD provides the opportunity for museum professionals to meet the public and alert them as to the challenges that museums face, and raise public awareness on the role museums play in the development of society. It also promotes dialogue between museum professionals.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Interpretive planning is an initial step in the planning and design process for informal learning-based institutions like museums, zoos, science centers, nature centers, botanical gardens, heritage sites, parks and other cultural facilities where interpretation is used to communicate messages, stories, information and experiences. It is a decision-making process that blends management needs and resource considerations with visitor needs and desires to determine the most effective way to communicate a message to a targeted audience.Interpretation at informal learning institutions builds on Freeman Tilden\u2019s principles of interpretation, focusing especially on relating content in a meaningful way to a visitor's own experience, provoking emotion, thought or further inquiry into a subject. \nThe communication goals of interpretation at mission-based institutions are based on achieving previously specified outcomes.  Most interpretive plans are based on a thematic approach to interpretation, and therefore, place emphasis on which themes are important to communicate to various audiences. Interpretive planning may also guide how audiences will react to and interact with a particular site or exhibit.An interpretive plan establishes these specific goals for an institution's market(s) and builds a structured vision of how to achieve them by communicating to an audience through appropriate and meaningful experiences. It combines developing, organizing and analyzing content into relevant and engaging messages, with creating exciting ways for visitors to experience this content.  An interpretive plan establishes the communication process, through which meanings and relationships of the cultural and natural world, past and present, are revealed to a visitor through experiences with objects, artifacts, landscapes, sites, exhibits and people.To effectively engage a visitor and achieve these objectives, as well as any other institutional objectives and requirements (financial, operational, environmental, etc.), an interpretive plan is built through addressing the following issues:  \n\nWhy do you want to interpret something?\nWho should be involved in the interpretive process?\nWhat are you interpreting?\nWho you are interpreting for?\nWhat messages do you want to communicate?\nWhat are your specific objectives?\nWhat media will you use?\nHow will your interpretation be implemented?\nHow will it be evaluated?\nHow will it be maintained? The resulting product provides a vision for the future of interpretation, education, and visitor experience opportunities. It identifies and analyzes interpretation, education, and visitor experience goals and issues and recommends the most effective, efficient, and practical ways to address those goals and issues. The plan guides the further design and development of the project, becoming a resource for architecture, exhibit development and fundraising.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An inventory is an itemized list of objects that a museum has accessioned or received via loan(s) and must be physically located by an examiner. A complete, one-hundred percent inventory, or a random inventory of the collection should be carried out periodically to ensure the museum is operating under best practices and for security purposes. The museum is legally responsible and ethically obligated for the maintenance of up-to-date information detailing the location of all objects within the collection, including loaned items and objects that have yet to be accessioned; this is stipulated by many museum associations, including the American Association of Museums.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Sarah Kenderdine is a professor of Digital Museology at the \u00c9cole polytechnique f\u00e9d\u00e9rale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland, since 2017. She leads the laboratory for experimental museology (eM+), exploring the convergence of aesthetic practice, visual analytics and cultural data. Kenderdine develops interactive and immersive experiences for museums and galleries, often employing interactive cinema and augmented reality. She is a New Zealander and was born on the 2 January 1966 in Sydney.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Life Beyond Tourism  (in short LBT) is a nonprofit worldwide portal free of banners, based in Florence, Italy. The portal dates back to 2008 and stems from an orientation by the Romualdo Del Bianco Foundation. The portal is an international platform for exchange of experiences and good practices in the framework of a tourism based on values and not only on services and consumerism.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Preservation of documents, pictures, recordings, digital content, etc., is a major aspect of archival science. It is also an important consideration for people who are creating time capsules, family history, historical documents, scrapbooks and family trees. Common storage media are not permanent, and there are few reliable methods of preserving documents and pictures for the future.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A memory institution is an organization maintaining a repository of public knowledge, a generic term used about institutions such as libraries, archives, heritage (monuments & sites) institutions, aquaria and arboreta, and zoological and botanical gardens, as well as providers of digital libraries and data aggregation services which serve as memories for given societies or mankind. Memory institutions serve the purpose of documenting, contextualizing, preserving and indexing elements of human culture and collective memory. These institutions allow and enable society to better understand themselves, their past, and how the past impacts their future.  These repositories are ultimately preservers of communities, languages, cultures, customs, tribes, and individuality. Memory institutions are repositories of knowledge, while also being actors of the transitions of knowledge and memory to the community. These institutions ultimately remain some form of collective memory. Increasingly such institutions are considered as a part of a unified documentation and information science perspective.\nArchives are repositories that collect, organize, preserve, and allow for access to the institution\u2019s primary source materials which include letters, reports, accounts, minute books, photographs, and manuscripts of the government, businesses, and members of the community.  Most archival collections include permanent and valuable records of historical and evidential value. Archives fall in line with memory institutions because they provide surrogates for collective human memory. Archives collect materials to help communities, institutions, nations to better understand themselves, their past, understand the present and prepare for the future. Libraries are defined as a collection of resources that are made available to the community in the form of print materials such as books and periodicals by information professionals. Beyond books and periodicals, libraries also offer a variety of services and programs to the community in which they serve with the goal of educating and advancing society. Museums are a place where objects that contain permanent historical and cultural value such as works of art, three-dimensional objects, and scientific specimens.  Museum can be characterized as historical, scientific, art institutions, heritage institutions, aquaria and arboreta, and zoological and botanical gardens.Lorcan Dempsey may have introduced the term into popular use in library and information science, although others, such as Joan Schwarz, used it earlier. It also appeared in a 1972 report to the Council on Library Resources.Helena Robinson (2012) criticized the term when she wrote, \"[r]ather than revealing the essential affiliation between museums, libraries and archives, their sweeping classification as 'memory institutions' in the public sector and the academy oversimplifies the concept of memory, and marginalises domain-specific approaches to the cataloguing, description, interpretation and deployment of collections that lead museums, libraries and archives to engage with history, meaning and memory in significantly different ways.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Microfadeometry is a technique that uses tiny spots of intense light to probe and measure color changes in objects of art that are particularly sensitive to light exposure.\nThis process is completed using a recently designed instrument known as a microfading tester. The data from the test is represented by a reflectance spectra.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Musaeum or Mouseion at Alexandria (Ancient Greek: \u039c\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u1f08\u03bb\u03b5\u03be\u03b1\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2), which included the famous Library of Alexandria, was an institution said to have been founded by Ptolemy I Soter and his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Originally, the word mouseion meant any place that was dedicated to the Muses, often related to the study of music or poetry, but later associated with sites of learning such as Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum.The Ptolemies reputedly established their Mouseion and Library with the intention of bringing together some of the best scholars of the Hellenistic world and collect all the books known at the time. Although it did not imply a collection of works of art, the original mouseion was the source for the modern usage of the word museum.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Museomics is the study of genomic data obtained from ancient DNA (aDNA) and historic DNA (hDNA) specimens in museum collections.\nEarly research in this area focused on short sequences of DNA from mitochondrial genes, but sequencing of whole genomes has become possible.Next-generation sequencing (NGS) and high-throughput sequencing (HTS) methods can be applied to the analysis of genetic datasets extracted from collections materials. Such techniques have been described as a \"third revolution in sequencing technology\". Like radiocarbon dating, the techniques of museomics are a transformative technology. Results are revising and sometimes overturning previously accepted theories about a wide variety of topics such as the domestication of the horse.Museum collections contain unique resources such as natural history specimens, which can be used for genome-scale examinations of species, their evolution, and their responses to environmental change.  Ancient DNA provides a unique window into genetic change over time. It enables scientists to directly study evolutionary and ecological processes, comparing ancient and modern populations, identifying distinct populations, and revealing patterns of change such as extinctions and migrations. Research may be used to identify isolated populations and inform conservation priorities.However, museum specimens can be poorly preserved and are subject to degradation and contamination. Genomic analyses face considerable challenges as  result of the highly degraded DNA typical of museum specimens. DNA from such samples is often subject to post-mortem nucleotide damage such as the hydrolytic deamination of cytosine (C) to uracil (U) residues. PCR amplification of damaged templates can further substitute uracils with thymine (T), completing a C to T substitution path. Such errors tend to occur towards the ends of molecules, accumulate with time, and can be significant in specimens a century-old or later. Robust genomic and statistical techniques are needed to rigorously detect and avoid errors and genotyping uncertainties when carrying out analyses based on museum collections. Optimal methods for working with hDNA and aDNA can differ as a result of differences in their DNA degradation history.Museomics also involves destructive sampling, irreversibly removing parts of sometimes rare specimens to obtain DNA. This can be contentious for curators and collection staff, involving a variety of ethical issues around the handling and destruction of objects, colonial acquisition and repatriation practices, and present-day social and political implications of research. Museums, universities and journals are increasingly developing ethics statements, best practices and guidelines for such work.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A museum ( mew-ZEE-\u0259m; plural museums or, rarely, musea) is a building or institution that cares for and displays a collection of artifacts and other objects of artistic, cultural, historical, or scientific importance. Many public museums make these items available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. The largest museums are located in major cities throughout the world, while thousands of local museums exist in smaller cities, towns, and rural areas. Museums have varying aims, ranging from the conservation and documentation of their collection, serving researchers and specialists, to catering to the general public. The goal of serving researchers is not only scientific, but intended to serve the general public.\nThere are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, and children's museums. According to the International Council of Museums (ICOM), there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Museum Anthropology Review is a peer-reviewed gold open access academic journal focusing on research in material culture studies, museum-based scholarship, and the study of museums in society. In addition to anthropology, it covers the fields of folklore, art history, and museum studies. It was established in 2007 and is published for the Mathers Museum of World Cultures by the Indiana University Bloomington Libraries as part of its IUScholarWorks program using Open Journal Systems. The journal is edited by Jason Baird Jackson.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Museum education is a specialized field devoted to developing and strengthening the education role of informal education spaces and institutions such as museums.\nIn a critical report called Excellence and Equity published in 1992 by the American Association of Museums, the educational role of museums was identified as the core to museums' service to the public. As museum education has developed as a field of study and interest in its own right, efforts have been made to record its history and to establish a research agenda to strengthen its position as a discipline in the wider work of museums.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Museum fatigue is a state of physical or mental fatigue caused by the experience of exhibits in museums and similar cultural institutions. The collection of phenomena that characterize museum fatigue was first described in 1916, and has since received widespread attention in popular and scientific contexts.The first person to describe museum fatigue was Benjamin Ives Gilman in the January 1916 edition of The Scientific Monthly. Gilman mainly focused on the efforts of museum fatigue on how the viewing displays are placed. Gilman went on to say that the way the displays were presented caused museum fatigue. In other later studies, Edward Robinson in 1928 talked more about museum fatigue, specifically four museums that showed a lot of characteristics of museum fatigue because of how the displays were placed. Arthur Melton provided more proof for Robinson by observing visitors\u2019 interest in the displays decreased as the number of displays increased.\nIn a more recent study of the phenomenon, Falk, Koran, Direking, and Dreblow studied museum fatigue at the Florida Museum of Natural History in 1985. While observing visitors they noticed a pattern of high interest in anything in the museum for about 30 minutes and then a decrease in interest. In 1997\u20131998, Beverly Serrell in her research determined that in less than 20 minutes people became apathetic towards the museum. Museum fatigue has also been applied in zoos to see if they had the same effect. In one study in 1986, Bitgood, Patterson, and Benefeld observed the reptile house of the Birmingham Zoo. While observing they noticed that the pattern was different from museum fatigue.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Museum folklore is a domain of scholarship and professional practice within the field of folklore studies (folkloristics).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Museum informatics is an interdisciplinary field of study that refers to the theory and application of informatics by museums. It represents a convergence of culture, digital technology, and information science. In the context of the digital age facilitating growing commonalities across museums, libraries and archives, its place in academe has grown substantially and also has connections with digital humanities.In all ages, museums are responsible for obtaining, storing, and exhibiting objects of different kinds of objects from art, cultural heritage, natural history, science, to technological inventions. However, modern museums are not only repositories of objects; they are repositories of knowledge. They are more like an information service organization, store information and share knowledge.After years of studies, the museum professionals and visitors have found their understanding of roles museums play largely changed by the introduction of new information technologies in museums. Today's visitors to museums expect instant access to a large amount of information about every object in the museum's collections.\nAs the needs and expectations change, the users of museum information resources are galvanizing museums to make appropriate changes. Besides, museum researchers and professionals have begun to explore the impact of information science and technology on the people who use museum resources.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A museum label, also referred to as a caption or tombstone, is a label describing an object exhibited in a museum or one introducing a room or area.  Museum labels tend to list the artist's name, the artwork's name, the year the art was completed, and the materials used.  They may also include a summary, description, the years the artist lived, and the dimensions of the work.  When such labels are used in an art gallery setting they often also include the price of the artwork.\nIncreasingly, labels in non-English-speaking countries have labels in English as well as the main local language, and in some parts of the world, labels in three or more languages are common.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Museum Planning is the creation of documents to describe a new museum\u2019s vision, the visitor experience and an organizational plan for a new institution, or one undergoing a major expansion or change in focus.\nMuseum plans may include some or all of the following:\n\nA review of institutional resources, assets and collections\nA review of local attractions and museums\nA new or updated mission and vision\nCollections objectives of the new institution\nEducational objectives of the new institution\nExperience objectives of the new institution\nPotential visitor and other audience and user groups\nInterpretive Plan\nExhibition storylines\nVisitor flow diagrams\nThematic treatments\nPreliminary exhibition layout\nStyle Boards\nExhibition Renderings\nSpace Needs Analysis\nSite selection\nArchitectural Concepts\nPreliminary staffing plan\nPreliminary project schedule\nPreliminary project budgetPlans are created by a museum planning team, that includes; museum staff and volunteers, members of the board of directors, community members, and representatives of city and state planning agencies working together with a museum planner, architects, exhibit designers, economists, and other specialist consultants. The objective of a Museum Plan is to create a clear and concise \u201croad map\u201d for the creation of new institution and a sustainable long term museum vision.\nMuseum planning may also refer to the designing of museum galleries, spaces, or new wings and buildings. The goal of a well-designed museum space is that it accents the collection, and puts the patron at ease.  There are many features of galleries that must be considered when organizing and planning a new space. Some of those aspects are circulation, density, lighting, backgrounds, arrangement, and labels.\nThe circulation of the space indicates the layout and direction of flow for visitors. This can be done by numbering objects, or the layout of displays. Poor circulation can result in the patron missing some galleries or displays or viewing objects in an order other than what the curator intended. Circulation should feel natural and logical; the patron may feel herded and become resentful.\nDensity, clarity, and emphasis are other aspects to consider when planning a new space. Galleries and individual objects should be placed so that everything appears to have equal value and importance. Then within displays, objects should not be overcrowded or cluttered. Lighting is extremely important and cannot be overlooked when planning new galleries. Natural light is ideal, but it must be filtered, and not too intense. It also should be consistent throughout the day \u2013 northern and southern exposure is ideal. \nBackgrounds can refer to a number of things: props, panels, or a simple painted wall can serve as a background to an object or display.  These must be subdued enough that they do not detract from the object on display, but they should be complementary. The specific position, arrangement, and display of an object is important to consider. Height of the display case, order in which objects are placed or hung, and the grouping of certain objects are all major factors in how patrons interpret objects. \nMuseum label and explanatory accessories are essential to a patron\u2019s experience in a museum. Enough information should be provided that the patron feels as if they understand what they are looking at, but too much can bore or confuse the visitor. Some examples of these accessories are collection guides available for the overall museum experience, larger panels at the start of each gallery that can explain the intent of the collection, and smaller panels at each object should inform the viewer the object\u2019s use, medium, creator, and dates.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A museum is an institution that cares for (conserves) a collection of artifacts and other objects of artistic, cultural, historical, or scientific importance and makes them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. According to Museums of the World, there are about 55,000 museums in 202 countries. The International Council of Museums comprises 30,000 members in 137 countries.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A nasothek (from the Latin nasus \"nose\" and Greek \u03b8\u03ae\u03ba\u03b7 \"container\") is a collection of sculpted noses.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Northampton Sekhemka statue is an ancient Egyptian artefact, given by the Marquess of Northampton to Northampton Museum, in or about 1870. The statue dates from the 5th dynasty (c. 2494\u20132345 BC, making it slightly older than Stonehenge) and depicts Sekhemka the scribe with his wife, Sitmerit. It was the subject of a controversial sale in July 2014, that raised questions of the museum's ownership and the ethics of selling artefacts. The statue was sold to an unidentified buyer for \u00a315.76m, which broke the world record for Ancient Egyptian art at auction. On 1 August 2014, Northampton Museums had their accreditation removed by Arts Council England, which ruled that the sale did not meet the accredited standards for museums in managing their collections.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A period room is a display that represents the interior design and decorative art of a particular historical social setting usually in a museum. Though it may incorporate elements of an individual real room that once existed somewhere, it is usually by its nature a composite and fictional piece. Period rooms at encyclopedic museums may represent different countries and cultures, while those at historic houses may represent different eras of the same structure. As with the glamorization of luxury in costume drama, this can be considered as a conservative genre that traditionally privileges Eurocentric elite views.\n\nIn the 21st century, the focus has shifted toward using period rooms in new ways or in diversifying them.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Pimpleia (Ancient Greek: \u03a0\u03af\u03bc\u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1) was a city in Pieria in Ancient Greece, located near Dion and ancient Leivithra at Mount Olympus. Pimpleia is described as a \"\u03ba\u03ce\u03bc\u03b7\" (\"quarter, suburb\") of Dion by Strabo. The location of Pimpleia is possibly to be identified with the modern village of Agia Paraskevi near Litochoron.It was renowned as the birthplace and early abode of Orpheus. Many springs and memorials dedicated to Orpheus and Orphic cults. Cults of the Muses were also celebrated, under the epithet Pimpleids (\u03a0\u03b9\u03bc\u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03c2).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Preservation metadata is item level information that describes the context and structure of a digital object. It provides background details pertaining to a digital object's provenance, authenticity, and environment. Preservation metadata, is a specific type of metadata that works to maintain a digital object's viability while ensuring continued access by providing contextual information, usage details, and rights.As an increasing portion of the world\u2019s information output shifts from analog to digital form, preservation metadata is an essential component of most digital preservation strategies, including digital curation, data management, digital collections management and the preservation of digital information over the long-term. It is an integral part of the data lifecycle and helps to document a digital object\u2019s authenticity while maintaining usability across formats.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Public history is a broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice is deeply rooted in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields.  The field has become increasingly professionalized in the United States and Canada since the late 1970s. Some of the most common settings for the practice of public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, new media, and all levels of government.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A replica is an exact copy of an object, made out of the same raw materials, whether a molecule, a work of art, or a commercial product. The term is also used for copies that closely resemble the original, without claiming to be identical. Sometimes replicas are of a smaller size than their originals.\nReplicas have been sometimes sold as originals, a type of fraud. Most replicas have more innocent purposes. Fragile originals need protection, while the public can examine a replica in a museum. Replicas are often manufactured and sold as souvenirs.\nAn inverted replica complements the original by filling its gaps. Sometimes the original never existed.  It is logically impossible for there to be a replica of something that never existed. Replicas and reproductions can be related to any form of licensing an image for others to use, whether it is through photos, postcards, prints, miniature or full size copies they represent a resemblance of the original object.\nNot all incorrectly attributed items are intentional forgeries. In the same way that a museum shop might sell a print of a painting or a replica of a vase, copies of statues, paintings, and other precious artifacts have been popular through the ages.\nHowever, replicas have often been used illegally for forgery and counterfeits, especially of money and coins, but also commercial merchandise such as designer label clothing, luxury bags and accessories, and luxury watches. In arts or collectible automobiles, the term \"replica\" is used for discussing the non-original recreation, sometimes hiding its real identity.In motor racing, especially motorcycling, often manufacturers will produce a street version product with the colours of the vehicle or clothing of a famous racer. This is not the actual vehicle or clothing worn during the race by the racer, but a fully officially approved brand-new street-legal product in similar looks. Typically found in helmets, race suits/clothing, and motorcycles, they are coloured in the style of racers, and often carry the highest performance and safety specifications of any street-legal products. These high-performance race-look products termed \"Replica\", are priced higher and are usually more sought-after than plain colours of the same product.\nBecause of gun ownership restrictions in some locales, gun collectors create non-functional legal replicas of illegal firearms. Such replicas are also preferred to real firearms when used as a prop in a film or stage performance, generally for safety reasons.A prop replica is an authentic-looking duplicate of a prop from a video game, movie or television show.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Rissverklebung is a technique of restoration of torn paintings by reweaving individual threads.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Shared historical authority is a current trend in museums and historical institutions which aims to open the interpretation of history to the public.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The New Museum (Swedish: Det Nya Museet) is a private museum located in the previous Mission Covenant Church in Sundbyberg, Stockholm, Sweden.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In archaeology, a typology is the result of the classification of things according to their physical characteristics. The products of the classification, i.e. the classes, are also called types. Most archaeological typologies organize portable artifacts into types, but typologies of larger structures, including buildings, field monuments, fortifications or roads, are equally possible. A typology helps to manage a large mass of archaeological data. According to Doran and Hodson, \"this superficially straightforward task has proved one of the most time consuming and contentious aspects of archaeological research\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Web archiving is the process of collecting portions of the World Wide Web to ensure the information is preserved in an archive for future researchers, historians, and the public. Web archivists typically employ web crawlers for automated capture due to the massive size and amount of information on the Web. The largest web archiving organization based on a bulk crawling approach is the Wayback Machine, which strives to maintain an archive of the entire Web.\nThe growing portion of human culture created and recorded on the web makes it inevitable that more and more libraries and archives will have to face the challenges of web archiving. National libraries, national archives and various consortia of organizations are also involved in archiving culturally important Web content.\nCommercial web archiving software and services are also available to organizations who need to archive their own web content for corporate heritage, regulatory, or legal purposes.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An architectural historian is a person who studies and writes about the history of architecture, and is regarded as an authority on it.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An archivist is an information professional who assesses, collects, organizes, preserves, maintains control over, and provides access to records and archives determined to have long-term value. The records maintained by an archivist can consist of a variety of forms, including letters, diaries, logs, other personal documents, government documents, sound and/or picture recordings, digital files, or other physical objects.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An artist is a person engaged in an activity related to creating art, practicing the arts, or demonstrating an art. The common usage in both everyday speech and academic discourse refers to a practitioner in the visual arts only. However, the term is also often used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians and other performers (although less often for actors). \"Artiste\" (French for artist) is a variant used in English in this context, but this use has become rare. Use of the term \"artist\" to describe writers is valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts like used in criticism.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A critic is a person who communicates an assessment and an opinion of various forms of creative works such as art, literature, music, cinema, theater, fashion, architecture, and food. Critics may also take as their subject social or government policy. Critical judgments, whether derived from critical thinking or not, weigh up a range of factors, including an assessment of the extent to which the item under review achieves its purpose and its creator's intention and a knowledge of its context. They may also include a positive or negative personal response.\nCharacteristics of a good critic are articulateness, preferably having the ability to use language with a high level of appeal and skill. Sympathy, sensitivity and insight are important too. Form, style and medium are all considered by the critic. In architecture and food criticism, the item's function, value and cost may be added components.\nCritics are publicly accepted and, to a significant degree, followed because of the quality of their assessments or their reputation. Influential critics of art, music, theater and architecture often present their arguments in complete books. One very famous example is John Ruskin's Seven Lamps of Architecture and The Stones of Venice. Critics may base their assessment on a range of theoretical positions. For instance, they may take a feminist or Freudian perspective.Unlike other individuals who may editorialize on subjects via websites or letters written to publications, professional critics are paid to produce their assessment and opinions for print, radio, magazine, television, or Internet companies. When their personal opinion outweighs considered judgment, people who give opinions, whether on current events, public affairs, sports, media or art are often referred to as \"pundits\" instead of critics.\nCritics are themselves subject to competing critics, since the final critical judgment always entails subjectivity. An established critic can play a powerful role as a public arbiter of taste or opinion. Also, critics or a coordinated group of critics, may award symbols of recognition.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interacts. The Greek prefix \"geo\" means \"earth\" and the Greek suffix, \"graphy,\" meaning \"description,\" so a geographer is someone who studies the earth. The word \"geography\" is a Middle French word that is believed to have been first used in 1540.Although geographers are historically known as people who make maps, map making is actually the field of study of cartography, a subset of geography. Geographers do not study only the details of the natural environment or human society, but they also study the reciprocal relationship between these two. For example, they study how the natural environment contributes to human society and how human society affects the natural environment.In particular, physical geographers study the natural environment while human geographers study human society and culture. Some geographers are practitioners of GIS (geographic information system) and are often employed by local, state, and federal government agencies as well as in the private sector by environmental and engineering firms.The paintings by Johannes Vermeer titled The Geographer and The Astronomer are both thought to represent the growing influence and rise in prominence of scientific enquiry in Europe at the time of their painting in 1668\u201369.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A Hispanist is a scholar specializing in Hispanic studies, that is Spanish language, literature, linguistics, history, or civilization by foreigners (i.e., non-Spaniards). It was used in an article by Miguel de Unamuno in 1908 referring to 'el hispanista italiano Farinelli', and was discussed at length for the U.S. by Hispanist Richard L. Kagan of Johns Hopkins University.The work carried out by Hispanists includes translations of literature and they may specialize in certain genres, authors or historical periods of the Iberian Peninsula, Hispanic America, and the Spanish Philippines.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the study of all history in time. If the individual is concerned with events preceding written history, the individual is a historian of prehistory. Some historians are recognized by publications or training and experience.  \"Historian\" became a professional occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany and elsewhere.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A Language Program Director (LPD) is a usually senior academic position in United States universities. In some institutions a LPD can also be referred to as a 'Language Program Coordinator' (LPC), while in others the LPD has a hierarchically higher position than an LPC, the latter coordinating just one course level.  \nLPDs usually coordinate all levels of instruction of undergraduate language programs, as well as develop policy related to program administration. They are also responsible for marketing, student recruitment, human resources and budgetary matters. Unlike administrators of other academic units, language program directors are often mandated to generate significant revenue for the institutions they work for.Most LPDs are not on a tenure-track because traditionally linguistic studies have been considered by Departments of Foreign Languages and Literatures as less important than literary studies. According to a recent MLA report, this is a trend that should be reversed. In the past LPD positions were generally filled by people - usually women - with degrees in literature and no training in second language acquisition or applied linguistics. This has resulted in a lack of innovation in US language programs. Recently, however, more and more universities are looking for new program directors with specific training in applied linguistics., and are offering their LPDs tenure-track positions. \nA useful source of information for LPDs is the American Association of University Supervisors and Coordinators (AAUSC)", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Musicology (from Greek \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae mousik\u0113 'music' and -\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03b9\u03b1 -logia, 'domain of study') is the scholarly analysis and research-based study of music. Musicology departments traditionally belong to the humanities, although some music research is scientific in focus (psychological, sociological, acoustical, neurological, computational). Some geographers and anthropologists have an interest in musicology so the social sciences also have an academic interest. A scholar who participates in musical research is a musicologist.\nMusicology traditionally is divided in three main branches: historical musicology, systematic musicology and ethnomusicology. Historical musicologists mostly study the history of the western classical music tradition, though the study of music history need not be limited to that. Ethnomusicologists draw from anthropology (particularly field research) to understand how and why people make music. Systematic musicology includes music theory, aesthetics, pedagogy, musical acoustics, the science and technology of musical instruments, and the musical implications of physiology, psychology, sociology, philosophy and computing. Cognitive musicology is the set of phenomena surrounding the cognitive modeling of music. When musicologists carry out research using computers, their research often falls under the field of computational musicology. Music therapy is a specialized form of applied musicology which is sometimes considered more closely affiliated with health fields, and other times regarded as part of musicology proper.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy.  The term philosopher comes from the Ancient Greek: \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03cc\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2, romanized: philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras (6th century BCE).In the classical sense, a philosopher was someone who lived according to a certain way of life, focusing upon resolving existential questions about the human condition; it was not necessary that they discoursed upon theories or commented upon authors. Those who most arduously committed themselves to this lifestyle would have been considered philosophers, and they typically followed a Hellenistic philosophy.\nIn a modern sense, a philosopher is an intellectual who contributes to one or more branches of philosophy, such as aesthetics, ethics, epistemology, philosophy of science, logic, metaphysics, social theory, philosophy of religion, and political philosophy. A philosopher may also be someone who has worked in the humanities or other sciences which over the centuries have split from philosophy, such as the arts, history, economics, sociology, psychology, linguistics, anthropology, theology, and politics.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The AHRC/ESRC Religion and Society Programme was a five-year strategic research initiative funded by two UK research councils: the Arts and Humanities Research Council and the Economic and Social Research Council, running from 2007 to 2012. It funded 75 projects across UK universities investigating various aspects of the complex relationships between religion and society, both historical and contemporary.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS), founded in 1919, is a private, nonprofit federation of 75 scholarly organizations in the humanities and related social sciences. It is best known for its fellowship competitions which provide a range of opportunities for scholars in the humanities and related social sciences at all career stages, from graduate students to distinguished professors to independent scholars, working with a number of disciplines and methodologies in the U.S. and abroad.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Arts and Humanities Data Service (AHDS) was a United Kingdom national service aiding the discovery, creation and preservation of digital resources in and for research, teaching and learning in the arts and humanities. It was established in 1996 and ceased operation in 2008 (although the website and related digital collections are still accessible).\nOrganised via a Managing Executive at King's College London and five AHDS Centres, hosted by various UK Higher Education Institutions, the AHDS was funded until the end of March 2008 by the Joint Information Systems Committee and the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC).  \nHowever, in March 2007 the AHRC decided to cease funding for the AHDS beyond March 2008. As a result, the AHDS is now advising AHRC applicants to ensure their projects include a budget for the costs of preservation and sustainability (whether with the AHDS or another service).\nFollowing the demise of AHDS, and the cessation of the Methods Network, the Centre for e-Research (CeRch) was established at King's College London in 2008. The Centre's aims are to facilitate interdisciplinary, institutional, national and international collaboration.\nThe five subject-based AHDS Centres are:\n\nAHDS Archaeology \u2014 University of York\nAHDS History \u2014 University of Essex\nAHDS Literature, Languages and Linguistics \u2014 Oxford University\nAHDS Performing Arts \u2014 HATII at the University of Glasgow\nAHDS Visual Arts \u2014 University for the Creative Arts (Farnham campus)Specific areas of work that the Arts and Humanities Data Service covers include:\n\ndigital preservation \u2014 including a series of preservation handbooks detailing specific preservation issues with various digital file formats and information on its digital repository\nAdvice on digitization \u2014 including a series of case studies of existing digitization projects, information papers on specific issues in digitization, and longer Guides to Good Practice dealing with digitization topics in particular arts and humanities disciplines\nOnline collections created by universities and museums in the UK. These include:\nAn online catalogue with details of collections held within the archive\nDesigning Shakespeare \u2014 40 years of Shakespearian performance in London and Stratford\nThe Stormont Papers - Parliamentary debates from Northern Ireland from 1921 to 1972.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), formerly Arts and Humanities Research Board (AHRB), is a British research council, established in 1998, supporting research and postgraduate study in the arts and humanities.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Austrian Studies Association or ASA (formerly the Modern Austrian Literature and Culture Association or MALCA, with its journal Modern Austrian Literature) continues traditions started in 1961 (originally the International Arthur Schnitzler Research Association), as the only North American association devoted to scholarship on all aspects of Austrian and Austrian-associated cultural life and history from the eighteenth century to the present.The Association publishes a quarterly scholarly journal, the Journal of Austrian Studies and holds an international annual spring conference, organized around a theme with open sessions. Its other activities include organizing scholarly panels for the annual conventions of the Modern Language Association, the German Studies Association, and at other national and international conferences.  Current news and resources of interest are included on its website and distributed through its list-serv, Twitter account, and Facebook page. The Austrian Studies Association is a member of the American Council of Learned Societies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Collegium Artium is an independent, non-profit organisation registered in Poland with a charitable status (according to Polish law: a public benefit organization) promoting open science and open culture.Projects conducted by Collegium Artium are related to cultural heritage in the broadest sense, with particular emphasis on the history of art. The organisation carries out research projects, publishes a book series and awards fellowships and prizes. As a signatory of, among others, the Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities, it participates in the open science and culture movement and contributes to the creation of the world\u2019s greatest open-access repository of art-historical texts operated by the Heidelberg University Library.Collegium Artium is a member of Polish National Federation of Non-Governmental Organisations (OFOP) and the Coalition for Open Education (KOED). Supervision: Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland. The activity of Collegium Artium is managed by the Board, the Council is its controlling body.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences was convened by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at the request of Senators Lamar Alexander (R-Tennessee) and Mark Warner (R-Virginia) and Representatives Tom Petri (R-Wisconsin) and David Price (D-North Carolina).On June 19, 2013, the Commission issued its initial report The Heart of the Matter, along with a companion film created specially with the aid of Ken Burns and George Lucas.\nThe Commission was chaired by Richard H. Brodhead, President of Duke University, and John W. Rowe, retired Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Exelon Corporation. Other Commission members included university, college, and community college presidents, museum directors, public servants, corporate executives, humanists, social scientists, and artists.The Commission\u2019s report has received wide press coverage and statements of support from at least fifteen national and state organizations.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Commonwealth of World Citizens (later named 'Mondcivitan Republic' after the Esperanto) was founded by Hugh J. Schonfield, an associate of H.G. Wells, in 1956. The organisation describes itself as  a servant-Nation.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Established in 1988, the Consortium of Humanities Centers and Institutes serves as a site for the discussion of issues germane to the fostering of cross-disciplinary activity and as a network for the circulation of information and the sharing of resources within the humanities and interpretive social sciences. CHCI has a membership of over 200 centers and institutes that are remarkably diverse in size and scope and are located in the United States, Australia, Canada, China, Korea, Finland, Taiwan, Ireland, United Kingdom, and other countries.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Council for the Development of French in Louisiana (CODOFIL; French: le Conseil pour le d\u00e9veloppement du fran\u00e7ais en Louisiane) is Louisiana's Office of Francophone Affairs (French: Agence des affaires francophones). It is a state agency whose multiple legislative mandates include developing opportunities to use the French language in tourism, economic development, culture, education and international relations. CODOFIL is governed by a board of 23 members and administratively placed within the Louisiana Office of Cultural Development's Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism, overseen by the Lieutenant Governor. CODOFIL is the only state agency in the United States whose purpose is to serve a linguistic population.\nToday, CODOFIL's role is to promote and support French immersion and French as a second language in education; it acts as a partner to the Louisiana Department of Education (LDOE), whose role is to manage Louisiana's school districts. CODOFIL continues to recruit and sponsor French, Belgian and Canadian associate teachers as per its accords with those countries, who are placed alongside local teachers upon LDOE's recommendation. CODOFIL encourages Louisiana Francophones to continue transmission of the state's heritage language via its scholarship program (providing opportunities for pedagogical advancement) and the Escadrille Louisiane program (which allows non-native speakers to perfect French at the Universit\u00e9 de Rennes in exchange for a minimum 3-year teaching commitment of French in Louisiana).CODOFIL has also worked to instill pride in all Louisiana Francophones in their linguistic identity rather than to uphold one variety of French language or another.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Wissenschaftsrat (WR; German Science and Humanities Council) is an advisory body to the German Federal Government and the state (L\u00e4nder) governments. It makes recommendations on the development of science, research, and the universities, as well as on the competitiveness of German science. These recommendations involve both quantitative and financial considerations, as well as their implementation. Funding is provided by the federal and state governments.The Wissenschaftliche Kommission (Scientific Commission) of the Wissenschaftsrat has 32 members appointed by the Federal President. Twenty-four scientists are jointly proposed by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation), the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur F\u00f6rderung der Wissenschaften (MPG, Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science), the Hochschulrektorenkonferenz (HRK, German Rector\u2019s Conference), the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres, the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft (FhG, Fraunhofer Society), and the Wissenschaftsgemeinschaft Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (WGL, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Scientific Community). Another eight persons of high public standing are jointly proposed by the Federal Government and the state (L\u00e4nder) governments.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The German Studies Association (GSA) is an international organization of scholars in history, literature, economics, cultural studies, and political science who study Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. The organization began in 1976 as the Western Association for German Studies, and was renamed as the GSA in 1983 after transforming itself into first a North American organization, and then an international one. The association awards the annual Sybil Halpern Milton Memorial Book Prize.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities is a nonprofit organization dedicated to furthering the education of residents of the state of Louisiana.  In its mission, the Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities pledges to provide access to and promote an appreciation of the history of Louisiana and its literary and cultural history. It was founded in 1972 as a result of initial funding by the National Endowment for the Humanities.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Maine Humanities Council  (MHC)\nwas founded in 1975 as a private nonprofit affiliate of the National Endowment for the Humanities. It is one of 56 humanities councils in the United States and its territories. The MHC is also home of the Harriet P. Henry Center for the Book, Maine's affiliate of the Center for the Book in the Library of Congress. \nThe organizational mission states: \"The Maine Humanities Council, a statewide non-profit organization, uses the humanities\u2014 literature, history, philosophy, and culture \u2014 as a tool for positive change in Maine communities. Our programs and grants encourage critical thinking and conversations across social, economic, and cultural boundaries.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is an independent federal agency of the U.S. government, established by the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act of 1965 (Pub.L. 89\u2013209), dedicated to supporting research, education, preservation, and public programs in the humanities. The NEH is housed at 400 7th St SW, Washington, D.C. From 1979 to 2014, NEH was at 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. in the Nancy Hanks Center at the Old Post Office.\nOn February 10, 2020, the NEH was presented by the Trump administration with a FY2021 budget that included an orderly wind-down of the agency.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Oregon Humanities, formerly known as the Oregon Council for the Humanities, is an independent, nonprofit affiliate of the National Endowment for the Humanities for the U.S. state of Oregon.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Pennsylvania Humanities Council (PHC) is a non-profit affiliate of the National Endowment for the Humanities based in Philadelphia, PA. It is one of 56 state humanities councils founded in the wake of the National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities Act of 1965. The Executive Director is Laurie Zierer.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Distributive justice concerns the socially just allocation of resources. Often contrasted with just process, which is concerned with the administration of law, distributive justice concentrates on outcomes. This subject has been given considerable attention in philosophy and the social sciences.\nIn social psychology, distributive justice is defined as perceived fairness of how rewards and costs are shared by (distributed across) group members. For example, when some workers work more hours but receive the same pay, group members may feel that distributive justice has not occurred. To determine whether distributive justice has taken place, individuals often turn to the behavioral expectations of their group. If rewards and costs are allocated according to the designated distributive norms of the group, distributive justice has occurred.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A happiness pump is a philosophical thought experiment.  It is a critique of utilitarianism.  A happiness pump is someone who will do anything to increase other people's well-being even if it reduces their own profoundly.  They have turned themselves into a machine (a \"pump\") that makes happiness.\nUtilitarianism states that actions that make more happiness or less pain are good and actions that reduce happiness or increase pain are bad and treats them as measurable and discrete.  In utilitarianism, it does not matter who is becoming happier or feeling less pain.  The happiness pump is a person who has taken utilitarianism too far and will give themselves great pain so long as they believe it makes other people somewhere in the world much happier.Philosopher Joshua David Greene says it is almost impossible for a happiness pump to exist in real life because anyone who tried would give up very shortly.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In modal logic, modal collapse is the condition in which every true statement is necessarily true, and vice versa; that is to say, there are no contingent truths, or to put it another way, that \"everything exists necessarily\". In the notation of modal logic, this can be written as \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03d5\n        \u2194\n        \u25fb\n        \u03d5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi \\leftrightarrow \\Box \\phi }\n  .\nIn the context of philosophy, the term is commonly used in critiques of ontological arguments for the existence of God and the principle of divine simplicity. For example, G\u00f6del's ontological proof contains \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03d5\n        \u2192\n        \u25fb\n        \u03d5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi \\rightarrow \\Box \\phi }\n   as a theorem, which combined with the axioms of system S5 leads to modal collapse.  Since some regard divine freedom as essential to the nature of God, and modal collapse as negating the concept of free will, this then leads to the breakdown of G\u00f6del's argument.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Spiritual philosophy is any philosophy or teaching that pertains to spirituality. It may incorporate religious or esoteric themes. It can include any belief or thought system that embraces the existence of a reality that cannot be physically perceived (Britannica 2020). Concepts of spiritual philosophy are not universal and differ depending on one\u2019s religious and cultural backgrounds (Inglehart & Baker 2000).  Spiritual philosophy can also be solely based on one\u2019s personal and experiential connections (Miller 2016).\nThe use of the term \u2018spiritual philosophy\u2019 in European culture has its origin in the Catholic concept of living one\u2019s life and practising God\u2019s words through the Holy Spirit. In the 19th century, the concept became more mainstream and evolved to encompass other religions and non-religious relationships with sacred, spiritual and supernatural beliefs.The notions of spiritual philosophy, for some individuals, diverge from the long-standing history and tradition of institutionalised religion with believers of faith using the practices, beliefs and rituals of their organised religion to connect with their spirituality (Inglehart & Baker 2000). In these instances, the practice of spiritual philosophy centres around the idea of god/gods or the divine (Inglehart & Baker 2000). \nHowever, spiritual philosophy is not always defined by religion (Miller 2016). One\u2019s beliefs in spiritual philosophy can be nontechnical and relate to one\u2019s individual views and beliefs outside religious frameworks, regardless of one\u2019s stance on religion (McDermott 2003).  \nWhilst the notions of spiritual philosophy are based on widely versed concepts and values (in both religious and non-religious instances), the belief system that influences spiritual philosophy is unique to the individual (McDermott 2003).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Politics (from Greek: \u03a0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac, politik\u00e1, 'affairs of the cities') is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies politics and government is referred to as political science.\nIt may be used positively in the context of a \"political solution\" which is compromising and nonviolent, or descriptively as \"the art or science of government\", but also often carries a negative connotation. The concept has been defined in various ways, and different approaches have fundamentally differing views on whether it should be used extensively or limitedly, empirically or normatively, and on whether conflict or co-operation is more essential to it.\nA variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and exercising force, including warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states, to the international level. \nIn modern nation states, people often form political parties to represent their ideas. Members of a party often agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties.\nA political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society. The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics in the West, and Confucius's political manuscripts and Chanakya's Arthashastra in the East.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to politics and political science:\n\nPolitics \u2013 the exercise of power; process by which groups of people make collective decisions. Politics is the art or science of running governmental or state affairs (including behavior within civil governments), institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the corporate, academic, and religious segments of society.\nPolitical science \u2013 the field concerning the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An action alert is a message that an organization sends to mobilize people, often members of the group and supporters of a specific point of view, calling on them to take action to influence public policy. Typically, action alerts are in reference to a timely issue, where prompt action is needed in order to affect upcoming decisions.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Anti-incumbency is sentiment in favor of voting out incumbent politicians. It is sometimes referred to as a \"throw the bums out\" sentiment. Periods of anti-incumbent sentiment are typically characterized by wave elections. This sentiment can also lead to support for term limits.\nIn a two-party system, anti-incumbent voters have only one party to vote for, when voting against the incumbent; in a multi-party system, public mood, i.e., the tendency of opinions held by voters over a set of related policy issues, can determine which parties receive the anti-incumbent vote.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A chancery is the principal office that houses a diplomatic mission or an embassy. This often includes the associated building and the site. The building can house one or several different nations' missions. The term derives from chancery or chancellery, the office of a chancellor. Some nations title the head of foreign affairs a chancellor, and 'chancery' eventually became a common referent to the main building of an embassy.\nThe building of a chancery is often erroneously referred to as an embassy. The term technically refers to the ambassador's residence and not their office. Among diplomats the terms \"embassy residence\" and \"embassy office\" is used to distinguish between the ambassador's residence and the chancery. In some cases, an ambassador's residence and the business office is located in the same building.There is evidence of the existence of chanceries throughout history, playing a key role in the facilitation of diplomacy and bilateralism. Chanceries have persisted into the modern age and still play a key role in the formation of foreign relations and maintenance of diplomacy. The function of a chancery includes facilitating communication between sovereign states, upholding foreign policy, opening cultural connections and exchange as well as many other functions. Chanceries also have other uses which include providing diplomatic asylum to those seeking it as seen in the cases of Julian Assange and Chen Guangcheng.Chanceries are said to be the interaction of diplomacy and architecture with the design of buildings heavily thought-upon. The characteristics of a chancery building, and its location is well-considered in order to achieve national interests. From the exterior appearance to interior design, each play a role in the diplomacy that takes place within its walls. The features of a chancery are also crucial in ensuring that it can withstand attacks and keep its occupants safe and secure. Many precautions are taken to keep the chancery secure.\nWhen countries do not have a diplomatic relationship, and no chancery is established, there is a disguised embassy in another country instead. This is  also known as a De Facto embassy.\nA large establishment of chanceries is the International Chancery Center (ICC) which is the first of its kind. This establishment is 47 acres of land in North-West Washington, D.C., US which is specifically allocated for chanceries.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Comparative politics is a field in political science characterized either by the use of the comparative method or other empirical methods to explore politics both within and between countries. Substantively, this can include questions relating to political institutions, political behavior, conflict, and the causes and consequences of economic development. When applied to specific fields of study, comparative politics may be referred to by other names, such as comparative government (the comparative study of forms of government).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Criminalization or criminalisation, in criminology, is \"the process by which behaviors and individuals are transformed into crime and criminals\". Previously legal acts may be transformed into crimes by legislation or judicial decision. However, there is usually a formal presumption in the rules of statutory interpretation against the retrospective application of laws, and only the use of express words by the legislature may rebut this presumption. The power of judges to make new law and retrospectively criminalise behaviour is also discouraged. In a less overt way, where laws have not been strictly enforced, the acts prohibited by those laws may also undergo de facto criminalization through more effective or committed legal enforcement.  The process of criminalization takes place through societal institutions including schools, the family, and the criminal justice system.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Critical juncture theory focuses on critical junctures, i.e., large, rapid, discontinuous changes, and the long-term causal effect or historical legacy of these changes.\nCritical junctures are turning points that alter the course of evolution of some entity (e.g., a species, a society). Critical juncture theory seeks to explain both (1) the historical origin and maintenance of social order, and (2) the occurrence of social change through sudden, big leaps.Critical juncture theory is not a general theory of social order and change. It emphasizes one kind of cause (involving a big, discontinuous change) and kind of effect (a persistent effect). Yet, it challenges some common assumptions in many approaches and theories in the social sciences. The idea that some changes are discontinuous sets it up as an alternative to (1) \"continuist\" or \"synechist\" theories that assume that change is always gradual or that natura non facit saltus \u2013 Latin for \"nature does not make jumps.\" The idea that such discontinuous changes have a long-term impact stands in counterposition to (2) \"presentist\" explanations that only consider the possible causal effect of temporally proximate factors.Theorizing about critical junctures began in the social sciences in the 1960s. Since then, it has been central to a body of research in the social sciences that is historically informed. Research on critical junctures in the social sciences is part of the broader tradition of comparative historical analysis and historical institutionalism. It is a tradition that spans political science, sociology and economics. Within economics, it shares an interest in historically oriented research with the new economic history or cliometrics. Research on critical junctures is also part of the broader \"historical turn\" in the social sciences.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In parliamentary systems, politicians are said to cross the floor if they formally change their political affiliation to a different political party than which they were initially elected under (as is the case in Canada and the United Kingdom). In Australia though, this term simply refers to Members of Parliament (MPs) who dissent from the party line and vote against the express instructions of the party whip while retaining membership in their political party (at least for the time being).\nVoting against party lines may lead to consequences such as losing a position (e.g., as minister or a portfolio critic) or being ejected from the party caucus. While these practices are legally permissible in most countries, crossing the floor can lead to controversy and media attention. Some countries like India, the Maldives and Bangladesh have laws that remove a member from parliament due to floor-crossing.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A delaying tactic or delay tactic is a strategic device sometimes used during business, diplomatic or interpersonal negotiations, in which one party to the negotiation seeks to gain an advantage by postponing a decision.  Someone uses a delaying tactic when they expect to have a stronger negotiating position at a later time. They may also use a delaying tactic when they prefer the status quo to any of the potential resolutions, or to impose costs on the other party to compel them to accept a settlement or compromise. Delay tactics are also sometimes used as a form of indirect refusal wherein one party postpones a decision indefinitely rather than refusing a negotiation outright. To use a delaying tactic, the delaying party must have some form of control over the decision-making process.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A democratic intervention is a military intervention by external forces with the aim of assisting democratization of the country where the intervention takes place. Examples include intervention in Afghanistan and Iraq. Democratic intervention has occurred throughout the mid-twentieth century, as evidenced in Japan and Germany after World War II, where democracies were imposed by military intervention.Democratic intervention can be facilitated by the mechanisms of military aggression but can also involve non-aggressive methods. The legal grounds for democratic intervention remain disputed and surround the tension between narrow legislative interpretations and the weak binding nature of international law regimes.States engage in democratic intervention for a variety of reasons, ranging from national interests to international security. Proponents of democratic intervention acknowledge the superiority of democracies to autocratic regimes in facets of peace, economics and human rights. Criticisms of democratic intervention surround the infringement of state sovereignty of the country where the intervention takes place and the failure of democratic intervention to consider a nation's cultural complexities.Western liberal democracies like the United States (US) are in favor of democratic intervention while other countries such as China and North Korea view it as a mechanism of furthering the hegemony of an intervening state.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Democratization, or democratisation, is the transition to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. It may be the transition from an authoritarian regime to a full democracy, a transition from an authoritarian political system to a semi-democracy or transition from a semi-authoritarian political system to a democratic political system.\nThe outcome may be consolidated (as it was for example in the United Kingdom) or democratization may face frequent reversals (as happened in Chile). Different patterns of democratization are often used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows.\nWhether and to what extent democratization occurs has been attributed to various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes.\nThe opposite process is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A diplomatic mission or foreign mission is a group of people from a state or organization present in another state to represent the sending state or organization officially in the receiving or host state. In practice, the phrase usually denotes an embassy, which is the main office of a country's diplomatic representatives to another country; it is usually, but not necessarily, based in the receiving state's capital city. Consulates, on the other hand, are smaller diplomatic missions that are normally located in major cities of the receiving state (but can be located in the capital, typically when the sending country has no embassy in the receiving state). As well as being a diplomatic mission to the country in which it is situated, an embassy may also be a nonresident permanent mission to one or more other countries.The term embassy is sometimes used interchangeably with chancery, the physical office or site of a diplomatic mission. Consequently, the terms \"embassy residence\" and \"embassy office\" are used to distinguish between the ambassador's residence and the chancery.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold public office.\nElections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17th century. Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive and judiciary, and for regional and local government. This process is also used in many other private and business organisations, from clubs to voluntary associations and corporations.\nThe global use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern representative democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype, ancient Athens, where the elections were considered an oligarchic institution and most political offices were filled using sortition, also known as allotment, by which officeholders were chosen by lot.\nElectoral reform describes the process of introducing fair electoral systems where they are not in place, or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems. Psephology is the study of results and other statistics relating to elections (especially with a view to predicting future results). Election is the fact of electing, or being elected.\nTo elect means \"to select or make a decision\", and so sometimes other forms of ballot such as referendums are referred to as elections, especially in the United States.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An extrajudicial killing (also known as extrajudicial execution or extralegal killing) is the deliberate killing of a person without the lawful authority granted by a judicial proceeding. It typically refers to government authorities, whether lawfully or unlawfully, targeting specific people for death, which in authoritarian regimes often involves political, trade union, dissident, religious and social figures. The term is typically used in situations that imply the human rights of the victims have been violated; deaths caused by legitimate warfighting or police actions are generally not included, even though military and police forces are often used for killings seen by critics as illegitimate. The label \"extrajudicial killing\" has also been applied to organized, lethal enforcement of extralegal social norms by non-government actors, including lynchings and honor killings.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Gaslighting is a colloquialism, loosely defined as making someone question their own reality. The expression, which derives from the title of the 1944 film Gaslight, became popular in the mid-2010s.\nThe term may also be used to describe a person (a \"gaslighter\") who presents a false narrative to another group or person, thereby leading them to doubt their perceptions and become misled, disoriented or distressed. Oftentimes this is for the gaslighter's own benefit. Normally, this dynamic is possible only when the audience is vulnerable, such as in unequal power relationships, or fearful of the losses associated with challenging the false narrative. Gaslighting is not necessarily malicious or intentional, although in some cases it is.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Gastronationalism or culinary nationalism is the use of food and its history, production, control, preparation and consumption as a way of promoting nationalism and national identity. It may involve arguments between two or more regions or countries about whether a particular dish or preparation is claimed by one of those regions or countries and has been appropriated or co-opted by the others.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Global policeman (or world police) is an informal term for a superpower which seeks or claims the right to intervene in other sovereign states. It has been used, firstly for the United Kingdom and, since 1945, of the United States.  Nevertheless, the two terms hegemon and global policeman are not identical in meaning.  The former term defines capacity for dominant control anywhere on earth, whereas the latter may also include small or large areas outside control, along with monitoring and attempted enforcements, but does not define any level of effectiveness.\nIn recent years there has been speculation that China seeks to take over the role as it reaches out to control shipping lanes and protect its overseas workers and interests.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Health politics or politics of health is an interdisciplinary field of study concerned with the analysis of social and political power over the health status of individuals.Health politics, incorporating broad perspectives from medical sociology to international relations, is interested not only in the understanding of politics as government/ governance, but also politics as civil society and as a process of power contestation. It views this wider understanding of politics to take place throughout levels of society - from the individual to the global. As such the politics of health is not constrained to a particular area of society, such as state government, but rather is a dynamic, ongoing social process that takes place ubiquitously throughout our levels of society.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Health security is a concept that encompasses activities and measures across sovereign boundaries that mitigates public health incidents to ensure the health of populations. It is an evolving paradigm within the fields of international relations and security studies. Proponents of health security posit that all states have a responsibility to protect the health and wellbeing of their populations. Opponents suggest health security impacts civil liberties and the equal distribution of resources.According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), health security encompasses the \u201cactivities required to minimise the danger and impact of acute public health events that endanger the collective health of populations living across geographical regions and international boundaries\u201d. It is the responsibility of governments globally to protect the health of their populations.The advent of new security challenges, resulting from increasing global vulnerability to infectious diseases has created demand for greater global commitment and collaboration towards public health. Globalisation, and the advent of transnational concerns regarding the spread of infectious disease, have become integral to national and international security agendas. Disease, pandemics, and epidemics have become of increasing concern for global policymakers and governments, requiring mobilisation of essential resources for the implementation of rapid and effective health procedures. The WHO, and initiatives such as the Global Health Security Agenda are central to advocacy of health security - aiming to improve detection, prevention, and response to infectious disease through public health surveillance and partnerships between states.Health security is a concept or framework for public health issues which includes protection of national populations from external health threats such as pandemics.Four types of security may be considered in this context: biosecurity; global health security; human security; and national security.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Human rights are moral principles or norms for certain standards of human behaviour and are regularly protected in municipal and international law. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights \"to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being\" and which are \"inherent in all human beings\", regardless of their age, ethnic origin, location, language, religion, ethnicity, or any other status. They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. They are regarded as requiring empathy and the rule of law and imposing an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others, and it is generally considered that they should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances.The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international law and global and regional institutions. Actions by states and non-governmental organisations form a basis of public policy worldwide. The idea of human rights suggests that \"if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights\". The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable scepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day. The precise meaning of the term right is controversial and is the subject of continued philosophical debate; while there is consensus that human rights encompasses a wide variety of rights such as the right to a fair trial, protection against enslavement, prohibition of genocide, free speech or a right to education, there is disagreement about which of these particular rights should be included within the general framework of human rights; some thinkers suggest that human rights should be a minimum requirement to avoid the worst-case abuses, while others see it as a higher standard. It has also been argued that human rights are \"God-given\", although this notion has been criticized.Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the events of the Holocaust, culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition that became prominent during the European Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui and which featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century, possibly as a reaction to slavery, torture, genocide and war crimes, as a realisation of inherent human vulnerability and as being a precondition for the possibility of a just society. Human rights advocacy has continued into the early 21st century, centred around achieving greater economic and political freedom.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The hypodermic needle model (known as the hypodermic-syringe model, transmission-belt model, or magic bullet theory) is a model of communication suggesting that an intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receiver. The model was originally rooted in 1930s behaviourism and largely considered obsolete for a long time, but big data analytics-based mass customisation has led to a modern revival of the basic idea.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within civil governments, \npolitics is observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Politics consists of \"social relations involving authority or power. The definition of \"politics\" from \"The Free Dictionary\" is the study of political behavior and examines the acquisition and application of power. Politics study include political philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behavior, and public administration, which examines the practices of governance.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The institutionalization of politics (also spelled as institutionalisation of politics; Chinese: \u653f\u6cbb\u5236\u5ea6\u5316), commonly known as political institutionalization or political institutionalisation, refers to the founding, arrangement, and codification of the states' various institutions, generally via constitution-making or some other constitutional mechanisms. It is the process by which political structures and practices take root.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "International relations (IR), international studies (IS) or international affairs (IA) is the scientific study of interactions between sovereign states. In a broader sense, it concerns all activities between states\u2014such as war, diplomacy, trade, and foreign policy\u2014as well as relations with and among other international actors, such as intergovernmental organisations (IGOs), international nongovernmental organisations (INGOs), international legal bodies, and multinational corporations (MNCs).International relations is widely considered as one of the major subdisciplines of political science, along with comparative politics and political theory. However, in addition to political science, it draws considerably from international economics, law, and world history, leading some academic institutions to characterize it as an independent or multidisciplinary field.\nWhile international politics has been analyzed since antiquity, international relations did not become a discrete field until 1919, when it was first offered as an undergraduate major by Aberystwyth University in the United Kingdom. The same year also saw the establishment of the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University. Similar studies were soon established at the University of Oxford and the London School of Economics, further contributing to the field's development and prominence.After the Second World War, international relations burgeoned in both importance and scholarship\u2014particularly in North America and Western Europe\u2014partly in response to the geostrategic concerns of the Cold War. The collapse of the Soviet Union and subsequent rise of globalization in the late 20th century presaged new theories and evaluations of the rapidly changing international system. Into the 21st century, as connections between states become progressively more complex and multifaceted, international relations has been incorporated into other fields, such as economics, law, and history, leading to a convergent, interdisciplinary field.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Legislation is the process or product of enrolling, enacting, or promulgating law by a legislature, parliament, or analogous governing body. Before an item of legislation becomes law it may be known as a bill, and may be broadly referred to as \"legislation\" while it remains under consideration to distinguish it from other business. Legislation can have many purposes: to regulate, to authorize, to outlaw, to provide (funds), to sanction, to grant, to declare, or to restrict. It may be contrasted with a non-legislative act by an executive or administrative body under the authority of a legislative act.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A monarch is a head of state for life or until abdication, and therefore the head of state of a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority and power in the state, or others may wield that power on behalf of the monarch. Usually a monarch either personally inherits the lawful right to exercise the state's sovereign rights (often referred to as the throne or the crown) or is selected by an established process from a family or cohort eligible to provide the nation's monarch. Alternatively, an individual may proclaim themself monarch, which may be backed and legitimated through acclamation, right of conquest or a combination of means.\nIf a young child is crowned the monarch, then a regent is often appointed to govern until the monarch reaches the requisite adult age to rule. Monarchs' actual powers vary from one monarchy to another and in different eras; on one extreme, they may be autocrats (absolute monarchy) wielding genuine sovereignty; on the other they may be ceremonial heads of state who exercise little or no direct power or only reserve powers, with actual authority vested in a parliament or other body (constitutional monarchy).\nA monarch can reign in multiple monarchies simultaneously. For example, the monarchy of Canada and the monarchy of the United Kingdom (as well as 14 other Commonwealth realms) are separate states, but they share the same monarch through personal union.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "New Public Management (NPM) is an approach to running public service organizations that is used in government and public service institutions and agencies, at both sub-national and national levels. The term was first introduced by academics in the UK and Australia to describe approaches that were developed during the 1980s as part of an effort to make the public service more \"businesslike\" and to improve its efficiency by using private sector management models.\nAs with the private sector, which focuses on customer service, NPM reforms often focused on the \"centrality of citizens who were the recipient of the services or customers to the public sector\". NPM reformers experimented with using decentralized service delivery models, to give local agencies more freedom in how they delivered programs or services. In some cases, NPM reforms that used e-government consolidated a program or service to a central location to reduce costs. Some governments tried using quasi-market structures, so that the public sector would have to compete against the private sector (notably in the UK, in health care). Key themes in NPM were \"financial control, value for money, increasing efficiency ..., identifying and setting targets and continuance monitoring of performance, handing over ... power to the senior management\" executives. Performance was assessed with audits, benchmarks and performance evaluations. Some NPM reforms used private sector companies to deliver what were formerly public services.NPM advocates in some countries worked to remove \"collective agreements [in favour of] ... individual rewards packages at senior levels combined with short term contracts\" and introduce private sector-style corporate governance, including using a Board of Directors approach to strategic guidance for public organizations. While NPM approaches have been used in many countries around the world, NPM is particularly associated with the most industrialized OECD nations such as the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States of America. NPM advocates focus on using approaches from the private sector \u2013 the corporate or business world\u2013which can be successfully applied in the public sector and in a public administration context. NPM approaches have been used to reform the public sector, its policies and its programs. NPM advocates claim that it is a more efficient and effective means of attaining the same outcome.\nIn NPM, citizens are viewed as \"customers\" and public servants are viewed as public managers. NPM tries to realign the relationship between public service managers and their political superiors by making a parallel relationship between the two. Under NPM, public managers have incentive-based motivation such as pay-for-performance, and clear performance targets are often set, which are assessed by using performance evaluations. As well, managers in an NPM paradigm may have greater discretion and freedom as to how they go about achieving the goals set for them. This NPM approach is contrasted with the traditional public administration model, in which institutional decision-making, policy-making and public service delivery is guided by regulations, legislation and administrative procedures.\nNPM reforms use approaches such as disaggregation, customer satisfaction initiatives, customer service efforts, applying an entrepreneurial spirit to public service, and introducing innovations. The NPM system allows \"the expert manager to have a greater discretion\". \"Public Managers under the New Public Management reforms can provide a range of choices from which customers can choose, including the right to opt out of the service delivery system completely\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The North Atlantic or liberal model of media and politics, as defined in Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini's Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics, is characterized by an early development of commercial press, information-oriented journalism, strong professionalization, and a market dominated media system.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Oral democracy is a talk-based form of government and political system in which citizens of a determined community have the opportunity to deliberate, through direct oral engagement and mass participation, in the civic and political matters of their community. Additionally, oral democracy represents a form of direct democracy, which has the purpose of empowering citizens by creating open spaces that promote an organized process of discussion, debate, and dialogue that aims to reach consensus and to impact policy decision-making. Political institutions based on this idea of direct democracy seek to decrease the possibilities of state capture from elites by holding them accountable, to encourage civic participation and collective action, and to improve the efficiency and adaptability of development interventions and public policy implementation.Citizen's participation in this type of political system can be found in Indian village assemblies, which are ruled based on the principle of a democratic decentralized structure implemented by the political institute and cabinet of the village, also known as Gram Panchayat. The Gram Sabha is the most distinguished organ and general body of the Gram Panchayat, since it allows citizens to deliberate and decide on the implementation of public policies, local governance, development goals, accountability, and strategic planning of projects for the village.The term oral democracy was originally presented by  Vijayendra Rao and Paromita Sanyal in their 2019 book entitled Oral Democracy: Deliberation in Indian Village Assemblies. It is still considered a new and modern concept that requires further research and theoretical and practical analysis by the academic community.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A parliamentary leader is a political title or a descriptive term used in various countries to designate the person leading a parliamentary group or caucus in a legislative body, whether it be a national or sub-national legislature. They are their party's most senior member of parliament (MP) in most parliamentary democracies. \nA party leader may be the same person as the parliamentary leader, or the roles may be separated.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In social sciences, participation inequality consists of difference between levels of participation of various groups in certain activities. Common examples include:\n\ndiffering levels of participation in democratic, electoral politics, by social class, race, gender, etc.\ndiffering levels of participation in online communities as described by Jakob Nielsen.In politics, participation inequality typically affects \"the kinds of individuals, such as the young, the poor and those with little formal education\" who tend to not take the initiative to participate in electoral and related events. State enumeration, such as was done in Canada before the implementation of the National Register of Electors in 1996, \"worked to augment voter turnout among all segments of society and thus mitigated a natural tendency toward participation inequality in electoral politics\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Partisan sorting is an effect in politics in which voters sort themselves into parties that match their ideology. Partisan sorting is distinct from political polarization, which is where partisans subscribe to increasingly extreme positions.  As political scientist Nolan McCarty explains, \"party sorting can account for the increased differences across partisans even if the distribution of...attitudes in the population remains unchanged or moves uniformly in one direction or the other.\" As an example given by McCarty, the gap between the Democratic Party and Republican Party on views towards immigrants strengthening the country with hard work and talents has widened from a 2-point gap in 1994 to a 42-point gap in 2017. A reasonable explanation is that of partisan sorting: those who are pro-immigrant shifted into the Democratic party and immigration-restrictions have shifted towards the Republican party. According to McCarty, this explains the widening gap between the two parties, considering how pro-immigration viewpoints between the two surveys have increased by 35% since 1994.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A political pensioner enjoys a pension awarded due to his or political career or significance.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A phantom border (German: Phantomgrenze) is an informal delineation following the approximate course of an abolished political border, associated with demographic differences on each side as a continuing legacy of historical division, despite official geopolitical union. Not all former political borders are today phantom borders. Factors that may increase the likelihood of a political border becoming a phantom border upon dissolution, include: short time elapsed since the border's dissolution, long existence of the former border, imporousity of the former border, and divergent characteristics of the political entity formerly governing one side of the border.\nPhantom borders have many different implications: in Ukraine they are associated with conflict, while in countries such as Romania they play an important part in relations with neighboring countries.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Abuse is the improper usage or treatment of a thing, often to unfairly or improperly gain benefit. Abuse can come in many forms, such as: physical or verbal maltreatment, injury, assault, violation, rape, unjust practices, crimes, or other types of aggression. To these descriptions, one can also add the Kantian notion of the wrongness of using another human being as means to an end rather than as ends in themselves. Some sources describe abuse as \"socially constructed\", which means there may be more or less recognition of the suffering of a victim at different times and societies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A political argument is an instance of a logical argument applied to politics. Political arguments are used by academics, media pundits, candidates for political office and government officials. Political arguments are also used by citizens in ordinary interactions to comment about and understand political events. More often than not, political arguments tend to be circular, repeating the same facts as premises under perhaps slightly different guises. Much political argument concerns issues of taxation and government spending.Political argument should be distinguished from propaganda, in that propaganda has little or no structure or the rationale, if it exists, is egregiously fallacious.\nA classic example of political arguments are those contained in The Federalist Papers arguing in favor of ratification of the American constitution.\nThere are several ways of classifying political argument:\n\nBased on the purpose of the argument.\nBased on the logical structure of the argument.\nBased on the subject matter dealt with in the argument.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political bias is a bias or perceived bias involving the slanting or altering of information to make a political position or political candidate seem more attractive. With a distinct association with media bias, it commonly refers to how a reporter, news organisation, or TV show covers a political candidate or a policy issue.Bias emerges in a political context when individuals engage in an inability or an unwillingness to understand a politically opposing point of view. Such bias in individuals may have its roots in their traits and thinking styles; it is unclear whether individuals at particular positions along the political spectrum are more biased than any other individuals.Political bias exists beyond simple presentation and understanding of view-points favouring a particular political leader or party but rather transcends into the readings and interactions among individuals undertaken on a daily basis.  The prevalence of political bias has a lasting impact with proven effects on voter behaviour and consequent political outcomes.With an understanding of political bias, comes the acknowledgement of its violation of expected political neutrality. A lack of political neutrality is the result of political bias.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The political climate is the aggregate mood and opinions of a political society at a particular time. It is generally used to describe when the state of mood and opinion is changing or unstable. The phrase has origins from both ancient Greece and medieval-era France.\nWhile the concept of a political climate has been used historically to describe both politics and public reactions to political actions in various forms, the naming of the concept by the addition of the modifier \"political\" to the base \"climate\" has been fairly recent. Public opinion is also widely used incorrectly as a synonym for political climate.\nAs for judging what the climate is at any given time, there is no way to know an entire country's views on certain subjects. So, polls are used to estimate what the political climate \"feels\" like on a regular basis.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political cognition refers to the study of how individuals come to understand the political world, and how this understanding leads to political behavior. Some of the processes studied under the umbrella of political cognition include attention, interpretation, judgment, and memory. Most of the advancements in the area have been made by scholars in the fields of social psychology, political science, and communication studies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A cabinet crisis or government crisis is a situation when the government is challenged before the mandate period expires because it threatens to resign over a proposal, or it is at risk at being dismissed after a motion of no confidence, a conflict between the parties in a coalition government or a coup d'\u00e9tat. It may also be the result of there being no clear majority willing to work together to form a government. During this period a caretaker government with a limited mandate may take care of the day-to-day affairs of the state, while waiting for a snap election.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political demography is the study of the relationship between politics and population change. Population change is driven by classic demographic mechanisms \u2013 birth, death, age structure, and migration. \nHowever, in political demography, there is always scope for assimilation as well as boundary and identity change, which can redraw the boundaries of populations in a way that is not possible with biological populations. Typically, political-demographic projections can account for both demographic factors and transitions caused by social change. A notable leader in the area of sub-state population projection is the World Population Program of the International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Laxenburg, Austria. \nSome of the issues which are studied in the context of political demography are: surges of young people in the developing world, significantly increasing aging in the developed world, and the impact of increasing urbanization. Political demographers study issues like population growth in a political context. A population's growth is impacted by the relative balance of variables like mortality, fertility and immigration.Many of the present world's most powerful nations are aging quickly, largely as a result of major decreases in fertility rates and major increases in life expectancies. As the labor pools in these nations shrink, and spending on the elderly increases, their economies are likely to slow down. By 2050, the workforce in Japan and Russia is predicted to decrease by more than 30 percent, while the German workforce is expected to decline by 25 percent by that year. The governments of these countries have made financial commitments to the elderly in their populations which will consume huge percentages of their national GDP. For example, based on current numbers, more than 25% of the national GDPs of Japan, France and Germany will be consumed by these commitments by 2040.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A political faction is a group of individuals that share a common political purpose but differs in some respect to the rest of the entity. A faction within a group or political party may include fragmented sub-factions, \"parties within a party,\" which may be referred to as power blocs, or voting blocs. Members of factions band together as a way of achieving these goals and advancing their agenda and position within an organisation.\nFaction acts as dissenters that emerge from one big organisation. In politics, these political factions may deflect into other political parties, that support their dissentive ideology and are more favourable towards them. This, for some countries may be considered unstable and fluctuating but counter-intuitively might help promote interests of diverse groups.\nFactions are not limited to political parties; they can and frequently do form within any group that has some sort of political aim or purpose.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political globalization refers to the growth of the worldwide political system, both in size and complexity. That system includes national governments, their governmental and intergovernmental organizations as well as government-independent elements of global civil society such as international non-governmental organizations and social movement organizations. One of the key aspects of the political globalization is the declining importance of the nation-state and the rise of other actors on the political scene. The creation and existence of the United Nations is called one of the classic examples of political globalization.\nPolitical globalization is one of the three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature, with the two other being economic globalization and cultural globalization.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political insult refers to a statement from a politician about another one which contains disdainful purpose or notorious offense. They are not defined in any political protocol.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political journalism is a broad branch of journalism that includes coverage of all aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power.\nPolitical journalism aims to provide voters with the information to formulate their own opinion and participate in community, local or national matters that will affect them. According to Edward Morrissey in an opinion article from theweek.com, political journalism frequently includes opinion journalism, as current political events can be biased in their reporting. The information provided includes facts, its perspective is subjective and leans towards one viewpoint.Brendan Nyhan and John M. Sides argue that \"Journalists who report on politics are frequently unfamiliar with political science research or question its relevance to their work\". Journalists covering politics who are unfamiliar with information that would provide context to their stories can enable the story to take a different spin on what is being reported.\nPolitical journalism is provided through different mediums, in print, broadcast, or online reporting. Digital media use has increased and it provides instant coverage of campaigns, politics, event news, and an accessible platform for the candidate. Media outlets known for their political journalism like The New York Times and the Washington Post, have increased their use of this medium as well. Printed, online, and broadcast political humor presented as entertainment has been used to provide updates on aspects of government status, political news, campaign, and election updates. According to Geoffrey Baym, the information provided may not be considered \"fake news\" but the lines between entertainment and factual news may seem blurred or biased while providing political updates. This type of journalism is analyzed, interpreted, and discussed by news media pundits and editorialists. It can lack objectivity which can prevent the accuracy of the presented information. The reporting of news with a bias viewpoint can also take away the audience's ability to form their own opinion or beliefs of what has been reported. This type of reporting is subjective with a possible social or political purpose.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political modernization (also spelled as political modernisation; Chinese: \u653f\u6cbb\u73fe\u4ee3\u5316), refers to the process of development and evolution from a lower to a higher level, in which a country's constitutional system and political life moves from superstition of authority, autocracy and the rule of man to rationality, autonomy, democracy and the rule of law. It manifests itself in certain types of political change, like political integration, political differentiation, political secularisation, and so forth. The process of political modernisation has enhanced the capacity of a society's political system, i.e. the effectiveness and efficiency of its performance.Sustainability studies researcher George Francis argues that 'political modernisation' is the changes in the nation-state brought about by the neoliberal globalisation process since the 1970s. It primarily consists of processes of differentiation of political structure and secularisation of political culture. \nAccording Samuel Huntington, an American political scientist, political modernization consists of three basic elements, the rationalization of authority, the differentiation of structure and the expansion of political participation.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political philosophy or political theory is the philosophical study of government, addressing questions about the nature, scope, and legitimacy of public agents and institutions and the relationships between them. Its topics include politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of laws by authority: what they are, if they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect, what form it should take, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever. \nPolitical theory also engages questions of a broader scope, tackling the political nature of phenomena and categories such as identity, culture, sexuality, race, wealth, human-nonhuman relations, ethics, religion, and more.\nPolitical science, the scientific study of politics, is generally used in the singular, but in French and Spanish the plural (sciences politiques and ciencias pol\u00edticas, respectively) is used, perhaps a reflection of the discipline's eclectic nature.Political philosophy is a branch of philosophy, but it has also played a major part of political science, within which a strong focus has historically been placed on both the history of political thought and contemporary political theory (from normative political theory to various critical approaches).\nIn the Oxford Handbook of Political Theory (2009), the field is described as: \"[...] an interdisciplinary endeavor whose center of gravity lies at the humanities end of the happily still undisciplined discipline of political science ... For a long time, the challenge for the identity of political theory has been how to position itself productively in three sorts of location: in relation to the academic disciplines of political science, history, and philosophy; between the world of politics and the more abstract, ruminative register of theory; between canonical political theory and the newer resources (such as feminist and critical theory, discourse analysis, film and film theory, popular and political culture, mass media studies, neuroscience, environmental studies, behavioral science, and economics) on which political theorists increasingly draw.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political polarization (spelled polarisation in British English) is the divergence of political attitudes away from the centre, towards ideological extremes.Most discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in the context of political parties and democratic systems of government. In two-party systems, political polarization usually embodies the tension of its binary political ideologies and partisan identities. However, some political scientists assert that contemporary polarization depends less on policy differences on a left and right scale, but increasingly on other divisions such as: religious against secular; nationalist against globalist; traditional against modern; or rural against urban. Polarization is associated with the process of politicization.Scholars distinguish between ideological polarization (differences between the policy positions) and affective polarization (an emotional dislike and distrust of political out-groups).\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political posturing, also known as political grandstanding (from the notion of performing to crowds in the grandstands), political theatre, or \"kabuki\", is the use of speech or actions to gain political support through emotional or affective appeals. It applies especially to appeals that are seen as hollow or lacking political or economic substance, or to superficial appeals that may not reflect a person's genuine ideology or political preferences.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political will is defined as \"the extent of committed support among key decision makers for a particular policy solution to a particular problem.\" It is also considered by political scientist Linn Hammergren to be \"the slipperiest concept in the policy lexicon.\" Lack of political will is often blamed for unresolved political issues.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In financial regulation, a politically exposed person (PEP) is one who has been entrusted with a prominent public function. A PEP generally presents a higher risk for potential involvement in bribery and corruption by virtue of their position and the influence that they may hold. The terms \"politically exposed person\" and senior foreign political figure are often used interchangeably, particularly in international forums. Foreign official is a term for individuals deemed government persons under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, or FCPA, and although definitions are similar to PEP, there are quite a few differences, and they should not be used interchangeably.  The term \"PEP\" is typically used to refer to customers in the financial services industry, while \"foreign official\" refers to the risks of third-party relationships in all industries.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Politicisation (also politicization; see English spelling differences) is a concept in political science and theory used to explain how ideas, entities or collections of facts are given a political tone or character, and are consequently assigned to the ideas and strategies of a particular group or party, thus becoming the subject of contestation. Politicisation has been described as compromising objectivity, and is linked with political polarisation. Conversely, it can have a democratising effect and enhance political choice, and has been shown to improve the responsiveness of supranational institutions such as the European Union. The politicisation of a group is more likely to occur when justifications for political violence are considered acceptable within a society, or in the absence of norms condemning violence.Depoliticisation, the reverse process, is characterised by governance through consensus-building and pragmatic compromise. It occurs when subjects are left to experts, such as technocratic or bureaucratic institutions, or left to individuals and free markets, through liberalisation or deregulation. It is often connected with multi-level governance. The concept has been used to explain the \"democratic gap\" between politicians and citizens who lack choice, agency and opportunities for deliberation. In the 21st century, depoliticisation has been linked to disillusionment with neoliberalism. Depoliticisation has negative consequences for regime legitimacy, and produces anti-political sentiment associated with populism, which can result in \"repoliticisation\" (politicisation following depoliticisation).Current studies of politicisation are separated into various subfields. It is primarily examined on three separate levels: within national political systems, within the European Union and within international institutions. Academic approaches vary greatly and are frequently disconnected. It has been studied from subdisciplines such as comparative politics, political sociology, European studies and legal theory.The politicisation of science occurs when actors stress the inherent uncertainty of scientific method to challenge scientific consensus, undermining the positive impact of science on political debate by causing citizens to dismiss scientific evidence.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Politics of the International Space Station have been affected by superpower rivalries, international treaties and funding arrangements. The Cold War was an early factor, overtaken in recent years by the United States' distrust of China. The station has an international crew, with the use of their time, and that of equipment on the station, being governed by treaties between participant nations.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The term postfeminism (alternatively rendered as post-feminism) is used to describe reactions against contradictions and absences in feminism, especially second-wave feminism and third-wave feminism. The term postfeminism is sometimes confused with subsequent feminisms such as fourth-wave feminism and xenofeminism.\nThe ideology of postfeminism is recognized by its contrast with prevailing or preceding feminism. Some forms of postfeminism strive towards the next stage in gender-related progress, and as such is often conceived as in favor of a society that is no longer defined by rigid gender roles and expressions. A postfeminist is a person who believes in, promotes, or embodies any of various ideologies springing from the feminism of the 1970s, whether supportive of or antagonistic towards classical feminism.Postfeminism can be considered a critical way of understanding the changed relations between feminism, popular culture and femininity. Postfeminism may also present a critique of second-wave feminism or third-wave feminism by questioning their binary thinking and essentialism, their vision of sexuality, and their perception of relationships between femininity and feminism. It may also complicate or even deny entirely the notion that absolute gender equality is necessary, desirable or realistically achievable.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Pro-Truth Pledge is an initiative promoting truth seeking and rational thinking, particularly in politics.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Proto-fascism refers to the direct predecessor ideologies and cultural movements that influenced and formed the basis of fascism. A prominent proto-fascist figure is Gabriele D'Annunzio, the Italian nationalist whose politics influenced Benito Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Proto-fascist political movements include the Italian Nationalist Association (Associazione Nazionalista Italiana, ANI), the German National Association of Commercial Employees (Deutschnationaler Handlungsgehilfen-Verband, DHV) and the German National People's Party (Deutschnationale Volkspartei, DNVP).Other people who have been labeled proto-fascist because they shared an ideological basis with fascism include:\n\nThomas Carlyle (1795\u20131881)\nCharles Maurras (1868\u20131952)\nIon Dragoumis (1878\u20131920)\nPatrick Pearse (1879\u20131916)\nEdgar Julius Jung (1894\u20131934)\nD. H. Lawrence (1885\u20131930). The English philosopher Bertrand Russell characterized Lawrence as a \"proto-German fascist\". This characterization is useful as a demarcation point between Fascism and proto-fascism. The former has totalitarian uniformity as its paradigm, but Russell is referring to Lawrence as a \"nonconformist prophet\" struggling with individual alienation, looking to the shared identity of ancestral blood and soil for reconnection i.e. an evolution of the German 19th-century V\u00f6lkisch movement.\nGiuseppe Mazzini (1805\u20131872). The famous Genoese patriot strongly influenced Italian fascism, especially in its early years. In particular, fascism inherited from Mazzini the fervent irredentism, the concept of class collaboration, the pedagogical vocation and the spirit of solidarity. Mussolini himself was a great Mazzini admirer, and many fascist exponents were Mazzinian such as Italo Balbo, Giovanni Gentile, Giuseppe Bottai and Dino Grandi.\nGiuseppe Garibaldi (1807\u20131882). The celebrated Italian National Hero was steadily praised by Italian Fascism, which saw in the Hero of Two Worlds the Italian patriot par excellence. Garibaldi's figure was popular especially in the military field and praised for the heroic deeds accomplished, his voluntarist and revolutionary spirit, the bond with his motherland and the close link with the working class. The Blackshirts (MVSN) considered themselves worthy heirs of Garibaldi's Redshirts and the same epithet \"Duce\" given to Mussolini during the fascist regime was used by Redshirts in reference to their leader.\nFrancesco Crispi (1818\u20131901). The known Sicilian statesman was admired by the dictator Mussolini and considered by many scholars as a precursor of Italian fascist regime, due to his authoritarian policies, the nationalist character, his strongman reputation and the aggressive colonial policy implemented during his government.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to public affairs:\nPublic affairs \u2013 catch-all term that includes public policy as well as public administration, both of which are closely related to and draw upon the fields of political science and economics.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The public interest is \"the welfare  or well-being of the general public\" and society.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Public opinion is the collective opinion on a specific topic or voting intention relevant to a society. It is the people's views on matters affecting them.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Public speaking, also called oratory or oration, has traditionally meant the act of speaking face to face to a live audience. Today it includes any form of speaking (formally and informally) to an audience, including pre-recorded speech delivered over great distance by means of technology.\nConfucius, one of many scholars associated with public speaking, once taught that if a speech was considered to be a good speech, it would impact the individuals' lives whether they listened to it directly or not. His idea was that the words and actions of someone of power can influence the world.Public speaking is used for many different purposes, but usually as some mixture of teaching, persuasion, or entertaining. Each of these calls upon slightly different approaches and techniques. \nPublic speaking was developed as a primary sphere of knowledge in Greece and Rome, where prominent thinkers codified it as a central part of rhetoric. Today, the art of public speaking has been transformed by newly available technology such as videoconferencing, multimedia presentations, and other nontraditional forms, but the essentials remain the same.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Publics are small groups of people who follow one or more particular issue very closely. They are well informed about the issue(s) and also have a very strong opinion on it/them. They tend to know more about politics than the average person, and, therefore, exert more influence, because these people care so deeply about their cause(s) that they donate a lot of time and money. Therefore, politicians are unlikely be reelected by not pleasing the publics while in office.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Punk ideologies are a group of varied social and political beliefs associated with the punk subculture and punk rock. It is primarily concerned with concepts such as mutual aid, against selling out, egalitarianism, humanitarianism, anti-authoritarianism, anti-consumerism, anti-corporatism, anti-war, decolonization, anti-conservatism, anti-globalization, anti-gentrification, anti-racism, anti-sexism, gender equality, racial equality, health rights, civil rights, animal rights, disability rights, free-thought and non-conformity. One of its main tenets is a rejection of mainstream, corporate mass culture and its values. It continues to evolve its ideology as the movement spreads throughout North America from its origins in England and New York and embraces a range of anti-racist and anti-sexist belief systems. Punk ideologies are often leftist or anti-capitalist and go against authoritarian and right-wing Christian ideologies.\nPunk ideologies are usually expressed through punk rock music and lyrics, punk literature such as amateur fanzines, spoken word performances or recordings, punk fashion, or punk visual art. Some punks have participated in direct action, such as protest or demonstration disruption, political violence, ecotage, street barricades, squatting, pirate radio, off-grid energy, graffiti, vandalism and public and business property destruction, and indirect action through counter-propaganda, protests or boycotts. They support and squat in urban and rural collective houses, with group funds held in common. Punk fashion was originally an expression of nonconformity, as well as opposition to both mainstream culture and the status quo. Punk fashion often displays aggression, rebellion, and individualism. Some punks wear accessories, clothing or have tattoos that express sociopolitical messages. They stage Punk Rock Food Drives, such as D.O.A's Unity for Freedom. Punk visual art also often includes political messages. Many punks wear secondhand clothing, partly as an anti-consumerist statement.\nAn attitude common in the punk subculture is the opposition to selling out, which refers to abandoning of one's values and/or a change in musical style toward pop (e.g. electropop) and embracing anything in mainstream capitalist culture or more radio-friendly rock (e.g. pop rock) in exchange for wealth, status, or power. Selling out also has the meaning of adopting a more mainstream lifestyle and ideology. The issue of authenticity is important in the punk subculture\u2014the pejorative term poseur is applied to those who try to associate with punk and adopt its stylistic attributes but are deemed not to share or understand the underlying core values or philosophy.\nBecause anti-establishment attitudes are such an important part of the punk subculture, a network of independent record labels, venues and distributors has developed. Some punk bands have chosen to break from this independent system and work within the established system of major labels. The do it yourself (DIY) ideal is common in the punk scene, especially in terms of music recording and distribution, concert promotion, and photocopying magazines, posters and flyers. The expression DIY was coined by commentators after the fact.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A puppet ruler is a person who has a title indicating possession of political power, but who, in reality, is either loyal to or controlled by outside individuals or forces.  Such outside power can be exercised by a foreign government, in which case the puppet ruler's domain is called a puppet state.  But the puppet ruler may also be controlled by internal forces, such as non-elected officials.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the  electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of a new policy or specific law, or  the referendum may be only advisory. In some countries, it is synonymous with or commonly known by other names including plebiscite, votation, popular consultation, ballot question, ballot measure, or proposition.\nSome definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country. The word, 'referendum' is often a catchall, used for both legislative referrals and initiatives.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Regional autonomy is decentralization of governance to outlying regions. Recent examples of disputes over autonomy include:\nThe Basque region of Spain\nThe Catalan region of Spain\nThe Sicilia region of Italy\nThe disputes over autonomy of provinces in Indonesia.\nThe disputes over autonomy of region of Gilgit-Baltistan.\nThe disputes over autonomy of provinces in Sri Lanka.Current examples of autonomous regions include the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in China and the Cherokee Nation in the United States.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Religion in politics covers various topics related to the effects of religion on politics. Religion has been claimed to be \"the source of some of the most remarkable political mobilizations of our times\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The service-oriented government (SOG; simplified Chinese: \u670d\u52a1\u578b\u653f\u5e9c; traditional Chinese: \u670d\u52d9\u578b\u653f\u5e9c), or service-type government,  refers to a government that is guided by the concept of citizen-centered and society-centered, and is formed through legal procedures and in accordance with the will of the citizens within the framework of the democratic order of the whole society, with the purpose of serving the citizens and assuming the responsibility of service. In short, it denotes a government that operates as a service provider. It is a fundamental transformation of the model of traditional regulation-oriented government. The idea behind this conception is consistent with the idea behind New Public Management.Developed by analogy with service-oriented enterprise (SOE),  the concept of \"service-oriented government\" was initially put forward in 1938 by German administrative law scholar Ernst Forsthoff. However, there is also a view that the term originated in the 1990s and was first introduced and put into practice by local governments and academics in Mainland China.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Socialist democracy is a political system that align with principles of both socialism and democracy. It includes ideologies such as council communism, democratic socialism, Soviet democracy as well as Marxist democracy like the dictatorship of the proletariat. It was embodied in the Soviet system (1917\u20131991).It can also denote a system of political party organization like democratic centralism, or a form of democracy espoused by political parties or groups that support Marxist\u2013Leninist one-party states. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1945\u20131992) styled itself a socialist democracy as did the People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946\u20131990) and the Socialist Republic of Romania (1947\u20131989).Several parties or groups which tend to have a connection to the reunified Fourth International use this label. Parties include Socialist Democracy in Australia, Socialist Democracy in Brazil, Socialist Democracy in Ireland, the Socialist Democracy Group in England, the Socialist Democracy Party in Canada and the Socialist Democracy Party in Turkey.\nThe Chinese Communist Party (CCP) claims to maintain principles of socialist democracy. CCP Chairman Mao Zedong advocates the people's democratic dictatorship which emphasizes the importance of dictatorship of the proletariat in the democratic process. In the reform and opening-up period, Deng Xiaoping said that that democracy is the essential element of socialism as there will be no socialism and modernization without democracy. Under CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping, the CCP continues being a socialist democracy, under which the National People's Congress selects state leaders.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In public relations and politics, spin is a form of propaganda, achieved through knowingly \nproviding a biased interpretation of an event or campaigning to influence public opinion about some organization or public figure. While traditional public relations and advertising may manage their presentation of facts, \"spin\" often implies the use of disingenuous, deceptive, and manipulative tactics.Because of the frequent association between spin and press conferences (especially government press conferences), the room in which these conferences take place is sometimes described as a \"spin room\". Public relations advisors, pollsters and media consultants who develop deceptive or misleading messages may be referred to as \"spin doctors\" or \"spinmeisters\".\nA standard tactic used in \"spinning\" is to reframe or modify the perception of an issue or event to reduce any negative impact it might have on public opinion. For example, a company whose top-selling product is found to have a significant safety problem may \"reframe\" the issue by criticizing the safety of its main competitor's products or by highlighting the risk associated with the entire product category. This might be done using a \"catchy\" slogan or sound bite that can help to persuade the public of the company's biased point of view. This tactic could enable the company to refocus the public's attention away from the negative aspects of its product.\nSpinning is typically a service provided by paid media advisors and media consultants. The largest and most powerful companies may have in-house employees and sophisticated units with expertise in spinning issues. While spin is often considered to be a private-sector tactic, in the 1990s and 2000s some politicians and political staff were accused of using deceptive \"spin\" tactics to manipulate or deceive the public. Spin may include \"burying\" potentially negative new information by releasing it at the end of the workday on the last day before a long weekend; selectively cherry-picking quotes from previous speeches made by their employer or an opposing politician to give the impression that they advocate a certain position; or purposely leaking misinformation about an opposing politician or candidate that casts them in a negative light.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A spin room, also known as spin row or spin alley, is an area in which reporters can speak with debate participants and/or their representatives after a debate. The name refers to the fact that the participants will attempt to \"spin\" or influence the perception of the debate among the assembled reporters. The benefit for reporters is that they quickly get in-person interviews with debaters or their representatives, complete with audio, video, and photos. For a U.S. presidential debate, the number of reporters in the spin room can number into the thousands.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A substitute is a political candidate who is not directly elected, but who succeeds a politician holding an elected office after that person ceases to hold the office due to, for example, resignation or death. This system can be used as opposed to holding by-elections or special elections to fill the vacant office.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A term of office is the length of time a person serves in a particular elected office. In many jurisdictions there is a defined limit on how long terms of office may be before the officeholder must be subject to re-election. Some jurisdictions exercise term limits, setting a maximum number of terms an individual may hold in a particular office.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, the phrase testing the waters is used to describe someone who is exploring the feasibility of becoming a candidate for political office. It can also be used more generally as an idiom meaning to estimate the success of something by trying it out a little bit.\"Testing the waters\" activities are to be paid for with candidate-permissible funds. Once an individual begins to campaign or decides to become a candidate, funds that were raised or spent to \"test the waters\" apply to the $5,000 threshold for qualifying as a candidate. This is because there is a federal law that once an individual raises or spends $5,000 for a campaign, they are required to register as a federal candidate.  Once that threshold is exceeded, the individual must register with the Federal Election Commission (FEC; for candidates for the United States House of Representatives) or the Secretary of the Senate (candidates for the United States Senate), and begin to file reports (including in the first report all activity that occurred prior to reaching the $5,000 threshold).Once an individual registers as a federal candidate, election restrictions apply, including $2,700 on contributions. Also, once registered as a candidate, individuals cannot coordinate with political action committees (PACs) or super PACs under campaign finance law.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A transparency report is a statement issued on a regular basis by a company, disclosing a variety of statistics related to requests for user data, records, or content. Transparency reports generally disclose how frequently and under what authority governments have requested or demanded data or records over a certain period of time. This form of corporate transparency allows the public to discern what private information governments have gained access to through search warrants and court subpoenas, among other methods. Some transparency reports describe how often, as a result of government action or under copyright provisions, content was removed. Disclosing a transparency report also helps people to know about the appropriate scope and authority of content regulation for online discussions. Google first launched a transparency report in 2010, with Twitter following in 2012. Additional companies began releasing transparency reports as during the aftermath of the global surveillance disclosures beginning in 2013, and the number of companies issuing them has increased rapidly ever since. Transparency reports are issued today by a variety of technology and communications companies, including Google, Microsoft, Verizon, AT&T, Twitter, Apple, Dropbox, Facebook, Yahoo and CloudFlare. Several companies and advocacy groups have lobbied the U.S. government to allow the number of secret data requests (requests which include a gag order, including National Security Letters) to be described within ranges in the report.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In international law, a treaty body (or treaty-based body) is an internationally established body of independent experts that monitor how States party to a particular international legal instrument are implementing their obligations under it.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A tribal chief or chieftain is the leader of a tribal society or chiefdom.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The two-step flow of communication model says that most people form their opinions under the influence of opinion leaders, who in turn are influenced by the mass media. In contrast to the one-step flow of the hypodermic needle model or magic bullet theory, which holds that people are directly influenced by mass media, according to the two-step flow model, ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders, and from them to a wider population. Opinion leaders pass on their own interpretation of information in addition to the actual media content.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Unseating is a political term which refers to a legislator who loses their seat in an election. An legislator who is unseated loses the right to sit in a legislative chamber. A landslide victory would result in many legislators being unseated.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "World domination (also called    global domination or world conquest or cosmocracy) is a hypothetical power structure, either achieved or aspired to, in which a single political authority holds the power over all or virtually all the inhabitants of Earth. Various individuals or regimes have tried to achieve this goal throughout history, without ever attaining it.\nThe theme has been often used in works of fiction, particularly in political fiction, as well as in conspiracy theories (which may posit that some person or group has already secretly achieved this goal), particularly those fearing the development of a \"New World Order\" involving a world government of a totalitarian nature.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "World federalism or global federalism is a political ideology advocating a democratic, federal world government. A world federation would have authority on issues of global reach, while the members of such a federation would retain authority over local and national issues. The overall sovereignty over the world population would largely reside in the federal government.World federalism is distinguished from unitary world government models by the principle of subsidiarity, where decisions are made as much as possible at the most immediate level, preserving national agency to a large degree. Proponents maintain that a world federation offers a more effective and accountable global governance structure than the existing United Nations organization, while simultaneously allowing wide autonomy for national, regional and local governments.\nAdvocacy for world federalism has been largely organized under the World Federalist Movement.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Religious studies, also known as the study of religion, is an academic field devoted to research into religious beliefs, behaviors, and institutions. It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing systematic, historically based, and cross-cultural perspectives.\nWhile theology attempts to understand the transcendent or supernatural according to traditional religious accounts,  religious studies takes a more scientific and objective approach independent of any particular religious viewpoint. Religious studies thus draws upon multiple academic disciplines and methodologies including anthropology, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and history of religion.\nReligious studies originated in the nineteenth century, when scholarly and historical analysis of the Bible had flourished, and Hindu and Buddhist texts were first being translated into European languages. Early influential scholars included Friedrich Max M\u00fcller in England and Cornelius P. Tiele in the Netherlands. Today religious studies is practiced by scholars worldwide. In its early years, it was known as \"comparative religion\" or the science of religion and, in the US, there are those who today also know the field as the History of religion (associated with methodological traditions traced to the University of Chicago in general, and in particular Mircea Eliade, from the late 1950s through to the late 1980s).\nThe religious studies scholar Walter Capps described the purpose of the discipline as to provide \"training and practice ... in directing and conducting inquiry regarding the subject of religion\". At the same time, Capps stated that its other purpose was to use \"prescribed modes and techniques of inquiry to make the subject of religion intelligible.\"\nReligious studies scholar Robert A. Segal characterised the discipline as \"a subject matter\" that is \"open to many approaches\", and thus it \"does not require either a distinctive method or a distinctive explanation to be worthy of disciplinary status.\"Different scholars operating in the field have different interests and intentions; some for instance seek to defend religion, while others seek to explain it away, and others wish to use religion as an example with which to prove a theory of their own. Some scholars of religious studies are interested in primarily studying the religion to which they belong.Scholars of religion have argued that a study of the subject is useful for individuals because it will provide them with knowledge that is pertinent in inter-personal and professional contexts within an increasingly globalised world. It has also been argued that studying religion is useful in appreciating and understanding sectarian tensions and religious violence.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The 1947 flying disc craze was a rash of unidentified flying object reports that were publicized in the summer of 1947.  The craze began on June 24, when media nationwide reported civilian pilot Kenneth Arnold's story of witnessing disc-shaped objects which headline writers dubbed \"Flying Saucers\".  Such reports quickly spread throughout the United States;  Historians would later chronicle at least 800 \"copycat\" reports in subsequent weeks, while other sources estimate the reports may have numbered in the thousands.Reports peaked on July 7.  After numerous hoaxes and mistaken identifications, the disc reports largely subsided by July 10.   Mainstream sources speculated that the disc reports were caused by novel technology, mistaken identifications, or mass hysteria.  In contrast, fringe speculation held that the discs might come from other planets or other dimensions;  still others suggested the discs were occult or might signify the end of the world.The 1947 craze has been extensively studied within the frameworks of both Folklore Studies and Religious Studies, where it is regarded  by scholars as the \"birth of a modern myth\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The academic study of new religious movements is known as new religions studies (NRS).\nThe study draws from the disciplines of anthropology, psychiatry, history, psychology, sociology, religious studies, and theology. Eileen Barker noted that there are five sources of information on new religious movements (NRMs): the information provided by such groups themselves, that provided by ex-members as well as the friends and relatives of members, organizations that collect information on NRMs, the mainstream media, and academics studying such phenomena.The study of new religions is unified by its topic of interest, rather than by its methodology, and is therefore interdisciplinary in nature. A sizeable body of scholarly literature on new religions has been published, most of it produced by social scientists. Among the disciplines that NRS uses are anthropology, history, psychology, religious studies, and sociology. Of these approaches, sociology played a particularly prominent role in the development of the field, resulting in it being initially confined largely to a narrow array of sociological questions. This came to change in later scholarship, which began to apply theories and methods initially developed for examining more mainstream religions to the study of new ones.The majority of research has been directed toward those new religions which have attracted a greater deal of public controversy; less controversial NRMs have tended to be the subject of less scholarly research. It has also been noted that scholars of new religions have often avoided researching certain movements which tend instead to be studied by scholars from other backgrounds; the feminist spirituality movement is usually examined by scholars of women's studies, African-American new religions by scholars of Africana studies, and Native American new religions by scholars of Native American studies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Western Esotericism is an academic field of research, scholarship, and education that focuses on the history of European and Western esotericism.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Agricultural spiritualism or the Spirit of Agriculture refers to the idea that the concepts of food production and consumption and the essential spiritual nature of humanity are linked. It teaches that spirituality is inherent to human consciousness, is perhaps a product of it, and is accessible to all who cultivate it. The association with agriculture includes such agricultural metaphors as \"cultivate\" in language used by most mystics across history.\nFollowers of this idea state the following reasons to justify this link: Agriculture was the preoccupation of the majority of the population of the world at the time that the major scriptures of the continuing religions were compiled; the approach that agriculture takes to creating the optimal conditions for production of its harvest is the same as that recommended by the traditional religions for producing insight or wisdom; historically, the adoption of agriculture liberated part of a population to focus on understanding of spirituality. By understanding spirituality, agricultural spiritualism addresses the questions regarding ethics in agriculture. It serves as a method for communication, and building a relationship, between the spirit of the land and the spirit of the people through an everyday practice.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Anthropology of religion is the study of religion in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs is an academic research center at Georgetown University in Washington, DC dedicated to the interdisciplinary study of religion, ethics, and politics. The center was founded in 2006 under a gift from William R. Berkley, a member of Georgetown's Board of Directors. The center's founding director is Thomas Banchoff.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Canadian Society for the Study of Religion (CSSR; French: Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Canadienne pour l'\u00c9tude de la Religion [SC\u00c9R]) is a Canadian academic society oriented to the scholarly study of religion. It was established in 1965.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Center for Religious Studies in the name of Hieromartyr Irenaeus of Lyons is a Russian non-profit nongovernmental anti-sectarian organization engaged in research and information and consulting work on the activities of new religious movements and sects of a destructive and totalitarian nature.. The Center was established in 1993 with the blessing of Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow and All Russia and has been headed by Alexander Dvorkin since its founding. The Center is the nucleus of the Russian Association of Centers for the Study of Religions and Sects (RACIRS).\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Civil religion, also referred to as a civic religion, is the implicit religious values of a nation, as expressed through public rituals, symbols (such as the national flag), and ceremonies on sacred days and at sacred places (such as monuments, battlefields, or national cemeteries). It is distinct from churches, although church officials and ceremonies are sometimes incorporated into the practice of civil religion. Countries described as having a civil religion include France, South Korea, the former Soviet Union, and the United States. As a concept, it originated in French political thought and became a major topic for U.S. sociologists since its use by Robert Bellah in 1960.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Growth of religion involves the spread of individual religions and the increase in the numbers of religious adherents around the world. Statistics commonly measure the absolute number of adherents, the percentage of the absolute growth per-year, and the growth of converts in the world.\nStudies in the 21st century suggest that, in terms of percentage and worldwide spread, Islam is the fastest-growing major religion in the world. A comprehensive religious forecast for 2050 by the Pew Research Center predicts that the global Muslim population will grow at a faster rate than the Christian population \u2013 primarily due to the average younger age and higher fertility rate of Muslims. It is projected that birth rates \u2013 rather than conversion \u2013 will prove the main factor in the growth of any given religion. While according to various scholars and sources Pentecostalism \u2013 a Protestant Christian movement \u2013 is the fastest growing religion in the world, this growth is primarily due to religious conversion.Counting the number of converts to a religion can prove difficult. Although some national censuses ask people about their religion, they do not ask if they have converted to their presently espoused faith. Additionally, in some countries, legal and social consequences make conversion difficult. For example, individuals can receive a death-sentence if they openly leave Islam in some Muslim countries. Statistical data on conversion to and from Islam are scarce. According to a study published in 2011 by Pew Research, what little information is available suggests that religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population, as the number of people who convert to Islam is roughly similar to those who leave Islam.Some religions proselytise vigorously (Christianity and Islam, for example), while others (such as Judaism and Sikhism) do not generally encourage conversions into their ranks. Some faiths grow exponentially at first (especially, for example, along trade routes\nor for reasons of social prestige),\nonly for their zeal to wane (note the flagging case of Zoroastrianism). The growth of a religion can interact with factors such as persecution, entrenched rival religions (such as established religions), and religious market saturation.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Cognitive ecology of religion is an integrative approach to studying how religious beliefs covary with social and natural dynamics of the environment. This is done by incorporating a cognitive ecological perspective to cross-cultural god concepts. Religious beliefs are thought to be a byproduct of domain-specific cognitive modules that give rise to religious cognition. The cognitive biases leading to religious belief are constraints on perceptions of the environment, which is part and parcel of a cognitive ecological approach. This means that they not only shape religious beliefs, but they are determinants of how successfully cultural beliefs are transmitted.\nFurthermore, cognition and behavior are inextricably linked, so the consequences of cultural concepts are associated with behavioral outcomes (i.e., continued interactions with the environment). For religion, behaviors often take the form of rituals and are similarly executed as a consequence of beliefs. Because the religious beliefs distributed in a population are relevant to their behavioral strategies and fine-tuned by natural selection, cross-cultural representations of gods and their characteristics are hypothesized to address ecologically relevant challenges. In other words, religious beliefs are thought to frequently involve solutions, insofar as evolved cognitive equipment can build them, to social and natural environmental problems faced by a given population.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Dabest\u0101n-e Maz\u0101heb (Persian: \u062f\u0628\u0633\u062a\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0630\u0627\u0647\u0628) \"school of religions\" is a Persian language work that examines and compares South Asian religions and sects of the mid-17th century. The work, whose authorship is uncertain, was probably composed in about 1655 CE. The text's title is also transliterated as Dabist\u0101n-i Maz\u0101hib , Dabistan-e Madahib, or Dabestan-e Madaheb.\nThe text is best known for its chapter on the D\u012bn-i Il\u0101h\u012b, the syncretic religion propounded by the Mughal emperor Jal\u0101l ud-D\u012bn Mu\u1e25ammad Akbar (\"Akbar the Great\") after 1581 and is possibly the most reliable account of the Ib\u0101dat Kh\u0101na discussions that led up to this.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The definition of religion is a controversial and complicated subject in religious studies with scholars failing to agree on any one definition. Oxford Dictionaries defines religion as the belief in and/or worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods. Others, such as Wilfred Cantwell Smith, have tried to correct a perceived Judeo-Christian and Western bias in the definition and study of religion. Thinkers such as Daniel Dubuisson have doubted that the term religion has any meaning outside of western cultures, while others, such as Ernst Feil even doubt that it has any specific, universal meaning even there.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Demythologization as a hermeneutic approach to religious texts seeks to separate cosmological and historic claims from philosophical, ethical and theological teachings. Rudolf Bultmann (1884\u20131976) introduced the term demythologization (in German: Entmythologisierung) in this context,\nbut the concept has earlier precedents.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "*D\u02b0\u00e9\u01f5\u02b0\u014dm (Proto-Indo-European: *d\u02b0\u00e9\u01f5\u02b0\u014dm or *d\u02b0\u01f5\u02b0\u014dm; lit. 'earth'), or *Pleth\u2082wih\u2081 (PIE: *pleth\u2082wih\u2081, lit. the 'Broad One'), is the reconstructed name of the Earth-goddess in the Proto-Indo-European mythology.\nThe Mother Earth (*D\u02b0\u00e9\u01f5\u02b0\u014dm M\u00e9h\u2082t\u0113r) is generally portrayed as the vast (*pleth\u2082wih\u2081) and dark (*d\u02b0engwo-) abode of mortals, the one who bears all things and creatures. She is often paired with Dy\u0113us, the daylight sky and seat of the never-dying and heavenly gods, in a relationship of contrast and union, since the fructifying rains of Dy\u0113us might bring nourishment and prosperity to local communities through formulaic invocations. D\u02b0\u00e9\u01f5\u02b0\u014dm is thus commonly associated in Indo-European traditions with fertility, growth, and death, and is conceived as the origin and final dwelling of human beings.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue (EISD), formerly called Study Center for Religion and Society, is an institute located in Colombo, Sri Lanka that is devoted to the study and interpretation of religious and social movements of people in Sri Lanka, in order to assist the Church in fulfilling its duty to be a witness and service to the life of the nation. The center has been involved in successfully organising a number of dialogues, meetings and seminaries, and it has become an internationally recognised center for study and dialogue with Buddhism, along with other ecumenical concerns. The center was recognised in the 1970s and 1980s as one of the most active of all similar study centers worldwide.The Study Center was established in 1951, due to the resurgence of Buddhism after independence, which brought with it an increased need for dialogue between Buddhism and Christianity. The goal of the center is to consider Christianity in the light of the Sri Lankan culture and heritage, which is predominantly Buddhist. The Study Center was renamed in 1977 to Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue (EISD).\n After its establishment in 1951, the center was managed by Rev. G. B. Jackson. It was organised into two divisions: Division of Buddhist Studies, and  Division of Frontier Studies. The purpose of the former division is to promote study and research in Buddhism, while the purpose of the latter division is to explore the theological and social implications of the Christian faith in Sri Lanka. From 1962 until 1982, the center was directed by Lynn de Silva, whose focus was on Buddhist studies. Under his leadership, the EISD was set up in 1977 as an autonomous body separate from the control of religious bodies and institutions. Although the primary focus was maintained on Buddhist-Christian studies and dialogue, a third additional division called Division of Studies of other Faiths and Ideologies was opened in order to initiate studies in other religions.In addition to publishing books and papers on dialogue between Christianity and other religions, the EISD publishes the Dialogue journal on a quarterly basis, which is one of the first theological journals on Buddhist-Christian encounter. The journal was founded by Lynn de Silva in order to move the prevailing atmosphere between Buddhists and Christians in Sri Lanka away from diatribe and towards dialogue. This journal has published articles on a wide range of topics including \"the existence of God, the idea of the soul, working towards shared ethical practice, monastic life, globalisation and women in religion.\"After Lynn de Silva's death in 1982, the EISD was directed by Rev. Kenneth Fernando, and it is currently directed by Marshal Fernando. Rev. Fr. Aloysius Pieris, S. J., who had been collaborating with de Silva since 1968, and who in partnership with de Silva had officially been responsible for editing the New Series of Dialogue, continued to work as editor of the journal after de Silva's death. Mrs. Langanee Mendis, the Administrative Secretary at the institute, is credited as being the main person responsible for the uninterrupted functioning of the institute after Lynn de Silva's death; she was also considered by Pieris in 2003 to be \"a tower of strength [for the Ecumenical Institute] for well over 20 years.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The relationship between the level of religiosity and the level of education has been studied since the second half of the 20th century.\nThe parameters of the two components are diverse: the \"level of religiosity\" remains a concept which is difficult to differentiate scientifically, while the \"level of education\" is easier to compile, such as official data on this topic, because data on education is publicly accessible in many countries.\nDifferent studies lead to contrasting conclusions regarding the relationship, depending on whether \"religiosity\" is measured by religious practices (attendance at places of worship, for example) or specific religious beliefs (belief in miracles, for example), with notable differences between nations. For example, one international study states that in some Western nations the intensity of beliefs decreases with education, but attendance and religious practice increases. Other studies indicate that the religious have higher education than the non-religious. Other studies find that the positive correlation with low or non religiosity and education has been reversed in the past few decades.In terms of university professors, one study concluded that in the US, the majority of professors, even at \"elite\" universities, were religious.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "\"The Esoteric Character of the Gospels\" is an article published in three parts: in November-December 1887, and in February 1888, in the theosophical magazine Lucifer; it was written by Helena Blavatsky. It was included in the 8th volume of the author's Collected Writings. In 1888, for this work, the author was awarded Subba Row medal.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Euhemerism () is an approach to the interpretation of mythology in which mythological accounts are presumed to have originated from real historical events or personages. Euhemerism supposes that historical accounts become myths as they are exaggerated in the retelling, accumulating elaborations and alterations that reflect cultural mores. It was named for the Greek mythographer Euhemerus, who lived in the late 4th century BC. In the more recent literature of myth, such as Bulfinch's Mythology, euhemerism is termed the \"historical theory\" of mythology.Euhemerus was not the first to attempt to rationalize mythology in historical terms: euhemeristic views are found in earlier writings including those of Sanchuniathon, Xenophanes, Herodotus, Hecataeus of Abdera and Ephorus. However, the enduring influence of Euhemerus upon later thinkers such as the classical poet Ennius (b. 239 BC) and modern author Antoine Banier (b. 1673 AD) identified him as the traditional founder of this school of thought.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE) is Europe's only scholarly society for the study of Western esotericism. Founded in 2002, the society promotes academic study of the various manifestations of Western esotericism from late antiquity to the present, and works to secure the future development of the field.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The evolutionary origin of religions and religious behavior is a field of study related to evolutionary psychology, the origin of language and mythology, and cross-cultural comparison of the anthropology of religion. Some subjects of interest include Neolithic religion, evidence for spirituality or cultic behavior in the Upper Paleolithic, and similarities in great ape behavior.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Foundation for Interreligious and Intercultural Research and Dialogue (FIIRD) was founded in 1999, sponsored by the Levant Foundation with the University of Geneva in Switzerland. The main program of the FIIRD is to enhance knowledge and the critical examination of the wellsprings of each religious tradition and then to acquire the linguistic and strategic tools needed to study the normative scriptures of these religions without syncretism or proselytism.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Immanent Frame is a digital forum that publishes interdisciplinary perspectives on secularism, religion, and the public sphere. It was formed in conjunction with projects on religion and the public sphere at the Social Science Research Council (SSRC).  Initially conceived as an experimental blog that invited multiple contributions from a number of leading scholars in the humanities and social sciences, The Immanent Frame was established in October 2007 by an SSRC team led by program director Jonathan VanAntwerpen, who served for several years as editor-in-chief.Among other topics, The Immanent Frame launched with an extensive discussion of Charles Taylor's A Secular Age (Harvard University Press, 2007). Sociologist Robert Bellah called A Secular Age \"one of the most important books to be written in my lifetime.\" The Immanent Frame's discussion of Taylor's book included original contributions by Robert Bellah, Wendy Brown, Charles Taylor, and several others. The name of the digital forum itself alludes to a central concept in Taylor's book.\nIn 2008, The Immanent Frame was named an official honoree of the 12th annual Webby Awards and a \u201cfavorite new religion site, egghead division\u201d by The Revealer. In September 2011, The Immanent Frame partnered with Killing the Buddha to launch Frequencies, which was later named an official honoree of the 16th annual Webby Awards.Recent forums at The Immanent Frame include \"Nature and normativity: New inquiries into the natural world,\" \"Modernity\u2019s resonances: New inquiries into the secular,\" and \"Antiblackness as religion: Black living, Black dying, and Covid-19.\" In November 2019, Mona Oraby, The Immanent Frame's current editor, worked with Daniel Vaca and others to launch another special project, entitled The Universe of Terms, which asked how scholars might \"advance the academic study and public understanding of religion and secularism in a way that meets college students\u2019 demand for visual imagery, pithy prose, and compelling narratives.\"Contributors to The Immanent Frame have included: Arjun Appadurai, Talal Asad, Rajeev Bhargava, Akeel Bilgrami, Jos\u00e9 Casanova, Craig Calhoun, Dipesh Chakrabarty, William E. Connolly, Veena Das, Hent de Vries, Wendy Doniger, Simon During, John Esposito, Nil\u00fcfer G\u00f6le, David Hollinger, Mark Juergensmeyer, Mark Lilla, Kathryn Lofton, Tanya Luhrmann, Saba Mahmood, Martin E. Marty, Tomoko Masuzawa, Russell T. McCutcheon, Birgit Meyer, John Milbank, John Lardas Modern, Tariq Modood, Jean-Claude Monod, Ebrahim Moosa, Samuel Moyn, Robert Orsi, Ann Pellegrini, Elizabeth Povinelli, Vijay Prashad, Robert D. Putnam, Olivier Roy, Joan Wallach Scott, Jonathan Z. Smith, Judith Stacey, Alfred Stepan, Winnifred Fallers Sullivan, Mark C. Taylor, Peter van der Veer, Michael Warner, Nicholas Wolterstorff, Molly Worthen, and many others.\nIn 2016, The Immanent Frame established its first editorial board. Board members included sociologists Courtney Bender and Ruth Braunstein, political scientist Elizabeth Shakman Hurd, anthropologists Saba Mahmood and Mayanthi Fernando, historian Daniel Vaca, among others. Recent additions to The Immanent Frame's editorial board include Vaughn Booker, Todne Thomas, and Nathan Schneider.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Indigenous religions is a category used in the study of religion to demarcate the religious belief systems of communities described as being \"indigenous\". This category is often juxtaposed against others such as the \"world religions\" and \"new religious movements\". The term is commonly applied to a range of different belief systems across the Americas, Australasia, Asia, Africa, and Northern Europe, particularly to those practiced by communities living under the impact of colonialism.\nThe term \"indigenous religions\" is usually applied to the localised belief systems of small-scale societies. These belief systems do not typically engage in proselytization, thus distinguishing them from movements like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism that all seek converts and which are typically classified as \"world religions\"; unlike Judaism, even though it is often referred to as a \u201cworld religion\u201d.  They are also often characterised as being distinct from the \"world religions\" because they are orally transmitted, intertwined with traditional lifestyles, and pluralist. Numerically, the majority of the world's religions could be classed as \"indigenous\", although the number of \"indigenous religionists\" is significantly smaller than the number of individuals who practice one of the \"world religions\".\nWithin the study of religion there has been much debate as to what the scope of the category should be, largely arising from debates over what the term \"indigenous\" should best encompass. For instance, the Japanese religion of Shinto is often referred to as an \"indigenous religion\" although, because the Japanese are not a colonised society but have colonised neighbouring societies like that of the Ainu, there is debate as to whether they meet the definition of \"indigenous\". In some cases, practitioners of new religions like Heathenry have sought to present theirs as \"indigenous religions\" although have faced scepticism from scholars of religion.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Indo-European cosmogony refers to the creation myth of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology.\nThe comparative analysis of different Indo-European tales has led scholars to reconstruct an original Proto-Indo-European creation myth involving twin brothers, *Manu- ('Man') and *Yemo- ('Twin'), as the progenitors of the world and mankind, and a hero named *Trito ('Third') who ensured the continuity of the original sacrifice.\nAlthough some thematic parallels can be made with Ancient Near East (the primordial couple Adam and Eve), and even Polynesian or South American legends, the linguistic correspondences found in descendant cognates of *Manu and *Yemo make it very likely that the myth discussed here has a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) origin.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Institute on Religion in an Age of Science (IRAS) is a non-denominational society that promotes and facilitates the ongoing dialectic between religion and science. The Institute has held annual week-long conferences at Star Island in New Hampshire since 1954. The conference attracts about 250 members and non-members each year. The 1964 conference, for example, was attended by 215 conferees, with speeches by figures including Theodosius Dobzhansky.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The International Association for the Cognitive Science of Religion (IACSR), founded in 2006, is a scholarly association dedicated to the promotion of the Cognitive Science of Religion. The IACSR is an interdisciplinary association, including scholars from a wide variety of disciplines in the human, social, natural and health sciences that are interested in the academic, scientific study of religious phenomena. The IACSR seeks to advance the naturalistic study of religion. It is strictly scientific and does not encourage or welcome those who are interested in dialogue between science and religion, attempt to find religion in science and science in religion, or attempt to validate religious or spiritual doctrines through cognitive science.The IACSR supports the Electronic Archive for Religion & Cognition at the Centre for Religion & Cognition, Groningen, the Journal of Cognition & Culture (Brill Publishers), and two book series, Scientific Studies of Religion: Inquiry and Explanation (Bloomsbury Academic), which was formerly the series Cognitive Science of Religion (AltaMira Press), and Religion, Cognition and Culture (Equinox Press).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The International Institute for Inter-Religious Dialogue and Diplomacy is an affiliated institution of EUCLID (Euclid University). Its main focus is education in the application of diplomatic methods to interreligious dialogue, notably between Christianity and Islam.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "\"Is Theosophy a Religion?\" is an editorial published in November 1888 in the theosophical magazine Lucifer; it was compiled by Helena Blavatsky. It was included in the 10th volume of the author's Collected Writings. According to Arnold Kalnitsky, in the article it is about the problems of religion from the Theosophical point of view.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The John Templeton Foundation (Templeton Foundation) is a philanthropic organization that reflects the ideas of its founder, John Templeton, who became wealthy via a career as a contrarian investor, and wanted to support progress in religious and spiritual knowledge, especially at the intersection of religion and science. He also sought to fund research on methods to promote and develop moral character, intelligence, and creativity in people, and to promote free markets. In 2008, the foundation was awarded the National Humanities Medal. In 2016 Inside Philanthropy called it \"the oddest\u2014or most interesting\u2014big foundation around.\"Templeton founded the organization in 1987 and headed it as chairman until his death in 2008. Templeton's son, John Templeton Jr., served as its president from its founding until his death in 2015, at which point Templeton Jr.'s daughter, Heather Templeton Dill, became president. The foundation administers the annual Templeton Prize for achievements in the field of spirituality, including those at the intersection of science and religion.  It has an extensive grant-funding program (around $150 million per year as of 2016) aimed at supporting research in physics, biology, psychology, and the social sciences as well as philosophy and theology. It also supports programs related to genetics, \"exceptional cognitive talent and genius\" and \"individual freedom and free markets\". The foundation has received both praise and criticism for its awards, regarding both the breadth of their coverage, and ideological perspectives asserted to be associated with them.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Law and religion is the interdisciplinary study of relationships between law, especially public law, and religion. Vogue Magazine reports that during the late 1900s, a new approach to law and religion emerged that progressively built its own contribution to religious studies. Over a dozen scholarly organizations and committees were formed by 1983, and a scholarly quarterly, the Journal of Law and Religion, was first published that year. The Ecclesiastical Law Journal began publication in 1987. The Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion was founded in 1999. The Oxford Journal of Law and Religion was founded in England in 2012.Many departments and centers for the subject have been created around the world during the last decades. For example, the Brigham Young University law school created the International Center for Law and Religion Studies in 2000. It has an international mission and its annual symposium, which began in 1993, has brought to campus over 1000 scholars, human rights activists, judges from supreme courts, and government ministers dealing with religious affairs from more than 120 countries.As of 2012, major law and religion organizations in the U.S. included 500 law professors, 450 political scientists, and specialists in numerous other fields such as history and religious studies. Between 1985 and 2010, the field saw the publication of some 750 books and 5000 scholarly articles, according to Emory Law Professor John Witte, Jr.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Lived religion is the ethnographic and holistic framework in the sociology of religion and religious studies more broadly for understanding the religion as it is practiced by ordinary people in the contexts of everyday life, including domestic, work, commercial, community, and institutional religious settings. The term comes from the French tradition of sociology of religion, or \"la religion v\u00e9cue\" though it has followed its own trajectory among scholars with backgrounds in anthropology, cultural studies, history, and sociology or religion as well as religious studies and theology. It is also referred to as \"everyday religion\" and \"living religion.\"The concept of lived religion was popularized in the late 20th century by religious study scholars like Nancy T. Ammerman, David D. Hall, Meredith McGuire, and Robert A. Orsi. The study of lived religion has come to include a wide range of subject areas as a means of exploring and emphasizing 1) ordinary people as religious subjects over against the traditional focus in religious studies on \u00e9lite practitioners of religion; 2) religious practices and material resources, including human bodies, over against a traditional focus on religious doctrine, dogma, and ideologies primarily engaged in written texts; 3) sites of religious practice outside of institutional religious settings; and 4) ways of understanding religion as particular, local, variable, and otherwise shaped by the specific cultural, social, political, material, and other contexts of human experience rather than as a sui generous universal phenomenon focused on beliefs, sacred texts, and notions of the sacred as separate from the ordinary.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Long Search was a 1977 BBC documentary television series spanning 13 episodes. Presented by theatre director Ronald Eyre, the series surveyed several major world religions, including Protestant, Orthodox, and Catholic Christianity. Other episodes surveyed Theravada and Zen Buddhism, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and the New Age movement. Location filming took place in India, England, Italy, Japan, Israel, Romania, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, the United States, Egypt, Indonesia, and South Africa.\nScholar of religion Ninian Smart acted as editorial consultant to the show, and also authored a companion book by the same name. The series was re-issued on DVD, and is currently distributed by Ambrose Video.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft is a peer-reviewed academic journal that focuses on magic scholarship. It is published triannually (spring, summer, winter) by the University of Pennsylvania Press. The founding editors were Michael Bailey (Iowa State University) and Brian Copenhaver (UCLA). As of 2015, the editors-in-chief are Claire Fanger (Rice University) and Michael Ostling (Arizona State University). The journal is available online through Project MUSE.The publication is affiliated with Societas Magica, an organization of scholars interested in magic.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Material religion is a framework used by scholars of religion examining the interaction between religion and material culture. Its specific focus is on the place of objects, images, spaces, and buildings in religious communities.\nSome scholars within the study of religion have criticised the material religion approach for often seeking to reintroduce the phenomenology of religion into the discipline.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Matheson Trust is an educational charity based in London dedicated to further and disseminate the study of comparative religion, especially from the point of view of the underlying harmony of the major religious and philosophical traditions of the world.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Multiple religious belonging, also known as double belonging, refers to the idea that individuals can belong to more than one religious tradition. While this is often seen as a common reality in regions such as Asia with its many religions, religious scholars have begun to discuss multiple religion belonging with respect to religious traditions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.Those who practice double belonging claim to be an adherent of two different religions at the same time or incorporate the practices of another religion into their own faith life. It is increasing with globalisation. One such example is a person attending a Christian church but also finding meaning in yoga and in forms of meditation inspired by Eastern traditions, and enjoying attending a Jewish Seder at Passover.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Nontheistic religions are traditions of thought within a religious context\u2014some otherwise aligned with theism, others not\u2014in which nontheism informs religious beliefs or practices. Nontheism has been applied and plays significant roles in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. While many approaches to religion exclude nontheism by definition, some inclusive definitions of religion show how religious practice and belief do not depend on the presence of a god or gods. For example, Paul James and Peter Mandaville distinguish between religion and spirituality, but provide a definition of the term that avoids the usual reduction to \"religions of the book\":\n\nReligion can be defined as a relatively-bounded system of beliefs, symbols and practices that addresses the nature of existence, and in which communion with others and Otherness is lived as if it both takes in and spiritually transcends socially-grounded ontologies of time, space, embodiment and knowing.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "OTSEM (Old Testament Studies: Epistemologies and Methods) is a research network of several Northern European universities. Originally Nordic-German in nature, it now includes British universities as well, which gives it a Nordic-German-Anglo profile. The organization focuses on research into the Hebrew Bible and promotes the development of young scholars in particular, especially through annual seminars and special lectures. Though encompassing theological faculties and using the term Old Testament, OTSEM is non-confessional, with members from Christian (both Protestant and Catholic), Jewish, Muslim, and secular backgrounds.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Pagan studies is the multidisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of contemporary Paganism, a broad assortment of modern religious movements, which are typically influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various pagan beliefs of premodern Europe. Pagan studies embrace a variety of different scholarly approaches to studying such religions, drawing from history, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, folkloristics, theology and other religious studies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The phenomenology of religion concerns the experiential aspect of religion, describing religious phenomena in terms consistent with the orientation of worshippers. It views religion as made up of different components, and studies these components across religious traditions in order to gain some understanding of them.\nA different approach is that of typological or classifying phenomenology, which seeks to describe and explain religion in general by analyzing the many diverse 'phenomena' of religions, such as rituals, holy places, narratives, religious roles, and the many other modes of religious expression. In this respect, the phenomenology of religion takes the generalizing role that linguistics has over philologies or that anthropology has in relation the specific ethnographies: where the history of religions produces insights into specific religious traditions, the phenomenology of religion becomes the general scholarly (or scientific) enterprise that explains and interprets religious phenomena in general.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Philosophy of religion is \"the philosophical examination of the central themes and concepts involved in religious traditions\". Philosophical discussions on such topics date from ancient times, and appear in the earliest known texts concerning philosophy. The field is related to many other branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.The philosophy of religion differs from religious philosophy in that it seeks to discuss questions regarding the nature of religion as a whole, rather than examining the problems brought forth by a particular belief-system. It can be carried out dispassionately by those who identify as believers or non-believers.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Proto-Indo-European mythology is the body of myths and deities associated with the Proto-Indo-Europeans, the hypothetical speakers of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language. Although the mythological motifs are not directly attested \u2013 since Proto-Indo-European speakers lived in preliterate societies \u2013 scholars of comparative mythology have reconstructed details from inherited similarities found among Indo-European languages, based on the assumption that parts of the Proto-Indo-Europeans' original belief systems survived in the daughter traditions.The Proto-Indo-European pantheon includes a number of securely reconstructed deities, since they are both cognates \u2013 linguistic siblings from a common origin \u2013, and associated with similar attributes and body of myths: such as *Dy\u1e17ws Ph\u2082t\u1e17r, the daylight-sky god; his consort *D\u02b0\u00e9\u01f5\u02b0\u014dm, the earth mother; his daughter *H\u2082\u00e9ws\u014ds, the dawn goddess; his sons the Divine Twins; and *Seh\u2082ul, a solar goddess. Some deities, like the weather god *Perk\u02b7unos or the herding-god *P\u00e9h\u2082us\u014dn, are only attested in a limited number of traditions \u2013 Western (European) and Graeco-Aryan, respectively \u2013 and could therefore represent late additions that did not spread throughout the various Indo-European dialects.\nSome myths are also securely dated to Proto-Indo-European times, since they feature both linguistic and thematic evidence of an inherited motif: a story portraying a mythical figure associated with thunder and slaying a multi-headed serpent to release torrents of water that had previously been pent up; a creation myth involving two brothers, one of whom sacrifices the other in order to create the world; and probably the belief that the Otherworld was guarded by a watchdog and could only be reached by crossing a river.\nVarious schools of thought exist regarding possible interpretations of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology. The main mythologies used in comparative reconstruction are Indo-Iranian, Baltic, Roman, and Norse, often supported with evidence from the Celtic, Greek, Slavic, Hittite, Armenian, Illyrian, and Albanian traditions as well.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Religion and environmentalism is an emerging interdisciplinary subfield in the academic disciplines of religious studies, religious ethics, the sociology of religion, and theology amongst others, with environmentalism and ecological principles as a primary focus.\nWithin the context of Christianity, in the encyclical \"Laudato si'\", Pope Francis called to fight climate change and ecological degradation as a whole. He claimed that humanity is facing a severe ecological crisis and blamed consumerism and irresponsible development. The encyclical is addressed to \"every person living on this planet.\"\nBuddhism includes many principles linked to sustainability. The Dalai Lama has consistently called for strong climate action, reforestation, preserving ecosystems, a reduction in meat consumption. He declared that if he will ever join a political party it will be the green party and if Buddha returned to our world now: \u201cBuddha would be green.\u201d The leaders of Buddhism issued a special declaration calling on all believers to fight climate change and environmental destruction as a whole.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Religion and peacebuilding refer to the study of religion's role in the development of peace. \nNathan C. Funk and Christina J. Woolner categorize these approaches into three models. The first is \u201cpeace through religion alone\u201d. This proposes to attain world peace through devotion to a given religion. Opponents claim that advocates generally want to attain peace through their particular religion only and have little tolerance of other ideologies. \nThe second model, a response to the first, is \u201cpeace without religion\u201d. Critics claim that it is overly simplistic and fails to address other causes of conflict as well as the peace potential of religion. It is also said that this model excludes the many contributions of religious people in the development of peace. Another critique claims that both approaches require bringing everyone into their own ideology.\nThe third and final approach is known as \u201cpeace with religion\u201d. This approach focuses on the importance of coexistence and interfaith dialogue. Gerrie ter Haar suggests that religion is neither inherently good nor bad for peace, and that its influence is undeniable. Peace with religion, then, emphasises promoting the common principles present in every major religion.\nA major component of religion and peacebuilding is faith-based non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Douglas Johnston points out that faith-based NGOs offer two distinct advantages. The first is that since faith-based NGOs are very often locally based, they have immediate influence within that community. He argues that \u201cit is important to promote indigenous ownership of conflict prevention and peacebuilding initiatives as early in the process as possible.\u201d The second advantage Johnston presents is that faith-based NGOs carry moral authority that contributes to the receptivity of negotiations and policies for peace.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought is a 2001 book by cognitive anthropologist Pascal Boyer, in which the author discusses the evolutionary psychology of religion and evolutionary origin of religions.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The concept of religiosity has proven difficult to define. The Oxford English Dictionary suggests: \"Religiousness; religious feeling or belief. [...] Affected or excessive religiousness\". Different scholars have seen this concept as broadly about religious orientations and degrees of involvement or commitment. Religiosity, measured at the levels of individuals or of groups, includes experiential, ritualistic, ideological, intellectual, consequential, creedal, communal, doctrinal, moral, and cultural dimensions. Sociologists of religion have observed that an individual's experience, beliefs, sense of belonging, and behavior often are not congruent with their actual religious behavior, since there is much diversity in how one can be religious or not. Multiple problems exist in measuring religiosity. For instance, measures of variables such as church attendance produce different results when different methods are used - such as traditional surveys vs time-use surveys.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Religious education is the term given to education concerned with religion. It may refer to education provided by a church or religious organization, for instruction in doctrine and faith, or for  education in various aspects of religion, but without explicitly religious or moral aims, e.g. in a school or college. The term is often known as religious studies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Religious exclusivism, or exclusivity, is the doctrine or belief that only one particular religion or belief system is true. This is in contrast to religious pluralism.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Religious instinct has been hypothesized by some scholars as a part of human nature. Support for such a position being found in the fact that (as Talcott Parsons put it) \u201cthere is no known human society without something which modern social scientists would classify as religion\u201d.Theologians, however, have questioned the utility of an approach to religion by way of a so-called instinct; psychologists have disputed the existence of any such specific instinct; while others would point to the advance of secularization in the modern world as refuting the assumption of a specific religious instinct inevitably leading to the establishment of religion as a fundamental human institution.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Religious naturalism combines a naturalist worldview with ideals, perceptions, traditions, and values that have been traditionally associated with many religions or religious institutions. \"Religious naturalism is a perspective that finds religious meaning in the natural world and rejects the notion of a supernatural realm.\" The term religious in this context is construed in general terms, separate from the traditions, customs, or beliefs of any one of the established religions.Areas of inquiry include attempts to understand the natural world and the spiritual and moral implications of naturalist views. Understanding is based on knowledge obtained through scientific inquiry, and insights from the humanities and the arts. Religious naturalists use these perspectives when they respond to personal and social challenges (e.g. finding purpose, seeking justice, coming to terms with mortality) and concerning the natural world.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Religious Research Association (RRA) is an association of researchers and religious professionals.It was created in 1951 as the Religious Research Fellowship, although it existed informally as far back as the 1920s as a partnership between the Institute of Social and Religious Research and the Federal Council of Churches. Since 1958, it has held an annual lecture series in the name of H. Paul Douglass. Since the 1970s, it has met annually with the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion.It publishes the Review of Religious Research four times a year (September, December, March, and June). It contains articles, book reviews and reports on research projects.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The group Science, Reason and Faith (CRYF, standing for Ciencia, Raz\u00f3n y Fe in Spanish) is formed by teachers at the University of Navarra. Its purpose is to promote the interdisciplinary study of issues related to science, philosophy and religion. The activities of the group cover three closely related areas: research, teaching and public engagement.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Scientific study of religion represents the systematic effort by scholars and researchers to investigate religious phenomena, as well as the sociology of church participation. \nThe Society for the Scientific Study of Religion was founded in 1949 by scholars in religion and social science, and it publishes the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, a quarterly which \"offers perspectives on national and international issues such as brainwashing and cults, religious persecution, and right wing authoritarianism\".The Center for the Scientific Study of Religion (CSSR) at the University of Texas at Austin is a leading center for the sociology of religion, and particularly for the study of religious influences on human behavior and population outcomes. The CSSR went offline in 2007.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Arvind Sharma is the Birks Professor of Comparative Religion at McGill University. Sharma's works focus on Hinduism, philosophy of religion. In editing books his works include Our Religions and Women in World Religions, Feminism in World Religions was selected as a Choice Outstanding Academic Book (1999).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Society for the Scientific Study of Religion (founded in 1949) was formed to advance research in the social scientific perspective on religious institutions and experiences. The Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion is published by the society to provide a forum for empirical papers in the topic area.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Society for the Study of Black Religion is the oldest scholarly society dedicated to the study of the African-American religious experience. It is dedicated to \"scholarly research and discussion about the religious experiences of Blacks.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Over 800 reports were made publicly during the 1947 flying disc craze.   Such reports quickly spread throughout the United States, and some  sources estimate the reports may have numbered in the thousands.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Theocracy is a form of government in which one or more deities of some type are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries who manage the day-to-day affairs of the government.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The theology of religions is the branch of theology (mostly represented by Christian, Hindu, Islamic and Jewish theology) and religious studies that attempts to theologically evaluate the phenomena of religions. Three important schools within Christian theology of religions are pluralism, inclusivism, and exclusivism, which describe the relation of other religious traditions to Christianity and attempt to answer questions about the nature of God and salvation.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Sociological and anthropological theories about religion (or theories of religion) generally attempt to explain the origin and function of religion. These theories define what they present as universal characteristics of religious belief and practice.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "According to some literary and religious studies scholars, modern Theosophy had a certain influence on contemporary literature, particularly in forms of genre fiction such as fantasy and science fiction. Researchers claim that Theosophy has significantly influenced the Irish literary renaissance of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, notably in such figures as W. B. Yeats and G. W. Russell.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Modern Theosophy is classified by prominent representatives of Western philosophy as a \"pantheistic philosophical-religious system.\" Russian philosopher Vladimir Trefilov claimed that Blavatsky's doctrine was formed from the beginning as a synthesis of philosophical views and religious forms of the various ages and peoples with modern scientific ideas. Michael Wakoff, an author of The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, stated that Blavatskian Theosophy was based on Buddhist and Hindu philosophy, and fragments of the Western esotericism with using an \"absolutist metaphysics.\" In The New Encyclopedia of Philosophy it is said that Blavatsky's Theosophy is an attempt to merge into a universal doctrine all religions by revealing their \"common deep essence\" and detection of \"identity meanings of symbols,\" all philosophies (including esoteric), and all sciences (including occult).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Unverified Personal Gnosis, sometimes referred to as UPG, unverifiable personal gnosis, or subjective personal gnosis, is a spiritual belief gained through personal experience or intuition that cannot be attributed to or corroborated by received tradition, professional scholarship, or direct citation in an accepted religious text.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "\"Viruses of the Mind\" is an essay by British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, first published in the book Dennett and His Critics: Demystifying Mind (1993).  Dawkins originally wrote the essay in 1991 and delivered it as a Voltaire Lecture on 6 November 1992 at the Conway Hall Humanist Centre.  The essay discusses how religion can be viewed as a meme, an idea previously expressed by Dawkins in The Selfish Gene (1976).  Dawkins analyzes the propagation of religious ideas and behaviors as a memetic virus, analogous to how  biological and computer viruses spread.  The essay was later published in A Devil's Chaplain (2003) and its ideas are further explored in the television programme, The Root of All Evil? (2006).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "\"What Are The Theosophists?\" is an editorial published in October 1879 in the theosophical magazine The Theosophist. It was compiled by Helena Blavatsky and it was included the second volume of the Blavatsky Collected Writings.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "\"What Is Theosophy?\" is an editorial published in October 1879 in the Theosophical magazine The Theosophist. It was compiled by Helena Blavatsky and included into the 2nd volume of the Blavatsky Collected Writings. According to a doctoral thesis by Tim Rudb\u00f8g, in this \"important\" article Blavatsky \"began conceptualizing her idea of 'Theosophy'.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The study of women and religion examines women in the context of different religious faiths. This includes considering female gender roles in religious history as well as how women participate in religion. Particular consideration is given to how religion has been used as a patriarchal tool to elevate the status and power of men over women as well as how religion portrays gender within religious doctrines.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Women as theological figures have played a significant role in the development of various religions and religious hierarchies.\nThroughout most of history women were unofficial theologians.  They would write and teach, but did not hold official positions in Universities and Seminaries. Beginning in the second half of the twentieth century, women theological scholars began to be appointed to formal faculty positions at theological schools. Women are slowly being recognized as theological scholars.\nGeorge Gallup Jr. wrote in 2002 that studies show women have more religiosity than men. Gallup goes on to say that women hold on to their faith more heartily, work harder for the church, and in general practice with more consistency than men.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "World religions is a category used in the study of religion to demarcate the five\u2014and in some cases more\u2014largest and most internationally widespread religious movements. Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are always included in the list, being known as the \"Big Five\". Some scholars also include other world religions, such as Taoism, Jainism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, and the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith, in the category. These are often juxtaposed against other categories, such as indigenous religions and new religious movements, which are also used by scholars in this field of research.\nThe world religions paradigm was developed in the United Kingdom during the 1960s, where it was pioneered by phenomenological scholars like Ninian Smart. It was designed to broaden the study of religion away from its heavy focus on Christianity by taking into account other large religious traditions around the world. The paradigm is often used by lecturers instructing undergraduate students in the study of religion and is also the framework used by school teachers in the United Kingdom and other countries. The paradigm's emphasis on viewing these religious movements as distinct and mutually exclusive entities has also had a wider impact on the categorisation of religion\u2014for instance in censuses\u2014in both Western countries and elsewhere.\nSince the late 20th century, the paradigm has faced critique by scholars of religion like Jonathan Z. Smith, some of whom have argued for its abandonment. Critics have argued that the world religions paradigm is inappropriate because it takes the Protestant form of Christianity as the model for what constitutes \"religion\"; that it is tied up with discourses of modernity, including modern power relations; that it encourages an uncritical understanding of religion; and that it makes a value judgement as to what religions should be considered \"major\". Others have argued that it remains useful in the classroom, so long as students are made aware that it is a socially-constructed category.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic \u2013 see Martianus Capella) is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. Aristotle defines rhetoric as \"the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion\" and since mastery of the art was necessary for victory in a case at law, for passage of proposals in the assembly, or for fame as a speaker in civic ceremonies, he calls it \"a combination of the science of logic and of the ethical branch of politics\". Rhetoric typically provides heuristics for understanding, discovering, and developing arguments for particular situations, such as Aristotle's three persuasive audience appeals: logos, pathos, and ethos. The five canons of rhetoric or phases of developing a persuasive speech were first codified in classical Rome: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.\nFrom Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, rhetoric played a central role in Western education in training orators, lawyers, counsellors, historians, statesmen, and poets.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Accent reduction, also known as accent modification or accent neutralization, is a systematic approach for learning or adopting a new speech accent. It is the process of learning the sound system (or phonology) and melodic intonation of a language so the non-native speaker can communicate with clarity. In some cases the student's goal may be to eliminate their accent completely, though improving intelligibility is often a more attainable goal.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Accent reduction, also known as accent modification or accent neutralization, is a systematic approach for learning or adopting a new speech accent. It is the process of learning the sound system (or phonology) and melodic intonation of a language so the non-native speaker can communicate with clarity. In some cases the student's goal may be to eliminate their accent completely, though improving intelligibility is often a more attainable goal.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Ad hominem (Latin for 'against the person'), or (Latin for 'to the person'); short for argumentum ad hominem (Latin for 'argument against the person'), or (Latin for 'argument to the person'), refers to several types of arguments, most but not all, of which are fallacious. \nTypically this term refers to a rhetorical strategy where the speaker attacks the character, motive, or some other attribute of the person making an argument rather than addressing the substance of the argument itself.  The most common form of ad hominem is \"A makes a claim x, B asserts that A holds a property that is unwelcome, and hence B concludes that argument x is wrong\".\nFallacious ad hominem reasoning occurs where the validity of an argument is not based on deduction or syllogism, but on an attribute of the person putting it forward.\nValid ad hominem arguments occur in informal logic, where the person making the argument relies on arguments from authority such as testimony, expertise, or a selective presentation of information supporting the position they are advocating.  In this case, counter-arguments may be made that the target is dishonest, lacks the claimed expertise, or has a conflict of interest. Another type of valid ad hominem argument generally only encountered in specialized philosophical usage refers to the dialectical strategy of using the target's own beliefs and arguments against them, while not agreeing with the validity of those beliefs and arguments. \nAd hominem arguments were first studied in ancient Greece. John Locke revived the examination of ad hominem arguments in the 17th century.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Adoxography is elegant or refined writing that addresses a trivial or base subject. The term was coined in the late 19th century. It was a form of rhetorical exercise \"in which the legitimate methods of the encomium are applied to persons or objects in themselves obviously unworthy of praise, as being trivial, ugly, useless, ridiculous, dangerous or vicious\" \u2014 see Arthur S. Pease, \"Things Without Honor\", Classical Philology, Vol. XXI (1926) 27, at 28\u20139. Pease surveys this field from its origins with the defence of Helen ascribed to Gorgias, and cites De Quincey's \"On Murder Considered as one of the Fine Arts\" and Lewis Carroll\u2019s Through the Looking-Glass as modern examples. Pease suggests that the skill was taught in ancient Greece, where the matters known to have been praised included gout, blindness, deafness, old age, negligence, adultery, flies, gnats, bedbugs, smoke, and dung. \nThe art was rediscovered during the revival of rhetoric in the 16th century. Among the best known and most influential examples was Erasmus' Moriae Encomium or The Praise of Folly.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Air quotes, also called finger quotes, are virtual quotation marks formed in the air with one's fingers when speaking. The gesture is typically done with both hands held shoulder-width apart and at the eye or shoulders level of the speaker, with the index and middle fingers on each hand flexing at the beginning and end of the phrase being quoted. The air-quoted phrase is, in the most common usage, a few words. Air quotes are often used to express satire, sarcasm, irony or euphemism and are analogous to scare quotes in print.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In classical rhetoric,  figures of speech are classified as one of the four fundamental rhetorical operations or quadripartita ratio: addition (adiectio), omission (detractio), permutation (immutatio) and transposition (transmutatio).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Anacoenosis  is a figure of speech in which the speaker poses a question to an audience in a way that demonstrates a common interest.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An anacoluthon (; from the Greek anakolouthon, from an-: \"not\" and \u1f00\u03ba\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 ak\u00f3louthos: \"following\") is an unexpected discontinuity in the expression of ideas within a sentence, leading to a form of words in which there is logical incoherence of thought. Anacolutha are often sentences interrupted midway, where there is a change in the syntactical structure of the sentence and of intended meaning following the interruption.An example is the Italian proverb \"The good stuff \u2013 think about it.\" This proverb urges people to make the best choice. When anacoluthon occurs unintentionally, it is considered to be an error in sentence structure and results in incoherent nonsense. However, it can be used as a rhetorical technique to challenge the reader to think more deeply or in \"stream of consciousness\" literature to represent the disjointed nature of associative thought.\nAnacolutha are very common in informal speech, where a speaker might start to say one thing, then break off and abruptly and incoherently continue, expressing a completely different line of thought. When such speech is reported in writing, a dash (\u2014) is often included at the point of discontinuity. The listener is expected to ignore the first part of the sentence, although in some cases it might contribute to the overall meaning in an impressionistic sense.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays (Princeton University Press, 1957) is a book by Canadian literary critic and theorist Northrop Frye that attempts to formulate an overall view of the scope, theory, principles, and techniques of literary criticism derived exclusively from literature. Frye consciously omits all specific and practical criticism, instead offering classically inspired theories of modes, symbols, myths and genres, in what he termed \"an interconnected group of suggestions.\" The literary approach proposed by Frye in Anatomy was highly influential in the decades before deconstructivist criticism and other expressions of postmodernism came to prominence in American academia circa 1980s.Frye's four essays are sandwiched between a \"Polemical Introduction\" and a \"Tentative Conclusion.\" The four essays are titled \"Historical Criticism: Theory of Modes\", \"Ethical Criticism: Theory of Symbols\", \"Archetypal Criticism: A Theory of Myths\", and \"Rhetorical Criticism: Theory of Genres.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Ann E. Berthoff (February 13, 1924) is a scholar of composition who promoted the study of I.A. Richards and Paulo Freire and the value of their work for writing studies.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Anti-LGBT rhetoric comprises themes, catchphrases, and slogans that have been used against homosexuality or other non-heterosexual sexual orientations in order to demean lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people. They range from the demeaning and the pejorative to expressions of hostility towards homosexuality which are based on religious, medical, or moral grounds. It is a form of hate speech which is illegal in countries such as the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden.Anti-LGBT rhetoric often consists of moral panic or conspiracy theory. In Eastern Europe, these conspiracy theories are based on earlier antisemitic conspiracy theories and posit that the LGBT movement is an instrument of foreign control and domination.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Anticato (sometimes Anti-Cato; Latin: Anticatones) is a lost polemic written by Julius Caesar in hostile reply to Cicero's pamphlet praising Cato the Younger. The text is lost and survives only in fragments. Brutus, dissatisfied with Cicero's work, wrote a second pamphlet in praise of Cato and called, simply, \"Cato\", which provoked a reply from Octavian. Octavian's work is not known to have been called \"Anticato\", but must have been modeled on Caesar's reply to Cicero.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Antidosis (Ancient Greek \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2) is the title of a spoken treatise by the ancient Greek rhetorician Isocrates. The Antidosis can be viewed as a defense, an autobiography, or rhetorical treatise. However, since Isocrates wrote it when he was 82 years old, it is generally seen by some people as an autobiography. The title term, \"antidosis\", literally translates as \"an exchange\" and was applied in ancient Greek courts as a peculiar law pertaining to an exchange of estates between two parties.  If one of the 1,200 wealthiest Athenians eligible was tasked with the performance of a public liturgy and financing one of the many public concerns of Athens, he could avoid the duty by nominating a richer man who was more qualified than himself to perform it. If the supposedly richer man disagreed with the terms, then the entirety of their estates would be exchanged and the now more wealthy man would have to perform the liturgy, as originally planned. The law inspired Isocrates' Antidosis, which was written in the form of a court case where Isocrates had to defend himself from a charge of corrupting the youth by teaching them how to speak well in order for them to gain an unfair advantage over their peers. Although this work is put forward by Isocrates as his imagined defense in a legal case, it is more a treatise on morality and teaching.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In rhetoric, antimetabole ( AN-ti-m\u0259-TAB-\u0259-lee) is the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in transposed order; for example, \"I know what I like, and I like what I know\". It is related to, and sometimes considered a special case of, chiasmus.\nAn antimetabole can be predictive, because it is easy to reverse the terms. It may trigger deeper reflection than merely stating one half of the line.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Antiptosis, which translates from the Greek \u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03ae (exchange of) and \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03af\u03c0\u03c4\u03c9\u03c3\u03b7 (case), is a rhetorical device.  Specifically, it is a type of enallage (the substitution of grammatically different but semantically equivalent constructions) in which one grammatical case is substituted for another.In English, this technique is used only with pronouns, and is more effective with languages that use inflected nouns, such as Greek and Latin.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Antithesis (Greek for \"setting opposite\", from \u1f00\u03bd\u03c4\u03af \"against\" and \u03b8\u03ad\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \"placing\") is used in writing or speech either as a proposition that contrasts with or reverses some previously mentioned proposition, or when two opposites are introduced together for contrasting effect. This is based on the logical phrase or term.Antithesis can be defined as \"a figure of speech involving a seeming contradiction of ideas, words, clauses, or sentences within a balanced grammatical structure. Parallelism of expression serves to emphasize opposition of ideas\".An antithesis must always contain two ideas within one statement. The ideas may not be structurally opposite, but they serve to be functionally opposite when comparing two ideas for emphasis.According to Aristotle, the use of an antithesis makes the audience better understand the point the speaker is trying to make. Further explained, the comparison of two situations or ideas makes choosing the correct one simpler. Aristotle states that antithesis in rhetoric is similar to syllogism due to the presentation of two conclusions within a statement.Antitheses are used to strengthen an argument by using either exact opposites or simply contrasting ideas, but can also include both. They typically make a sentence more memorable for the reader or listener through balance and emphasis of the words.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Antithetic parallelism is a form of parallelism where the meaning of two or more excerpts of text are observed, although directly linked by providing the same meaning from differing perspectives. This type of parallelism is used in order to create repetition of meaning as a technique for cognitive reinforcement, thus more effectively communicating the meaning of the text.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Aphelia (Greek, \"plainness\") is a plainness of writing or speech. Aphelia is used to explain or teach rather than to entertain or elicit an emotional response.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Apologetics (from Greek \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1, \"speaking in defense\") is the religious discipline of  defending religious doctrines through systematic argumentation and discourse. Early Christian writers (c. 120\u2013220) who defended their beliefs against critics and recommended their faith to outsiders were called Christian apologists. In 21st-century usage, apologetics is often identified with debates over religion and theology.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An apologue or apolog (from the Greek \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, a \"statement\" or \"account\") is a brief fable or allegorical story with pointed or exaggerated details, meant to serve as a pleasant vehicle for a moral doctrine or to convey a useful lesson without stating it explicitly. Unlike a fable, the moral is more important than the narrative details. As with the parable, the apologue is a tool of rhetorical argument used to convince or persuade.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, an aporia (Ancient Greek: \u1fb0\u0313\u03c0\u03bf\u03c1\u1fd0\u0301\u1fb1, romanized: apor\u00ed\u0101, lit.\u2009'literally: \"lacking passage\", also: \"impasse\", \"difficulty in passage\", \"puzzlement\"') is a conundrum or state of puzzlement. In rhetoric, it is a declaration of doubt, made for rhetorical purpose and often feigned.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Aposiopesis (; Classical Greek: \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03b9\u03ce\u03c0\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, \"becoming silent\") is a figure of speech wherein a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, the ending to be supplied by the imagination, giving an impression of unwillingness or inability to continue. An example would be the threat \"Get out, or else\u2014!\"  This device often portrays its users as overcome with passion (fear, anger, excitement) or modesty. To mark the occurrence of aposiopesis with punctuation, an em-rule (\u2014) or an ellipsis (\u2026) may be used.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, psychology, communication research, information science, natural language processing, anthropology, and sociology.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Apposition is a grammatical construction in which two elements, normally noun phrases, are placed side by side so one element identifies the other in a different way. The two elements are said to be in apposition, and one of the elements is called the appositive, but its identification requires consideration of how the elements are used in a sentence.\nFor example, in these sentences, the phrases Alice Smith and my sister are in apposition, with the appositive identified with italics:\n\nMy sister, Alice Smith, likes jelly beans.\nAlice Smith, my sister, likes jelly beans.Traditionally, appositions were called by their Latin name appositio, derived from the Latin ad (\"near\") and positio (\"placement\"), although the English form is now more commonly used.\nApposition is a figure of speech of the scheme type and often results when the verbs (particularly verbs of being) in supporting clauses are eliminated to produce shorter descriptive phrases. That makes them often function as hyperbatons, or figures of disorder, because they can disrupt the flow of a sentence. For example, in the phrase: \"My wife, a surgeon by training,...\", it is necessary to pause before the parenthetical modification \"a surgeon by training\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An aretology or aretalogy (from ancient Greek aret\u00ea, \"excellence, virtue\") in the strictest sense is a narrative about a divine figure's miraculous deeds. There is no evidence that these narratives constituted a clearly defined genre but there exists a body of literature that contained praise for divine miracles. These literary works were usually associated with eastern cults.In the Greco-Roman world, aretologies represent a religious branch of rhetoric and are a prose development of the hymn as praise poetry. Asclepius, Isis, and Serapis are among the deities with surviving aretologies in the form of inscriptions and papyri. The earliest records of divine acts emerged from cultic hymns for these deities, were inscribed in stones, and displayed in temples. The Greek aretologos (\u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, \"virtue-speaker\") was a temple official who recounted aretologies and may have also interpreted dreams.By extension, an aretology is also a \"catalogue of virtues\" belonging to a person; for example, Cicero's list and description of the virtues of Pompeius Magnus (\"Pompey the Great\") in the speech Pro Lege Manilia. Aretology became part of the Christian rhetorical tradition of hagiography.In an even more expanded sense, aretology is moral philosophy which deals with virtue, its nature, and the means of arriving at it. It is the title of an ethical tract by Robert Boyle published in the 1640s. Other scholars also consider literature that involve the praise of wisdom as aretology.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Ars dictaminis (or ars dictandi) refers to the art of letter-writing.  The art of letter-writing often intersects with the art of rhetoric.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The art of memory (Latin: ars memoriae) is any of a number of loosely associated mnemonic principles and techniques used to organize memory impressions, improve recall, and assist in the combination and 'invention' of ideas. An alternative term is \"Ars Memorativa\" which is also translated as \"art of memory\" although its more literal meaning is \"Memorative Art\". It is also referred to as mnemotechnics. It is an 'art' in the Aristotelian sense, which is to say a method or set of prescriptions that adds order and discipline to the pragmatic, natural activities of human beings. It has existed as a recognized group of principles and techniques since at least as early as the middle of the first millennium BCE, and was usually associated with training in rhetoric or logic, but variants of the art were employed in other contexts, particularly the religious and  the magical.\nTechniques commonly employed in the art include the association of emotionally striking memory images within visualized locations, the chaining or association of groups of images, the association of images with schematic graphics or notae (\"signs, markings, figures\" in Latin), and the association of text with images. Any or all of these techniques were often used in combination with the contemplation or study of architecture, books, sculpture and painting, which were seen by practitioners of the art of memory as externalizations of internal memory images and/or organization.\nBecause of the variety of principles and techniques, and their various applications, some researchers refer to \"the arts of memory\", rather than to a single art.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Asiatic style or Asianism (Latin: genus orationis Asiaticum, Cicero, Brutus 325) refers to an Ancient Greek rhetorical tendency (though not an organized school) that arose in the third century BC, which, although of minimal relevance at the time, briefly became an important point of reference in later debates about Roman oratory.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Aspasia (; Greek: \u1f08\u03c3\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1 Greek: [aspas\u00eda\u02d0]; c.\u2009470 \u2013 after 428 BC) was a metic woman in Classical Athens.  Born in Miletus, she moved to Athens and began a relationship with the statesman Pericles, with whom she had a son, Pericles the Younger.   According to the traditional historical narrative, she worked as a courtesan and was tried for asebeia (impiety), though modern scholars have questioned the factual basis for either of these claims, which both derive from ancient comedy.  Though Aspasia is one of the best-attested women from the Greco-Roman world, and the most important woman in the history of fifth-century Athens, almost nothing is certain about her life.\nAspasia was portrayed in Old Comedy as a prostitute and madam, and in ancient philosophy as a teacher and rhetorician.  She has continued to be a subject of both visual and literary artists until the present.  From the twentieth century, she has been portrayed as both a sexualised and sexually liberated woman, and as a feminist role model fighting for women's rights in ancient Athens.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In political campaigns, an attack ad is an advertisement whose message is designed to wage a personal attack against an opposing candidate or political party in order to gain support for the attacking candidate and attract voters. Attack ads often form part of negative campaigning or smear campaigns, and in large or well-financed campaigns, may be disseminated via mass media.\nAn attack ad will generally unfairly criticize an opponent's political platform, usually by pointing out its faults. Often the ad will simply make use of innuendo, based on opposition research.\nTelevised attack ads rose to prominence in the United States in the 1960s, especially since Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations require over-the-air commercial TV stations with licenses issued by the FCC\u2014effectively all regulated TV stations, since others would either be public television or be pirated\u2014to air political ads by both parties, whether it be attack ads or more traditional political ads. Although cable television and the Internet are not required to air such ads, attack ads have become commonplace on both mediums as well.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Atticism (meaning \"favouring Attica\", the region of Athens in Greece) was a rhetorical movement that began in the first quarter of the 1st century BC; it may also refer to the wordings and phrasings typical of this movement, in contrast with various contemporary forms of Koine Greek (both literary and vulgar), which continued to evolve in directions guided by the common usages of Hellenistic Greek.\nAtticism was portrayed as a return to Classical methods after what was perceived as the pretentious style of the Hellenistic, Sophist rhetoric and called for a return to the approaches of the Attic orators.\nAlthough the plainer language of Atticism eventually became as belabored and ornate as the perorations it sought to replace, its original simplicity meant that it remained universally comprehensible throughout the Greek world. This helped maintain vital cultural links across the Mediterranean and beyond. Admired and popularly imitated writers such as Lucian also adopted Atticism, so that the style survived until the Renaissance, when it was taken up by non-Greek students of Byzantine immigrants. Renaissance scholarship, the basis of modern scholarship in the west, nurtured strong Classical and Attic views, continuing Atticism for another four centuries.\nRepresented at its height by rhetoricians such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and grammarians such as Herodian and Phrynichus Arabius at Alexandria, this tendency prevailed from the 1st century BC onward, and with the force of an ecclesiastical dogma controlled all subsequent Greek culture, even so that the living form of the Greek language, even then being transformed into modern Greek much later, was quite obscured and only occasionally found expression, chiefly in private documents, though also in popular literature.\nFor instance, there were literary writers such as Strabo, Plutarch, and Josephus who intentionally withdrew from this way of expression (classical Greek) in favor of the common form of Greek.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Battlers, in Australian colloquialism, are ordinary working class people who persevere through their commitments despite adversity. Typically, this adversity comprises low pay, family problems, environmental hardships and personal recognition woes. It is a term of respect and endearment intended to empower and recognise those who feel as though they exist at the bottom of society. It has seen recent use in mainstream politics to describe a demographic of Australian people.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Bathos (UK:  BAY-thoss; Greek: \u03b2\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2, lit. \"depth\") is a literary term, first used in this sense in Alexander Pope's 1727 essay \"Peri Bathous\", to describe an amusingly failed attempt at presenting artistic greatness. Today, bathos refers to rhetorical anticlimax, an abrupt transition from a lofty style or grand topic to a common or vulgar one, occurring either accidentally (through artistic ineptitude) or intentionally (for comic effect). Intentional bathos appears in satirical genres such as burlesque and mock epic. \"Bathos\" or \"bathetic\" is also used for similar effects in other branches of the arts, such as musical passages marked ridicolosamente. In film, bathos may appear in a contrast cut intended for comic relief or be produced by an accidental jump cut.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Bdelygmia, deriving from a Greek word meaning \"filth\" or \"nastiness\", is a technique used in rhetoric to express hatred of a person, word or action through a series of criticisms. Bdelygmia often appears as an \"abusive description of a character\" or \"by strong and inappropriate critique\". It is synonymous with abominatio. It is believed that since common people do not belong to major decision-making groups, they cannot easily be swayed to feel a certain way.  Violence in rhetoric, according to Lynette Hunter, arose because of this notion. It has become the dominant form of commentary on social media sites and is often described as \"verbal violence\" because of its hateful nature.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Belgrade Competition in Oratory is an annual academic event at the University of Belgrade's Law School, which has gained significant popularity of the general public all over Serbia. In this competition students deliver their speeches on both free-choice and given topics. The event represents an opportunity for students to express their critical opinions in front of government officials sitting in the front rows of the audience, when the largest lecture hall at the law school is filled to capacity. The competition is broadcast live on the national television program.\nThis event is traditionally organized by university professors Obrad Stanojevi\u0107 and Sima Avramovi\u0107, the founders of the Center for Oratory Institutio oratoria, which gathers the University of Belgrade's Law School students interested in developing public speaking skills and prepares them for competitions. These scholars hold an optional course on rhetoric at the Law School and both are authors of textbooks on rhetoric.\nFollowing the example of the Belgrade Law School, several educational institutions in the region organize their own similar events. The winners of local competitions throughout Serbia take part in the Serbian universities wide finals.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Gasparinus de Bergamo (in Italian, Gasparino (da) Barzizza; in French, Gasparin de Bergame; in Latin, Gasparinus Barzizius Bergomensis or Pergamensis) (c. 1360 \u2013 1431) was an Italian grammarian and teacher noted for introducing a new style of epistolary Latin inspired by the works of Cicero.With Pier Paolo Vergerio the Elder, he was influential in the development of humanism at Padua.  As one of the first Italian Humanists, he taught rhetoric, grammar, and moral philosophy with the aim of reviving Latin literature.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Bloviation is a style of empty, pompous, political speech that originated in Ohio and was used by US President Warren G. Harding, who described it as \"the art of speaking for as long as the occasion warrants, and saying nothing\".  His opponent, William Gibbs McAdoo, compared it to \"an army of pompous phrases moving over the landscape in search of an idea.\"\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Cicero's Brutus (also known as De claris oratoribus) is a history of Roman oratory.  It is written in the form of a dialogue, in which Brutus and Atticus ask Cicero to describe the qualities of all the leading Roman orators up to their time. Cicero then attempts to propose a reconstruction of Roman history. Although it is written in the form of a dialogue, the majority of the talking is done by Cicero with occasional intervention by Brutus and Atticus. The work was probably composed in 46 BC, with the purpose of defending Cicero's own oratory. He begins with an introductory section on Greek oratory of the Attic, Asiatic, and Rhodian schools, before discussing Roman orators, beginning with Lucius Junius Brutus, \"The Liberator\", though becoming more specific from the time of Marcus Cornelius Cethegus.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Kenneth Duva Burke (May 5, 1897 \u2013 November 19, 1993) was an American literary theorist, as well as poet, essayist, and novelist, who wrote on 20th-century philosophy, aesthetics, criticism, and rhetorical theory. As a literary theorist, Burke was best known for his analyses based on the nature of knowledge. Further, he was one of the first individuals to stray from more traditional rhetoric and view literature as \"symbolic action.\"\nBurke was unorthodox, concerning himself not only with literary texts, but also with the elements of the text that interacted with the audience: social, historical, political background, author biography, etc.For his career, Burke has been praised by The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism as \"one of the most unorthodox, challenging, theoretically sophisticated American-born literary critics of the twentieth century.\" His work continues to be discussed by rhetoricians and philosophers.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Byzantine rhetoric refers to rhetorical theorizing and production during the time of the Byzantine Empire.  Byzantine rhetoric is significant in part because of the sheer volume of rhetorical works produced during this period.  Rhetoric was the most important and difficult topic studied in the Byzantine education system, beginning at the Pandidakterion in early fifth century Constantinople, where the school emphasized the study of rhetoric with eight teaching chairs, five in Greek and three in Latin.  The hard training of Byzantine rhetoric provided skills and credentials for citizens to attain public office in the imperial service, or posts of authority within the Church.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The campaign rhetoric of Barack Obama is the rhetoric in the campaign speeches given by President of the United States, Barack Obama, between February 10, 2007 and November 5, 2008 for the 2008 presidential campaign.  Obama became the 44th president after George W. Bush with running mate Joe Biden.  In his campaign rhetoric, Obama used three main devices: motifs, American exceptionalism, and voicing.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Catachresis (from Greek \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03c7\u03c1\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, \"abuse\"), originally meaning a semantic misuse or error\u2014e.g., using \"militate\" for \"mitigate\", \"chronic\" for \"severe\", \"travesty\" for \"tragedy\", \"anachronism\" for \"anomaly\", \"alibi\" for \"excuse\", etc.\u2014is also the name given to many different types of figures of speech in which a word or phrase is being applied in a way that significantly departs from conventional (or traditional) usage.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Chiastic structure, or chiastic pattern, is a literary technique in narrative motifs and other textual passages.  An example of chiastic structure would be two ideas, A and B, together with variants A' and B', being presented as A,B,B',A'.  Chiastic structures that involve more components are sometimes called \"ring structures\", \"ring compositions\", or, in cases of very ambitious chiasmus, \"onion-ring compositions\". These may be regarded as chiasmus scaled up from words and clauses to larger segments of text.\nThese often symmetrical patterns are commonly found in ancient literature such as the epic poetry of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Classicist Bruno Gentili describes this technique as \"the cyclical, circular, or 'ring' pattern (ring composition). Here the idea that introduced a compositional section is repeated at its conclusion, so that the whole passage is framed by material of identical content\". Meanwhile, in classical prose, scholars often find chiastic narrative techniques in the Histories of Herodotus:\n\nHerodotus frequently uses ring composition or 'epic regression' as a way of supplying background information for something discussed in the narrative. First an event is mentioned briefly, then its precedents are reviewed in reverse chronological order as far back as necessary; at that point the narrative reverses itself and moves forward in chronological order until the event in the main narrative line is reached again.\nVarious chiastic structures are also seen in the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, the Book of Mormon, and the Quran.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Chironomia is the art of using gesticulations or hand gestures to good effect in traditional rhetoric or oratory.   Effective use of the hands, with or without the use of the voice, is a practice of great antiquity, which was developed and systematized by the Greeks and the Romans.  Various gestures had conventionalized meanings which were commonly understood, either within certain class or professional groups, or broadly among dramatic and oratorical audiences.\nGilbert Austin was a well-known author on chironomia. The article about him contains a summary of theories in chironomia.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The chreia or chria (Greek: \u03c7\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b1) was, in antiquity and the Byzantine Empire, both a genre of literature and one of the progymnasmata. \n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Circumlocution (also called circumduction, circumvolution, periphrasis, kenning, or ambage) is the use of an unnecessarily large number of words to express an idea. It is sometimes necessary in communication (for example, to work around lexical gaps that might otherwise lead to untranslatability), but it can also be undesirable (when an uncommon or easily misunderstood figure of speech is used). Roundabout speech is the use of many words to describe something that already has a common and concise term (for example, saying \"a tool used for cutting things such as paper and hair\" instead of \"scissors\"). Most dictionaries use circumlocution to define words. Circumlocution is often used by people with aphasia and people learning a new language, where simple terms can be paraphrased to aid learning or communication (for example, paraphrasing the word \"grandfather\" as \"the father of one's father\"). Among other usages, circumlocution can be used to construct euphemisms, innuendos, and equivocations.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In Roman rhetoric, a clausula (; Latin for \"little close or conclusion\"; plural clausulae ) was a rhythmic figure used to add finesse and finality to the end of a sentence or phrase. There was a large range of popular clausulae. Most well known is the classically Ciceronian esse vide\u0101tur type.\nEvery long sentence can be divided into rhythmical cola (singular colon), in Latin membra (singular membrum), and the last few syllables of every colon tend to conform to certain favourite rhythmic patterns, which are known as clausulae. Shorter cola were known as commata /\u02c8k\u0252m\u0259t\u0259/ (singular comma), in Latin inc\u012bsa (singular inc\u012bsum), which also often display rhythmic endings.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In rhetoric, a climax (Greek: \u03ba\u03bb\u1fd6\u03bc\u03b1\u03be, kl\u00eemax, lit. \"staircase\" or \"ladder\") is a figure of speech in which words, phrases, or clauses are arranged in order of increasing importance. In its use with clauses, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (lit. \"growth\").", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Cluster criticism is a method of rhetorical criticism in which a critic examines the structural relations and associative meanings between certain main ideas, concepts, or subjects present in a text.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Cognitive rhetoric refers to an approach to rhetoric, composition, and pedagogy as well as a method for language and literary studies drawing from, or contributing to, cognitive science.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In linguistics, a collective noun is a word referring to a collection of things taken as a whole. Most collective nouns in everyday speech are not specific to one kind of thing. For example, the collective noun \"group\" can be applied to people (\"a group of people\"), or dogs (\"a group of dogs\"), or objects (\"a group of stones\").\nSome collective nouns are specific to one kind of thing, especially terms of venery, which identify groups of specific animals. For example, \"pride\" as a term of venery always refers to lions, never to dogs or cows. Other examples come from popular culture such as a group of owls, which is called a \"parliament\".Different forms of English handle verb agreement with collective count nouns differently. For example, users of British English generally accept that collective nouns take either singular or plural verb forms depending on context and the metonymic shift that it implies.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A colon (from Greek: \u03ba\u1ff6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd, pl. \u03ba\u1ff6\u03bb\u03b1, cola) is a rhetorical figure consisting of a clause which is grammatically, but not logically, complete. In Latin, it is called a membrum or membrum orationis.\nSentences consisting of two cola are called dicola; those with three are tricola. The corresponding adjectives are dicolic and tricolic; colic is not used in this sense. In writing, these cola are often separated by colons.\nAn isocolon is a sentence composed of cola of equal syllabic length.\nThe Septuagint used this system in the poetic books such as the Psalms. \nWhen Jerome translated the books of the Prophets, he arranged the text colometrically.\nThe colometric system was used in bilingual codices of New Testament, such as Codex Bezae and Codex Claromontanus. Some Greek and Latin manuscripts also used this system, including Codex Coislinianus and Codex Amiatinus.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In Ancient Greek rhetoric, a comma (\u03ba\u03cc\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1 komma, plural \u03ba\u03cc\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 kommata) is a short clause, something less than a colon.\nIn the system of Aristophanes of Byzantium, commata were separated by middle interpuncts.\nIn antiquity, a comma was defined as a combination of words that has no more than eight syllables.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Commentary on Cicero's Dream of Scipio (in Latin Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis) is a philosophical treatise of Macrobius based on the famous dream narrated in On the republic of Cicero (Chapter VI, 9-29).\nIn Cicero's work, Scipio Africanus appears to his adoptive grandson, Scipio Aemilianus, and reveals him his future destiny, and that of his country, explains the rewards that await the virtuous man in another life, describes the universe and the place of the Earth and of man inside the universe.\nMacrobius does not offer an exhaustive comment of the text of Cicero, but expounds a series of theories on the dreams from neoplatonic background, on the mystic properties of the numbers, on the nature of the soul, on astronomy and on music. He quotes a number of authorities, but is unlikely to have read them all, or even the majority. Plotinus and Porphyry are his main sources, and he quotes frequently from Virgil with ornamental purpose. Nevertheless, the work incorporates ideas of neoplatonism that have not been preserved in a direct form elsewhere. The style is quite uneven, since Macrobius copies or translates his sources without unifying the style.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Common sense (often just known as sense) is sound, practical judgment concerning everyday matters, or a basic ability to perceive, understand, and judge in a manner that is shared by (i.e. common to) nearly all people.\nThe everyday understanding of common sense derives from historical philosophical discussion involving several European languages. Related terms in other languages include Latin sensus communis, Greek \u03b1\u1f34\u03c3\u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u1f74 (a\u00edsth\u0113sis koin\u1e15), and French bon sens, but these are not straightforward translations in all contexts. Similarly in English, there are different shades of meaning, implying more or less education and wisdom: \"good sense\" is sometimes seen as equivalent to \"common sense\", and sometimes not.\n\"Common sense\" has at least two specific philosophical meanings. One is as a capability of the animal soul (\u03c8\u1fe1\u03c7\u03ae, ps\u016bkh\u1e17) proposed by Aristotle to explain how the different senses join together and enable discrimination of particular objects by people and other animals. This common sense is distinct from basic sensory perception and from human rational thought, but cooperates with both.\nA second philosophical use of the term is Roman-influenced and is used for the natural human sensitivity for other humans and the community. Just like the everyday meaning, both of these refer to a type of basic awareness and ability to judge that most people are expected to share naturally, even if they cannot explain why. All these meanings of \"common sense\", including the everyday ones, are interconnected in a complex history and have evolved during important political and philosophical debates in modern Western civilisation, notably concerning science, politics and economics. The interplay between the meanings has come to be particularly notable in English, as opposed to other western European languages, and the English term has become international.Since the Age of Enlightenment the term \"common sense\" has been used for rhetorical effect both approvingly, as a standard for good taste and source of scientific and logical axioms, and disapprovingly, as equivalent to vulgar prejudice and superstition. It was at the beginning of the 18th century that this old philosophical term first acquired its modern English meaning: \"Those plain, self-evident truths or conventional wisdom that one needed no sophistication to grasp and no proof to accept precisely because they accorded so well with the basic (common sense) intellectual capacities and experiences of the whole social body.\" This began with Descartes's criticism of it, and what came to be known as the dispute between \"rationalism\" and \"empiricism\". In the opening line of one of his most famous books, Discourse on Method, Descartes established the most common modern meaning, and its controversies, when he stated that everyone has a similar and sufficient amount of common sense (bon sens), but it is rarely used well. Therefore, a skeptical logical method described by Descartes needs to be followed and common sense should not be overly relied upon. In the ensuing 18th century Enlightenment, common sense came to be seen more positively as the basis for modern thinking. It was contrasted to metaphysics, which was, like Cartesianism, associated with the Ancien R\u00e9gime. Thomas Paine's polemical pamphlet Common Sense (1776) has been described as the most influential political pamphlet of the 18th century, affecting both the American and French revolutions. Today, the concept of common sense, and how it should best be used, remains linked to many of the most perennial topics in epistemology and ethics, with special focus often directed at the philosophy of the modern social sciences.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In classical rhetoric, the Common Topics were a short list of four traditional topics regarded as suitable to structure an argument.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Commonwealth Club Address (23 September 1932) was a speech made by New York Governor and Democratic presidential nominee Franklin Delano Roosevelt in San Francisco on his 1932 presidential campaign. Roosevelt said the era of growth and unrestricted entrepreneurship had ended, and the individualism must give way to collective action. He was not at all specific, but he hinted at liberal reforms of the sort that emerged in The First Hundred  Days after his inauguration in March 1933. Scholars rate it among the 100 greatest speeches made by a President in the 20th century.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "\"Communication Theory as a Field\" is a 1999 article by Robert T. Craig, attempting to unify the academic field of communication theory.Craig argues that communication theorists can become unified in dialogue by charting what he calls the \"dialogical dialectical tension\", or the similarities and differences in their understanding of \"communication\" and demonstrating how those elements create tension within the field.  Craig mapped these similarities and differences into seven suggested traditions of communication theory and showed how each of these traditions understand communication, as well as how each tradition's understanding creates tension with the other traditions.The article has received multiple awards, has become the foundation for many communication theory textbooks, and has been translated into several different languages.\"Communication theory as a field\" has created two main dialogues between Craig and other theorists. Myers argued that Craig misrepresented the theoretical assumptions of his theory, and that the theory itself does not distinguish between good and bad theories. Craig responded that Myers misunderstood not only the basic argument of the article, but also misrepresented his own case study. Russill proposed pragmatism as an eighth tradition of communication theory, Craig responded by expanding this idea and placing Russill's proposition in conversation with the other seven traditions.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Comparatio in Classical rhetoric is strategy that uses comparison to persuade people. Comparatio relies upon people's knowledge or beliefs about a phenomenon, and then discursively \"links\" that phenomenon to a different phenomenon about which the speaker/writer wishes to make a claim.\nFor example, if someone wanted to persuade an audience of the merit of putting in a new freeway system, they could use comparatio as a rhetorical strategy. They might compare the new freeway system to a \"river of life flowing through our community\" or they could call it a \"path to commercial vibrance.\"\nComparisons can also be made to phenomena about which an audience could be expected to have negative feelings. For example, if you were opposed to the new freeway because of the environmental damage it would do to waterfowl nesting areas, you might compare the new freeway to \"a corridor of death for our bird species.\"\nThe rhetorical success of comparatio hinges upon comparing your claim to a phenomenon that is:\n\nfamiliar to the audience\nlikely to evoke emotional feelings\nadequately similar to your claim to seem logical.It would not, for example, work well to call the freeway a \"ham sandwich lodged in the throat of the community.\" The freeway seems more logically related to the throat (a passageway or throughway) than an obstacle in that passageway.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Composition studies (also referred to as composition and rhetoric, rhetoric and composition, writing studies, or simply composition) is the professional field of writing, research, and instruction, focusing especially on writing at the college level in the United States. The flagship national organization for this field is the Conference on College Composition and Communication.In most US and some Canadian colleges and universities, undergraduates take freshman or higher-level composition courses. To support the effective administration of these courses, the development of basic and applied research on the acquisition of writing skills, and an understanding of the history of the uses and transformation of writing systems and writing technologies (among many other subareas of research), over 70 American universities offer doctoral study in rhetoric and composition. These programs of study usually include composition pedagogical theory, linguistics, professional and technical communication, qualitative and quantitative research methods, the history of rhetoric, as well as the influence of different writing conventions and genres on writers' composing processes more generally.Composition scholars also publish in the fields of teaching English as a second or foreign language (TESOL) or second language writing, writing centers, and new literacies.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "See also the Catharist ConsolamentumThe Consolatio or consolatory oration is a type of ceremonial oratory, typically used rhetorically to comfort mourners at funerals. It was one of the most popular classical rhetoric topics, and received new impetus under Renaissance humanism.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Constitutive rhetoric is a theory of discourse devised by James Boyd White about the capacity of language or symbols to create a collective identity for an audience, especially by means of condensation symbols, literature, and narratives. Such discourse often demands that action be taken to reinforce the identity and the beliefs of that identity. White explains that it denotes \"the art of constituting character, community and culture in language.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In literature, an author uses contrast when they describe the difference(s) between two or more entities. According to the Oxford Dictionary, contrast is comparing two things in order to show the differences between them. It is common in many works of Literature. For example, in The Pearl by John Steinbeck, a clear contrast is drawn between the Lower Class and the Upper Class residents of the society presented in the text. The Lower Class citizens live in brush houses, their economic activity is fishing and are sociable. These ones are represented by Kino, the main character and the fishermen. On the other hand, the Upper Class citizens live in plastered buildings, they engage in reputable economic activities such as medicine and are more focused to their economic activities as opposed to social interactions. \nIn addition, in the first four lines of William Shakespeare's Sonnet 130, Shakespeare contrasts a mistress to the sun, coral, snow, and wire.\nContrast is the antonym of simile. In poetic compositions, it is common for poets to set out an elaborate contrast or elaborate simile as the argument. For example, John Donne and the metaphysical poets developed the conceit as a literary device, where an elaborate, implausible, and surprising analogy was demonstrated. In Renaissance poetry, and particularly in sonnets, the contrast was similarly used as a poetic argument. In such verse, the entire poem argues that two seemingly alike or identical items are, in fact, quite separate and paradoxically different. These may take the form of my love is unlike all other women or I am unlike her other loves.\nIn the early 18th century, a theory of wit developed by English writers (particularly John Locke) held that judgement sees the differences in like things, or imagination or fancy sees the likeness in different things, and wit operates properly by employing judgement and fancy to form sound propositions. In lyric poetry, the author is often attempting to show how what seems to be solely an exercise of judgement or fancy is, in fact, wit.\n\nReferences \n1. Oxford, (2010), Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, International Student's Edition (8th Edition) Oxford University Press, United Kingdom \n2. Steinbeck J. (2000), The Pearl, Longman, England", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A controversia is an exercise in rhetoric; a form of declamation in which the student speaks for one side in a notional legal case such as treason or poisoning.  The facts of the matter and relevant law are presented in a persuasive manner, in the style of a legal counsel.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Broadly speaking, a conversion narrative is a narrative that relates the operation of conversion, usually religious. As a specific aspect of American literary and religious history, the conversion narrative was an important facet of Puritan sacred and secular society in New England during a period stretching roughly from 1630 to the end of the First Great Awakening.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Corps Altsachsen is a fraternity (Studentenverbindung) in Dresden, Germany. It was  founded on October 31, 1861 and is one of 162 German Student Corps in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, Latvia and Hungary today. The Corps is a member of the Weinheimer Senioren-Convent (WSC), the second oldest federation of classical Fraternities in Europe with roots dating back to the 15th century.Four presidents (\"Rektor\") of Dresden University of Technology, Dresden's largest university with approximately 30.000 students, are among the list of members of the fraternity, underlining the deep connection between the Corps and the local alma mater. The connections with the university and the city of Dresden go far back to the fraternity's early beginnings in the late 19th century, with members aspiring to drive developments for the university over the course of history. Two major accomplishments were (1) ensuring the university's recognition by developing the former Technical Institute into the Royal Saxon Technical College of Dresden in the late 1800s and (2) founding of today's Studentenwerk Dresden in the early 1900s as the university's student council. Outside of the university's circles, many of the fraternity's members  drove developments in the architectural style and design of several of Dresden's buildings such as the \"Dresden's Neuer Bahnhof\".Membership in the fraternity is open to honorable men studying at one of Dresden's universities and is based exclusively on personality, good moral standing, and strength of character. Members of the Corps Altsachsen value and engage in the tradition of academic fencing as a way to sharpen and prove their character under pressure. Continuing a practice dating back into the 1700s, Altsachsen's members wear the traditional couleur, colored stripes, in grey-green-gold. The fraternity teaches and expects tolerance from its members, who are stemming from very diverse ethnic, national, religious and political backgrounds.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Covariational Conditional refers to the most commonly used \"the X'er, the Y'er\" structure in English, for example:\n\n\"The more I think about it, the less I understand.\"\n\"The sooner, the better.\"The structure is composed of two variables: an independent variable ('the X'er') and a dependent variable (\"the Y'er\"). It has also been called the 'comparative correlative construction'.In construction grammar this pattern is considered a construction because the pattern is not predictable from any other fact of English grammar already established about 'the'.\n'The normally occurs with a head noun but in this construction it requires a comparative phrase. The two major phrases resist classification as either noun phrases or clauses. The requirement that two phrases of this type be juxtaposed is another non-predictable aspect of the pattern. Because the pattern is not strictly predictable, a construction must be\nposited that specifies the particular form and function involved' (Goldberg 2006, 6).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The dead cat stategy, also known as deadcatting, is the political strategy of deliberately making a shocking announcement to divert media attention away from problems or failures in other areas. The present name for the strategy has been associated with British prime minister Boris Johnson's political strategist Lynton Crosby.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Declamation (from the Latin: declamatio) is an artistic form of public speaking. It is a dramatic oration designed to express through articulation, emphasis and gesture the full sense of the text being conveyed.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Decorum (from the Latin: \"right, proper\") was a principle of classical rhetoric, poetry and theatrical theory concerning the fitness or otherwise of a style to a theatrical subject. The concept of decorum is also applied to prescribed limits of appropriate social behavior within set situations.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Deliberative rhetoric (Greek: genos symbouleutikon; Latin: genus deliberativum, sometimes called legislative oratory) is one of the three kinds of rhetoric described by Aristotle. Deliberative rhetoric juxtaposes potential future outcomes to communicate support or opposition for a given action or policy. In deliberative rhetoric, an argument is made using examples from the past to predict future outcomes in order to illustrate that a given policy or action will either be harmful or beneficial in the future. It differs from deliberative democracy, which is a form of governmental discourse or institution that prioritizes public debate.\nIn Rhetoric (4th century BCE), Aristotle wrote that deliberative rhetoric is relevant in political debate since the \"political orator is concerned with the future: it is about things to be done hereafter that he advises, for or against.\" According to Aristotle, political orators make an argument for a particular position on the grounds that the future results will be in the public's best interest. He wrote that a politician \"aims at establishing the expediency or the harmfulness of a proposed course of action; if he urges its acceptance, he does so on the ground that it will do good; if he urges its rejection, he does so on the ground that it will do harm.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Description is the pattern of narrative development that aims to make vivid a place, object, character, or group. Description is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse), along with exposition, argumentation, and narration.  In practice it would be difficult to write literature that drew on just one of the four basic modes.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Diacope () is a rhetorical term meaning repetition of a word or phrase with one or two intervening words. It derives from a Greek word thiakhop, which means \"cut in two\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Dialectic (Greek: \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae, dialektik\u1e17; related to dialogue; German: Dialektik), also known as the dialectical method, is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned argumentation. Dialectic resembles debate, but the concept excludes subjective elements such as emotional appeal and the modern pejorative sense of rhetoric. Dialectic may thus be contrasted with both the eristic, which refers to argument that aims to successfully dispute another's argument (rather than searching for truth), and the didactic method, wherein one side of the conversation teaches the other. Dialectic is alternatively known as minor logic, as opposed to major logic or critique.\nWithin Hegelianism, the word dialectic has the specialised meaning of a contradiction between ideas that serves as the determining factor in their relationship. Dialectical materialism, a theory or set of theories produced mainly by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, adapted the Hegelian dialectic into arguments regarding traditional materialism. The dialectics of Hegel and Marx were criticized in the twentieth century by the philosophers Karl Popper and Mario Bunge.\nDialectic tends to imply a process of evolution and so does not naturally fit within classical logics, but was given some formalism in the twentieth century. The emphasis on process is particularly marked in Hegelian dialectic, and even more so in Marxist dialectical logic, which tried to account for the evolution of ideas over longer time periods in the real world.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Dialogus de oratoribus is a short work attributed to Tacitus, in dialogue form, on the art of rhetoric. Its date of composition is unknown, though its dedication to Lucius Fabius Justus places its publication around 102 AD.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A dilemma (Greek: \u03b4\u03af\u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1 \"double proposition\") is a problem offering two possibilities, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or preferable. The possibilities are termed the horns of the dilemma, a clich\u00e9d usage, but distinguishing the dilemma from other kinds of predicament as a matter of usage.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Flavius Dioscorus (Greek: \u03a6\u03bb\u03b1\u03cd\u03ca\u03bf\u03c2 \u0394\u03b9\u03cc\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, romanized: Flavios Dioskoros) lived during the 6th century AD in the village of Aphrodito, Egypt, and therefore is called by modern scholars Dioscorus of Aphrodito. Although he was an Egyptian, he composed poetry in Greek, the cultural language of the Byzantine Era. The manuscripts, which contain his corrections and revisions, were discovered on papyrus in 1905, and are now held in museums and libraries around the world. Dioscorus was also occupied in legal work, and legal documents and drafts involving him, his family, Aphroditans, and others were discovered along with his poetry. As an administrator of the village of Aphrodito, he composed petitions on behalf of its citizens, which are unique for their poetic and religious qualities. Dioscorus was a Christian (a Copt) and lived in a religiously active environment. The collection of Greek and Coptic papyri associated with Dioscorus and Aphrodito is one of the most important finds in the history of papyrology and has shed considerable light on the law and society of Byzantine Egypt.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Dispositio is the system used for the organization of arguments in the context of Western classical rhetoric. The word is Latin, and can be translated as \"organization\" or \"arrangement\".\nIt is the second of five canons of classical rhetoric (the first being inventio, and the remaining being elocutio, memoria, and pronuntiatio) that concern the crafting and delivery of speeches and writing.The first part of any rhetorical exercise was to discover the proper arguments to use, which was done by the formalized methods of inventio. The next problem was to select various arguments and organize them into an effective discourse.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The dramatistic pentad forms the core structure of dramatism, a method for examining motivations that the renowned literary critic Kenneth Burke developed.  Dramatism recommends the use of a metalinguistic approach to stories about human action that investigates the roles and uses of five rhetorical elements common to all narratives, each of which is related to a question. These five rhetorical elements form the \"dramatistic pentad\". Burke argues that an evaluation of the relative emphasis that is given to each of the five elements by a human drama enables a determination of the motive for the behaviour of its characters. A character's stress on one element over the others suggests their world view.\nBurke introduced the pentad in his 1945 book A Grammar of Motives. Burke based his pentad on the scholastic hexameter which defines \"questions to be answered in the treatment of a topic: Who, what, where, by what means, why, how, when\".:\u200a228\u200a Burke created the pentad by combining several of the categories in the scholastic hexameter. The result was a pentad that has the five categories of: act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose. Burke states, \"The 'who' is obviously covered by agent. Scene covers the 'where' and the 'when'. The 'why' is purpose. 'How' and 'by what means' fall under agency. All that is left to take care of is act in our terms and 'what' in the scholastic formula\".:\u200a228\u200aThe pentad also closely follows the journalistic 'Five Ws': who, what, when, where, why. 'Who' maps to agent. 'What' maps to action. 'When' and 'Where' map to scene. 'Why' maps to purpose. There is no direct mapping from the Five Ws to the pentads category of agency but Geoff Hart states \"Some authorities add a sixth question, \"how\", to this list, but \"how to\" information generally fits under what, where, or when, depending on the nature of the information.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Ecphonesis (Greek: \u1f10\u03ba\u03c6\u03ce\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2) is an emotional, exclamatory phrase (exclamation) used in poetry, drama, or song. It is a rhetorical device that originated in ancient literature.\nA Latin example is \"O tempora! O mores!\" (\"Oh, the times! Oh, the morals!\"). A modern example is \"Young man!\" from the song YMCA by the Village People.\n\nEdgar Allan Poe used ecphonesis in \u201cThe Tell-Tale Heart:\u201d \"Almighty God!--no, no! They heard!--they suspected!--they knew!--they were making a mockery of my horror!--this I thought, and this I think. But anything was better than this agony! Anything was more tolerable than this derision! I could bear those hypocritical smiles no longer! I felt that I must scream or die! and now--again!--hark! louder! louder! louder! louder! \"'Villains!' I shrieked, 'dissemble no more! I admit the deed!--tear up the planks! here, here!--It is the beating of his hideous heart!'\"Other examples of ecphonesis include when Homer Simpson said \"No! No-no-no-no-no-no! Well, yes.\" during The Simpsons episode \"Homer The Heretic,\" and when the Scarecrow said \"Oh joy! Rapture! I got a brain!\" in The Wizard of Oz.Donald Trump used the expressions \"Sad!\" and \"Wrong!\" without elaboration throughout his 2016 US presidential campaign.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Egalitarian dialogue is a dialogue in which contributions are considered according to the validity of their reasoning, instead of according to the status or position of power of those who make them.  Although previously used widely in the social sciences and in reference to the Bakhtinian philosophy of dialogue, it was first systematically applied to dialogical education by Ram\u00f3n Flecha in his 2000 work Sharing Words. Theory and Practice of Dialogic Learning.\nEgalitarian dialogue is one of the seven principles of dialogic learning (Flecha, 2000), the others being cultural intelligence, equality of differences, creation of meaning, instrumental dimension, solidarity, and transformation. The principle of egalitarian dialogue is deeply interrelated with the other principles of dialogic learning. By recognizing all people's cultural intelligence and respecting differences from an egalitarian standpoint, egalitarian dialogue encourages individuals to create meaning, develop solidarity among different people, and create new instrumental dimensions. This interdependence among the principles of dialogic learning favors constant social transformation.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Elocutio (lexis or phrasis in Greek) is a Latin term for the mastery of rhetorical devices and figures of speech in Western classical rhetoric. Elocutio or style is the third of the five canons of classical rhetoric (the others being inventio, dispositio, memoria, and pronuntiatio) that concern the craft and delivery of speeches and writing.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Elocution is the study of formal speaking in pronunciation, grammar, style, and tone as well as the idea and practice of effective speech and its forms. It stems from the idea that while communication is symbolic, sounds are final and compelling. It came into popularity in England in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and in America during the nineteenth century. It benefitted both men and women in different ways but overall the concept was there to teach both how to become better, more persuasive speakers, standardize errors in spoken and written English, as well as the beginnings of the formulation of argument were discussed here.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Eloquentia perfecta, a tradition of the Society of Jesus, is a value of Jesuit rhetoric that revolves around cultivating a person as a whole, as one learns to speak and write for the common good. Eloquentia perfecta is a Latin term which means \"perfect eloquence\". The term connotes values of eloquent expression and action for the common good. For Jesuits, the term eloquentia perfecta was understood as the joining of knowledge and wisdom with virtue and morality.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Enantiosis, synoeciosis or discordia concors is a rhetorical device in which opposites are juxtaposed so that the contrast between them is striking.  Examples include the famous maxim of Augustus, festina lente (hasten slowly), and the following passage from Paul's second letter to the Corinthians:By honour and dishonour, by evil report and good report: as deceivers, and yet true;As unknown, and yet well known; as dying, and, behold, we live; as chastened, and not killed;As sorrowful, yet alway rejoicing; as poor, yet making many rich; as having nothing, and yet possessing all things.\nDr. Johnson in his Lives of the Poets (1779) defined discordia concors as \"a combination of dissimilar images, or discovery of occult resemblances in things apparently unlike. (...) The most heterogeneous ideas are yoked by violence together.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An enthymeme (Greek: \u1f10\u03bd\u03b8\u03cd\u03bc\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1, enth\u00fdm\u0113ma) is a form of rational appeal, or deductive argument. It is also known as a rhetorical syllogism and is used in oratorical practice. While the syllogism is used in dialectic, or the art of logical discussion, the enthymeme is used in rhetoric, or the art of public speaking. Enthymemes are usually developed from premises that accord with the audience's view of the world and what is taken to be common sense. However, where the general premise of a syllogism is supposed to be true, making the subsequent deduction necessary, the general premise of an enthymeme is merely probable, which leads only to a tentative conclusion. Originally theorized by Aristotle, there are four types of enthymeme, at least two of which are described in Aristotle's work.Aristotle referred to the enthymeme as \"the body of proof\", \"the strongest of rhetorical proofs...a kind of syllogism\" (Rhetoric I, 1.3,11). He considered it to be one of two kinds of proof, the other of which was the paradeigma. Maxims, Aristotle thought, were a derivative of enthymemes. (Rhetoric II.XX.1). Aristotle discusses two types of enthymemes: demonstrative [deiktika] and refutative [elentika]. (Rhetoric II.XXII.14). Demonstrative enthymemes are of the fact that something is or is not the case; they draw a conclusion from what is agreed. Refutative enthymemes draw conclusions that are not agreed to by the opponent. (Rhetoric II.XXII.15). According to Aristotle, refutative enthymemes are better liked by audiences because the inconsistencies or opposing arguments are clearer when placed side by side. (Rhetoric II.XXIII.30). Enthymemes are derived from probabilities, or what happens for the most part, and signs, which sometimes point to a necessary conclusion and other times are refutable.\nThere are 3 primary forms of syllogisms:\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Epanalepsis (from the Greek \u1f10\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7\u03c8\u03b9\u03c2, epan\u00e1l\u0113psis \"repetition, resumption, taking up again\") is the repetition of the initial part of a clause or sentence at the end of that same clause or sentence. The beginning and the end of a sentence are two positions of emphasis, so special attention is placed on the phrase by repeating it in both places. Nested double-epanalepses are antimetaboles.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The epideictic oratory, also called ceremonial oratory, or praise-and-blame rhetoric, is one of the three branches, or \"species\" (eid\u0113), of rhetoric as outlined in Aristotle's Rhetoric, to be used to praise or blame during ceremonies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Epitome margaritae eloquentiae in Leeds Special Collections is the only surviving copy of a book on rhetoric written in Latin by Lorenzo Guglielmo Traversagni (c.1425-1503). The author used the pen name Guillermus Saphoensis in this work.Traversagni was a Franciscan friar and humanist scholar from Savona, Northern Italy. Considered to have been the first humanist professor of rhetoric at the University of Cambridge, Traversagni wrote the Margaritae eloquentiae as a guide to rhetoric and the art of preaching. The original book was published in 1478 under the full title of Rhetorica nova, sive, Margarita eloquentiae castigate ad eloquendum divina accommodata, (The new rhetoric, or, The pearl of purified eloquence, adapted to the expression of matters divine).The Epitome margaritae eloquentiae is a short summary of Rhetorica nova and was finished during Traversagni's stay in Paris in 1480. It was only ever published in England by William Caxton probably in the same year. Traversagni is known to have visited England twice in the 1470s and may have paid Caxton to print the book. Traversagni could then sell copies to his pupils.  In the Epitome Traversagni argues that preaching is a rhetorical skill which aims to promote Christian virtue.  At Cambridge Traversagni had lectured on Aristotle's Ethics and also the Rhetorica ad Herennium attributed to Cicero.  He uses these philosophers' concepts of demonstrative logic to prove his point.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy and rhetoric, eristic (from Eris, the ancient Greek goddess of chaos, strife, and discord) refers to an argument that aims to successfully dispute another's argument, rather than searching for truth. According to T.H. Irwin, \"It is characteristic of the eristic to think of some arguments as a way of defeating the other side, by showing that an opponent must assent to the negation of what he initially took himself to believe.\" Eristic is arguing for the sake of conflict, as opposed to resolving conflict.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In a paper delivered to the Aristotelian Society on 12 March 1956, Walter Bryce Gallie (1912\u20131998) introduced the term essentially contested concept to facilitate an understanding of the different applications or interpretations of the sorts of abstract,  qualitative, and  evaluative notions\u2014such as \"art\", \"philanthropy\", \"power\"\nand \"social justice\"\u2014used in the domains of aesthetics, sustainable development, political philosophy, philosophy of history, and philosophy of religion.\nGarver (1978) describes their use as follows:\n\nThe term essentially contested concepts gives a name to a problematic situation that many people recognize: that in certain kinds of talk there is a variety of meanings employed for key terms in an argument, and there is a feeling that dogmatism (\"My answer is right and all others are wrong\"), skepticism (\"All answers are equally true (or false); everyone has a right to his own truth\"), and eclecticism (\"Each meaning gives a partial view so the more meanings the better\") are none of them the appropriate attitude towards that variety of meanings.\nEssentially contested concepts involve widespread agreement on a concept (e.g., \"fairness\"), but not on the best realization thereof. They are \"concepts the proper use of which inevitably involves endless disputes about their proper uses on the part of their users\", and these disputes \"cannot be settled by appeal to empirical evidence, linguistic usage, or the canons of logic alone\".\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Ethos ( or US: ) is a Greek word meaning \"character\" that is used to describe the guiding beliefs or ideals that characterize a community, nation, or ideology. The Greeks also used this word to refer to the power of music to influence emotions, behaviors, and even morals. Early Greek stories of Orpheus exhibit this idea in a compelling way. The word's use in rhetoric is closely based on the Greek terminology used by Aristotle in his concept of the three artistic proofs or modes of persuasion. It gives credit to the speaker, or the speaker is taking credit.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In rhetoric, eunoia (Ancient Greek: \u03b5\u1f54\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u1fb0, romanized: e\u00fanoia, lit.\u2009'well mind; beautiful thinking') is the good will speakers cultivate between themselves and their audiences, a condition of receptivity. In Book VIII of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle uses the term to refer to the kind and benevolent feelings of good will a spouse has which form the basis for the ethical foundation of human life. Cicero translates \u03b5\u1f54\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u1fb0 with the Latin word benevolentia.It is also a rarely used for aarushi medical term referring to a state of normal mental health. Eunoia is the shortest English word containing all five main vowel graphemes.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Euphuism is a peculiar mannered style of English prose. It takes its name from a prose romance by John Lyly. It consists of a preciously ornate and sophisticated style, employing a deliberate excess of literary devices such as antitheses, alliterations, repetitions and rhetorical questions. Classical learning and remote knowledge of all kinds are displayed. Euphuism was fashionable in the 1580s, especially in the Elizabethan court.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In pragmatics, exophora is reference to something extratextual, i.e. not in the immediate text, and contrasts with endophora.  Exophora can be deictic, in which special words or grammatical markings are used to make reference to something in the context of the utterance or speaker.  For example, pronouns are often exophoric, with words such as \"this\", \"that\", \"here\", \"there\", as in that chair over there is John's said while indicating the direction of the chair referred to.  Given \"Did the gardener water those plants?\", it is quite possible that \"those\" refers back to the preceding text, to some earlier mention of those particular plants in the discussion.  But it is also possible that it refers to the environment in which the dialogue is taking place\u2014to the \"context of situation\", as it is called\u2014where the plants in question are present and can be pointed to if necessary.  The interpretation would be \"those plants there, in front of us\".  This kind of reference is called exophora, since it takes us outside the text altogether.  Exophoric reference is not cohesive, since it does not bind the two elements together into a text.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Facilitas /facilitas/ is facility in devising appropriate language to fit any speaking or writing situation.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A fallacy is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning, or \"wrong moves,\" in the construction of an argument, which may appear stronger than it really is if the fallacy is not spotted. The term was in the Western intellectual tradition introduced in the Aristotelian De Sophisticis Elenchis.Some fallacies are committed intentionally to manipulate or persuade by deception. Others are committed unintentionally because of human limitations such as carelessness, cognitive or social biases, or plain ignorance. This includes ignorance of the right reasoning standard, but also ignorance of relevant properties of the context. For instance, the soundness of legal arguments depends on the context in which the arguments are made.Fallacies are commonly divided into \"formal\" and \"informal.\" A formal fallacy is a flaw in the structure of a deductive argument which renders the argument invalid, while an informal fallacy originates in an error in reasoning other than an improper logical form. Arguments containing informal fallacies may be formally valid, but still fallacious.A special case is a mathematical fallacy, an intentionally invalid mathematical proof, often with the error subtle and somehow concealed. Mathematical fallacies are typically crafted and exhibited for educational purposes, usually taking the form of spurious proofs of obvious contradictions.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A falsism is a claim that is clearly and self-evidently wrong. A falsism is usually used merely as a reminder or as a rhetorical or literary device. An example is \"pigs can fly\". It is the opposite of a truism. A falsism is similar to, though not the same as, a fallacy.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Feminist rhetoric emphasizes the narratives of all demographics, including women and other marginalized groups, into the consideration or practice of rhetoric. Feminist rhetoric does not focus exclusively on the rhetoric of women or feminists, but instead prioritizes the feminist principles of inclusivity, community, and equality over the classic, patriarchal model of persuasion that ultimately separates people from their own experience. Seen as the act of producing or the study of feminist discourses, feminist rhetoric emphasizes and supports the lived experiences and histories of all living beings and in all manner of experiences, and it redefines traditional delivery sites to include the non-traditional locations such as demonstrations, letter writing, and digital processes. An important distinction is made between \"feminist rhetoric\" and \"rhetorical feminism\": rhetorical feminism is a strategy that counters traditional forms of rhetoric, favoring dialogue over monologue and seeking to redefine the way audiences define rhetorical appeals. Rhetorical feminism also values listening and silence as dynamic rhetorical practices.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A fiction-writing mode is a manner of writing with its own set of conventions regarding how, when, and where it should be used.\nFiction is a form of narrative, one of the four rhetorical modes of discourse.  Fiction-writing also has distinct forms of expression, or modes, each with its own purposes and conventions.  Currently, there is no consensus within the writing community regarding the number and composition of fiction-writing modes and their uses. Some writing modes suggested include action, dialogue, thoughts, summary, scene, description, background, exposition and transition.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Stefano Fieschi (Latin Stephanus Fliscus or Philiscus) of Soncino, was a 15th-century Italian scholar, episcopal secretary, and pedagogue.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A figure of speech or rhetorical figure is a word or phrase that intentionally deviates from ordinary language use in order to produce a rhetorical effect. Figures of speech are traditionally classified into schemes, which vary the ordinary sequence of words, and tropes, where words carry a meaning other than what they ordinarily signify. \nAn example of a scheme is a polysyndeton: the repetition of a conjunction before every element in a list, whereas the conjunction typically would appear only before the last element, as in \"Lions and tigers and bears, oh my!\"\u2014emphasizing the danger and number of animals more than the prosaic wording with only the second \"and\". An example of a trope is the metaphor, describing one thing as something that it clearly is not in order to lead the mind to compare them, in \"All the world's a stage.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A figure of thought (Latin: figura sententiae, Greek: schema dianoias) is a rhetorical device sometimes distinguished from figure of speech. In another sense the term has been used in the study of diagrams and drawings.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "First-year composition (sometimes known as first-year writing, freshman composition or freshman writing) is an introductory core curriculum writing course in US colleges and universities. This course focuses on improving students' abilities to write in a university setting and introduces students to writing practices in the disciplines and professions. These courses are traditionally required of incoming students, thus the previous name, \"Freshman Composition.\" Scholars working within the field of composition studies often have teaching first-year composition (FYC) courses as the practical focus of their scholarly work.FYC courses are structured in a variety of ways. Some institutions of higher education require only one term of FYC, while others require two or three courses. There are a number of identifiable pedagogies associated with FYC, including: current-traditional, expressivist, social-epistemic, process, post-process and Writing about Writing (WAW). Each of these pedagogies can generate a multitude of curricula. \nComposition professionals, including those with degrees in Writing Studies and Rhetoric and Composition, often focus on a rhetorical approach to help students learn how to apply an understanding of audience, purpose, context, invention, and style to their writing processes. This rhetorical approach has shown that real writing, rather than existing as isolated modes, has more to do with a writer choosing from among many approaches to perform rhetorical tasks. In addition to a focus on rhetoric, many first year composition courses also emphasize the writing process, and students are encouraged to interact with classmates and receive feedback to be used for revision. These practices can take the form of essay peer review or workshopping. Portfolios are a common way of assessing revised student work.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A \"flip-flop\" (used mostly in the United States), U-turn (used in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Pakistan, Malaysia, etc.), or backflip (used in Australia and New Zealand) is a derogatory term for a sudden real or apparent change of policy or opinion by a public official, sometimes while trying to claim that both positions are consistent with each other. It carries connotations of pandering and hypocrisy. Often, flip-flops occur during the period prior to or following an election in order to maximize the candidate's popularity.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "For all practical purposes, sometimes abbreviated FAPP, is a slogan used in physics to express a pragmatic attitude. A physical theory might be ambiguous in some ways \u2014 for example, being founded on untested assumptions or making unclear predictions about what might happen in certain situations \u2014 and yet still be successful in practice. Such a theory is said to be successful FAPP.FAPP is also emerging as a valuable concept and approach in mathematics with a major  title by the name    For All Practical Purposes: Mathematical Literacy in Today's World.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Forensic rhetoric, as coined in Aristotle's On Rhetoric, encompasses any discussion of past action including legal discourse\u2014the primary setting for the emergence of rhetoric as a discipline and theory. This contrasts with deliberative rhetoric and epideictic rhetoric, which are reserved for discussions concerning future and present actions respectively.In contemporary times, the word forensic is commonly associated with criminal and civil law referring specifically to forensic science. It is important to note that the term forensic associated with criminal investigation exists because forensic (or judicial) rhetoric first existed.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Marc Fumaroli (10 June 1932 \u2013 24 June 2020) was a French historian and essayist who was widely respected as an advocate for French literature and culture. While born in Marseille, Fumaroli grew up in the Moroccan city of Fez, and served in the French army during the Algerian War.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A funeral oration or epitaphios logos (Greek: \u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c4\u03ac\u03c6\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2) is a formal speech delivered on the ceremonial occasion of a funeral. Funerary customs comprise the practices used by a culture to remember the dead, from the funeral itself, to various monuments, prayers, and rituals undertaken in their honour. In ancient Greece and, in particular, in  ancient Athens, the funeral oration was deemed an indispensable component of the funeral ritual.\nThe epitaphios logos is regarded as an almost exclusive Athenian creation, although some early elements of such speeches exist in the epos of Homer and in the lyric poems of Pindar. \"Pericles' Funeral Oration\", delivered for the war dead during the Peloponnesian war of 431-401 BC, is the earlier extant of the genre. The Athenians are those who set the standard and, therefore, Demosthenes praises them, saying that \"you alone of all mankind publicly pronounce over your dead funeral orations, in which you extol the deeds of the brave\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Genre criticism, a method within rhetorical criticism, analyzes texts in terms of their genre: the set of generic expectations, conventions, and constraints that guide their production and interpretation. In rhetoric, the theory of genre provides a means to classify and compare artifacts in terms of their formal, substantive and contextual features. By grouping artifacts with others which have similar formal features or rhetorical exigencies, rhetorical critics can shed light on how authors use or flout conventions for their own purposes. Genre criticism has thus become one of the main methodologies within rhetorical criticism.\nLiterary critics have used the concepts of genres to classify speeches and works of literature since the time of Aristotle, who distinguished three rhetorical genres: the legal or judicial, the deliberative or political, and the ceremonial or epideictic.  Since then, rhetorical approaches to genre and understanding of the term \"genre\" have evolved in several ways. New genres have been studied for their rhetorical effectiveness - like sermons, letters, and (more recently) non-verbal genres like political cartoons, film, and public monuments.  Further contemporary genre criticism has revised understanding of genre in several ways. The first turn, represented by Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin (1895-1975), among others, focused on the formal features of communication. The second turn, represented by Carolyn Miller, among others, focused on recurring socio-cultural circumstances. In the latest turn, critics have begun applying formalist and socio-cultural concepts to new-media artifacts that tend to resist classification into traditional genre-categories.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Owing to its origin in ancient Greece and Rome, English rhetorical theory frequently employs Greek and Latin words as terms of art. This page explains commonly used rhetorical terms in alphabetical order. The brief definitions here are intended to serve as a quick reference rather than an in-depth discussion. For more information, click the terms.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A gnome (Greek: \u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b7 gnome, from \u03b3\u03b9\u03b3\u03bd\u03ce\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd gignoskein \"to know\") is a type of saying, especially an aphorism or a maxim, designed to provide instruction in a compact form (usually in hexameter).\nThe term gnome was introduced by Klaus Berger in the Formgeschichte des Neuen Testaments. He used this traditional term from the antique rhetoric and attempted to identify this rhetorical method in the New Testament.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Gutmensch (literally good human in German) is an ironic, sarcastic or disparaging cultural term similar to the English do-gooder. Those who use the term are implying that Gutmenschen have an overwhelming wish to be good and eagerly seek approval\u2014further suggesting a supposed moralising and proselytising behaviour and being dogmatic, while prioritizing \"right\" and \"correct\" attitude or sentiment (Ultimate end, ethics of moral conviction) over responsible, balanced, rational and reflected decisions (ethics of responsibility). In political rhetoric Gutmensch is used as a polemic term.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Hand-waving (with various spellings) is a pejorative label for attempting to be seen as effective \u2013 in word, reasoning, or deed \u2013 while actually doing nothing effective or substantial.  It is most often applied to debate techniques that involve fallacies, misdirection and the glossing over of details. It is also used academically to indicate unproven claims and skipped steps in proofs (sometimes intentionally, as in lectures and instructional materials), with some specific meanings in particular fields, including literary criticism, speculative fiction, mathematics, logic, science and engineering. \nThe term can additionally be used in work situations, when attempts are made to display productivity or assure accountability without actually resulting in them. The term can also be used as a self-admission of, and suggestion to defer discussion about, an allegedly unimportant weakness in one's own argument's evidence, to forestall an opponent dwelling on it. In debate competition, certain cases of this form of hand-waving may be explicitly permitted.\nHand-waving is an idiomatic metaphor, derived in part from the use of excessive gesticulation, perceived as unproductive, distracting or nervous, in communication or other effort. The term also evokes the sleight-of-hand distraction techniques of stage magic, and suggests that the speaker or writer seems to believe that if they, figuratively speaking, simply wave their hands, no one will notice or speak up about the holes in the reasoning. This implication of misleading intent has been reinforced by the pop-culture influence of the Star Wars franchise, in which mystically powerful hand-waving is fictionally used for mind control, and some uses of the term in public discourse are explicit Star Wars references.Actual hand-waving motions may be used either by a speaker to indicate a desire to avoid going into details, or by critics to indicate that they believe the proponent of an argument is engaging in a verbal hand-wave inappropriately.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Florence Hartley was a Victorian-era writer whose work was meant for women of the era, covering topics of etiquette and needlework. She was also an advocate for women's health.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Heracles' Bow: Essays on the Rhetoric and Poetics of the Law is a collection of ten essays, written by James Boyd White in 1985, that examine forensic rhetoric as it creates community, as an example of what White calls constitutive rhetoric.  White supported the Law and Literature Movement. This movement was in contrast to two other movements of the 1970s and 1980s, Law and economics and Critical Legal Studies (CLS), in holding that a scientific view of law left little room to examine the rhetoric of written and spoken law itself.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Hypsos is a Greek philosophical concept comparable to the modern concept of the sublime, or a moment that brings oral speech to an astonishing and monumental pause. Its root hypso- literally means \"aloft\", \"height\", or \"on high\". However, a distinguishing feature of hypsos in rhetorical studies is that it \u201ccombines conflicting emotions: fear and awe, horror and fascinations.\u201d It is a climactic moment in speech that generates uncertainty for the audience.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "For writing communication, Identification is a key term for the discussion of rhetoric in Kenneth Burke\u2032s A Rhetoric of Motives. Burke himself states that \"identification\" is more important for the work than persuasion, traditionally associated with rhetoric.Burke suggests that whenever someone attempts to persuade, identification occurs: one party must \"identify\" with another. That is, the one who becomes persuaded sees that one party is like another in some way. His concept of identification works not only in relation to the self (e.g. that tree has arms and is like me, thus I identify with that tree), but also refers to exterior identification (e.g. that man eats beef patties like that group, thus he is identified with that beef-patty-eating group). One can perceive identification between objects that are not the self.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Identification is a key theme in the works of Kenneth Burke as part of the New Rhetoric movement. Contemporary rhetoric focuses on cultural contexts and general structures of rhetoric structures. Burke was a notable contemporary U.S. rhetorician who made major contributions to the rhetoric of identification. James A. Herrick describes one of Burke's foundational ideas with identification is that \u201crhetoric makes human unity possible, that language use is symbolic action, and that rhetoric is symbolic inducement.\u201d For Burke, words were terministic screens through which people see the world and interact with each other. Herrick further explains that identification in rhetoric is crucial to persuasion, and thus to cooperation, consensus, compromise, and action. Burke believed that the most serious human problem was to be alienated or separated, and rhetoric was to be that problem's only solution. Much of his work was based on bringing people back together. Burke argues that \u201cIdentification is affirmed with earnestness precisely because there is division. Identification is compensatory to division.\u201d Rhetoric's goal, in regards to identification, is to bring people together of whom have been separated by estrangement or opposition. Those who feel isolated or separate from others may identify joint interests with others or become part of an institution -- \"\u2018Belonging\u2019 in this sense is rhetoric.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "An ideograph or virtue word is a word frequently used in political discourse that uses an abstract concept to develop support for political positions. Such words are usually terms that do not have a clear definition but are used to give the impression of a clear meaning. An ideograph in rhetoric often exists as a building block or simply one term or short phrase that summarizes the orientation or attitude of an ideology. Such examples notably include <liberty>, <freedom>, <democracy> and <rights>. Rhetorical critics use chevrons or angle brackets (<>) to mark off ideographs.\nThe term ideograph was coined by rhetorical scholar and critic Michael Calvin McGee (1980) describing the use of particular words and phrases as political language in a way that captures (as well as creates or reinforces) particular ideological positions.  McGee sees the ideograph as a way of understanding of how specific, concrete instances of political discourse relate to the more abstract idea of political ideology.  Robertson defines ideographs as \u201cpolitical slogans or labels that encapsulate ideology in political discourse.\u201d  Meanwhile, Celeste Condit and John Lucaites, influenced by McGee, explain, \u201cIdeographs represent in condensed form the normative, collective commitments of the members of a public, and they typically appear in public argumentation as the necessary motivations or justifications for action performed in the name of the public.\u201d Ideographs are common in advertising and political discourse.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Ideological criticism is a method in rhetorical criticism concerned with critiquing texts for the dominant ideology they express while silencing opposing or contrary ideologies. It was started by a group of scholars roughly in the late-1970s through the mid-1980s at universities in the United States. Leading scholars of ideological criticism were Michael Calvin McGee at the University of Iowa and Phillip Wander at San Jose State University. Wander's 1983 article, \"The Ideological Turn in Modern Criticism,\" and his 1984 article, \"The Third Persona: An Ideological Turn in Rhetorical Theory,\" remain two of the most important articles in the field. According to Sonja Foss, \u201cthe primary goal of the ideological critic is to discover and make visible the dominant ideology or ideologies embedded in an artifact and the ideologies that are being muted in it.\u201d Foss has also mentioned the contribution to ideological criticism of several theoretical schools, including Marxism, structuralism, cultural studies, and postmodernism.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The word indignation is used to describe strong displeasure at something considered unjust, offensive, insulting or unrighteous.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Informal fallacies are a type of incorrect argument in natural language. The source of the error is not just due to the form of the argument, as is the case for formal fallacies, but can also be due to their content and context. Fallacies, despite being incorrect, usually appear to be correct and thereby can seduce people into accepting and using them. These misleading appearances are often connected to various aspects of natural language, such as ambiguous or vague expressions, or the assumption of implicit premises instead of making them explicit. \nTraditionally, a great number of informal fallacies have been identified, including the fallacy of equivocation, the fallacy of amphiboly, the fallacies of composition and division, the false dilemma, the fallacy of begging the question, the ad hominem fallacy and the appeal to ignorance. There is no general agreement as to how the various fallacies are to be grouped into categories. One approach sometimes found in the literature is to distinguish between fallacies of ambiguity, which have their root in ambiguous or vague language, fallacies of presumption, which involve false or unjustified premises, and fallacies of relevance, in which the premises are not relevant to the conclusion despite appearances otherwise.\nThe traditional approach to fallacies has received a lot of criticism in contemporary philosophy. This criticism is often based on the argument that the alleged fallacies are not fallacious at all, or at least not in all cases. To overcome this problem, alternative approaches for conceiving arguments and fallacies have been proposed. These include the dialogical approach, which conceives arguments as moves in a dialogue-game aimed at rationally persuading the other person. This game is governed by various rules. Fallacies are defined as violations of the dialogue rules impeding the progress of the dialogue. The epistemic approach constitutes another framework. Its core idea is that arguments play an epistemic role: they aim to expand our knowledge by providing a bridge from already justified beliefs to not yet justified beliefs. Fallacies are arguments that fall short of this goal by breaking a rule of epistemic justification. In the Bayesian approach, the epistemic norms are given by the laws of probability, which our degrees of belief should track.\nThe study of fallacies aims at providing an account for evaluating and criticizing arguments. This involves both a descriptive account of what constitutes an argument and a normative account of which arguments are good or bad. In philosophy, fallacies are usually seen as a form of bad argument and are discussed as such in this article. Another conception, more common in non-scholarly discourse, sees fallacies not as arguments but rather as false yet popular beliefs.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The International Roman Law Moot Court (IRLMC) is an international European annual moot court competition in Roman law.\nParticipating universities are the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, the University of Naples Federico II, the University of Vienna, the Eberhard Karls University of T\u00fcbingen, the University of Li\u00e8ge, the University of Trier and the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Invective (from Middle English invectif, or Old French and Late Latin invectus) is abusive, reproachful, or venomous language used to express blame or censure; or, a form of rude expression or discourse intended to offend or hurt; vituperation, or deeply seated ill will, vitriol. The Latin adjective invectivus means 'scolding.'", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Inventio, one of the five canons of rhetoric, is the method used for the discovery of arguments in Western rhetoric and comes from the Latin word, meaning \"invention\" or \"discovery\". Inventio is the central, indispensable canon of rhetoric, and traditionally means a systematic search for arguments.:\u200a151\u2013156\u200aA speaker uses Inventio when they begin the thought process to form and develop an effective argument. Often, the invention phase can be seen as the first step in an attempt to generate ideas or create an argument that is convincing and compelling. The other four canons of classical rhetoric (namely dispositio, elocutio, memoria, and pronuntiatio) rely on their interrelationship with invention.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Invitational rhetoric is a theory of rhetoric developed by Sonja K. Foss and Cindy L. Griffin in 1995.Invitational rhetoric is defined as \u201can invitation to understanding as a means to create a relationship rooted in equality, immanent value, and self-determination.\u201d The theory challenges the traditional definition of rhetoric as persuasion\u2014the effort to change others\u2014because the objective of invitational rhetoric is not to persuade but to gain an understanding of the perspectives of others.Invitational rhetoric is part of an effort to formulate alternative conceptions of rhetoric that are not \u201cexploitative and oppressive but that contribute to a more respectful way of being a rhetor in the world.\u201d A major assumption behind invitational rhetoric is that \u201cthe communication discipline, through its traditional constructs and theories, participates in this culture of domination,\u201d and invitational rhetoric constitutes an effort to \u201ccontribute to the creation of more humane lives\u201d for individuals.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A jeremiad is a long literary work, usually in prose, but sometimes in verse, in which the author bitterly laments the state of society and its morals in a serious tone of sustained invective, and always contains a prophecy of society's imminent downfall.\nGenerally, the term jeremiad is applied to moralistic texts that denounce a society for its wickedness, and prophesy its downfall. Over time, the impact of the term has faded and has become a general expression for lament. It is often perceived with derogatory overtones.\nThe jeremiad has a unique presence in American culture and in the history of the United States, having roots in Colonial-era settlers in New England. In American culture, jeremiads are closely associated with historical American Puritans and the controversial concept of American exceptionalism.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Judicial activism is a judicial philosophy holding that the courts can and should go beyond the applicable law to consider broader societal implications of its decisions. It is sometimes used as an antonym of judicial restraint. The term usually implies that judges make rulings based on their own views rather than on precedent. The definition of judicial activism and the specific decisions that are activist are controversial political issues. The question of judicial activism is closely related to judicial interpretation, statutory interpretation, and separation of powers.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Jugend debattiert international is a German-language debating competition for students based on the national German pupils' contest Jugend debattiert. It is held in ten countries of Central and Eastern Europe: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia (Moscow and St. Petersburg), Slovakia, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Ukraine and Hungary. The project is funded by the Goethe-Institut, the Foundation \"Remembrance, Responsibility and Future\", the Hertie Foundation and the Central Agency for German Schools Abroad (Zentralstelle f\u00fcr das Auslandsschulwesen). There are local supporters in three countries: In Czech Republic, the project is supported by the Czech-German Future Fund, in Lithuania, by the Lithuanian Information and Technology Center for students. In Poland, Jugend debattiert international is supported by the Foundation for Polish-German Cooperation.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Kairos (Ancient Greek: \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2) is an ancient Greek word meaning 'the right, critical, or opportune moment'. In modern Greek, kairos also means 'weather'.\nIt is one of two words that the ancient Greeks had for 'time'; the other being chronos (\u03c7\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2). Whereas the latter refers to chronological or sequential time, kairos signifies a proper or opportune time for action. In this sense, while chronos is quantitative, kairos has a qualitative, permanent nature.The plural, kairoi (\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03af) means 'the times'. Kairos is a term, idea, and practice that has been applied in several fields including classical rhetoric, modern rhetoric, digital media, Christian theology, and science.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A katabasis or catabasis (Ancient Greek: \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03ac\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, from \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u1f70 \"down\" and \u03b2\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03c9 \"go\") is a journey to the underworld.  Its original sense is usually associated with Greek mythology and Classical mythology more broadly, where the protagonist visits the Greek underworld, also known as Hades.  The term is also used in a broad sense of any journey to the realm of the dead in other mythological and religious traditions.  A katabasis is similar to a nekyia or necromancy, where someone experiences a vision of the underworld or its inhabitants; a nekyia does not generally involve a physical visit, however.  One of the most famous examples is that of Odysseus, who performs something on the border of a nekyia and a katabasis in book 11 of The Odyssey; he visits the border of the realms before calling the dead to him using a blood ritual, with it being disputed whether he was at the highest realm of the underworld or the lowest edge of the living world where he performed this.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Keywords are the words that academics use to reveal the internal structure of an author's \nreasoning.  While they are used primarily for rhetoric, they are also used in a strictly \ngrammatical sense for structural composition, reasoning, and comprehension.  Indeed, they are \nan essential part of any language.\nThere are many different types of keyword categories including: Conclusion, Continuation, Contrast,\nEmphasis, Evidence, Illustration and Sequence. Each category serves its own function, as do the keywords\ninside of a given category.\nWhen someone uses a search engine, they type in one or more words describing what they are looking for:\n'Norwich florist' or 'cheap holidays Greece', for example. These words or phrases are known as keywords.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Jean-Marie Klinkenberg  (born 8 October 1944) is a Belgian linguist and semiotician, professor at the State University of Li\u00e8ge, born in Verviers (Belgium) in 1944. Member of the interdisciplinary Groupe \u00b5. President of the International Association for visual Semiotics.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A laconic phrase or laconism is a concise or terse statement, especially a blunt and elliptical rejoinder. It is named after Laconia, the region of Greece including the city of Sparta, whose ancient inhabitants had a reputation for verbal austerity and were famous for their often pithy remarks.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A lapalissade is an obvious truth\u2014i.e. a truism or tautology\u2014which produces a comical effect. It is derived from the name Jacques de la Palice, and the word is used in several languages.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A fallacy is reasoning that is logically invalid, or that undermines the logical validity of an argument. All forms of human communication can contain fallacies.\nBecause of their variety, fallacies are challenging to classify. They can be classified by their structure (formal fallacies) or content (informal fallacies). Informal fallacies, the larger group, may then be subdivided into categories such as improper presumption, faulty generalization, and error in assigning causation and relevance, among others.\nThe use of fallacies is common when the speaker's goal of achieving common agreement is more important to them than utilizing sound reasoning. When fallacies are used, the premise should be recognized as not well-grounded, the conclusion as unproven (but not necessarily false), and the argument as unsound.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Within the field of rhetoric, the contributions of female rhetoricians have often been overlooked. Anthologies comprising the history of rhetoric or rhetoricians often leave the impression there were none. Throughout history, however, there have been a significant number of women rhetoricians.\nRe\u2219Vision\u2014the act of looking back, of seeing with fresh eyes, of entering an old text from a new critical direction\u2014is for women more than a chapter in cultural history: it is an act of survival. -Adrienne Rich\nThe following is a timeline of contributions made to the field of rhetoric by women.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In classical Greek rhetoric, topos, pl. topoi, (from Ancient Greek: \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \"place\", elliptical for Ancient Greek: \u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 t\u00f3pos koin\u00f3s, 'common place'), in Latin locus (from locus communis), refers  to a method for developing arguments. (See topoi in classical rhetoric.)", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The title of logographer (from the Ancient Greek \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2, logographos, a compound of \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, logos, 'word', and \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03c9, grapho, 'write') was applied to professional authors of judicial discourse in Ancient Greece. The modern term speechwriter is roughly equivalent.\nIn the Athens of antiquity, the law required a litigant to make his case in front of the court with two successive speeches. Lawyers were unknown, and the law permitted only one friend or relative to aid each party. If a litigant did not feel confident to make his own speech, he would seek the service of a logographer (also called a \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03cc\u03c2, logopoios, from \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03ad\u03c9, poieo, 'to make'), to whom he would describe his case. The logographer would then write a speech which the litigant would learn by heart and recite in front of the court. Antiphon (480\u2013410 BC) was among the first to practice this profession; the orator Demosthenes (384\u2013322) was also a logographer. Practice in defending the targets of politicized prosecutions built the foundations of a later career in politics for many logographers.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Logos (UK: , US: ; Ancient Greek: \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, romanized: l\u00f3gos; from \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9, l\u00e9g\u014d, lit.\u2009''I say'') is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\".The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that Logos is \"frequently translated as some variation of \u2018logic or reasoning, but it originally referred to the actual content of a speech and how it was organized. Today, many people may discuss the logos qualities of a text to refer to how strong the logic or reasoning of the text is. But logos more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself. In this resource, logos means \u201ctext.\u201d\u201d", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "On the Sublime (Greek: \u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u00ec  \u1f5d\u03c8\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 Per\u00ec H\u00fdpsous; Latin: De sublimitate) is a Roman-era Greek work of literary criticism dated to the 1st century- C.E.. Its author is unknown, but is conventionally referred to as Longinus (; Ancient Greek: \u039b\u03bf\u03b3\u03b3\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 Long\u0129nos) or Pseudo-Longinus. It is regarded as a classic work on aesthetics and the effects of good writing. The treatise highlights examples of good and bad writing from the previous millennium, focusing particularly on what may lead to the sublime.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A loose sentence (also called a cumulative sentence) is a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) is elaborated by the successive addition of modifying clauses or phrases.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A loosely associated statement is a type of simple non-inferential passage wherein statements about a general subject are juxtaposed but make no inferential claim.  As a rhetorical device, loosely associated statements may be intended by the speaker to infer a claim or conclusion, but because they lack a coherent logical structure any such interpretation is subjective as loosely associated statements prove nothing and attempt no obvious conclusion.  Loosely associated statements can be said to serve no obvious purpose, such as illustration or explanation.Included statements can be premises, conclusions or both, and both true or false, but missing from the passage is a claim that any one statement supports another.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Magnanimity (from Latin magnanimit\u0101s, from magna \"big\" + animus \"soul, spirit\") is the virtue of being great of mind and heart.  It encompasses, usually, a refusal to be petty, a willingness to face danger, and actions for noble purposes. Its antithesis is pusillanimity (Latin: pusillanimit\u0101s). Although the word magnanimity has a traditional connection to Aristotelian philosophy, it also has its own tradition in English which now causes some confusion.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In both formal and informal logic, a main contention or conclusion is a thought which can be either true or false and is usually the most controversial proposition being argued for. In reasoning, a main contention is represented by the top of an argument map, with all supporting and objecting premises which bear upon it placed underneath.\nIn the context of argumentative text, it is the point that the author wants to convince you to believe - the culmination of all their reasoning. The main contention provides an answer to the following types of questions:\n\"Why is the author bothering to tell me these things?\"\n\"What is the main point the author is trying to convince me of?\"\n\"What is the most important thing the author is arguing for or against?\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The master suppression techniques is a framework articulated in 1945 by the Norwegian psychologist and philosopher Ingjald Nissen. These techniques identified by Nissen are ways to indirectly suppress and humiliate opponents. In the late 1970s, the framework was popularized by Norwegian social psychologist Berit \u00c5s, who reduced Nissen's original nine means to five, and claimed this was a technique mostly used in the workplace by men against women. Master suppression techniques are defined as strategies of social manipulation by which a dominant group maintains such a position in a (established or unexposed) hierarchy. They are very prominent in Scandinavian scholarly and public debate, where the expression is also used to refer to types of social manipulation not part of \u00c5s's framework. Master suppression techniques are sometimes called domination techniques.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Memoria was the term for aspects involving memory in Western classical rhetoric. The word is Latin, and can be translated as \"memory\".\nIt was one of five canons in classical rhetoric (the others being inventio, dispositio, elocutio, and pronuntiatio) concerned with the crafting and delivery of speeches and prose.\nThe art of rhetoric grew out of oratory, which was the central medium for intellectual and political life in ancient Greece. Legal proceedings, political debates, philosophical inquiry were all conducted through spoken discourse. Many of the great texts from that age were not written texts penned by the authors we associate them with, but were instead orations written down by followers and students. In Roman times, while there was a much greater body of written work, oration was still the medium for critical debate. Unlike public speakers of today, who use notes or who read their speeches, good orators were expected to deliver their speeches without such aids.\nMemoria was the discipline of recalling the arguments of a discourse. It generally received less attention from writers than other parts of rhetoric, as there is less to be said about the subject. However, the need to memorize speeches did influence the structure of discourse to some extent. For example, as part of dispositio, some attention was paid to creating structures (such as the divisio, an outline of the major arguments of a discourse) that would also aid memory. Some writers also discussed the use of various mnemonic devices to assist speakers.\nBut rhetoricians also viewed memoria as requiring more than just rote memorization. Rather, the orator also had to have at his command a wide body of knowledge to permit improvisation, to respond to questions, and to refute opposing arguments. Where today's speech-making tends to be a staged, one-way affair, in former times, much oration occurred as part of debates, dialogues, and other settings, in which orators had to react to others. Moreover, rhetoricians also recognized that the credibility of a speaker depended not just on the strength of his prepared arguments, but on the audience's perceptions of the speaker. In Greece, Rome, and the Renaissance, a speaker's familiarity of many areas of learning was seen as a virtue.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Merism (Latin: merismus, Greek: \u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, translit. merism\u00f3s) is a rhetorical device (or figure of speech) in which a combination of two contrasting parts of the whole refer to the whole.:\u200a10\u200a For example, in order to say that someone \"searched everywhere\", one could use the merism \"searched high and low\". Another example is the sword-and-sandal movie genre, a loose term for a genre of movies made principally in Italy in the 1950s and 1960s set in Classical antiquity.\nMerisms are common in the Old Testament. For example, in Genesis 1:1, when God creates \u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e5 (Modern pronunciation: et hashamaim ve-et haarets) \"the heavens and the earth\" (New Revised Standard Version), the two parts (heavens and earth) do not refer only to the heavens and the earth. Rather, they refer to the heavens, the earth and everything between them, i.e. God created the entire world, the whole universe.:\u200a10\u200a Other famous examples of Biblical merisms are Genesis 1:5, where \u201cevening\u201d and \u201cmorning\u201d refer to \u201cone day\u201d (including noon, afternoon etc.); and Psalm 139, where the psalmist declares that God knows \u201cmy downsitting and my uprising\u201d, i.e. God knows all the psalmist\u2019s actions.:\u200a10\u200a", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Metanoia (from the Greek \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03b1, metanoia, changing one's mind) in the context of rhetoric is a device used to retract a statement just made, and then state it in a better way. As such, metanoia is similar to correction. Metanoia is used in recalling a statement in two ways\u2014-to weaken the prior declaration or to strengthen it.\nMetanoia is later personified as a figure accompanying kairos, sometimes as a hag and sometimes as a young lady. Ausonius' epigrams describe her thus: \"I am a goddess to whom even Cicero himself did not give a name. I am the goddess who exacts punishment for what has and has not been done, so that people regret it. Hence, my name is Metanoea.\"\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Metaphoric criticism is one school of rhetorical analysis used in English and speech communication studies. Scholars employing metaphoric criticism analyze texts by locating metaphors within texts and evaluating those metaphors in an effort to better understand ways in which authors appeal to their audiences.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The method of loci (loci [\u02c8l\u0254ki\u02d0] being Latin for \"places\") is a strategy for memory enhancement, which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information. The method of loci is also known as the memory journey, memory palace, or mind palace technique. This method is a mnemonic device  adopted in ancient Roman and Greek rhetorical treatises (in the anonymous Rhetorica ad Herennium, Cicero's De Oratore, and Quintilian's Institutio Oratoria). Many memory contest champions report using this technique to recall faces, digits, and lists of words.\n\nThe term is most often found in specialised works on psychology, neurobiology, and memory, though it was used in the same general way at least as early as the first half of the nineteenth century in works on rhetoric, logic, and philosophy. John O'Keefe and Lynn Nadel refer to:... \"the method of loci\", an imaginal technique known to the ancient Greeks and Romans and described by Yates (1966) in her book The Art of Memory as well as by Luria (1969). In this technique the subject memorizes the layout of some building, or the arrangement of shops on a street, or any geographical entity which is composed of a number of discrete loci. When desiring to remember a set of items the subject 'walks' through these loci in their imagination and commits an item to each one by forming an image between the item and any feature of that locus. Retrieval of items is achieved by 'walking' through the loci, allowing the latter to activate the desired items. The efficacy of this technique has been well established (Ross and Lawrence 1968, Crovitz 1969, 1971, Briggs, Hawkins and Crovitz 1970, Lea 1975), as is the minimal interference seen with its use.\nThe items to be remembered in this mnemonic system are mentally associated with specific physical locations.  The method relies on memorized spatial relationships to establish order and recollect memorial content. It is also known as the \"Journey Method\", used for storing lists of related items, or the \"Roman Room\" technique, which is most effective for storing unrelated information.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Mimesis criticism is a method of interpreting texts in relation to their literary or cultural models. Mimesis, or imitation (imitatio), was a widely used rhetorical tool in antiquity up until the 18th century's romantic emphasis on originality. Mimesis criticism looks to identify intertextual relationships between two texts that go beyond simple echoes, allusions, citations, or redactions. The effects of imitation are usually manifested in the later text by means of distinct characterization, motifs, and/or plot structure.\nAs a critical method, mimesis criticism has been pioneered by Dennis MacDonald, especially in relation to New Testament and other early Christian narratives imitating the \"canonical\" works of Classical Greek literature.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Modern rhetoric has gone through many changes since the age of ancient Rome and Greece to fit the societal demands of the time. Kenneth Burke, who is largely credited for defining the notion of modern rhetoric, described modern rhetoric as, \"Rooted in an essential function of language itself, a function that is wholly realistic, and is continually born anew; the use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols.\" Burke's theory of rhetoric directed attention to the division between classical and modern rhetoric. The intervention of outside academic movements, such as structuralism, semiotics, and critical theory, made important contributions to a modern sense of rhetorical studies.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse) are a long-standing attempt to broadly classify the major kinds of language-based communication, particularly writing and speaking, into narration, description, exposition, and argumentation. First attempted by Samuel P. Newman in A Practical System of Rhetoric in 1827, the modes of discourse have long influenced US writing instruction and particularly the design of mass-market writing assessments, despite critiques of these classification's explanatory power for non-school writing.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Mudsill theory is the proposition that there must be, and always has been, a lower class or underclass for the upper classes and the rest of society to rest upon. The term derives from a mudsill, the lowest threshold that supports the foundation for a building.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Mundus inversus, Latin for \"world upside-down,\" is a literary topos in which the natural order of things is overturned and social hierarchies are reversed. More generally, it is a symbolic inversion of any sort.\nAlthough the words are ancient, the term mundus inversus has been common in English only since the 1960s.In European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages, Ernst Robert Curtius first identified the topos, illustrating it with one of the Carmina Burana (\"Florebat olim studium\"), about which he comments (p. 94):\n\nThe poem begins as a \"complaint on the times\": youth will no longer study! Learning is in decay! But\u2014so the thought proceeds\u2014the whole world is topsy-turvy! The blind lead the blind and hurl them into the abyss; birds fly before they are fledged; the ass plays the lute; oxen dance; plow-boys turn soldiers. ... What was once outlawed is now praised. Everything is out of joint.\nCurtius concludes with a formula for creating the mundus inversus (p. 96): \"Out of stringing together impossibilia grows a topos: 'the world upsidedown.'\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Narrative criticism focuses on the stories a speaker or a writer tells to understand how they help us make meaning out of our daily human experiences. Narrative theory is a means by which we can comprehend how we impose order on our experiences and actions by giving them a narrative form. According to Walter Fisher, narratives are fundamental to communication and provide structure for human experience and influence people to share common explanations and understandings. Fisher defines narratives as \"symbolic actions-words and/or deeds that have sequence and meaning for those who live, create, or interpret them.\" Study of narrative criticism, therefore, includes form (fiction or non-fiction, prose or poetry), genre (myth, history, legend, etc.), structure (including plot, theme, irony, foreshadowing, etc.) characterization, and communicator's perspective.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Nasreddin () or Nasreddin Hodja (1208\u20131285) (other variants include: Mullah Nasreddin Hooja, Mullah Nasruddin, Mullah Nasriddin, Khoja Nasriddin) was a Seljuk satirist, born in Hortu Village in Sivrihisar, Eski\u015fehir Province, present-day Turkey and died in 13th century in Ak\u015fehir, near Konya, a capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, in today's Turkey. He is considered a philosopher, Sufi, and wise man, remembered for his funny stories and anecdotes. He appears in thousands of stories, sometimes witty, sometimes wise, but often, too, a fool or the butt of a joke. A Nasreddin story usually has a subtle humour and a pedagogic nature. The International Nasreddin Hodja festival is celebrated between 5 and 10 July every year in Ak\u015fehir.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Native American rhetoric is the rhetoric used by Indigenous peoples for purposes of self-determination and self-naming, in academia and a variety of media.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Neo-Aristotelianism is a view of literature and rhetorical criticism propagated by the Chicago School \u2014 Ronald S. Crane, Elder Olson, Richard McKeon, Wayne Booth, and others \u2014 which means.\n\n\"A view of literature and criticism which takes a pluralistic attitude toward the history of literature and seeks to view literary works and critical theories intrinsically\"\n\nNeo-Aristotelianism was one of the first rhetorical methods of criticism. Its central features were first suggested in Herbert A. Wichelns' \"The Literary Criticism of Oratory\" in 1925. It focused on analyzing the methodology behind a speaker's ability to convey an idea to its audience. In 1943, Neo-Aristotelianism was further publicized, gaining popularity after William Norwood Brigance published A History and Criticism of American Public Address.Unlike rhetorical criticism, which concentrates on the study of speeches and the immediate effect of rhetoric on an audience, Neo-Aristotelianism \"led to the study of a single speaker because the sheer number of topics to cover relating to the rhetor and the speech made dealing with more than a single speaker virtually impossible. Thus, various speeches by different rhetors related by form of topic were not included in the scope of rhetorical criticism.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "New rhetorics is an interdisciplinary field approaching for the broadening of classical rhetorical canon.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The New Science (Italian: La Scienza Nuova pronounced [la \u0283\u02c8\u0283\u025bntsa \u02c8nw\u0254\u02d0va]) is the major work of Italian philosopher Giambattista Vico. It was first published in 1725 to little success, but has gone on to be highly regarded and influential in the philosophy of history, sociology, and anthropology. The central concepts were highly original and prefigured the Age of Enlightenment.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The term oracy was coined by Andrew Wilkinson, a British researcher and educator, in the 1960s. This word is formed by analogy from literacy and numeracy. The purpose is to draw attention to the neglect of oral skills in education.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Orator was written by Marcus Tullius Cicero in the latter part of the year 46 BC. It is his last work on rhetoric, three years before his death. Describing rhetoric, Cicero addresses previous comments on the five canons of rhetoric: Inventio, Dispositio, Elocutio, Memoria, and Pronuntiatio. In this text, Cicero attempts to describe the perfect orator, in response to Marcus Junius Brutus\u2019 request. Orator is the continuation of a debate between Brutus and Cicero, which originated in his text Brutus, written earlier in the same year. \nThe oldest partial text of Orator was recovered in the monastery of Mont Saint-Michel and now is located in the library at Avranches. Thirty-seven existing manuscripts have been discovered from this text. Another complete text was discovered in 1421, near Milan in the town of Lodi. The texts of these two manuscripts vary considerably, and modern translators rely on both. \nIn 46 BC, when Cicero wrote Orator, many young Roman men revolted against the stylistic paradigms put forward by Cicero, and from most Roman traditions in general. Cicero writes in a defensive posture to this hostile audience.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "XII Panegyrici Latini or Twelve Latin Panegyrics is the conventional title of a  collection of twelve ancient Roman  and late antique prose panegyric orations written in Latin.\nThe authors of most of the speeches in the collection are anonymous, but appear to have been Gallic in origin. Aside from the first panegyric, composed by Pliny the Younger in AD 100, the other speeches in the collection date to between AD 289 and 389 and were probably composed in Gaul. \nThe original manuscript, discovered in 1433, has perished; only copies remain.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A parade of horribles can either refer to a type of parade where people wear grotesque costumes, or a rhetorical device where one argues against taking a certain course of action by listing a number of extremely undesirable events that would result from it.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Paradiastole (from Greek \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae from \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac para \"next to, alongside\", and \u03b4\u03b9\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae diastole \"separation, distinction\") is the reframing of a vice as a virtue, often with the use of euphemism, for example, \"Yes, I know it does not work all the time, but that is what makes it interesting.\" It is often used ironically. \nParadiastole has been described as \"the rhetorical technique of evaluative redescription -- more popularly known as euphemism and dysphemism -- designed to enlarge or reduce the moral significance of something\". Another example is referring to manual labour as a \"workout\". Perhaps the most familiar usage today comes from the software world: \"It's not a bug; it's a feature!\" (This is used both euphemistically and literally, as many features in software originated as bugs).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In grammar, parallelism, also known as parallel structure or parallel construction, is a balance within one or more sentences of similar phrases or clauses that have the same grammatical structure. The application of parallelism affects readability and may make texts easier to process.Parallelism may be accompanied by other figures of speech such as antithesis, anaphora, asyndeton, climax, epistrophe, and symploce.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Parallelism is a rhetorical device that compounds words or phrases that have equivalent meanings so as to create a definite pattern. This structure is particularly effective when \"specifying or enumerating pairs or series of like things\". A scheme of balance, parallelism represents \"one of the basic principles of grammar and rhetoric\".Parallelism as a rhetorical device is used in many languages and cultures around the world in poetry, epics, songs, written prose and speech, from the folk level to the professional. An entire issue of the journal Oral Tradition has been devoted to articles on parallelism in languages from all over. It is very often found in Biblical poetry and in proverbs in general.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A paraphrase () is a restatement of the meaning of a text or passage using other words. The term itself is derived via Latin paraphrasis, from Ancient Greek  \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 (par\u00e1phrasis) 'additional manner of expression'. The act of paraphrasing is also called paraphrasis.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A paraprosdokian () is a figure of speech in which the latter part of a sentence, phrase, or larger discourse is surprising or unexpected in a way that causes the reader or listener to reframe or reinterpret the first part. It is frequently used for humorous or dramatic effect, sometimes producing an anticlimax. For this reason, it is extremely popular among comedians and satirists such as Groucho Marx.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In rhetoric, parechesis (\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ae\u03c7\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2) is the repetition of the same sound in several words in close succession.An example of a parechesis is: \"He persuades the Pithian (\u03c0\u03b5\u03af\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd \u03a0\u03b5\u03b9\u03b8\u03af\u03b1\u03bd).\" Hermogenes of Tarsus discusses parechesis in his work On the invention of arguments (\u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03b5\u1f51\u03c1\u03ad\u03c3\u03b5\u03c9\u03c2). Alliteration (initial rhyme) is a special case of parechesis. \nIt is related to paronomasia.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In rhetoric, a parenthesis (plural: parentheses; from the Ancient Greek word \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ad\u03bd\u03b8\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 par\u00e9nthesis 'injection, insertion', literally '(a) putting in beside') or parenthetical phrase is an explanatory or qualifying word, clause, or sentence inserted into a passage. The parenthesis could be left out and still form grammatically correct text. Parenthetical expressions are usually delimited by round or square brackets, dashes, or commas.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In rhetoric, paromoiosis is parallelism of sound between the words of two clauses approximately equal in size.  The similarity of sound can occur at the beginning of the clauses, at the end (where it is equivalent to homoioteleuton), in the middle or throughout the clauses.\nFor example: \"Open to gifts and open to words.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In rhetoric, parrhesia is a figure of speech described as \"speak[ing] candidly or ... ask[ing] forgiveness for so speaking\". This  Ancient Greek word has three different forms, as related by Michel Foucault.  Parrhesia is a noun, meaning \"free speech\". Parrhesiazomai is a verb, meaning \"to use parrhesia\". Parrhesiastes is a noun, meaning one who uses parrhesia, or \"one who speaks the truth.\"\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Pars pro toto (, Latin: [\u02c8pars pro\u02d0 \u02c8to\u02d0to\u02d0]), Latin for 'a part (taken) for the whole', is a figure of speech where the name of a portion of an object, place, or concept is used or taken to represent its entirety. It is distinct from a merism, which is a reference to a whole by an enumeration of parts; metonymy, where an object, place, or concept is called by something or some place associated with it; or synecdoche, which can refer both to pars pro toto and its inverse: the whole representing a part.\nIn the context of language, pars pro toto means that something is named after a part or subset of it, or after a limited characteristic, which in itself is not necessarily representative of the whole. For example, \"glasses\" is a pars pro toto name for something that consists of more than literally just two pieces of glass (the frame, nosebridge, temples, etc. as well as the lenses). Pars pro toto usage is especially common in political geography, with examples including \"Russia\" or \"Russians\", used to refer to the entire former Russian Empire or former Soviet Union or its people; \"Holland\" for the Netherlands; and, particularly in languages other than English, using the translation of \"England\" in that language to refer to Great Britain or the United Kingdom. Among English-speakers, \"Britain\" is a common pars pro toto shorthand for the United Kingdom. \"Schweiz\", Switzerland's name in German, comes from its central canton of Schwyz.\nThe inverse of a pars pro toto is a totum pro parte, in which the whole is used to describe a part. The term synecdoche is used for both.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Pathos (, US: ; plural: pathea or path\u00ea; Greek: \u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2, for \"suffering\" or \"experience\" or \"something that one undergoes,\" or \"something that happens to one\". In medicine it refers to a \"failing,\" \"illness\", or \"complaint\". In Stoicism it refers to \"complaints of the soul\". In its adjectival form: pathetic from \u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2) appeals to the emotions of the audience and elicits feelings that already reside in them. Pathos is a used most often in rhetoric (in which it is considered one of the three modes of persuasion, alongside ethos and logos), as well as in literature, film and other narrative art.\nEmotional appeal can be accomplished in many ways, such as the following:\n\nby a metaphor or storytelling, commonly known as a hook;\nby passion in the delivery of the speech or writing, as determined by the audience;\nby personal anecdote.Pathos tends to use \"loaded\" words that will get some sort of reaction. Examples could include \"victim,\" in a number of different contexts. In certain situations, pathos may be described as a \"guilt trip\" based on the speaker trying to make someone in the audience or the entire audience feel guilty about something. An example would be \"Well, you don't have to visit me, but I just really miss you and haven't seen you in so long.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "\"Pens\u00e9e unique\" (French for \"single thought\") is a pejorative expression for mainstream ideological conformism of any kind, almost always opposed to that of the speaker. Originally, it is a French expression and referred to claims that neoliberalism is the only correct way to structure society. The phrase implies that mainstream discussion is limited by ideological assumptions of what is possible. One example of pens\u00e9e unique given by critics was the motto of Margaret Thatcher (former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom): TINA (\"There is no alternative\").\nThe expression was coined by Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Kahn, editor-in-chief of L'\u00c9v\u00e9nement du Jeudi, in an editorial in January 1992. The phrase pens\u00e9e unique is often used by political parties and organisations and in criticism.\nThe term has been used regarding prohibitionism of marijuana, with some commenters saying that pens\u00e9e unique is a barrier to legalization.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A pericope (; Greek \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03ae, \"a cutting-out\") in rhetoric is a set of verses that forms one coherent unit or thought, suitable for public reading from a text, now usually of sacred scripture. Also can be used as a way to identify certain themes in a chapter of sacred text. Its importance is mainly felt in, but not limited to, narrative portions of Sacred Scripture (as well as poetic sections).\nManuscripts\u2014often illuminated\u2014called pericopes, are normally evangeliaries, that is, abbreviated Gospel Books only containing the sections of the Gospels required for the Masses of the liturgical year. Notable examples, both Ottonian, are the Pericopes of Henry II and the Salzburg Pericopes.\nLectionaries are normally made up of pericopes containing the Epistle and Gospel readings for the liturgical year. A pericope consisting of passages from different parts of a single book, or from different books of the Bible, and linked together into a single reading is called a concatenation or composite reading.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A periodic sentence  is a sentence with a stylistic device featuring syntactical subordination to a single main idea, which usually is not complete until the very end of the sentence. The periodic sentence emphasizes its main idea by placing it at the end, following all the subordinate clauses and other modifiers that support the principal idea. According to Merriam-Webster, the linguistic sense of the periodic sentence term was coined circa 1928, but there is evidence of its usage in a separate sense dating from 1766.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Phaedrus (; Greek: \u03a6\u03b1\u1fd6\u03b4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, translit. Phaidros), written by Plato, is a dialogue between Plato's protagonist, Socrates, and Phaedrus, an interlocutor in several dialogues. The Phaedrus was presumably composed around 370 BCE, about the same time as Plato's Republic and Symposium. Although ostensibly about the topic of love, the discussion in the dialogue revolves around the art of rhetoric and how it should be practiced, and dwells on subjects as diverse as metempsychosis (the Greek tradition of reincarnation) and erotic love.\nOne of the dialogue's central passages is the famous Chariot Allegory, which presents the human soul as composed of a charioteer, a good horse tending upward to the divine, and a bad horse tending downward to material embodiment.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In linguistics, phraseology is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to as phrasemes), in which the component parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than, or otherwise not predictable from, the sum of their meanings when used independently. For example, \u2018Dutch auction\u2019 is composed of the words Dutch \u2018of or pertaining to the Netherlands\u2019 and auction \u2018a public sale in which goods are sold to the highest bidder\u2019, but its meaning is not \u2018a sale in the Netherlands where goods are sold to the highest bidder\u2019; instead, the phrase has a conventionalized meaning referring to any auction where, instead of rising, the prices fall.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A platitude is a trite, meaningless, or prosaic statement, often used as a thought-terminating clich\u00e9, aimed at quelling social, emotional, or cognitive unease. The statement may be true, but its meaning has been lost due to its excessive use.Platitudes have been criticized as giving a false impression of wisdom, making it easy to accept falsehoods:\n\nA platitude is even worse than a clich\u00e9. It\u2019s a sanctimonious clich\u00e9, a statement that is not only old and overused but often moralistic and imperious. ... [P]latitudes have an aphoristic quality, they seem like timeless moral lessons. They therefore shape our view of the world, and can lull us into accepting things that are actually false and foolish.\n\nPlatitudes often take the form of tautologies, e.g., \"it is what it is\", making them appear vacuously true. But the phrase is used to mean \"there is no way of changing it\", which is no longer a tautology: \"Structuring the sentiment as a tautology allows it to appear inescapable.\" At the same time, some phrases that have become platitudes may provide useful moral guidance, such as \"do unto others as you would have them do unto you\". Others, though widely trivialized, may be thought-provoking, such as \"Be the change you wish to see in the world\".\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In orthography, a plene scriptum (; Latin plene, \"fully\" and scriptum, plural scripta, \"[something] written\") is a word containing an additional letter, usually one which is superfluous, not normally written in such words, nor needed for the proper comprehension of the word.  Today, the term applies mostly to sacred scripture. Examples of plene scripta appear frequently in classical Hebrew texts, and copyists are obliged to copy them unchanged, to ensure that biblical or other sacred texts are written with universal conformity.  The expression plene scriptum (Hebrew: \u05d9\u05ea\u05e8 yater, \"excess\"), sometimes simply described in Hebrew as \u05de\u05dc\u05d0 (mal\u00e9, \"full\"), is often used in contrast with defective scriptum (Hebrew: \u05d7\u05e1\u05e8 \u1e25aser, deficient), the latter implying a word in which a letter that is normally present has been omitted.  Together, plene and defective scripta are sometimes described using the Hebrew phrase \"yeter vehaser\" (Hebrew: \u05d9\u05ea\u05e8 \u05d5\u05d7\u05e1\u05e8).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Polemic () is contentious rhetoric intended to support a specific position by forthright claims and to undermine the opposing position.  The practice of such argumentation is called polemics, which are seen in arguments on controversial topics. A person who writes polemics, or speaks polemically, is called a polemicist.  The word derives from Ancient Greek  \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b5\u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 (polemikos) 'warlike, hostile', from  \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b5\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 (polemos) 'war'.Polemics often concern questions in religion or politics. A polemical style of writing was common in Ancient Greece, as in the writings of the historian Polybius. Polemic again became common in medieval and early modern times. Since then, famous polemicists have included satirist Jonathan Swift; French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher Voltaire; Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy; socialist philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels;  novelist George Orwell; playwright George Bernard Shaw; communist revolutionary Vladimir Lenin; psycholinguist Noam Chomsky; social critics Christopher Hitchens and Peter Hitchens; existential philosopher S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard; and Friedrich Nietzsche, author of On the Genealogy of Morality: A Polemic. \nPolemical journalism was common in continental Europe when libel laws were not as stringent as they are now.To support study of 17th to 19th century controversies, a British research project has placed online thousands of polemical pamphlets from that period.Discussions of atheism, humanism, and Christianity have remained open to polemic into the 21st century.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Politicards are a deck of playing cards produced each election year in the United States with 54 caricatures depicting political candidates and prominent political figures. The first Politicards deck was produced in 1971 for the 1972 election by the artist Peter Green, the writer Lee Livingston, the businessman Mike Killeen and the designer Norman Friant. By 2016, about 200,000 packs of cards were being sold during each election cycle. Decks were said to have been used at the time by then New York Senator James Buckley and by the ladies of Mamie Eisenhower\u2019s bridge club.Decks of \"Politicards\" have been produced for election years 1971, 1980, 1984 and 1996 onwards.The 1980 and 1984 edition decks were produced by the Washington, D.C. lobbyist Victor Kamber, who purchased the Politicards name in 1979. In 1996, the name expired and was reclaimed by the original artist Peter Green, who has since produced decks for every election through to 2016. Green released an alternative set to the standard 2016 edition titled \"Politikids\" and depicted political figures as children.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Polyptoton  is the stylistic scheme in which words derived from the same root are repeated (such as \"strong\" and \"strength\"). A related stylistic device is antanaclasis, in which the same word is repeated, but each time with a different sense. Another related term is figura etymologica.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Polysyndeton (from Ancient Greek \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd poly, meaning \"many\", and \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd syndeton, meaning \"bound together with\".) is the deliberate insertion of  conjunctions into a sentence for the purpose of \"slow[ing] up the rhythm of the prose\" so as to produce \"an impressively solemn note.\"In grammar, a polysyndetic coordination is a coordination in which all conjuncts are linked by coordinating conjunctions (usually and, but, or, nor in English).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The \"Power of Women\" (German: Weibermacht) is a medieval and Renaissance artistic and literary topos, showing \"heroic or wise men dominated by women\", presenting \"an admonitory and often humorous inversion of the male-dominated sexual hierarchy\".  It was defined by Susan L. Smith as \"the representational practice of bringing together at least two, but usually more, well-known figures from the Bible, ancient history, or romance to exemplify a cluster of interrelated themes that include the wiles of women, the power of love, and the trials of marriage\".  Smith argues that the topos is not simply a \"straightforward manifestation of medieval antifeminism\"; rather, it is \"a site of contest through which conflicting ideas about gender roles could be expressed\".Smith argues the topos originates in classical literature and finds it in medieval texts such as Aucassin et Nicolette, The Consolation of Philosophy, the Roman de la Rose, and the Canterbury Tales.  The topos was attacked by Christine de Pizan around 1400, who argued that if women wrote these accounts their interpretations would be different from those of men.In the visual arts, images are found in various media, mainly from the 14th century onwards, and becoming increasingly popular in the 15th century. By then the frequently recurring subjects include Judith beheading Holofernes, Phyllis riding Aristotle, Samson and Delilah, Salome and her mother Herodias, Jael killing Sisera, Bathsheba bathing in sight of David, the idolatry of Solomon, Virgil in his basket, as well as many depictions of witches, and genre images of wives dominating their husbands. The last group came to be called the battle for the trousers. Joseph and Potiphar's wife and Lot and his Daughters were somewhat late joiners to the group, but increasingly popular later on. Tomyris, the Scythian queen who defeated Cyrus the Great and abused his corpse, was painted by Rubens and several Italians.These scenes, mostly shown in consistent compositions involving just two persons and visually distinctive actions, were easily recognisable and seem to have also been represented dramatically in entertainments of various sorts, whether as short scenes or tableaux vivants.  It is not clear who first coined the term Weibermacht, but it had evidently gained currency in the sixteenth century Northern Renaissance in Germany and the Low Countries.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In rhetoric, praegnans constructio (or constructio praegnans) is a form of brachylogy in which two clauses or two expressions are condensed into one. The term comes from the Latin term of the same name, which translates to pregnant construction; generally, the construction involves a sentence which uses a verb not expressing motion being followed by a prepositional phrase such as slaughter into the fire, or - alternatively - a motion verb combined with a static prepositional phrase such as throw in the fire. The construction is most commonly found in Greek, but also can be found in a handful of other languages such as Hebrew.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy and rhetoric, the principle of charity or charitable interpretation requires interpreting a speaker's statements in the most rational way possible and, in the case of any argument, considering its best, strongest possible interpretation. In its narrowest sense, the goal of this methodological principle is to avoid attributing irrationality, logical fallacies, or falsehoods to the others' statements, when a coherent, rational interpretation of the statements is available. According to Simon Blackburn, \"it constrains the interpreter to maximize the truth or rationality in the subject's sayings.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Priscilla Tyler (October 23, 1908) was an American educator and scholar of composition and world literature.  She served as the first female chair of the Conference on College Composition and Communication and as vice president of the National Council of Teachers of English in 1963.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Pro-war rhetoric is rhetoric or propaganda designed to convince its audience that war is necessary. The two main analytical approaches to pro-war rhetoric were founded by Ronald Reid, a Professor of Communication Studies at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, and Robert Ivie, a Professor of Rhetoric and Public Communication and Culture at Indiana University (Bloomington). Reid's framework originated from inductively studying propaganda. Ivie uses a deductive approach based on the work of Kenneth Burke, claiming that \"a people strongly committed to the ideal of peace, but simultaneously faced with the reality of war, must believe that the fault for any such disruption of their ideal lies with others\" (Ivie 279).\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Procatalepsis, also called prolepsis or prebuttal, is a figure of speech in which the speaker raises an objection to their own argument and then immediately answers it. By doing so, they hope to strengthen their argument by dealing with possible counter-arguments before their audience can raise them.In rhetoric anticipating future responses and answering possible objections will set up one's argument for a strong defense. The Columbia Dictionary of Modern Literary and Cultural Criticism states that there are three distinct theoretical uses of prolepsis: argumentation, literary discussion, and conjunction with narratological analyses of the order of events.In argumentation, procatalepsis is used to answer the opponent's possible objections before they can be made. In literary discussion, procatalepsis is used as a figure of speech in which a description is used before it is strictly applicable. Sayings such as \"I'm a dead man\" exemplify the suggestion of a state that has not yet occurred. In narratological analyses prolepsis can be used with the order of events and presentation of events in texts. This refers to the study of narrative in respect to \"flash-forwards\" in which a future event serves as an interruption of the present time of the text.Example:\n\n\"It is difficult to see how a pilot boat could be completely immune to capsizing or plunging, but pilot boat design criteria must meet the needs of the industry and pilotage authorities.\"\nAs a linguistic phenomenon found in both classic and current languages, prolepsis is described as the construction whereby the subject of a subordinate clause occurs by anticipation as an object in the main clause. Although this definition is strictly technical as used in linguistics, it has also been used to describe the more general phenomenon of objects or phrases appearing earlier than intended or expected.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Procedural rhetoric or simulation rhetoric is a rhetorical concept that explains how people learn through the authorship of rules and processes. The theory argues that games can make strong claims about how the world works\u2014not simply through words or visuals but through the processes they embody and models they construct. The term was first coined by Ian Bogost in his 2007 book Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of Videogames.Bogost is a professor in the School of Literature, Media, and Communication and in Interactive Computing in the College of Computing at the Georgia Institute of Technology, where he is the Ivan Allen College of Liberal Arts Distinguished Chair in Media Studies.\nBogost argues that games make strong claims about how the world works by the processes they embody. Procedural rhetoric analyzes the art of persuasion by rule based representations and interactions rather than spoken or written word.  Procedural rhetoric focuses on how game makers craft laws and rules within a game to convey a particular ideology.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Pronuntiatio was the discipline of delivering speeches in Western classical rhetoric. It is one of the five canons of classical rhetoric (the others being inventio, dispositio, elocutio, and memoria) that concern the crafting and delivery of speeches. In literature the equivalent of ancient pronuntiatio is the recitation of epics (Aris. Po. 26.2.).As with memoria, the canon that dealt with the memorization of speeches, pronuntiatio was not extensively written about in Classical texts on rhetoric. Its importance declined even more, once the written word became the focus of rhetoric, although after the eighteenth century it again saw more interest in the works of men such as Gilbert Austin.\nRhetoricians laid down guidelines on the use of the voice and gestures (actio) in the delivery of oratory. There were instructions on the proper modulation of the voice (volume and pitch), as well as the phrasing, pace, and emphasis of speech. Also covered were the physical aspects of oration: stance, gestures, posture, and facial expressions. There was also the concept of exercitatio (or practice exercises) that enabled speakers to both memorize their speeches and practice their delivery.\nThis excerpt from Quintilian's Institutio oratoria provides an example of the types of advice provided by rhetoricians:\n\n\"The head, being the chief member of the body, has a corresponding importance in delivery, serving not merely to produce graceful effect, but to illustrate our meaning as well. To secure grace it is essential that the head should be carried naturally and erect. For a droop suggests humility, while if it be thrown back it seems to express arrogance, if inclined to one side it gives an impression of languor, while if it is held too stiffly and rigidly it appears to indicate a rude and savage temper.\" (Institutio oratoria, XI iii 68-69, translated by H. E. Butler, Loeb Classical Library, 1922)While the content, structure, and style of oration were (and continue to be) the most important elements of oratory, effective delivery enhances its persuasive power, and poor delivery detracts greatly from its intended effect.Delivery is based on the technology of the times.\nDuring Cicero's time, delivery was predominantly speaking. Written delivery developed because of the written language, and now delivery is both spoken and written. Technology has taken away the distinctions between written and oral delivery.Written discourse did not become important until reading became more common.  Because the ancients did not use punctuation, their writing consisted of one long stream of words called scriptio continua.  \nDuring the editing process, modern rhetors must go through three stages: correctness rule, formatting, and presentation.  \nWriters face more problems than speakers because they must be conscious of spelling, punctuation, and grammar.  \nPunctuation is useful in written discourse because it marks the end of a thought and allows the reader to pause and process the information.\nVisual rhetoric focuses on images and how words function as images.\nThe delivery of ocular demonstration is the use of words to produce mental images in the audience.  Textual presentation allows the writer to grab the reader's attention before actually reading the text based on the appearance of the text.  The invention of word processors has allowed writers to enhance the appearance of their text and use effects to put emphasis on certain words or thoughts.\nDelivery refers not only to written or spoken language, but also to photographs, paintings, or movies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A prosopopoeia (Greek: \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03af\u03b1, ) is a rhetorical device in which a speaker or writer communicates to the audience by speaking as another person or object. The term literally derives from the Greek roots pr\u00f3sopon \"face, person\", and poi\u00e9in \"to make, to do;\" it is also called personification.\nProsopopoeiae are used mostly to give another perspective on the action being described. For example, in Cicero's Pro Caelio, Cicero speaks as Appius Claudius Caecus, a stern old man. This serves to give the \"ancient\" perspective on the actions of the plaintiff. Prosopopoeiae can also be used to take some of the load off the communicator by placing an unfavorable point of view on the shoulders of an imaginary stereotype. The audience's reactions are predisposed to go towards this figment rather than the communicator himself.\n\nThis term also refers to a figure of speech in which an animal or inanimate object is ascribed human characteristics or is spoken of in anthropomorphic language.  Quintilian writes of the power of this figure of speech to \"bring down the gods from heaven, evoke the dead, and give voices to cities and states\" (Institutes of Oratory [see ref.]).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Protagoras (; Greek: \u03a0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03b1\u03b3\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2; c.\u2009490 BC \u2013 c.\u2009420 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and rhetorical theorist. He is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato credits him with inventing the role of the professional sophist.\nProtagoras also is believed to have created a major controversy during ancient times through his statement that, \"Man is the measure of all things,\" interpreted (possibly wrongly, since he disagreed) by Plato to mean that there is no objective truth; Protagoras seems to have meant that each person's own personal history, experiences and expectations, developed over their lifetime, determine their judgments, opinions, and statements regarding \"truth\" (which is the title of the book in which Protagoras made this statement). When a person makes a judgment about a certain thing\u2014good or bad or beautiful or unjust\u2014that person will differ from other people's judgments because their experience has been different.This concept of individual relativity was intended to be provocative; naturally, it drew fire from Plato and other philosophers, contrasting with both popular opinion and other philosophical doctrine that reality and its truth must have an objective grounding. But it was part of Protagoras' point that the statement is somewhat counterintuitive. He argued that believing that others' opinions about the world are valid and must be respected, even if our own experience of truth is different, is necessary for a community to base itself and its decisions on open, democratic debate.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Psychobabble (a portmanteau of \"psychology\" or \"psychoanalysis\" and \"babble\") is a form of speech or writing that uses psychological jargon, buzzwords, and esoteric language to create an impression of truth or plausibility. The term implies that the speaker or writer lacks the experience and understanding necessary for the proper use of psychological terms. Additionally, it may imply that the content of speech deviates markedly from common sense and good judgement.\nSome buzzwords that are commonly heard in psychobabble have come into widespread use in business management, motivational seminars, self-help, folk psychology, and popular psychology.\nFrequent use of psychobabble can associate a clinical, psychological word with meaningless, or less meaningful, buzzword definitions. Laypersons often use such words when they describe life problems as clinical maladies even though the clinical terms are not meaningful or appropriate.\nMost professions develop a unique vocabulary or jargon which, with frequent use, may become commonplace buzzwords. Professional psychologists may reject the \"psychobabble\" label when it  is applied to their own special terminology.\nThe allusions to psychobabble imply that some psychological concepts lack precision and have become meaningless or pseudoscientific.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Public rhetoric refers to discourse both within a group of people and between groups, often centering on the process by which individual or group discourse seeks membership in the larger public discourse. Public rhetoric can also involve rhetoric being used within the general populace to foster social change and encourage agency on behalf of the participants of public rhetoric. The collective discourse between rhetoricians and the general populace is one representation of public rhetoric. A new discussion within the field of public rhetoric is digital space because the growing digital realm complicates the idea of private and  public, as well as previously concrete definitions of discourse. Furthermore, scholars of public rhetoric often employ the language of tourism to examine how identity is negotiated between individuals and groups and how this negotiation impacts individuals and groups on a variety of levels, ranging from the local to the global.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "RAS syndrome (where \"RAS\" stands for \"redundant acronym syndrome\", making the phrase \"RAS syndrome\" homological) is the use of one or more of the words that make up an acronym (or other initialism) in conjunction with the abbreviated form. This means, in effect, repeating one or more words from the acronym. Three common examples are \"PIN number\" / \"VIN number\" (the \"N\" in PIN and VIN stands for \"number\") and \"ATM machine\" (the \"M\" in ATM stands for \"machine\"). The term RAS syndrome was coined in 2001 in a light-hearted column in New Scientist.Many style guides advise against usage of these redundant acronyms in formal contexts, but they are widely used in colloquial speech.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A recitation in a general sense is the act of reciting from memory, or a formal reading of verse or other writing before an audience.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A recursive acronym is an acronym that refers to itself, and appear most frequently in computer programming. The term was first used in print in 1979 in Douglas Hofstadter's book G\u00f6del, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid, in which Hofstadter invents the acronym GOD, meaning \"GOD Over Djinn\", to help explain infinite series, and describes it as a recursive acronym. Other references followed, however the concept was used as early as 1968 in John Brunner's science fiction novel Stand on Zanzibar. In the story, the acronym EPT (Education for Particular Task) later morphed into \"Eptification for Particular Task\".\nRecursive acronyms typically form backwardly: either an existing ordinary acronym is given a new explanation of what the letters stand for, or a name is turned into an acronym by giving the letters an explanation of what they stand for, in each case with the first letter standing recursively for the whole acronym.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In linguistics, redundancy refers to information that is expressed more than once.Examples of redundancies include multiple agreement features in morphology, multiple features distinguishing phonemes in phonology, or the use of multiple words to express a single idea in rhetoric.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The rhetoric of health and medicine (or medical rhetoric) is an academic discipline concerning language and symbols in health and medicine. Rhetoric most commonly refers to the persuasive element in human interactions and is often best studied in the specific situations in which it occurs. As a subfield of rhetoric, medical rhetoric specifically analyzes and evaluates the structure, delivery, and intention of communications messages in medicine- and health-related contexts. Primary topics of focus includes patient-physician communication, health literacy, language that constructs disease knowledge, and pharmaceutical advertising (including both direct-to-consumer and direct-to-physician advertising). The general research areas are described below. Medical rhetoric is a more focused subfield of the rhetoric of science.\nPractitioners from the medical rhetoric field hail from a variety of disciplines, including English studies, communication studies, and health humanities. Through methods such as content analysis, survey methodology, and usability testing, researchers in this sphere recognize the importance of communication to successful healthcare.Several communication journals, including Communication Design Quarterly, Journal of Business and Technical Communication, Technical Communication Quarterly, and Present Tense, have published special issues on themes related to medical rhetoric. The majority of research in the field is indexed in the academic database EBSCO Communication & Mass Media Complete. In 2013, scholars in the field also began a biennial symposium, Discourses of Health and Medicine.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Rhetoric of science is a body of scholarly literature exploring the notion that the practice of science is a rhetorical activity. It emerged following a number of similarly-oriented disciplines during the late 20th century, including the disciplines of sociology of scientific knowledge, history of science, and philosophy of science, but it is practiced most fully by rhetoricians in departments of English, speech, and communication.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The \"rhetoric of social intervention\" (RSI) model is a systemic communication theory of how human beings symbolically constitute, maintain, and change social systems (e.g., organizations, societies, and cultures). The RSI model was developed in the writings of communication theorist William R. Brown. The model provides a framework for analyzing and interpreting social system change and its side effects from a communication perspective. It also suggests a methodology for acting as an intervener to encourage and/or discourage social system change. The model offers an alternative approach to understanding social system change by its emphasis on communication as the driver of change in contrast to models that focus on social, political, economic, and technological forces as catalysts for change. The RSI model is envisioned as three communication subsystems that function as starting points for interpreting or enacting social system change. The subsystems, known as attention, power, and need, form the RSI model framework. This entry describes the assumptive foundations of the RSI model. Then it discusses the attention, power, and need patterns of communication that that model identifies as points for generating social system change and continuity.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Rhetoric Society of America (RSA) is an academic organization for the study of rhetoric.\nThe Society's constitution calls for it to research rhetoric in all relevant fields of study, identify new areas of study, encourage experimentation in teaching rhetoric, facilitate professional cooperation and to sponsor the publication of such materials dealing with rhetoric.\"  The Society is composed of scholars from various disciplines who study rhetoric's history, theory, public practice, and pedagogical methods.The RSA was established in 1968, by directors that included Edward P. J. Corbett, Wayne C. Booth and Richard Hughes, introducing innovative programs and courses in rhetoric.In 2008, the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS) accepted the Rhetoric Society of America as its 70th member learned society. The learned societies of ACLS are national or international organizations in the humanities and related social sciences, accepted on the basis of their \"substantial, distinctive, and distinguished contribution\" to humanistic scholarship.In her book Authoring a Discipline: Scholarly Journals and the Post-World War II Emergence of Rhetoric and Composition, Maureen Daly Goggin writes that:\n\nMuch like RTE [Rhetorical Task Examination], the RSQ [Rhetoric Society Quarterly] helped to train those new to rhetoric in the kinds of research traditions that offered a currency and purchasing power to raise the professional and disciplinary status of the field. In the process, it helped to establish a social network of scholars, thus strengthening the disciplinary fabric of the field. In other words, like the promoters of the RTE, the members of the RSA and its journal provided both an institutional forum and intellectual traditions that had the potential to galvanize the emerging discipline of rhetoric and composition within departments of English.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Rhetoric to Alexander (also widely known by its title in Latin: Rhetorica ad Alexandrum; Ancient Greek: \u03a4\u03ad\u03c7\u03bd\u03b7 \u1fe5\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae) is a treatise traditionally attributed to Aristotle. It was written by a Pseudo-Aristotle instead and is now generally believed to be the work of Anaximenes of Lampsacus.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Rhetorica ad Herennium (Rhetoric for Herennius), formerly attributed to Cicero or Cornificius, but in fact of unknown authorship, sometimes ascribed to an unnamed doctor, is the oldest surviving Latin book on rhetoric, dating from the late 80s BC, and is still used today as a textbook on the structure and uses of rhetoric and persuasion.\nAt the request of William of Santo Stefano, the Rhetorica ad Herennium was translated into Old French by John of Antioch in 1282.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Rhetorical circulation is a concept referring to the ways that texts and discourses move through time and space. The concept seems to have been applied to texts sometime in the mid 1800s, and it is considered, by most scholars, to be either subordinate to or synonymous with the canon of rhetorical delivery, or pronuntiatio. It is something like newspaper circulation and magazine circulation in that it can involve print media, but it is not limited to these. In fact, any kind of media can circulate. Books can be loaned; Internet memes can be shared; speeches can be overheard; YouTube videos can be embedded in web pages.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Rhetorical criticism analyzes the symbolic artifacts of discourse\u2014the words, phrases, images, gestures, performances, texts, films, etc. that people use to communicate. Rhetorical analysis shows how the artifacts work, how well they work, and how the artifacts, as discourse, inform and instruct, entertain and arouse, and convince and persuade the audience; as such, discourse includes the possibility of morally improving the reader, the viewer, and the listener. Rhetorical criticism studies and analyzes the purpose of the words, sights, and sounds that are the symbolic artifacts used for communications among people.The arts of Rhetorical criticism are an intellectual practice that dates from the time of Plato, in Classical Greece (5th\u20134th c. BC). Moreover, in the dialogue Phaedrus (c. 370 BC), the philosopher Socrates analyzes a speech by Lysias (230e\u2013235e) the logographer (speech writer) to determine whether or not it is praiseworthy.\n\nCriticism is an art, not a science. It is not a scientific method; it uses subjective methods of argument; it exists on its own, not in conjunction with other methods of generating knowledge (i.e., social scientific or scientific).\nThe academic purpose of Rhetorical criticism is greater understanding and appreciation in human relations:\n\nBy improving understanding and appreciation, the critic can offer new, and potentially exciting, ways for others to see the world. Through understanding we also produce knowledge about human communication; in theory, this should help us to better govern our interactions with others.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In classical rhetoric,  figures of speech are classified as one of the four fundamental rhetorical operations or quadripartita ratio: addition (adiectio), omission (detractio), permutation (immutatio) and transposition (transmutatio).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The rhetorical situation is the circumstance of an event that consists of an issue, an audience, and a set of constraints. A rhetorical situation arises from a given context or exigence. An article by Lloyd Bitzer introduced the model of rhetorical situation in 1968, which was later challenged and modified by Richard E. Vatz (1973) and Scott Consigny (1974). More recent scholarship has further redefined the model to include more expansive views of rhetorical operations and ecologies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Rhetorical velocity is a term originating from the fields of Composition Studies and Rhetoric used to describe how rhetoricians may strategically theorize and anticipate the third party recomposition of their texts. In their 2009 article \"Composing for Recomposition: Rhetorical Velocity and Delivery\" in  Kairos: A Journal of Rhetoric, Technology, and Pedagogy, Professors  Jim Ridolfo and D\u00e0nielle Nicole DeVoss provide the example of a writer delivering a press release, where the writer of the release rhetorically anticipates the positive and negative ways in which the text may be recomposed into other texts, including news articles, blog posts, and video content. It is similar to having something go viral. Practicing rhetorical velocity allows the speaker/writer to theorize of all possible outcomes with time and delivery (or Kairos) since it is information that could be in the Public sphere. Ridolfo and DeVoss argue that this thinking is indicative of the modern notion of actio, one that requires a new strategy and theory for thinking about the delivery, distribution, and recomposition of texts and rhetorical objects. It is stated in their article that \"...composing in the digital age is different than traditional practices of composing.\" Since traditional composition consists of one's original thought that is transformed into writing, digital composition requires a lot more editing in its own sphere. Ridfolfo and DeVoss referred to its qualities as \"mix, mass[,] and merge\".For example, the rhetorical velocity of a press advisory encompasses the publication deadlines, reporters' material conditions (including how local reporters prefer to receive and process the text). These considerations are calculated alongside the rhetorical goals of the advisory writer(s). It takes into account the delivery and composition of the given work in relation to the writers' future goals for reproduction. In this sense, rhetorical velocity considers the future times (and in particular moments) and places of texts as part of a distributive strategy. Another example is the rhetorical velocity of an internet meme, which includes the various characteristics of rhetorical circulation, including economics, distribution, and transformation. For instance, memes can participate in the circulation of technical scientific and environmental communication for digital public discourse.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Rhetrickery is a term defined by Wayne C. Booth to describe the \"whole range of shoddy dishonest communicative arts producing misunderstanding - along with other harmful results. The arts of making the worse seem the better course.\" (Booth, 2004, p 11). Booth views rhetrickery\u2019s poisoning of both political and media cultures as being a key reason for the need for an increase in the teaching of rhetoric.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Rogerian argument (or Rogerian rhetoric) is a rhetorical and conflict resolution strategy based on empathizing with others, seeking common ground and mutual understanding and learning, while avoiding the negative effects of extreme attitude polarization. The term Rogerian refers to the psychologist Carl Rogers, whose client-centered therapy has also been called Rogerian therapy. Since 1970, rhetoricians have applied the ideas of Rogers\u2014with contributions by Anatol Rapoport\u2014to rhetoric and argumentation, producing Rogerian argument.\nA key principle of Rogerian argument is that, instead of advocating one's own position and trying to refute the other's position, one tries to state the other's position with as much care as one would have stated one's own position, emphasizing what is strong or valid in the other's argument. To this principle, Rapoport added other principles that are sometimes called \"Rapoport's rules\". Rhetoricians have designed various methods for applying these Rogerian rhetorical principles in practice.\nSeveral scholars have criticized how Rogerian argument is taught. Already in the 1960s Rapoport had noted some of the limitations of Rogerian argument, and other scholars identified other limitations in the following decades. For example, they concluded that Rogerian argument is less likely to be appropriate or effective when communicating with violent or discriminatory people or institutions, in situations of social exclusion or extreme power inequality, or in judicial settings that use formal adversarial procedures.\nSome empirical research has tested role reversal and found that its effectiveness depends on the issue and situation.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Reid's Three Topoi provide a basic framework for understanding pro-war rhetoric and propaganda. (1) Territorial appeals, (2) ethnocentric appeals, and (3) appeals to optimism characterize pro-war rhetoric. Reid also defines a fourth appeal, war aims. However, because this fourth aim supports the other topoi, it is often not identified as a separate category. Due to these appeals, \u201cAmerican presidents have been able to impart a positive value to [the nation\u2019s wars] as well as justify the nation\u2019s involvement.\" By understanding the persuasiveness of these appeals, Reid believes one can better understand wartime behavior.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Sarcasm is the caustic use of words, often in a humorous way, to mock someone or something. Sarcasm may employ ambivalence, although it is not necessarily ironic. Most noticeable in spoken word, sarcasm is mainly distinguished by the inflection with which it is spoken or, with an undercurrent of irony, by the extreme disproportion of the comment to the situation, and is largely context-dependent.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "\"Sarcastaball\" is the eighth episode of the sixteenth season of the American animated television series South Park, and the 231st episode of the series overall. It premiered on Comedy Central in the United States on September 26, 2012 and is rated TV-MA L. In the episode, Randy Marsh, concerned over drastic changes to elementary school football, inadvertently creates a new version of the game after uttering a sarcastic public remark, which quickly becomes the nation's most popular sport. As a result, Butters Stotch becomes a star athlete in the pastime, while Randy finds that he has lost the ability to speak without sarcasm.The episode references the controversial calls of replacement referees in a September 24, 2012 Green Bay Packers\u2013Seattle Seahawks NFL game, and spoofs musician Cee Lo Green, the debate over Concussions in American football, sports talk personality Jim Rome, and NFL players Peyton Manning and LaMarr Woodley.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "To be sardonic is to be disdainfully or cynically humorous, or scornfully mocking. \nA form of wit or humour, being sardonic often involves expressing an uncomfortable truth in a clever and not necessarily malicious way, often with a degree of skepticism.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Scare quotes (also called shudder quotes, sneer quotes, and quibble marks) are quotation marks that writers place around a word or phrase to signal that they are using it in an ironic, referential, or otherwise non-standard sense. Scare quotes may indicate that the author is using someone else's term, similar to preceding a phrase with the expression \"so-called\"; they may imply skepticism or disagreement, belief that the words are misused, or that the writer intends a meaning opposite to the words enclosed in quotes. Whether quotation marks are considered scare quotes depends on context because scare quotes are not visually different from actual quotations. The use of scare quotes is highly discouraged in formal or academic writing.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In linguistics, scheme is a type of figure of speech that relies on the structure of the sentence, unlike the trope, which plays with the meanings of words.A single phrase may involve both a trope and a scheme, e.g.,  may use both alliteration and allegory.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Sentimentality originally indicated the reliance on feelings as a guide to truth, but in current usage the term commonly connotes a reliance on shallow, uncomplicated emotions at the expense of reason.Sentimentalism in philosophy is a view in meta-ethics according to which morality is somehow grounded in moral sentiments or emotions. Sentimentalism in literature refers to techniques a writer employs to induce a tender emotional response disproportionate to the situation at hand (and thus to substitute heightened and generally uncritical feeling for normal ethical and intellectual judgments). The term may also characterize the tendency of some readers to invest strong emotions in trite or conventional fictional situations.\"A sentimentalist\", Oscar Wilde wrote, \"is one who desires to have the luxury of an emotion without paying for it.\" In James Joyce's Ulysses, Stephen Dedalus sends Buck Mulligan a telegram that reads \"The sentimentalist is he who would enjoy without incurring the immense debtorship for a thing done.\" James Baldwin considered that \"Sentimentality, the ostentatious parading of excessive and spurious emotion, is the mark of dishonesty, the inability to feel...the mask of cruelty\". This Side of Paradise by F. Scott Fitzgerald contrasts sentimentalists and romantics, with Amory Blaine telling Rosalind, \"I'm not sentimental\u2014I'm as romantic as you are. The idea, you know, is that the sentimental person thinks things will last\u2014the romantic person has a desperate confidence that they won't.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Thomas Sheridan (1719 \u2013 14 August 1788) was an Irish stage actor, an educator, and a major proponent of the elocution movement.  He received his M.A. in 1743 from Trinity College in Dublin, and was the godson of Jonathan Swift.  He also published a \"respelled\" dictionary of the English language (1780). He was married (1747) to Frances Chamberlaine. His son was the better known Richard Brinsley Sheridan, while his daughters were also writers - Alicia, a playwright, and Betsy Sheridan a diarist. His work is very noticeable in the writings of Hugh Blair.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Short-termism is giving priority to immediate profit, quickly executed projects and short-term results, over long term results and far-seeing action.Short-termism is attributed to certain cognitive biases.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Signifyin' (sometimes written \"signifyin(g)\") (vernacular), is a wordplay. It is a practice in African-American culture involving a verbal strategy of indirection that exploits the gap between the denotative and figurative meanings of words. A simple example would be insulting someone to show affection.  Other names for signifyin' include:  \"Dropping lugs, joaning, sounding, capping, snapping, dissing, busting, bagging, janking, ranking, toasting, woofing, roasting, putting on, or cracking.\"Signifyin' directs attention to the connotative, context-bound significance of words, which is accessible only to those who share the cultural values of a given speech community. The expression comes from stories about the signifying monkey, a trickster figure said to have originated during slavery in the United States.\nThe American literary critic Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote in The Signifying Monkey (1988) that signifyin' is \"a trope, in which are subsumed several other rhetorical tropes, including metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony (the master tropes), and also hyperbole, litotes, and metalepsis. To this list we could easily add aporia, chiasmus, and catachresis, all of which are used in the ritual of Signifyin(g).\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A simple non-inferential passage is a type of nonargument characterized by the lack of a claim that anything is being proved.  Simple non-inferential passages include warnings, pieces of advice, statements of belief or opinion, loosely associated statements, and reports.  Simple non-inferential passages are nonarguments because while the statements involved may be premises, conclusions or both, the statements do not serve to infer a conclusion or support one another.  This is distinct from a logical fallacy, which indicates an error in reasoning.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Socratic method (also known as method of Elenchus, elenctic method, or Socratic debate) is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions. It is named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates and is introduced by him in Plato's Theaetetus as midwifery (maieutics) because it is employed to bring out definitions implicit in the interlocutors' beliefs, or to help them further their understanding.\nThe Socratic method is a method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions.\nThe Socratic method searches for general commonly held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them to determine their consistency with other beliefs. The basic form is a series of questions formulated as tests of logic and fact intended to help a person or group discover their beliefs about some topic, explore definitions, and characterize general characteristics shared by various particular instances.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Speculative Society is a Scottish Enlightenment society dedicated to public speaking and literary composition, founded in 1764. It was mainly, but not exclusively, an Edinburgh University student organisation. The formal purpose of the Society is as a place for social interchange and for practising of professional competency in rhetoric, argument, and the presentation of papers among fellow members. While continuing to meet in its rooms in the University's Old College, it has no formal links to the University.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Stealing thunder is to use someone else's idea for one's own advantage, or to pre-empt them.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Suasoria is an exercise in rhetoric: a form of declamation in which the student makes a speech which is the soliloquy of an historical figure debating how to proceed at a critical junction in his life. As an academic exercise, the speech is delivered as if in court against an adversary and was based on the Roman rhetorical doctrine and practice. The ancient Roman orator Quintilian said that suasoria may call upon a student to address an individual or groups such as the Senate, the citizens of Rome, Greeks or barbarians.  The role-playing exercise developed the student's imagination as well as their logical and rhetorical skills.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Sumerian disputation or Sumerian debate is a topical short story created in the middle-to-late 3rd millennium BC. Seven major debates are known, with specific titles.\nThe list of the majority of the known debates is as follows (from Kramer):(alphabetical)\n\n\u2013Debate between bird and fish\n\u2013Debate between cattle and grain\n\u2013Debate between the millstone and the gulgul-stone\n\u2013Debate between the pickaxe and the plough (translation)\n\u2013Debate between silver and mighty copper (translation)\n\u2013Debate between Summer and Winter\n\u2013Debate between tree and the reedAdditionally, four compositions of the disputation type with the Sumerian school, and its graduates or teachers:\n\u2013The Disputation between Enkmansi and Girnishag\n\u2013The Colloquy between an ungula and a Scribe\n\u2013The Disputation between Enkitalu and Enkihegal\n\u2013Disputation between Two School GraduatesAn additional text concerns women:\n\u2013Disputation between two unnamed ladies", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Synecdoche ( sin-NEK-d\u0259-kee) is a type of metonymy: it is a figure of speech in which a term for a part of something is used to refer to the whole (pars pro toto), or vice versa (totum pro parte). The term comes from ancient Greek \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03b4\u03bf\u03c7\u03ae.Examples in common English use are suits for businessmen, wheels for car, and boots for soldiers.\nThe use of government buildings to refer to their occupants is metonymy and sometimes also synecdoche. \"The Pentagon\" for the United States Department of Defense can be considered synecdoche, because the building can be considered part of the bureaucracy. Similarly, \"The White House\" is also an instance of synecdoche since it is widely used to signify the office of the U.S. president. In the same way, using \"Number 10\" to mean \"the Office of the Prime Minister\" (of the United Kingdom) is a synecdoche. Similarly, the names of capital cities referring to the sovereign states they govern follows this pattern.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In rhetoric, synonymia (Greek: syn, \"alike\" + onoma, \"name\") is the use of several synonyms together to amplify or explain a given subject or term.  It is a kind of repetition that adds emotional force or intellectual clarity. Synonymia often occurs in parallel fashion.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Syntaxis is a style in writing or in rhetoric that favors complex syntax, in contrast to the simple sentence structures of parataxis. For example, 19th-century German academic prose, and John Milton's Paradise Lost poetry in English are notably syntactic. Syntaxis, depending on the author, may also contrast with or include hypotaxis.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A talking point, often used in the plural, is a pre-established message or formula used in the field of political communication, sales and commercial or advertising communication. The message is coordinated a priori to remain more or less invariable regardless of which stakeholder brings the message in the media.  Such statements can either be free standing or created as retorts to the opposition's talking points and are frequently used in public relations, particularly in areas heavy in debate such as politics and marketing.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The rhetoric of technology is both an object and field of study. It refers to the ways in which makers and consumers of technology talk about and make decisions regarding technology and also the influence that technology has on discourse. Studies of the rhetoric of technology are interdisciplinary. Scholars in communication, media ecology, and science studies research the rhetoric of technology. Technical communication scholars are also concerned with the rhetoric of technology.The phrase \"rhetoric of technology\" gained prominence with rhetoricians in the 1970s, and the study developed in conjunction with interest in the rhetoric of science. However, scholars have worked to maintain a distinction between the two fields. Rhetoric of technology criticism addresses several issues related to technology and employs many concepts, including several from the canon of classical rhetoric, for example ethos, but the field has also adopted contemporary approaches, such as new materialism.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Terministic screen is a term in the theory and criticism of rhetoric. It involves the acknowledgment of a language system that determines an individual's perception and symbolic action in the world.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Tertium comparationis (Latin for \"the third [part] of the comparison\") is the quality that two things which are being compared have in common. It is the point of comparison which prompted the author of the comparison in question to liken someone or something to someone or something else in the first place.\nIf a comparison visualizes an action, state, quality, object, or a person by means of a parallel which is drawn to a different entity, the two things which are being compared do not necessarily have to be identical. However, they must possess at least one quality in common. This common quality has traditionally been referred to as tertium comparationis.\nThe most common devices used to achieve this are metaphors and similes, especially, but by no means exclusively, in poetic language.  In many cases one aspect of the comparison is implied rather than made explicit. The New Testament scholar, Adolf J\u00fclicher, applied the concept of tertium comparationis to the parables of Jesus. According to J\u00fclicher, a parable or similitude (extended simile or metaphor) has three parts: a picture part (Bildh\u00e4lfte), a reality part (Sachh\u00e4lfte), and the point of comparison (tertium comparationis) between the picture part and the reality part. \"The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which someone found and hid; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field\" (Matthew 13:44). In this parable, the picture part is the hidden treasure, the reality part is God's kingdom, and the tertium comparationis is the inestimable value of the kingdom.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion  is a New York Times bestselling non-fiction book by Jay Heinrichs. It is on its 4th edition. The book covers the history of rhetoric, and uses modern examples of how persuasion is used in politics, advertising, media - and how you can teach a kid to argue.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy encompass a wide range of interdisciplinary fields centered on the instruction of writing. Noteworthy to the discipline is the influence of classical Ancient Greece and its treatment of rhetoric as a persuasive tool. Derived from the Greek work for public speaking, rhetoric's original concern dealt primarily with the spoken word. In the treatise Rhetoric, Aristotle identifies five Canons of the field of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Since its inception in the spoken word, theories of rhetoric and composition have focused primarily on writing", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A thesis, or dissertation (abbreviated diss.), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings. In some contexts, the word \"thesis\" or a cognate is used for part of a bachelor's or master's course, while \"dissertation\" is normally applied to a doctorate. This is the typical arrangement in American English. In other contexts, such as within most institutions of the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, the reverse is true. The term graduate thesis is sometimes used to refer to both master's theses and doctoral dissertations.The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, and the required minimum study period may thus vary significantly in duration.\nThe word \"dissertation\" can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term \"thesis\" is also used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "\"Think of the children\" (also \"What about the children?\") is a clich\u00e9 that evolved into a rhetorical tactic. In the literal sense, it refers to children's rights (as in discussions of child labor). In debate, however, it is a plea for pity that is used as an appeal to emotion, and therefore it may become a logical fallacy.Art, Argument, and Advocacy (2002) argued that the appeal substitutes emotion for reason in debate. Ethicist Jack Marshall wrote in 2005 that the phrase's popularity stems from its capacity to stunt rationality, particularly discourse on morals. \"Think of the children\" has been invoked by censorship proponents to shield children from perceived danger. Community, Space and Online Censorship (2009) argued that classifying children in an infantile manner, as innocents in need of protection, is a form of obsession over the concept of purity. A 2011 article in the Journal for Cultural Research observed that the phrase grew out of a moral panic.It was an exhortation in the 1964 Disney film Mary Poppins, when the character of Mrs. Banks pleaded with her departing nanny not to quit and to \"think of the children!\" The phrase was popularized as a satiric reference on the animated television program The Simpsons in 1996, when character Helen Lovejoy pleaded \"Won't somebody please think of the children?\" during a contentious debate by citizens of the fictional town of Springfield.In the 2012 Georgia State University Law Review, Charles J. Ten Brink called Lovejoy's use of \"Think of the children\" a successful parody. The appeal's subsequent use in society was often the subject of mockery. After its popularization on The Simpsons, the phrase has been called \"Lovejoy's Law\", the \"Helen Lovejoy defence\", the \"Helen Lovejoy syndrome\", and \"think-of-the-children-ism\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In its strictest sense, tmesis (; plural tmeses ; Ancient Greek: \u03c4\u03bc\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 tm\u0113sis \u2013 \"a cutting\" < \u03c4\u03ad\u03bc\u03bd\u03c9 temn\u014d, \"I cut\") is a word compound that is divided into two parts, with another word infixed between the parts, thus constituting a separate word compound. In a broader sense, tmesis is a recognizable phrase (such as a phrasal verb) or word that is divided into two parts, with one or more words interpolated between the parts, thus creating a separate phrase.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Topical logic is the logic of topical argument, a branch of rhetoric developed in the Late Antique period from earlier works, such as Aristotle's Topics and Cicero's Topica. It consists of heuristics for developing arguments, which are in the first place plausible rather than rigorous, from commonplaces (topoi or loci). In other words, therefore, it consists of standardized ways of thinking up debating techniques from existing, thought-through positions. The actual practice of topical argument was much developed by Roman lawyers. Cicero took the theory of Aristotle to be an aspect of rhetoric. As such it belongs to inventio in the classic fivefold division of rhetoric.\nThe standard classical work on topical logic was the De Topicis Differentiis (On Topical Differentiae) by Boethius. Differentiae refer to case analysis, being the differentiations used to distinguish the cases into which a question is divided. Besides Aristotle and Cicero, Boethius built on Themistius. In terminology, the Greek axioma and topos in Boethius became the Latin maxima propositio (maxim, universal truth) and locus. \nIn the Middle Ages topical logic became a theory of inference, for which the name \"axiomatic topics\" has been suggested. Abelard wanted to complete a theory of entailment by invoking the loci in Boethius to fill in conditionals, a flawed if bold development. Peter of Spain, in his De locis, developed the ideas of Boethius.The De inventione dialectica of Rodolphus Agricola (1479) made large claims for this method, as an aspect of dialectic (traditionally contrasted with rhetoric) subordinated to inventio. The precise relationship of \"dialectic\" and \"rhetoric\" remained vexed well into the sixteenth century, hinging on the role assigned to loci. It was expounded in different fashions by Philipp Melanchthon and Petrus Ramus. The debate fed into the later development of Ramism.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Topothesia is \u201cthe description of an imaginable or non-existent place\u201d. It has been classified as a type of enargia (a synonym to \u201chypotyposis\u201d), which is a \u201cgeneric name for a group of figures aiming at vivid, lively description\u201d. Edgar Allan Poe used enargia frequently to describe his characters in his literary works.\nAccording to Philip Hardie, a professor at the University of Cambridge, its determining characteristic is its position within a text. Normally, when the descriptive analysis of a place is found to discontinue a narrative, this interrupting section can be considered topothesia. In addition, it has a stereotyped entry formula that facilitates distinguishing the narrative from the descriptive. In most famous texts, topothesia begins with est locus (\u201cthere is a place\u201d in Latin), as can be seen in Metamorphoses by Ovid.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Translation as a rhetorical device is a form of parody, where a sarcastic paraphrase of a source quotation is given to mock its author; to enhance the irony, it is furthermore stated that the version being given is merely a translation into the speaker's language, implying that the original speaker was unduly obscure or ranting. Given the nature of Usenet forums, parodic translation is prevalent in flame wars, where remarks such as \"Translation: 'I do not have a clue and am throwing mud'\" are used to imply \u2014 on very little ground \u2014 that another poster is not making any appreciable contribution to the subject.\nUnlike other forms of parody, translation has a relatively recent history; early usages of the device can be seen in the work of the Viennese literary critic and journalist Karl Kraus,  who claimed to translate from other journalists' \u2014 famously former friend Harden \u2014 and from Moskauderwelch \u2014 a derisive term for the highly elaborate Marxist jargon of the time, a pun on Moskau, Moscow, and Kauderwelch, gibberish. Kraus' influence is notable in Karl Popper; while translation of scientific theories into verificationist terms had been a standard procedure in logical positivism for some time, Popper's criticism of several philosophers and scientists that failed to comply with his notion of the scientific method took a mocking quality reminiscent of the former.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Linguistic transparency is a phrase which is used in multiple, overlapping subjects in the fields of linguistics and the philosophy of language. It has both normative and descriptive senses.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A trilemma is a difficult choice from three options, each of which is (or appears) unacceptable or unfavourable. There are two logically equivalent ways in which to express a trilemma: it can be expressed as a choice among three unfavourable options, one of which must be chosen, or as a choice among three favourable options, only two of which are possible at the same time.\nThe term derives from the much older term dilemma, a choice between two or more difficult or unfavourable alternatives. The earliest recorded use of the term was by the British preacher Philip Henry in 1672, and later, apparently independently, by the preacher Isaac Watts in 1725.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A literary trope is the use of figurative language, via word, phrase or an image, for artistic effect such as using a figure of speech. Keith and Lundburg describe a trope as, \"a substitution of a word or phrase by a less literal word or phrase.\" The word trope has also come to be used for describing commonly recurring literary and rhetorical devices, motifs or clich\u00e9s in creative works. Literary tropes span almost every category of writing, such as poetry, film, plays, and video games.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A truism is a claim that is so obvious or self-evident as to be hardly worth mentioning, except as a reminder or as a rhetorical or literary device, and is the opposite of falsism.In philosophy, a sentence which asserts incomplete truth conditions for a proposition may be regarded as a truism. An example of such a sentence would be \"Under appropriate conditions, the sun rises.\"  Without contextual support \u2013 a statement of what those appropriate conditions are \u2013 the sentence is true but incontestable.Lapalissades, such as \"If he were not dead, he would still be alive\", are considered to be truisms.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The unity of opposites is the central category of dialectics, said to be related to the notion of non-duality in a deep sense. It defines a situation in which the existence or identity of a thing (or situation) depends on the co-existence of at least two conditions which are opposite to each other, yet dependent on each other and presupposing each other, within a field of tension.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Verbosity or verboseness is speech or writing that uses more words than necessary. The opposite of verbosity is plain language. Some teachers, including the author of The Elements of Style, warn against verbosity; similarly Mark Twain and Ernest Hemingway, among others, famously avoid it. Synonyms include wordiness, verbiage, prolixity, grandiloquence, garrulousness, expatiation, logorrhea, and sesquipedalianism.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Victor Villanueva (born 1948) is a Brooklyn-born Puerto Rican academic and scholar in rhetoric and composition studies, serving the role of Regents Professor Emeritus at Washington State University. Villanueva was awarded NCTE\u2019s David Russell Award for Distinguished Research in the Teaching of English for his groundbreaking book Bootstraps, From an American Academic of Color. In 2009, Villanueva was the recipient of the Conference on College Composition and Communication Exemplar's Award. Villanueva has written and edited a number of significant works on the topic of race, rhetoric, basic writing, and the social and political contexts of literacy education.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Visual rhetoric is the art of effective communication through visual elements such as images, typography, and texts. Visual rhetoric encompasses the skill of visual literacy and the ability to analyze images for their form and meaning.  Drawing on techniques from semiotics and rhetorical analysis, visual rhetoric expands on visual literacy as it examines the structure of an image with the focus on its persuasive effects on an audience.Although visual rhetoric also involves typography and other texts, it concentrates mainly on the use of images or visual texts. Using images is central to visual rhetoric because these visuals help in either forming the case an image alone wants to convey, or arguing the point that a writer formulates, in the case of a multimodal text which combines image and written text, for example. Visual rhetoric has gained more notoriety as more recent scholarly work started exploring alternative media forms that include graphics, screen design, and other hybrid visual representations that does not privilege print culture and conventions. Also, visual rhetoric involves how writers arrange segments of a visual text on the page. In addition to that, visual rhetoric involves the selection of different fonts, contrastive colors, and graphs, among other elements, to shape a visual rhetoric text. One vital component of visual rhetoric is analyzing  the visual text. The interactional and commonly hybrid nature of cyber spaces that usually mixes print text and visual images unable some detachment of them as isolated constructs, and scholarship has claimed that especially in virtual spaces where print text and visuals are usually combined, there is no place either for emphasizing one mode over another. One way of analyzing a visual text is to look for its significant meaning.\nSimply put, the meaning should be deeper than the literal sense that a visual text holds. One way to analyze a visual text is to dissect it in order for the viewer to understand its tenor. Viewers can break the text into smaller parts and share perspectives to reach its meaning. In analyzing a text that  includes an image of the bold eagle, as the main body of the visual text, questions of representation and connotation come into play.  Analyzing a text that includes a photo, painting, or even cartoon of the bold eagle along with written words, would bring to mind the conceptions of strength and freedom, rather than the conception of merely a bird.\nThis includes an understanding of the creative and rhetorical choices made with coloring, shaping, and object placement. The power of imagery, iconic photographs, for instance, can potentially generate actions in a global scale. Rhetorical choices carry great significance that surpass reinforcement of the written text.  Each choice, be font, color, layout, represents a different message that author wants to portray for the audience. Visual rhetoric emphasizes images as sensory expressions of cultural and contextual meaning, as opposed to purely aesthetic consideration. Analyzing visuals and their power to convey messages is central to incorporating visual rhetoric within the digital era as nuances of choices regarding audience, purpose and genre can be analyzed within a single frame and the rationale behind designers\u2019 rhetorical choices can be revealed and analyzed by how the elements of visuals play out altogether. Visual rhetoric has been approached and applied in a variety of academic fields including art history, linguistics, semiotics, cultural studies, business and technical communication, speech communication, and classical rhetoric. Visual rhetoric seeks to develop rhetorical theory in a way that is more comprehensive and inclusive with regard to images and their interpretations.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The study and practice of visual rhetoric took a more prominent role in the field of composition studies towards the end of the twentieth century and onward. Proponents of its inclusion in composition typically point to the increasingly visual nature of society, and the increasing presence of visual texts. Literacy, they argue, can no longer be limited only to written text and must also include an understanding of the visual.Despite this focus on new media, the inclusion of visual rhetoric in composition studies is distinct from a media theory of composition, though the two are obviously related. Visual rhetoric focuses on the rhetorical nature of all visual texts while new media tends to focus on electronic mediums.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Stephen Edelston Toulmin (; 25 March 1922 \u2013 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning. Throughout his writings, he sought to develop practical arguments which can be used effectively in evaluating the ethics behind moral issues. His works were later found useful in the field of rhetoric for analyzing rhetorical arguments. The Toulmin model of argumentation, a diagram containing six interrelated components used for analyzing arguments, and published in his 1958 book The Uses of Argument, was considered his most influential work, particularly in the field of rhetoric and communication, and in computer science.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Distinguish from ironwood, various species of tree with very hard wood.Wooden iron (German: h\u00f6lzernes Eisen) is a polemical term often used in philosophical rhetoric to describe the impossibility of an opposing argument. The term is a German proverbial oxymoron, which synthesizes the concept of the \"wooden\", which is organic, with the concept of \"iron\" which is inorganic. Such a contradictio in adjecto is a logical inconsistency. It occurs when a modifying adjective opposes its noun, as in \"square circle,\" \"freezing fire,\" \"boiling snow,\" or \"hard liquid.\"", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Wooden language is language that uses vague, ambiguous, abstract or pompous words in order to divert attention from the salient issues. The French scholar Fran\u00e7oise Thom identified four characteristics of wooden language: abstraction and the avoidance of the concrete, tautologies, bad metaphors, and Manichaeism that divides the world into good and evil. The phrase is a literal translation of the French expression langue de bois which appears to have been coined by Georges Clemenceau in 1919, and became widely used during the 1970s and 1980s after being brought back into French from Russian via Polish.In France, wooden language is commonly and strongly associated with politicians and the conditioning at the National School of Administration, as attested by intellectual Michel Butor: \"We have had, among the misfortunes of France, the creation by General de Gaulle of the \u00c9cole nationale d'administration which holds the monopoly of the training of politicians. They have to go through there, where they learn the wooden language\".The fictional language of Newspeak in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four often mirrors and satirizes wooden language.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Word play or wordplay (also: play-on-words) is a literary technique and a form of wit in which words used become the main subject of the work, primarily for the purpose of intended effect or amusement. Examples of word play include puns, phonetic mix-ups such as spoonerisms, obscure words and meanings, clever rhetorical excursions, oddly formed sentences, double entendres, and telling character names (such as in the play The Importance of Being Earnest, Ernest being a given name that sounds exactly like the adjective earnest).\nWord play is quite common in oral cultures as a method of reinforcing meaning. Examples of text-based (orthographic) word play are found in languages with or without alphabet-based scripts, such as homophonic puns in Mandarin Chinese.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In rhetoric, zeugma ( (listen); from the Ancient Greek \u03b6\u03b5\u1fe6\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1, ze\u00fbgma, lit. \"a yoking together\") and syllepsis (; from the Ancient Greek \u03c3\u03cd\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03c8\u03b9\u03c2, sull\u0113psis, lit. \"a taking together\") are figures of speech in which a single phrase or word joins different parts of a sentence.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Awaze Tribune or AwazeTribune is an Eritrean news satire organization that publishes articles on international, national, and local news. Based in Asmara, Eritrea.  The website carries articles that may cover current events, both real and fictional, satirizing the tone and format of traditional news organizations with stories, editorials, op-ed pieces, and man-in-the-street interviews using a traditional news website layout and an editorial voice modelled after The New York Times, and the usage of the AP Style of news writing.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Brobdingnag is a fictional land, which is occupied by giants, in Jonathan Swift's 1726 satirical novel Gulliver's Travels. The story's main character, Lemuel Gulliver, visits the land after the ship on which he is travelling is blown off course. As a result, he becomes separated from a party exploring the unknown land. In the second preface to the book, Gulliver laments that the publisher misspelled the land's name, which Gulliver asserts is actually called Brobdingrag.The adjective \"Brobdingnagian\" has come to describe anything of colossal size.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A cactolith is \"a quasihorizontal chonolith composed of anastomosing ductoliths whose distal ends curl like a harpolith, thin like a wedge, partly cocordant and partly discordant sphenolith, or bulge discordantly like an akmolith or ethmolith.\"\nThe term was coined by Charles B. Hunt, a USGS researcher, in his paper \"Geology and geography of the Henry Mountains region, Utah\" (1953). He was in fact describing an actual geological feature\u2014a laccolith which he saw as resembling a cactus\u2014he was also, tongue-in-cheek, commenting on what he saw as an absurd number of \"-lith\" words in the field of geology.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Satirical cartography is a form of art, exposing stereotypes and political messages with comical geopolitical illustrations. Satirical cartography dates back to the late 18th century and early 19th century. Hanna Humphrey and Frederick W. Rose are among the earliest pioneers in cartoon-ish maps.In some cases, satirical cartography is meant to critique places and peoples or alternatively the stereotypes forming around given places and peoples.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Castigat ridendo mores (Latin pronunciation: [ka\u02c8sti\u02d0\u0261at r\u026a\u02c8d\u025bndo\u02d0 \u02c8mo\u02d0re\u02d0s]; \"laughing corrects customs/manners\") is a Latin phrase that generally means \"one corrects customs by laughing at them,\" or \"he corrects customs by ridicule.\" Some commentators suggest that the phrase embodies the essence of satire; in other words, the best way to change things is to point out their absurdity and laugh at them. French New Latin poet Abb\u00e9 Jean de Santeul (1630\u20131697) allegedly coined the phrase.The phrase is often used to explain the idea of satire in works by Moli\u00e8re and Marivaux.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Clown society is a term used in anthropology and sociology for an organization of comedic entertainers (Heyoka or \"clowns\") who have a formalized role in a culture or society.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Comedy rock is rock music that is comedic in nature. Oftentimes it is mixed with satire or irony.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Craposyncrasies or Doozakhrafat is a book by Sorush Pakzad of satirical pieces in Persian, which were posted on his personal blog before publication. The book includes 107 stories about gods, prophets, and angels and was published in February 2012 by H&S Media. The publisher included the book among its top-sellers in 2014.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The dangibon (\u8ac7\u7fa9\u672c) was a pre-modern Japanese literary genre. Texts were written in a humorous, satirical sermon-style with the purpose of educating the masses. It is type of gesaku.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Diminution is a satirical technique. It reduces the size of something in order that it may be made to appear ludicrous, or in order to be closely examined. For example, if the Canadian Members of Parliament are portrayed as squabbling, spoiled little boys and girls, this would be diminution. A diminutive satire is Gulliver's Travels.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Doenjang girl or doenjang woman (hangul: \ub41c\uc7a5\ub140, doenjang nyeo) is a pejorative expression used in South Korea to criticize women who \"[scrimp] on essentials so they can over-spend on conspicuous luxuries\". The term first entered the language after Korea's early-2000s economic upswing. According to Jee Eun Regina Song, the concept of this woman is \"best exemplified by the Starbucks cup in her hand\". In South Korea, Starbucks symbolizes aspirational wealth and drinking Starbucks coffee is a status symbol; Seoul as of 2015 had more franchises than any other city in the world. Coffee after 1999 became a symbol of class.According to the BBC, the term is inherently sexist; according to Song, the issues are both of gender and class. The BBC said that the term refers to the idea that \"no matter how many Chanel bags she buys, she'll never be able to disguise her 'Korean-ness', and that this kind of spending was something to be mocked. There is no derogatory 'soybean paste boy' equivalent.\"Doenjang is Korean fermented soybean paste. The term mocks a woman for eating a cheap meal (doenjang jjigae is one of the cheapest meals in Korea) so she can buy something expensive.  A large part of the song \"Gangnam Style\" is a parody of this stereotype.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Dog poop girl refers to a 2005 incident in South Korea which was one of the first internationally reported occurrences of doxing. In a Seoul subway car, a young woman's lap dog defecated inside the train, and the woman was photographed on another passenger's mobile phone camera after she did not clean up the mess despite numerous requests. The photos were posted on a popular Korean website and widely distributed; the woman was later identified, and her personal information was published online. The woman was publicly shamed, and quit her university. Newspaper editorials then addressed the issues concerning Internet vigilantism and privacy concerns.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Dogecoin ( DOHJ-koyn or DOHZH-koyn, code: DOGE, symbol: \u00d0) is a cryptocurrency created by software engineers Billy Markus and Jackson Palmer, who decided to create a payment system as a \"joke\", making fun of the wild speculation in cryptocurrencies at the time. It is considered both the first \"meme coin\", and, more specifically, the first \"dog coin\". Despite its satirical nature, some consider it a legitimate investment prospect. Dogecoin features the face of the Shiba Inu dog from the \"doge\" meme as its logo and namesake. It was introduced on December 6, 2013, and quickly developed its own online community, reaching a market capitalization of over $85 billion on May 5, 2021. It is the current shirt sponsor of Watford Football Club.Dogecoin.com promotes the currency as the \"fun and friendly Internet currency\", referencing its origins as a \"joke.\" Software engineers Billy Markus and Jackson Palmer launched the satirical cryptocurrency as a way to make fun of Bitcoin and the many other cryptocurrencies boasting grand plans to take over the world. With the help of Reddit, the site became an instant hit. Within two weeks, Dogecoin had established a dedicated blog and forum, and its market value has reached $8 million, once jumping to become the seventh largest electronic currency in the world. Dogecoin is based on Scrypt algorithm, and the transaction process is more convenient than Bitcoin. Dogecoin takes only 1 minute to confirm, while BTC takes 10 minutes.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Newspeak is the fictional language of Oceania, a totalitarian superstate that is the setting of the 1949 dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, by George Orwell. In the novel, the Party created Newspeak:\u200a309\u200a to meet the ideological requirements of Ingsoc (English Socialism) in Oceania. Newspeak is a controlled language of simplified grammar and restricted vocabulary designed to limit the individual's ability to think and articulate \"subversive\" concepts such as personal identity, self-expression and free will. Such concepts are criminalized as thoughtcrime since they contradict the prevailing Ingsoc orthodoxy.In \"The Principles of Newspeak\", the appendix to the novel, Orwell explains that Newspeak follows most of the rules of English grammar, yet is a language characterised by a continually diminishing vocabulary; complete thoughts are reduced to simple terms of simplistic meaning. The political contractions of Newspeak\u2014Ingsoc (English Socialism), Minitrue (Ministry of Truth), Miniplenty (Ministry of Plenty)\u2014are described by Orwell as similar to real examples of German and Russian contractions in the 20th century. Like Nazi (Nationalsozialist), Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei), politburo (Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), Comintern (Communist International), kolkhoz (collective farm), and Komsomol (communist youth union), the contractions in Newspeak, often syllabic abbreviations, are supposed to have a political function already in virtue of their abbreviated structure itself: nice sounding and easily pronounceable, their purpose is to mask all ideological content from the speaker.:\u200a310\u20138\u200aThe word \"Newspeak\" is sometimes used in contemporary political debate as an allegation that one tries to introduce new meanings of words to suit one's agenda.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Estate satire is a genre of writing from 14th Century, Medieval literary works. The three Medieval estates were the Clergy (those who prayed), the Nobility (those who fought) and lastly the Peasantry (those who labored). These estates were the major social classes of the time and were typically gender specific to men, although the clergy also included nuns. Nevertheless, women were considered as a separate class in themselves, the best-known example being Geoffrey Chaucer's Wife of Bath. Estates satire praised the glories and purity of each class in its ideal form, but was also used as a window to show how society had gotten out of hand. The Norton Anthology of English Literature describes the duty of estates satire: \"They set forth the functions and duties of each estate and castigate the failure of the estates in the present world to live up to their divinely assigned social roles\".The First Estate, the Church, consisted of those who ran the Catholic church and part of the country. They were the recipients of the tithe or the 10% tax given to the Church.\nThe Second Estate, the Nobility, were royalty, not including the King. They were never taxed but could collect taxes from the Third Estate, and had other special privileges.\nThe Third Estate, the Commons, is the largest, consisting of around 98% of the population (UCL). The commons included everyone who did not belong to the first two estates, primarily rural peasants and the urban bourgeois or middle class. They had none of the privileges or luxuries that the first two estates enjoyed, although the rise of capitalism in the late 14th Century resulted in the bourgeois having relatively more power.\nAmong 14th-century English authors, John Gower, William Langland, and Geoffrey Chaucer were three of the most prominent writers of the time to include estates satire in their works. Although Gower was more aggressive in his approach, Chaucer was more subtle and more successful, making himself to be the fool of the joke and subverting many of the conventions of the genre. Several Medieval authors used estates satire to express their disgust towards the hypocrisy of the three estates and their supposed virtuous ways.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Fratire is a type of 21st-century fiction literature written for and marketed to young men in a politically incorrect and overtly masculine fashion. The term was coined following the popularity of works by George Ouzounian (writing under the pen name Maddox) and Tucker Max. Described as a satirical celebration of traditional masculinity, the genre has been criticized for allegedly promoting sexism and misogyny.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The grotesque body is a concept, or literary trope, put forward by Russian literary critic Mikhail Bakhtin in his study of Fran\u00e7ois Rabelais' work. The essential principle of grotesque realism is degradation, the lowering of all that is abstract, spiritual, noble, and ideal to the material level. Through the use of the grotesque body in his novels, Rabelais related political conflicts to human anatomy. In this way, Rabelais used the concept as \"a figure of unruly biological and social exchange\".It is by means of this information that Bakhtin pinpoints two important subtexts: the first is carnival (carnivalesque), and the second is grotesque realism (grotesque body). Thus, in Rabelais and His World Bakhtin studies the interaction between the social and the literary, as well as the meaning of the body.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Comedy hip hop or comedy rap, is a subgenre of lighter hip hop music designed to be amusing or funny, compared to artists who incorporate humor into their more serious, purist hip hop styles.\nSatirical hip hop is a variant of comedy hip hop done in a sarcastic, parodic, deadpan or tongue-in-cheek way.Other forms of comedy rap, such as meme rap and ironic rap, both known for their aggressive and dark comedic approach achieved some mainstream success during the 2000s and 2010s. Many examples of comedy hip hop are parodic.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Jonah or Jonas, son of Amittai, is a prophet in the Hebrew Bible and the Quran, from Gath-hepher of the northern kingdom of Israel in about the 8th century BCE. Jonah is the central figure of the Book of Jonah, which details his reluctance in delivering God's judgement on the city of Nineveh, and then his subsequent, albeit begrudged, return to the divine mission after he is swallowed by a large sea creature.\nIn Judaism, the story of Jonah represents the teaching of teshuva, which is the ability to repent and be forgiven by God. In the New Testament, Jesus calls himself \"greater than Jonah\" and promises the Pharisees \"the sign of Jonah\", which is his resurrection. Early Christian interpreters viewed Jonah as a type for Jesus. Jonah is regarded as a prophet in Islam and the biblical narrative of Jonah is repeated, with a few notable differences, in the Quran. Mainstream Bible scholars generally regard the Book of Jonah as fictional, and often at least partially satirical, but the character of Jonah son of Amittai may have been based on the historical prophet of the same name who prophesied during the reign of Amaziah of Judah, as mentioned in 2 Kings.Although the creature which swallowed Jonah is often depicted in art and culture as a whale, the Hebrew text actually uses the phrase  dag gadol, which means \"big fish\". In the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, the species of the fish that swallowed Jonah was the subject of speculation for naturalists, who interpreted the story as an account of a historical incident. Some modern scholars of folklore say there are similarities between Jonah and other legendary figures, specifically Gilgamesh and the Greek hero Jason.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Satirical music describes music that employs satire or was described as such. It deals with themes of social, political, religious, cultural structures and provides commentary or criticism on them typically under the guise of dark humor or respective music genres. Topics include sexuality, race, culture, religion, politics,  institutions, taboo subjects, morality, and the human condition.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The genre of Menippean satire is a form of satire, usually in prose, that is characterized by attacking mental attitudes rather than specific individuals or entities. It has been broadly described as a mixture of allegory, picaresque narrative, and satirical commentary. Other features found in Menippean satire are different forms of parody and mythological burlesque, a critique of the myths inherited from traditional culture, a rhapsodic nature, a fragmented narrative, the combination of many different targets, and the rapid moving between styles and points of view.The term is used by classical grammarians and by philologists mostly to refer to satires in prose (cf. the verse Satires of Juvenal and his imitators). Social types attacked and ridiculed by Menippean satires include \"pedants, bigots, cranks, parvenus, virtuosi, enthusiasts, rapacious and incompetent professional men of all kinds,\" although they are addressed in terms of \"their occupational approach to life as distinct from their social behavior ... as mouthpieces of the idea they represent\". Characterization in Menippean satire is more stylized than naturalistic, and presents people as an embodiment of the ideas they represent. The term Menippean satire distinguishes it from the earlier satire pioneered by Aristophanes, which was based on personal attacks.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Metaparody is a form of humor or literary technique consisting \"parodying the parody of the original\", sometimes to the degree that the viewer is unclear as to which subtext is genuine and which subtext parodic. The American literary critic Gary Saul Morson has written extensively on the topic:\nIn texts of this type, each voice may be taken to be parodic of the other; readers are invited to entertain each of the resulting contradictory interpretations in potentially endless succession. In this sense such texts remain fundamentally open... readers may witness the alternation of statement and counterstatement, interpretation and antithetical interpretation, up to a conclusion which fails, often ostentatious, to resolve their hermeneutic perplexity. (Morson 1989)", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A satiric misspelling is an intentional misspelling of a word, phrase or name for a rhetorical purpose. This can be achieved with intentional malapropism (e.g. replacing erection for election), enallage (giving a sentence the wrong form, eg. \"we was robbed!\"), or simply replacing a letter with another letter (for example, in English, k replacing c), or symbol ($ replacing s). Satiric misspelling is found widely today in informal writing on the Internet, but is also made in some serious political writing that opposes the status quo.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Mock-heroic, mock-epic or heroi-comic works are typically satires or parodies that mock common Classical stereotypes of heroes and heroic literature.  Typically, mock-heroic works either put a fool in the role of the hero or exaggerate the heroic qualities to such a point that they become absurd.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Nacirema (\"American\" spelled backwards) is a term used in anthropology and sociology in relation to aspects of the behavior and society of citizens of the United States of America. The neologism attempts to create a deliberate sense of self-distancing in order that American anthropologists might look at their own culture more objectively.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "News satire or news comedy is a type of parody presented in a format typical of mainstream journalism, and called a satire because of its content. News satire has been around almost as long as journalism itself, but it is particularly popular on the web, with websites like The Onion and The Babylon Bee, where it is relatively easy to mimic a legitimate news site. News satire relies heavily on irony and deadpan humor.\nTwo slightly different types of news satire exist. One form uses satirical commentary and sketch comedy to comment on real-world events, while the other presents wholly fictionalized news stories.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Newspeak is the fictional language of Oceania, a totalitarian superstate that is the setting of the 1949 dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, by George Orwell. In the novel, the Party created Newspeak:\u200a309\u200a to meet the ideological requirements of Ingsoc (English Socialism) in Oceania. Newspeak is a controlled language of simplified grammar and restricted vocabulary designed to limit the individual's ability to think and articulate \"subversive\" concepts such as personal identity, self-expression and free will. Such concepts are criminalized as thoughtcrime since they contradict the prevailing Ingsoc orthodoxy.In \"The Principles of Newspeak\", the appendix to the novel, Orwell explains that Newspeak follows most of the rules of English grammar, yet is a language characterised by a continually diminishing vocabulary; complete thoughts are reduced to simple terms of simplistic meaning. The political contractions of Newspeak\u2014Ingsoc (English Socialism), Minitrue (Ministry of Truth), Miniplenty (Ministry of Plenty)\u2014are described by Orwell as similar to real examples of German and Russian contractions in the 20th century. Like Nazi (Nationalsozialist), Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei), politburo (Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), Comintern (Communist International), kolkhoz (collective farm), and Komsomol (communist youth union), the contractions in Newspeak, often syllabic abbreviations, are supposed to have a political function already in virtue of their abbreviated structure itself: nice sounding and easily pronounceable, their purpose is to mask all ideological content from the speaker.:\u200a310\u20138\u200aThe word \"Newspeak\" is sometimes used in contemporary political debate as an allegation that one tries to introduce new meanings of words to suit one's agenda.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "NPC (; each letter separately), derived from non-player character, is an internet meme that represents people who do not think for themselves or do not make their own decisions; it is also known as NPC Wojak.\nThe NPC meme, which graphically is based on the Wojak meme, was created in July 2016 by an anonymous author and first published on the imageboard 4chan, where the idea and inspiration behind the meme were introduced.The NPC meme gained widespread attention and in October 2018 was covered in numerous news outlets, including The New York Times, The Verge, BBC, and Breitbart News.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Our Lady of Perpetual Exemption was a legally recognized church in the United States, established by comedian and satirist John Oliver. Its purpose was to expose and ridicule televangelists such as Robert Tilton and Creflo Dollar who preach the \"prosperity gospel\", seen as a way to defraud believers of their money, and to draw attention to the tax-exempt status given to churches and charities with little government oversight. Oliver announced formation of his church on March 31, 2015, in a twenty-minute segment on his show Last Week Tonight.Oliver announced that the Church would be shutting down during his show on September 13, 2015. All donations were forwarded to Doctors Without Borders.In June 2021, Oliver set up a healthcare sharing ministry (HCSM) in Florida called Our Lady of Perpetual Health, satirizing what HCSMs are allowed to do by law, essentially having no obligation to provide any care.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A parody, also called a spoof, a satire, a send-up, a take-off, a lampoon, a play on (something), or a caricature, is a creative work designed to imitate, comment on, and/or make fun of its subject by means of satiric or ironic imitation. Often its subject is an original work or some aspect of it \u2014 theme/content, author, style, etc. But a parody can also be about a real-life person (e.g. a politician), event, or movement (e.g. the French Revolution or 1960s counterculture). Literary scholar Professor Simon Dentith defines parody as \"any cultural practice which provides a relatively polemical allusive imitation of another cultural production or practice\". The literary theorist Linda Hutcheon said \"parody ... is imitation, not always at the expense of the parodied text.\" \nParody may be found in art or culture, including literature, music, theater, television and film, animation, and gaming. Some parody is practiced in theater.\nThe writer and critic John Gross observes in his Oxford Book of Parodies, that parody seems to flourish on territory somewhere between pastiche (\"a composition in another artist's manner, without satirical intent\") and burlesque (which \"fools around with the material of high literature and adapts it to low ends\"). Meanwhile, the Encyclop\u00e9die of Denis Diderot distinguishes between the parody and the burlesque, \"A good parody is a fine amusement, capable of amusing and instructing the most sensible and polished minds; the burlesque is a miserable buffoonery which can only please the populace.\" Historically, when a formula grows tired, as in the case of the moralistic melodramas in the 1910s, it retains value only as a parody, as demonstrated by the Buster Keaton shorts that mocked that genre.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A pasquinade or pasquil is a form of satire, usually an anonymous brief lampoon in verse or prose, and can also be seen as a form of literary caricature. The genre became popular in early modern Europe, in the 16th century, though the term had been used at least as early as the 15th century. Pasquinades can take a number of literary forms, including song, epigram, and satire. Compared with other kinds of satire, the pasquinade tends to be less didactic and more aggressive, and is more often critical of specific persons or groups.The name \"pasquinade\" comes from Pasquino, the nickname of a Hellenistic statue, the remains of a type now known as a Pasquino Group, found in the River Tiber in Rome in 1501 \u2013 the first of a number of \"talking statues of Rome\" which have been used since the 16th century by locals to post anonymous political commentary.The verse pasquinade has a classical source in the satirical epigrams of ancient Roman and Greek writers such as Martial, Callimachus, Lucillius, and Catullus. The Menippean satire has been classed as a type of pasquinade. During the Roman Empire, statues would be decorated with anonymous brief verses or criticisms.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Political satire is satire that specializes in gaining entertainment from politics; it has also been used with subversive intent where political speech and dissent are forbidden by a regime, as a method of advancing political arguments where such arguments are expressly forbidden.\nPolitical satire is usually distinguished from political protest or political dissent, as it does not necessarily carry an agenda nor seek to influence the political process. While occasionally it may, it more commonly aims simply to provide entertainment. By its very nature, it rarely offers a constructive view in itself; when it is used as part of protest or dissent, it tends to simply establish the error of matters rather than provide solutions.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Pop culture fiction is a genre of fiction where stories are written intentionally to be filled with references from other works and media. Stories in this genre are focused solely on using popular culture references.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A pun, also known as paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophonic, homographic, metonymic, or figurative language. A pun differs from a malapropism in that a malapropism is an incorrect variation on a correct expression, while a pun involves expressions with multiple (correct or fairly reasonable) interpretations. Puns may be regarded as in-jokes or idiomatic constructions, especially as their usage and meaning are usually specific to a particular language or its culture.\nPuns have a long history in human writing. For example, the Roman playwright Plautus was famous for his puns and word games.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The satire boom was the output of a generation of British satirical writers, journalists and performers at the beginning of the 1960s. The  satire boom is often regarded as having begun with the first performance of Beyond the Fringe on 22 August 1960 and ending around December 1963 with the cancellation of the BBC TV show That Was The Week That Was. The figures most closely identified with the satire boom are Peter Cook, John Bird, John Fortune, David Frost, Dudley Moore, Bernard Levin and Richard Ingrams. Many figures who found celebrity through the satire boom went on to establish subsequently more serious careers as writers including Alan Bennett (drama), Jonathan Miller (polymathic), and Paul Foot (investigative journalism).\nIn his book The Neophiliacs, Christopher Booker, who as a founding editor of Private Eye was a central figure of the satire boom, charts the years  1959 to 1964. He begins with the Cambridge Footlights student revue The Last Laugh written by Bird and Cook; it later transferred to the West End. Booker ends the period with the cancellation of the television series That Was The Week That Was, and the closing  of the Establishment Club.\n\nThe boom was driven by well-connected graduates from first the University of Cambridge, and then the University of Oxford. BT states, \"The ground-breaking revue Beyond the Fringe, starring Oxbridge graduates Alan Bennett, Peter Cook, Jonathan Miller and Dudley Moore, opened at the Fortune Theatre, London in 1961 \u2013 and started something of a revolution in humour.\" Booker argues that, with the response to the Suez Crisis which effectively marked the end of the British Empire as a great power, an upper middle class generation with public school and Oxbridge educations who had grown up with certain expectations\u2014of following a career in colonial administration or the civil service\u2014suddenly found themselves surplus. Peter Cook had already entered for a Foreign Office entrance exam, before his stage career took off. At the same time the emergence of the \"angry young men\" and \"kitchen sink realism\" in drama were signs that British culture was increasingly dominated by the concerns of the \"common man\". The Labour Party was proving to be an ineffective opposition to a patrician Conservative government. The satire-boom generation were in general apolitical or had (at that time) left-of-centre tendencies.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Satirical ostraca are a category of ostraca (singular: an ostracon) that represent the real world in unrealistic, impossible situations\u2013a satire. The common example portrayed which helped create this categorization, are animals which take reversed roles, for example a vertically\u2013walking cat, with ducks on the end of leashes. The same role reversals can be seen on satirical papyri. This concept is a prevalent feature in absurdist literature, such as in the works of Mikhail Bulgakov.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Smelfungus is a name given by Laurence Sterne to a character in his novel \"A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy\", written in 1768. The character was created as a satire of Tobias Smollett, himself author of a volume of Travels through France and Italy, which was published in 1766.  Sterne had met Smollett during his own travels in Europe, and strongly objected to Smollett's 'spleen, acerbity and quarrelsomeness.' He modelled the character of Smelfungus on him for the 'snarling abuse he heaps on the institutions and customs of the countries he visited.'The term \"smellfungus\" (pl. \"smellfungi\") thereafter passed into broader use to describe a grumbling traveller, and might even be applied to a faultfinder in general.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Spoudaiogeloion (Greek: \u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03b3\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd) denotes the mixture of serious and comical elements stylistically. The word comes from the Greek \u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd spoudaion, \"serious\", and \u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd geloion, \"comical\".The concept of the word, but not the word itself, first appears in Aristophanes's The Frogs (405 BC) lines 389\u2013393, in a scene where the Chorus, who are devoted to Demeter, pray for victory: \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u1fd6\u03ac \u03bc\u2019 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c0\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd, \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u1f70 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c3\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03b1, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f21\u03c2 \u03c3\u1f21\u03c2 \u1f72\u03bf\u03c1\u03c4\u1f21\u03c2 \u1f70\u03b5\u03af\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b1\u03af\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c3\u03ba\u03ce\u03c8\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03cd\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9. (Allow me to say many things in jest and many things in seriousness, and, having sported and lampooned in a manner worthy of your feast, let me, victorious, win the victor's wreath.) The word was first coined in the Old Comedy period.Spoudaiogeloion was often used in satirical poems or folktales, which were funny, but had a serious, often ethical, theme. The serio-comic style became a rhetorical mainstay of the Cynics. It was also used by the Pyrrhonist philosopher Timon of Phlius. The Romans gave it its own genre in the form of satire, contributed to most notably by the poets Horace and Juvenal. It was the most common tone of the works made by Menippus and Meleager of Gadara.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Taking the piss is a Commonwealth colloquial term meaning to mock at the expense of others, or to be joking, without the element of offence. (Compare with the American \"fuck with.\") It is a shortening of the idiom taking the piss out of, which is an expression meaning to mock, tease, joke, ridicule, or scoff. It is not to be confused with \"taking a piss\", which refers to the act of urinating. Taking the Mickey (Mickey Bliss, Cockney rhyming slang), taking the Mick or taking the Michael are additional terms for making fun of someone. These terms are most often used in the United Kingdom, Ireland, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The idiom tongue-in-cheek refers to a humorous or sarcastic statement expressed in a serious manner.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Trickle-down economics is a colloquial term for supply-side economic policies. In recent history, the term has been used by critics of supply-side economic policies, such as \"Reaganomics\". Whereas general supply-side theory favors lowering taxes overall, trickle-down theory more specifically advocates for a lower tax burden on the upper end of the economic spectrum.Major examples of Republicans supporting what critics call \"trickle-down economics\" include the Reagan tax cuts, the Bush tax cuts and the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. In each of the aforementioned tax reforms, taxes were cut across all income brackets, but the biggest reductions were given to the highest income earners, although the Reagan Era tax reforms also introduced the earned income tax credit which has received bipartisan praise for poverty reduction and is largely why the bottom half of workers pay no federal income tax. Similarly, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 cut taxes across all income brackets, but especially favored the wealthy.The term \"trickle-down\" originated as a joke by humorist Will Rogers and today is often used to criticize economic policies that favor the wealthy or privileged while being framed as good for the average citizen. David Stockman, who as Ronald Reagan's budget director championed Reagan's tax cuts at first, later became critical of them and told journalist William Greider that \"supply-side economics\" is the trickle-down idea:\nIt's kind of hard to sell 'trickle down,' so the supply-side formula was the only way to get a tax policy that was really 'trickle down.' Supply-side is 'trickle-down' theory.\nPolitical opponents of the Reagan administration soon seized on this language in an effort to brand the administration as caring only about the wealthy. Some studies suggest a link between trickle-down economics and reduced growth, and some newspapers concluded that trickle-down economics does not promote jobs or growth, and that \"policy makers shouldn't worry that raising taxes on the rich [...] will harm their economies\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Victorian burlesque, sometimes known as travesty or extravaganza, is a genre of theatrical entertainment that was popular in Victorian England and in the New York theatre of the mid-19th century. It is a form of parody in which a well-known opera or piece of classical theatre or ballet is adapted into a broad comic play, usually a musical play, usually risqu\u00e9 in style, mocking the theatrical and musical conventions and styles of the original work, and often quoting or pastiching text or music from the original work. Victorian burlesque is one of several forms of burlesque.\nLike ballad opera, burlesques featured musical scores drawing on a wide range of music, from popular contemporary songs to operatic arias, although later burlesques, from the 1880s, sometimes featured original scores.  Dance played an important part, and great attention was paid to the staging, costumes and other spectacular elements of stagecraft, as many of the pieces were staged as extravaganzas.  Many of the male roles were played by actresses as breeches roles, to show off women's legs in tights, and some of the older female roles were taken by male actors.\nOriginally short, one-act pieces, burlesques were later full-length shows, occupying most or all of an evening's programme. Authors who wrote burlesques included J. R. Planch\u00e9, H. J. Byron, G. R. Sims, F. C. Burnand, W. S. Gilbert and Fred Leslie.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Whirl-Mart is a culture jamming tactic aimed at retail establishments, typically superstores.Whirl-Mart consists of a group of \"Whirl-Marters\" who congregate at a large superstore (usually a Walmart, Asda, or Sainsbury's) and slowly push empty shopping carts silently through store aisles. Participants will not purchase anything and seek to form a lengthy chain of non-shoppers, continually weaving and \"whirling\" through a maze of store aisles for up to an hour at a time. Participants describe their actions as \"a collective reclamation of space that is otherwise only used for buying and selling\". Whirl-Marters seek to mimic and mock what they perceive as the absurdity of the shopping process.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Cl\u00e9op\u00e2tre captive is a five-act tragedy by \u00c9tienne Jodelle, presented on 9 February 1553, first before the King Henri II of France in the H\u00f4tel de Reims, then at the Coll\u00e8ge de Boncourt. The play is part of the posthumous collection Les \u0152uvres et meslanges poetiques d'Estienne Jodelle Sieur du Lymodin (1574). Remy Belleau played the role of Cleopatra, Jean Bastier de La P\u00e9ruse, that of Octavian. It was the first \"trag\u00e9die humaniste\", and Jodelle composed it in parallel with the first \"humanist comedy\", L'Eug\u00e8ne.\nThe performance was a success, and was followed by a celebration in the antique manner in Arcueil, bringing together all participants and friends for a party known as the Pompe du bouc.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Cruel Gift: A Tragedy is a tragedy (with an unusual happy ending) written by Susanna Centlivre, first performed at Drury Lane in 1716 (and published in 1717). Nicholas Rowe wrote the play's epilogue.\nThe story of Ghismunda and Guiscardo in The Decameron (retold by John Dryden as the poem Sigismonda and Guiscardo (1700)) was an influence on Centlivre's play.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Euridice BA 2037 (Greek: \u0395\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b7 \u0392\u0391 2037) is a 1975 Greek-West German co-production black and white dramatic surrealist underground film directed by Nikos Nikolaidis, his debut feature film.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A fabula crepidata or fabula cothurnata is a Latin tragedy with Greek subjects. The genre probably originated in adaptations of Greek tragedy (hence the names, coming from crepida = sandal and cothurnus) beginning in  the early third century BC. Only nine have survived intact, all by Seneca. Of the plays written by Lucius Livius Andronicus, Gnaeus Naevius, Quintus Ennius, Marcus Pacuvius, Lucius Accius, and others, only titles, small fragments, and occasionally brief summaries are left. Ovid's Medea also did not survive.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "French history has been the basis of plays in the English-speaking theatre since the English Renaissance theatre.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Greek tragedy is a form of theatre from Ancient Greece and Greek inhabited Anatolia. It reached its most significant form in Athens in the 5th century BC, the works of which are sometimes called Attic tragedy.\nGreek tragedy is widely believed to be an extension of the ancient rites carried out in honor of Dionysus, and it heavily influenced the theatre of Ancient Rome and the Renaissance. Tragic plots were most often based upon myths from the oral traditions of archaic epics. In tragic theatre, however, these narratives were presented by actors. The most acclaimed Greek tragedians are Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. These tragedians often explored many themes around human nature, mainly as a way of connecting with the audience but also as way of bringing the audience into the play.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Heer Ranjha (or Heer and Ranjha) (Punjabi: \u06c1\u06cc\u0631 \u0631\u0627\u0646\u062c\u06be\u0627 (Shahmukhi)) is one of several popular tragic romances of Punjab, other important ones being \"Sohni Mahiwal\", \"Mirza Sahiban\" and \"Sassi Punnhun\". There are several poetic narrations of the story, the most famous being Heer by Waris Shah written in 1766. It tells the story of the love between Heer Sial and Dheedo Ranjha.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A modern melodrama is a dramatic work in which the plot, typically sensationalized and for a strong emotional appeal, takes precedence over detailed characterization. Melodramas typically concentrate on dialogue that is often bombastic or excessively sentimental, rather than action. Characters are often flat, and written to fulfill stereotypes. Melodramas are typically set in the private sphere of the home, focusing on morality and family issues, love, and marriage, often with challenges from an outside source, such as a \"temptress\", a scoundrel, or an aristocratic villain. A melodrama on stage, filmed, or on television is usually accompanied by dramatic and suggestive music that offers cues to the audience of the drama being presented..\nIn scholarly and historical musical contexts, melodramas are Victorian dramas in which orchestral music or song was used to accompany the action. The term is now also applied to stage performances without incidental music, novels, films, television, and radio broadcasts. In modern contexts, the term \"melodrama\" is generally pejorative, as it suggests that the work in question lacks subtlety, character development, or both. By extension, language or behavior which resembles melodrama is often called melodramatic; this use is nearly always pejorative.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Mirza Sahiban (Punjabi: \u0a2e\u0a3f\u0a30\u0a1c\u0a3c\u0a3e \u0a38\u0a3e\u0a39\u0a3f\u0a2c\u0a3e\u0a02, \u0645\u0631\u0632\u0627 \u0635\u0627\u062d\u0628\u0627\u06ba, mirz\u0101 s\u0101hib\u0101\u1e41) is one of the four popular tragic romances of Punjab. The other three are Heer Ranjha, Sohni Mahiwal and Sassi Punnun. There are five other popular folklore stories in Punjab: Momal Rano, Umar Marvi, LiLa Chanesar, Noori Jam Tamachi and Sorath Rai Diyach. These nine tragic romances are popular in Punjab.The popular story was written by Pilu. Mirza and Sahiban were lovers who lived in Khewa (Kheiwa), a town in Sial Territory in the Jhang District, which was Sahiban's ancestral village. They loved each other and ran away together to live with each other \nand marry against Sahiban's parents wishes. While eloping Mirza stopped under a jand tree and rested and fell asleep. Sahiban did not want to begin her new life with her brothers' bloodshed . She decided to break all the arrows of Mirza thinking she will beg her brothers for their acceptance so that nobody would get hurt. When Sahiban's brothers reached them, Mirza woke up but discovered his arrows were broken and then he was killed by Sahiban's brothers. Sahiban couldn't bear this loss and chose to end her own life by stabbing herself with an arrow.\nAlong with Sohni Mahiwal and Sassi Punnuh are commonly known as 'Seven Queens' of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai. They are culturally included in both Punjabi and Sindhi traditions.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The praetexta or fabula praetexta was a genre of Latin tragedy introduced at Rome by Gnaeus Naevius in the third century B.C. It dealt with historical Roman figures, in place of the conventional Greek myths. Subsequent writers of praetextae included Ennius, Pacuvius and Lucius Accius. The name refers to the toga praetexta, purple striped, that was the official dress of Roman magistrates and priests. It was mainly a Roman garment. \nAll Roman Republican tragedies are now lost. From the Imperial era only one play has survived, the Octavia.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The revenge tragedy, or revenge play, is a dramatic genre in which the protagonist seeks revenge for an imagined or actual injury. The term revenge tragedy was first introduced in 1900 by A. H. Thorndike to label a class of plays written in the late Elizabethan and early Jacobean eras (circa 1580s to 1620s).", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Revenge tragedy (sometimes referred to as revenge drama, revenge play, or tragedy of blood) is a theoretical genre in which the principal theme is revenge and revenge's fatal consequences. Formally established by American educator Ashley H. Thorndike in his 1902 article \"The Relations of Hamlet to Contemporary Revenge Plays,\" a revenge tragedy documents the progress of the protagonist's revenge plot and often leads to the demise of both the murderers and the avenger himself.The genre first appeared in early modern Britain with the publication of Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy during the latter half of the 16th century. Earlier works, such as Jasper Heywood's translations of Seneca (1560s) and Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville's play Gorbuduc (1561), are also considered revenge tragedies. Other well-known revenge tragedies include William Shakespeare's Hamlet (c.1599-1602), Titus Andronicus (c.1588-1593), and The Revenger's Tragedy (c.1606)  formerly believed to be by Cyril Tourneur, now ascribed to Thomas Middleton.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The tragedy of Rostam and Sohrab forms part of the 10th-century Persian epic Shahnameh by the Persian poet Ferdowsi. It tells the tragic story of the heroes Rostam and his son, Sohrab.\n\n", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Shakespearean tragedy is the designation given to most tragedies written by playwright William Shakespeare. Many of his history plays share the qualifiers of a Shakespearean tragedy, but because they are based on real figures throughout the history of England, they were classified as \"histories\" in the First Folio. The Roman tragedies\u2014Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus\u2014are also based on historical figures, but because their sources were foreign and ancient they are almost always classified as tragedies rather than histories. Shakespeare's romances (tragicomic plays) were written late in his career and published originally as either tragedy or comedy. They share some elements of tragedy, insofar as they feature a high-status central character, but they end happily like Shakespearean comedies. Almost three centuries after Shakespeare's death, the scholar F. S. Boas also coined a fifth category, the \"problem play,\" for plays that do not fit neatly into a single classification because of their subject matter, setting, or ending. The classifications of certain Shakespeare plays are still debated among scholars.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Stand-up tragedy is a style of tragic performance where a performer performs in front of a live audience, speaking directly to them.  The goal of Stand-up tragedy is to make the audience members cry.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "A tragic hero is the protagonist of a tragedy.  In his Poetics, Aristotle records the descriptions of the tragic hero to the playwright and strictly defines the place that the tragic hero must play and the kind of man he must be. Aristotle based his observations on previous dramas.  Many of the most famous instances of tragic heroes appear in Greek literature, most notably the works of Sophocles and Euripides.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Tragic Lovers is a classical music album by the Oregon Symphony under the artistic direction of James DePreist, released by the record label Delos in 2008. It contains three works inspired by tragic love stories in literature: Richard Wagner's Prelude and \"Liebestod\" from Tristan and Isolde (1865), Hector Berlioz's \"Love Scene\" from Rom\u00e9o et Juliette, Op. 17, and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet. Amelia Haygood and Carol Rosenberger served as executive producers of the album; the recording producers were Michael Fine and Adam Stern. The album's creation was financially supported by the Gretchen Brooks Recording Fund, which supported two recording sessions per year for each of DePreist's final five years as music director. Tragic Lovers was the orchestra's final recording with DePreist \u2014 who left the Oregon Symphony in April 2003 \u2014 as conductor and its final contribution to Delos's \"Virtual Reality Recording\" series.\nCompositions from the album have been broadcast on several stations, including Public Radio Exchange, WDAV, New England Public Radio (WFCR) and Northwest Public Radio. WFCR broadcast the Tchaikovsky recording in November 2011 in recognition of DePreist's 75th birthday, and the Berlioz track in February 2013, following DePreist's death. The Classical Music Sentinel published a positive review of the album, comparing it to a three-movement symphony.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Al fondo hay sitio (Spanish: There's Room in the Back) is a Peruvian comedy television series released in March 2009 by Efra\u00edn Aguilar. The story revolves around two very different families living in the same neighbourhood, the Gonzales (a low-class family who have just moved from Huamanga, Ayacucho) and the Maldini (a rich and powerful family with a high economic status). It is one of the most popular telenovelas in Peru and is now being shown in Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "The Casual Vacancy is a 2012 novel written by J. K. Rowling. The book was published worldwide by the Little, Brown Book Group on 27 September 2012. A paperback edition was released on 23 July 2013. It was Rowling's first publication since the Harry Potter series, her first apart from that series, and her first novel for adult readership.The novel is set in a suburban West Country town called Pagford and begins with the death of beloved parish councillor Barry Fairbrother. Subsequently, a seat on the council is vacant and a conflict ensues before the election for his successor takes place. Factions develop, particularly concerning whether to dissociate with a local council estate, 'the Fields', with which Barry supported an alliance. However, those running for a place soon find their darkest secrets revealed on the Parish Council online forum, ruining their campaign and leaving the election in turmoil.\nMajor themes in the novel are class, politics, and social issues such as drugs, prostitution and rape. The novel was the fastest-selling in the United Kingdom in three years and had the second best-selling opening week for an adult novel there since Dan Brown's The Lost Symbol. It became the 15th best-selling book of 2012 during its first week of release. Within the first three weeks the book's total sales topped one million copies in English in all formats across all territories, including the US and the UK. The book also set a Goodreads record for the all-time biggest 'started reading' day, later winning the Best Fiction category in the Goodreads Choice Awards 2012.\nThe book was adapted into a television drama broadcast in 2015.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Deadline is a Big Finish Productions audio drama based on the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who. The Doctor Who Unbound dramas pose a series of \"What if...?\" questions.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Jernigan is the 1991 debut novel by David Gates. The book received widespread critical acclaim, drawing comparisons to Richard Yates, Joseph Heller, and Frederick Exley. Jernigan was a finalist for the 1992 Pulitzer Prize in Fiction.", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "Stars and Bars, the third novel by Scottish author William Boyd, was first published in 1984 in the United Kingdom by Hamish Hamilton, and in 1985 in the United States by William Morrow & Co. Boyd subsequently developed it as a screenplay and it was released as a film in 1988.\nThe book tells the tragicomic story of attempts by visiting British art appraiser Henderson Dore, in New York City and the Deep South, to negotiate the cultural differences between British and American approaches to conducting business.Reviewing the novel for The New York Times, Caroline Seebohm said:  \"Mr. Boyd has some funny and perceptive things to say about English shyness as opposed to American spontaneity... But the author seems also to latch on to what are now fairly well aired differences between the English and Americans \u2013 pronunciation, for instance, and that old cliche about Americans ruining whiskey with ice... The major scenes in Stars and Bars take place in Luxora Beach, a place of unremitting bleakness and despair. Mr. Boyd's talent in evoking a place, which worked for him so well in his earlier two novels, serves him brilliantly here. In fact, the reader is forced to ask why on earth Henderson, wimpish though he is, does not get out when he can... The point about Henderson's liberation from his roots is well taken, and his adventures through the jungle are amusingly narrated, but the 'new clarity' with which he views the world at the end remains, for the reader, a lingering fog\".", "label": "Humanities"}, {"sentence": "In Law, a valid claim or colorable claim is a claim that is strong enough to have a reasonable chance of being determined both valid based upon its being sufficiently supported by law and provable fact to be plausibly proved in court.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law, a verdict is the formal finding of fact made by a jury on matters or questions submitted to the jury by a judge. In a bench trial, the judge's decision near the end of the trial is simply referred to as a finding. In England and Wales, a coroner's findings used to be called verdicts but are, since 2009, called conclusions (see Coroner \u00a7 Conclusions (previously called verdicts)).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Violent disorder is a statutory offence in England and Wales. It is created by section 2(1) of the Public Order Act 1986. Sections 2(1) to (4) of that Act provide:\n\n(1) Where 3 or more persons who are present together use or threaten unlawful violence and the conduct of them (taken together) is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for their personal safety, each of the persons using or threatening unlawful violence is guilty of violent disorder.\n(2) It is immaterial whether the 3 or more use or threaten unlawful violence simultaneously.\n(3) No person of reasonable firmness need actually be, or be likely to be, present at the scene.\n(4) Violent disorder may be committed in private as well as in public places.\"3 or more persons\"\nSee the following cases:\n\nR v Mahroof [1988] 88 Cr App R 317, CA\nR v Fleming and Robinson [1989] Crim LR 658, CA\nR v McGuigan and Cameron [1991] Crim LR 719, CA\"Violence\"\nThis word is defined by section 8.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law, void means of no legal effect.  An action, document, or transaction which is void is of no legal effect whatsoever: an absolute nullity\u2014the law treats it as if it had never existed or happened. The term void ab initio, which means \"to be treated as invalid from the outset\", comes from adding the Latin phrase ab initio (from the beginning) as a qualifier.  For example, in many jurisdictions where a person signs a contract under duress, that contract is treated as being void ab initio. The frequent combination \"null and void\" is a legal doublet.\nThe term is frequently used in contradistinction to the term \"voidable\" and \"unenforceable\".\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Voidable, in law, is a transaction or action that is valid but may be annulled by one of the parties to the transaction. Voidable is usually used in distinction to void ab initio (or void from the outset) and unenforceable.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A voluntary group or union (also sometimes called a voluntary organization, common-interest association,:\u200a266\u200a association, or society) is a group of individuals who enter into an agreement, usually as volunteers, to form a body (or organization) to accomplish a purpose. Common examples include trade associations, trade unions, learned societies, professional associations, and environmental groups. \nAll such associations reflect freedom of association in ultimate terms (members may choose whether to join or leave), although membership is not necessarily voluntary in the sense that one's employment may effectively require it via occupational closure. For example, in order for particular associations to function effectively, they might need to be mandatory or at least strongly encouraged, as is true of trade unions. Because of this, some people prefer the term common-interest association to describe groups which form out of a common interest, although this term is not widely used or understood.Voluntary associations may be incorporated or unincorporated; for example, in the US, unions gained additional powers by incorporating. In the UK, the terms voluntary association or voluntary organisation cover every type of group from a small local residents' association to large associations (often registered charities) with multimillion-pound turnover that run large-scale business operations (often providing some kind of public service as subcontractors to government departments or local authorities).Voluntary association is also used to refer to political reforms, especially in the context of urbanization, granting individuals greater freedoms to associate in civil society as they wished, or not at all.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A voting trust is an arrangement whereby the shares in a company of one or more shareholders and the voting rights attached thereto are legally transferred to a trustee, usually for a specified period of time (the \"trust period\").  In some voting trusts, the trustee may also be granted additional powers (such as to sell or redeem the shares).  At the end of the trust period, the shares would ordinarily be re-transferred to the beneficiary(ies), although in practice many voting trusts contain provisions for them to re-vested on the voting trusts with identical terms.\nVoting trusts were made popular in Delaware corporate law, but they have since been adopted widely by other states in the United States. They have also been extensively adopted in offshore jurisdictions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Policing the Womb: Invisible Women and the Criminalization of Motherhood is a nonfiction book by American scholar and law professor Michele Goodwin. The book details the criminalization of reproduction in United States and argues for choice movements to expand to a reproductive justice framework. It was released on March 12, 2020 by Cambridge University Press.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The 2021 International Court of Justice election was held on 5 November 2021 at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. The General Assembly and the Security Council concurrently elected Hilary Charlesworth (Australia) to the International Court of Justice for remainder of the nine-year term of office that had been held by Judge James Crawford (Australia).In the election, two candidates were vying for the remaining term of one position, opened following the death of Judge Crawford, beginning on 5 November 2021, the date on which they were voted by the Security Council and General Assembly, and ending on 5 February 2024. The nominated candidates were Hilary Charlesworth (Australia) and Linos\u2011Alexander Sicilianos (Greece). After a single round of voting, Ms. Charlesworth (Australia) received the required majority in the Security Council, as well as an absolute majority of votes in the General Assembly.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "When a work's copyright expires, it enters the public domain. The following is a list of works that enter the public domain in 2024. Since laws vary globally, the copyright status of some works are not uniform.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "When a work's copyright expires, it enters the public domain. The following is a list of works that enter the public domain in 2025. Since laws vary globally, the copyright status of some works are not uniform.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "When a work's copyright expires, it enters the public domain. The following is a list of works that enter the public domain in 2026. Since laws vary globally, the copyright status of some works are not uniform.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants, a 1998 protocol on persistent organic pollutants (POPs), is an addition to the 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP). The Protocol seeks \"to control, reduce or eliminate discharge, emissions and losses of persistent organic pollutants\" in Europe, some former Soviet Union countries, and the United States, in order to reduce their transboundary fluxes so as to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects.Authors and promoters of the Protocol were the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), which at the time housed 53 different country members and alliance.   The protocol was amended on 18 December 2009, but the amended version has not yet come into force.\nAs of May 2013, the protocol has been ratified by 31 states and the European Union.\nIn the United States, the protocol is an executive agreement that does not require Senate approval. However, legislation is needed to resolve inconsistencies between provisions of the protocol and existing U.S. laws (specifically the Toxic Substances Control Act and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Abbreviacion of Statutis (1519), of which fifteen editions appeared before 1625, is a book by John Rastell.  It, and Termes de la Ley, are the best known of his legal works.It is said to be the first abridgement of the Statutes printed in English. It appears to be a translation with additions of the Abridgment des Statutes vieux.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Acceptable Identification of Goods and Services Manual is a directory maintained by the United States Patent and Trademark Office outlining the different categories of goods and services recognized by that office with respect to trademark registrations, and setting forth the forty-two international classes into which those goods and services are divided.\nThe USPTO separates goods and services into various classes, which are governed by international treaties. In order for an applicant to receive a trademark registration, that applicant must describe the goods and/or services to which the mark applies, and must identify the classes into which those goods and/or services fall. If the description is vague or does not match the content permitted in the classes claimed, then the application may be rejected until the applicant provides an acceptable description. By using the language set forth in the Manual, the applicant can be certain that the application will not be rejected on such a basis.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Act for Regulating Surveyors of 1683 was a law of the Colony of Jamaica that provided that the Crown surveyor was to be responsible for surveys in Jamaica only when the Crown was a party to the relevant matter and that otherwise, any person may make a survey. It was revised by An Act For Further Directing and Regulating the Proceedings of Surveys in the same year. The acts were significant due to the importance of surveys in the functioning of the plantation economy of the colony.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An Act for Regulating the Parishes was a 1677 act that confirmed the boundaries of the parishes of colonial Jamaica.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Acta Curiae (Latin meaning \"acts of court\"), are records of the proceedings in ecclesiastical courts and in quasi-ecclesiastical courts, particularly of universities. They are sometimes also known as Registers of the Chancellor's (or Vice-Chancellor's) Court. This type of court was often used by local people who were college servants, to settle minor legal disputes. Records of a Vice-Chancellor's Court at the University of Cambridge, exist from 1549 to 1883.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Adhesion procedure, adhesive procedure or ancillary proceedings is a procedure through which a court of law can rule on compensation for the victim of a criminal offense. Rather than pursuing damages in a separate civil action, the victim files a civil claim against the offender as a part of a criminal trial.\nThis system exists in some civil law jurisdictions, including Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, the Netherlands, and Slovakia.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "ADI 3510 (April 29, 2008), is a landmark Brazil Supreme Court case. The minister relator Carlos Ayres Britto voted in favor of embryonic stem cell research (Biosecurity Law).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ship arrest refers to the civil law procedure whereby a ship or similar marine vessel may be arrested by judicial process and held under state authority in a particular jurisdiction pending the determination of present or future claims relating to the vessel. The ship is detained by judicial process for the purpose of securing a maritime claim, or for unseaworthiness and certain other conditions. \nA ship may be \"arrested\" and detained in port by a court order in support of a maritime lien claim by creditors against the vessel.The grounds upon which a ship may be arrested vary under the legal systems of different countries.  But common grounds which may permit arrest may include:\ndamage to cargo carried by the ship\ndamage caused by a collision with the ship\nto protect a mortgage or maritime lien over the ship\nunpaid pilotage or towage relating to the ship", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A home study or homestudy is a screening of the home and life of prospective adoptive parents prior to allowing an adoption to take place. In some places, and in all international adoptions, a home study is required by law. Even where it is not legally mandated, it may be required by an adoption agency. Depending on the location and agency, different information may be sought during a home study.\nA home study can be used both to aid the prospective parents in preparing to raise an adoptive child, and to rule out those who are not fit to be parents.The ultimate purpose of a home study is for the benefit of the child, not the parents. Therefore, screeners are instructed to be thorough in their examinations.There is typically a cost to a home study, which is usually several hundred to several thousand US dollars. In most cases, the prospective adoptive parents are responsible to cover the cost.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Adult adoption is a form of adoption between two or more adults in order to transfer inheritance rights and/or filiation.  Adult adoption may be done for various reasons including:  to establish intestate inheritance rights; to formalize a step-parent/step-child relationship or a foster parent/foster child relationship; or to restore the original legal relationship between adult adoptees and their natural families.In Japan, adult adoption may be used in order to facilitate the continuance of a family business. This form of adoption is known as mukoy\u014dshi (\"son-in-law adoption\"). Adult adoption may also be used in some jurisdictions by same-sex couples in order to establish inheritance rights.Depending on the laws of the jurisdiction, adult adoption may not be available as a legal option.  In the United Kingdom, only children may be adopted.  The Adoption and Children Act (2002) states, \"An application for an adoption order may only be made if the person to be adopted has not attained the age of 18 years on the date of the application.\"In places where adult adoptions exist, it may or may not transfer filiation in addition to inheritance rights.  For example, in Colorado, one can adopt an adult of age 21 or older for inheritance purposes, but filiation will remain unaffected. However, adoption of a person between the ages of 18 and 20 (inclusive) transfers both inheritance rights and filiation.  In most other American states, both filiation and inheritance rights are transferred. In countries where same-sex couples have not received the same legal protections as heterosexual couples, adult adoption of a partner has been used to ensure the property transfer to the surviving partner upon death.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In the United Kingdom, the Advisory Committee on Statute Law replaced the Statute Law Committee and the editorial board of Statutes in Force in 1991. The decision to do this was made by Lord Mackay of Clashfern LC.The members of this committee are listed in The Civil Service Year Book and Whitaker's Almanack. They have also been listed in Dod's Parliamentary Companion.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An advisory jury is a group installed by a judge to give him or her an opinion during a trial. Unlike the normal jury, the advisory jury opinion is non-binding, and the judge remains the \"final arbitrator of fact and law\". In United States Federal Court, a case may be tried by advisory jury in the case of \"an action not triable of right by a jury\". When a case in federal district court is tried with an advisory jury  the court must find the facts specially and state its conclusions of law separately.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Advocacy and incitement are two categories of speech, the latter of which is a more specific type of the former directed to producing imminent lawless action and which is likely to incite or produce such action. In the 1957 case Yates v. United States, Justice John Marshall Harlan II ruled that only advocacy that constituted an \"effort to instigate action\" was punishable. \n\nIn the 1969 case Brandenburg v. Ohio, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a statute that punishes mere advocacy and forbids, on pain of criminal punishment, assembly with others merely to advocate the described type of action, falls within the condemnation of the First and Fourteenth Amendments. Justice Louis Brandeis argued in Whitney v. California that \"even advocacy of violation, however reprehensible morally, is not a justification for denying free speech where the advocacy falls short of incitement and there is nothing to indicate that the advocacy would be immediately acted on.\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Affectio societatis is the common will of several legal persons or legal entities to merge into one entity. It is a key characteristic of a company under French law. Articles 1832 and 1833 of the French Civil Code form the basis of this principle, although since there is no statutory definition, it has also been shaped by jurisprudence.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Against DRM 2.0 is a free copyleft license for artworks. It is the first free content license that contains a clause about related rights and a clause against digital rights management (DRM).\nThe first clause authorizes the licensee to exercise related rights, while the second clause prevents the use of DRM. If the licensor uses DRM, the license is not applicable to the work; if the licensee uses DRM, license is automatically void.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Age limitations, or age limits for short, are laws, rules or recommendations which detail the given age a person has to be in order to access something. Age limits can apply to children and teenagers access to movies and video games, but can also regulate a persons opportunity to obtain a driver's license, buy tobacco and alcohol, incur debt, and enter into marriage. Other important age limits is the age of consent, criminal age of responsibility and the age of majority that among other things determines the minimum age for voting in political elections. Both lower and upper age limits can restrict what a person can and cannot do. As an example, blood donors in the United Kingdom who have never given blood before must be at least 17 years of age and below 66.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Agricultural law, sometimes referred to as Ag Law, deals with such legal issues as agricultural infrastructure, seed, water, fertilizer, pesticide use, agricultural finance, agricultural labour, agricultural marketing, agricultural insurance, farming rights, land tenure and tenancy system and law on Agricultural processing and rural industry. With implementation of modern technologies, issues including credit, intellectual property, trade and commerce related to agricultural products are dealt within the sphere of this law.\nSimply put, agricultural law is the study of the special laws and regulations that apply to the production and sale of agricultural products. \"Agricultural exceptionalism,\" i.e., the use of legal exceptions to protect the agricultural industry, is pervasive, worldwide.  American law schools and legal scholars first recognized agricultural law as a discipline in the 1940s when law schools at Yale, Harvard, Texas, and Iowa explored and initiated agricultural law courses. These early efforts were short-lived, however, and agricultural law as a distinct discipline did not resurface for three decades.  In 1979, a scholarly journal, The Agricultural Law Journal was initiated. In 1980, the American Agricultural Law Association was formed and an advanced law degree program, the LL.M. Program in Agricultural Law was founded at the University of Arkansas School of Law. In 1981, a fifteen volume Agricultural Law Treatise was published and in 1985, the first law school casebook, Agricultural Law: Cases and Materials was published by West Publishing.In recent years, agricultural law studies have expanded to incorporate a wider consideration of the impact of agricultural production, including issues of environmental law, sustainability, animal welfare, and food law and policy. Reflecting this expanded perspective, in 2009, the LL.M. Program in Agricultural Law at Arkansas changed its name to the LL.M Program in Agricultural and Food Law.  In 2010, the second law school textbook was published with the title, Food, Farming & Sustainability: Readings in Agricultural Law. And, in 2012, the American Association of Law Schools changed the name of its Agricultural Law section to Agricultural and Food Law. The emerging discipline of food law & policy traces its roots to the discipline of agricultural law as well as tradition food and drug law.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Alcoholic Beverage Labeling Act (ABLA) of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988, Pub.L. 100\u2013690, 102 Stat. 4181, enacted November 18, 1988, H.R. 5210, is a United States federal law requiring that (among other provisions) the labels of alcoholic beverages carry a warning label.\nThe warning reads:\n\nGOVERNMENT WARNING:\n(1) According to the Surgeon General, women should not drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy because of the risk of birth defects.\n\n(2) Consumption of alcoholic beverages impairs your ability to drive a car or operate machinery, and may cause health problems.\nThe ABLA also contains a declaration of policy and purpose, which states that the United States Congress finds that\n\nthe American public should be informed about the health hazards that may result from the consumption or abuse of alcoholic beverages, and has determined that it would be beneficial to provide a clear, nonconfusing reminder of such hazards, and that there is a need for national uniformity in such reminders in order to avoid the promulgation of incorrect or misleading information and to minimize burdens on interstate commerce.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law, allocatur (from med. Lat. allocatur, \"it is allowed\") refers to the allowance of a writ or other pleading. It may also designate a certificate given by a taxing master, at the termination of an action, for the allowance of costs.The 1910 Black's Law Dictionary (Second Edition) described it as: \"A word formerly used to denote that a writ or order was allowed\", as well as a word \"denoting the allowance by a master or prothonotary of a bill referred for his consideration, whether touching costs, damages, or matter of account\". The dictionary also defined a \"Special allocatur\" as the \"special allowance of a writ (particularly a writ of error) which is required in some particular cases\" and an \"Allocatur exigent\" as a kind of writ \"anciently issued in outlawry proceedings, on the return of the original writ of exigent\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ambulance chasing, also known as capping, is a term which refers to a lawyer soliciting for clients at a disaster site. The term \"ambulance chasing\" comes from the stereotype of lawyers who follow ambulances to the emergency room to find clients. \"Ambulance chaser\" is used as a derogatory term for a personal injury lawyer.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Animo is a Latin legal term meaning 'with intention' or 'with purpose'.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Approbation, in Catholic canon law, is an act by which a bishop or other legitimate superior grants to an ecclesiastic the actual exercise of his ministry.\nThe necessity of approbation, especially for administering the sacrament of penance, was expressly decreed by the Council of Trent so, except in the case of imminent death, the absolution by a non-approved priest would be invalid. This approbation for the sacrament of penance is the judicial declaration of the legitimate superior that a certain priest is fit to hear, and has the faculties to hear, the confession of his subjects. \nBy bishop is meant also his vicar general, the diocesan administrator during the vacancy of a see, or any regular prelate who has ordinary jurisdiction over a certain territory. This approbation may be given verbally or in writing, and may be given indirectly, for instance, when priests receive power to choose in their own diocese an approved priest of another diocese as their confessor. The bishop may wrongfully but validly refuse his approbation, without which no priest may hear confessions. \nA confessor's jurisdiction may be restricted to various classes of persons; for example to children or to men, without the right to hear women. A special approbation is required to hear nuns or women of religious communities; this extends with modifications to all communities of recognized sisterhoods.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Arbitration Act 1950 (c.27, 14 Geo. 6) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that consolidated and amended arbitration law in England and Wales.\nAlthough the Act has now largely been superseded by the Arbitration Act 1996, Part II of the Act (dealing with the enforcement of non-New York Convention awards) remains in force.  This is principally to preserve the enforcement mechanism for awards made under the (now largely obsolete) Geneva Protocol (1924).\nThe main purpose of the Act was to consolidate and rationalise the prior statutes regulating arbitration.  However the 1950 Act became increasingly subject to criticism because of the power of the courts to review arbitration awards under section 21.  That section required the arbitration tribunal to make a \"statement of case\" on any matter of law which was reviewable by the court.  This was unpopular and led to loss of arbitration business in the United Kingdom, and led to the repeal of the provisions under the Arbitration Act 1979.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An arrest without warrant or a warrantless arrest is an arrest of an individual without the use of an arrest warrant.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Article 7A of the New York City housing code enables that \"a housing court judge appoints an administrator to collect the building's rents and use them for repairs\" as an alternative to \"fruitless rent strikes.\" About 10% per year of those appointed in the 1980s were removed, and money accountability problems also occurred. 7A is part of the city's \"Real Property Actions and Proceedings Law.\"This law can also help expedite repairs such as after a fire.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Artificial Intelligence Act (AI Act) is a proposed regulation by the European Commission which aims to introduce a common regulatory and legal framework for artificial intelligence. Its scope encompasses all sectors (except for military), and to all types of artificial intelligence. As a piece of product regulation, the proposal does not confer rights on individuals, but regulates the providers of artificial intelligence systems, and entities making use of them in a professional capacity.\nThe proposed regulation classifies artificial intelligence applications by risk, and regulates them accordingly. Low-risk applications are not regulated at all, with Member States largely precluded via maximum harmonisation from regulating them further and existing national laws relating to the regulation of design or use of such systems disapplied. A voluntary code of conduct scheme for such low risk systems is envisaged, although not present from the outset. Medium and high-risk systems would require compulsory conformity assessment, undertaken as self-assessment by the provider, before being put on the market. Some especially critical applications which already require conformity assessment to be supervised under existing EU law, for example for medical devices, would the provider's self-assessment under AI Act requirements to be considered by the notified body conducting the assessment under that regulation, such as the Medical Devices Regulation.\nThe proposal also would place prohibitions on certain types of applications, namely remote biometric recognition, applications that subliminally manipulate persons, applications that exploit vulnerabilities of certain groups in a harmful way, and social credit scoring. For the first three, an authorisation regime context of law enforcement is proposed, but social scoring would be banned completely.The act also proposes the introduction of a European Artificial Intelligence Board which will encourage national cooperation and ensure that the regulation is respected.Like the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), the AI Act could become a global standard. It is already having impact beyond Europe; in September 2021, Brazil\u2019s Congress passed a bill that creates a legal framework for artificial intelligence.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Associate justice or associate judge  (or simply associate) is a judicial panel member who is not the chief justice in some jurisdictions. The title \"Associate Justice\" is used for members of the Supreme Court of the United States and some state supreme courts, and for some other courts in Commonwealth of Nations countries, as well as for members of the Supreme Court of the Federated States of Micronesia, a former United States Trust Territory. In other common law jurisdictions, the equivalent position is called \"Puisne Justice\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Association for the Study of Law, Culture and the Humanities is a scholarly association for interdisciplinary research in the fields of law, culture, and the humanities. Since the inaugural event at Georgetown Law in 1998, the organization has held an annual conference hosted by a different law school each year, and has published the journal Law, Culture and the Humanities since 2005.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Most country's administrations have regulatory authorities devoted to producing and publishing regulations for aeronautical operations.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law, avowry is where one takes a distress for rent or other thing, and the other sues replevin. In which case the taker shall justify, in his plea, for what cause he took it, and if he took it in his own right, is to show it, and so avow the taking\u2014which is called his avowry. If he took it in the right of another, when he has shown the cause, he is to make conusance of the taking, as being a bailiff or servant to him in whose right he did it.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Bad law, or a bad law includes law that is oppressive or that causes injustice. It may also include a proposition of law that is erroneous, or an attempted statement of the law that is inaccurate.\nA precedent that has been overruled may be bad law. A judicial decision that is based on no law at all, was wrongly decided, or made per incuriam may constitute bad law.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Baidu Patents, or Baidu Zhuanli (Chinese: \u767e\u5ea6\u4e13\u5229) is a Chinese free online patent search service, launched on 1 January 2008. The Baidu Patents search engine is the result of a collaboration between the China Patent Information Center (CPIC), the Chinese Patent Office (SIPO) and Baidu. Baidu Patent Search is said to be integrated with a patent database which amounts to 2.7 million Chinese patents.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A bailiwick () is usually the area of jurisdiction of a bailiff, and once also applied to territories in which a privately appointed bailiff exercised the sheriff's functions under a royal or imperial writ. The bailiwick is probably modelled on the administrative organization which was attempted for a very small time in Sicily and has its roots in the official state of the Hohenstaufen.In English, the original French bailie combined with '-wic', the Anglo-Saxon suffix (meaning a village) to produce a term meaning literally 'bailiff's village'\u2014the original geographic scope of a bailiwick. In the 19th century, it was absorbed into American English as a metaphor for a sphere of knowledge or activity.\nThe term survives in administrative usage in the British Crown Dependencies of the Channel Islands, which are grouped for administrative purposes into two bailiwicks \u2014 the Bailiwick of Jersey (comprising the island of Jersey and uninhabited islets such as the Minquiers and \u00c9cr\u00e9hous) and the Bailiwick of Guernsey (comprising the islands of Guernsey, Sark, Alderney, Brecqhou, Herm, Jethou and Lihou). A Bailiff heads each Channel Island bailiwick.\nA bailiwick (German: Ballei) was also the territorial division of the Teutonic Order. Here, various \u201cKomtur(en)\u201d formed a Ballei province.\nThe word is now more generally used in a metaphorical sense, to indicate a sphere of authority, experience, activity, study, or interest.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Barbados Bar Association is a voluntary association of attorneys in Barbados who practise at the independent bar as barristers and Queen's Counsel. It was created by the Barbados Bar Association Act of 1940.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In the law of torts, a bellwether trial is a test case intended to try a widely contested issue. Bellwether trials are an increasingly common phenomenon in U.S. legal practice.Bellwether trials are especially common in multidistrict litigation (MDL) practice, where many cases have been consolidated for purposes of discovery and pretrial matters. In these MDL cases, it is not practical to prepare every case for trial. Several matters are, therefore, selected as bellwether cases and prepared for trial. They are then settled or tried and the results are used to shape the process for addressing the remaining cases.A bellwether trial is designed to achieve value ascertainment function for settlement purposes or to answer troubling causation or liability issues common to a universe of claimants. For the tried cases to achieve these purposes, it must be representative of all cases.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A bench memorandum (pl. bench memoranda) (also known as a bench memo) is a short and neutral memorandum that summarizes the facts, issues, and arguments of a court case. Bench memos are used by the judge as a reference during preparation for trial, the hearing of lawyers' arguments, and the drafting of a decision and also to give the judge an idea of the arguments given by each side in the court case. Bench memos are generally written by the judge's law clerk.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Beneficial owner is a legal term where specific property rights (\"use and title\") in equity belong to a person even though legal title of the property belongs to another person. Beneficial owner is subject to a state's statutory laws regulating interest or title transfer. This often relates where the legal title owner has implied trustee duties to the beneficial owner. A common example of a beneficial owner is the real or true owner of funds held by a nominee bank.\nUnder United States copyright law, an author may transfer some rights to the copyright owner (often an employer) while retaining a future \"reversionary interest,\" such as that of copyright renewal.  For example, \"[t]he legal or beneficial owner of an exclusive right under a copyright . . . to institute an action for any infringement of that particular right committed while he or she is the official owmer of it.\" 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 501(b)", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "\"Beneficial use\" is a legal term describing a person's right to enjoy the benefits of specific property, especially a view or access to light, air, or water, even though title to that property is held by another person. It is also referred to as \"beneficial enjoyment\".By contrast, \"beneficial interest\" is where a beneficiary has an interest in a thing (\"res\"), such as a trust or estate, but does not own the underlying property, usually entitling the beneficiary to some of the income from the underlying property.\nSimilarly, a beneficial owner is where specific property rights (\"use and title\") in equity belong to a person even though legal title of the property belongs to another person.  For example, companies often hold stocks or bank funds in their names for the benefit of specific people.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Bermuda Bar Association is a bar association of lawyers and responsible for the governing and discipline of the Bermuda legal profession.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Beware of the dog (also rendered as Beware of dog) is a warning sign indicating that a dangerous dog is within. Such signs may be placed to deter burglary even if there is no dog.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Bicycle Accident Reconstruction and Litigation is a bicycle law treatise in the United States regarding the engineering and legal aspects of bicycle accidents, directed at engineers and attorneys handling bicycle accident cases. Thus, its scope is confined to the highly technical engineering and legal issues specific to bicycle accidents. However, while its scope within the field of bicycle law is limited, and is thus of limited use as a general treatise on bicycle law, it serves as an invaluable guide to the professional practitioner handling a bicycle accident case.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Under the old English forest laws, bloody hand was one of the four kinds of trespasses in the royal forest, by which the offender, being apprehended and found with his hands or other body part stained with blood, is judged to have killed the deer, even though he was not found hunting or chasing.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A bonus clause is a clause in a contract that rewards the contractor for doing more than the letter of the contract; particularly, to finish the job early. It is in apposition to a penalty clause where the contractor loses by providing less than the letter of the contract, or providing it later than agreed.\nThe aim of a bonus clause is to give a win-win situation whereby the contractor wins by getting more money for finishing early, and the holder of the contract wins by having a product earlier to market.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Borgarting was one of the major popular assemblies or things (lagting) of medieval Norway.  Historically, it was the site of the court and assembly for the southern coastal region of Norway from the south-eastern border with Sweden, westwards to the today's Ris\u00f8r in Aust-Agder.\nBorgarting was named after its seat, the town of Borg (today Sarpsborg). It was established before 1164 when it absorbed the districts Grenland and Telemark. When Norway was united as a kingdom, the first lagtings were constituted as superior regional assemblies. The ancient regional assemblies \u2013 Frostating, Gulating, Eidsivating and Borgarting \u2013 were eventually joined into a single jurisdiction. King Magnus Lagab\u00f8te had the existing body of law put into writing (1263\u20131280). In 1274, Magnus promulgated the new national law (Magnus Lagab\u00f8tes landslov), a unified code of laws to apply for the Kingdom of Norway. This compilation of the codified Gulating laws (Gulatingsloven) applied throughout the realm extending to overseas possessions including the Faroe islands and Shetland.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Justice Samuel Elkana Bosire was a former appeal judge in the High Court of Kenya alongside others like Justices Nyamu and Riaga.\nHis rise to fame stems from the famous S.M. Otieno burial dispute and time when he was appointed the chairman of the Goldenberg Commission of Inquiry by President Mwai Kibaki.After much controversy, Mr. Bosire retired in 2014. He is currently undertaking a Master\u2019s degree course in peace and conflict at Kisii University.\nBosire is a church elder at the Seventh-day Adventist Church-Nairobi Central, well known as Maxwell. Most recently, Mr. Bosire is the Secretary-General of the Gusii Council of Elders.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Sir Ivor Llewellyn Brace (September 1898 \u2013 24 October 1952) was a Welsh soldier and barrister who later served as a colonial judge. In 1951, he became the first Chief Justice of the Combined Judiciary of Sarawak, North Borneo and Brunei. He served in this position until his death.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Broadcasting rights (often also called media rights) are rights which a broadcasting organization negotiates with a commercial concern - such as a sports governing body or film distributor - in order to show that company's products on television or radio, either live, delayed or highlights.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "\u201cBrooke Amendment\u201d is the common name for section 213 (a) of the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1969 (Public Law 91-152) that was sponsored by Senator Edward Brooke III (R-MA), which capped rent in public housing projects at 25% of tenant's income.  It amended section 2(1), paragraph two, of the US Housing Act of 1937, and was enacted on Christmas Eve, 24 December 1969.  The Brooke Amendment became the first instance of the benchmark to measure housing affordability, which became known as the \"30 percent rule of thumb\"  in 1981 when the 25 percent cap was raised to 30 percent of tenant income.Senator Brooke advocated for two other subsections that were enacted in the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1969.  Section 213 (b) gives the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) authority to revoke the 25 percent cap if it results in a reduction of total welfare assistance.  Section 213 (c) amends section 14 of the Housing Act of 1937 to ensure the \"low-rent character of public housing projects\" by fixing annual contract contributions according to the current Federal rate of interest.  Together, the three subsections can be referred to as the \"Brooke Amendments\", although the pluralized term is less common. One consequence of this amendment has been an increase in poorer families performing work for cash, which has perpetuated cycles of poverty.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Business Names Registration Act 2011 is a Commonwealth legislation that sets out the registration, renewal and cancellation of business names in Australia. All business structures that trade or deal under a name other than their legal entity name in Australia must apply for a business name.The law was introduced when the responsibility to administer trading names registers was transferred from state and territory governments to the federal government to unify the state and territory governments' trading names registers into a national business names register. On 28 May 2012, all existing trading names registered with state and territory governments' trading names registers that complied with the law were automatically transferred to the national business names register. The Australian Securities and Investments Commission was appointed to establish and maintain the national business names register under the section 22(1). The purpose of the national business names register is stated under subsection 22(2): \"The purpose of the [national] [b]usiness [n]ames [r]egister is to enable those who engage or propose to engage with a business carried on under a business name to identify the entity carrying on the business and how the entity may be contacted.\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A business necessity is a legitimate business purpose that justifies an employment decision as effective and needed to optimally achieve the organization's goals and ensure that operations run safely and efficiently. This is often presented as a defense of an employment decision that is questioned because it was found to cause disparate impact.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In English law (and other countries which adopt the rule), the cab-rank rule is the obligation of a barrister to accept any work in a field in which they profess themselves competent to practise, at a court at which they normally appear, and at their usual rates. The rule derives its name from the tradition by which a Hackney carriage driver at the head of a queue of taxicabs is obliged to take the first passenger requesting a ride.\nThe cab rank rule is set out at rC29 of the Bar Standards Board Handbook. It states that if the barrister receives instructions from a professional client and the instructions are appropriate taking into account their experience, seniority and/or field of practice, they must (subject to the\nexceptions in rC30) accept those instructions irrespective of:\n\nThe identity of the client;\nThe nature of the case to which the instructions relate;\nWhether the client is paying privately or is publicly funded; and\nAny belief or opinion which you may have formed as to the character, reputation, cause, conduct, guilt or innocence of the client.Without the cab-rank rule, an unpopular person might not get legal representation; barristers who acted for them might be criticised for doing so.\nAddressing the continued necessity for the rule in 2010, the Law Society of England and Wales, which represents solicitors, together with The Bar Council said:\n\nThe Society questions whether the cab-rank rule remains a necessary and proportionate rule for the Bar at a time when there is increasing competition for advocacy services.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII; French: Institut canadien d'information juridique) is a non-profit organization created and funded by the Federation of Law Societies of Canada in 2001 on behalf of its 14 member societies. CanLII is a member of the Free Access to Law Movement, which includes the primary stakeholders involved in free, open publication of law throughout the world.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Anglican Communion does not have a centralised canon law of its own, unlike the canon law of the Catholic Church.  Each of the autonomous member churches of the communion, however, does have a canonical system.  Some, such as the Church of England, has an ancient, highly developed canon law while others, such as the Episcopal Church in the United States have more recently developed canonical systems originally based on the English canon law.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Capital punishment has been abolished in Fiji. It abolished capital punishment for ordinary crimes in 1979, and for all crimes in 2015. Its last execution was in 1964, before its independence on 10 October 1970.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Capital punishment is a legal penalty in Grenada. Despite its legality, there have been no executions since 1978. Grenada is considered \"Abolitionist in Practice,\" and is currently the only country in The Americas in this category.There is currently one person on death row in Grenada, as of August 30, 2021. During its United Nations Universal Periodic Review on January 27, 2020, Grenada told the UN that it is a \u201cde facto abolitionist state with a de facto moratorium with effect since 1978, and that it will not carry out any executions. Abolishing capital punishment in law was part of one of the amendments during the failed 2016 Grenadian constitutional referendum. Grenada voted against the United Nations moratorium on the death penalty in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018, and most recently, in 2020. Grenada is not a member state of the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.Notable examples of people sentenced to death in Grenada's history include Hudson Austin and Bernard Coard.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law, a case stated is a procedure by which a court or tribunal can ask another court for its opinion on a point of law.  There are two kinds: consultative case stated and appeal by way of case stated. A consultative case stated is made at the discretion of a judge before he or she determines the case before the court. An appeal by way of case stated is made at the request of a party to the proceedings to the judge after the conclusion of a case.\nOn the hearing of a case stated, the higher court is restricted to consideration of the law alone and is required to accept the statement of facts submitted to it by the lower court.\nIf the application is granted, the matter is referred to the higher court. This usually takes the form \"were we/was I correct to ...\" and then the specified aspect of law to which the appeal relates. If the application to state a case is refused, the applicant may be able to seek redress by judicial review. The higher court will determine whether or not the law was correctly applied. If the appeal is upheld, the higher court will refer the case back to the referring court with directions to correct its decision. Otherwise, the appeal would be dismissed.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "CaseMap was introduced 1998 as relational database software for law offices to store and retrieve evidence and sources of evidence in litigation.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Center for Policing Equity is a research center founded at University of California-Los Angeles and now based at Yale University. Phillip Atiba Goff, a Professor of African-American Studies and Psychology at Yale University, is the co-founder and CEO. Tracie L. Keesee, who spent 25 years in the Denver Police Department, co-founded the Center with Goff and is Senior Vice President of Justice Initiatives.The Center for Policing Equity is a 501(c)3 nonprofit that collects and analyzes data surrounding police interactions with the community to diagnose disparities in policing. Their mission is \u201cjustice through science\u201d, using social science to improve policing and reduce racial disparities.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ceremonial marriage is a common form of marriage in which a couple follows laws and procedures specified by the state in order to gain recognition of their marriage (ex. buying a marriage license, participating in a ceremony led by an authorized official, having witnesses at a ceremony). They are often accompanied by weddings, and have different forms, reflecting particular religious and philosophical views of the couple.\nCeremonial marriage is an opposite to common-law marriage.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Cert-money, or head-money, was a common fine, paid annually by the residents of several manors to the lords thereof; and sometimes to the hundred; pro certo letae, for the certain keeping of the leet. This in ancient records, was called certum letae.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In the most common types of habeas corpus proceedings in the United States federal courts, a certificate of appealability is a legal document that must be issued before a petitioner may appeal from a denial of the writ. The certificate may only be issued when the petitioner has made a \"substantial showing of the denial of a constitutional right.\"The application may be made explicitly, but a notice of appeal made without a certificate of appealability is treated as an implicit application for the certificate. \"To obtain a [certificate of appealability], the [petitioner] must make a request to a district or circuit court judge. In the application, the [petitioner] includes the issues he wishes to raise on appeal. In general, the application process is informal, there is no hearing, and the government rarely files a brief in response to the prisoner's request. The determination is simply made in chambers. If the district court judge denies the request, the [petitioner] may apply to the circuit judge. In addition, a notice of appeal to the circuit court can be treated as a request for a COA.\"Under Rule 22 of the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure, \"a certificate of appealability is not required when a state or its representative or the United States or its representative appeals.\" A certificate of appealability is also not required for petitioners seeking a writ of coram nobis; however, the writ of coram nobis is only available for those who are no longer in-custody (or on probation) and the issues raised in the petition could not have been known while the petitioner was in-custody.The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 changed the procedures for issuing a certificate of appealability in federal court. Under the 1996 law, \"there can be no appeal from a final order in a \u00a72255 proceeding unless a circuit justice or judge issues a certificate of appealability.\"The United States Supreme Court held in Slack v. McDaniel, 529 U.S. 473 (2000), that the standard for issuing a certificate is whether \"reasonable jurists could debate whether (or, for that matter, agree that) the petition should have been resolved in a different manner.\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A certificate of public convenience and necessity or certificate of public convenience is a type of regulatory compliance certification for public service industries. Private companies wishing to provide essential public services in certain countries must be granted a CPCN before constructing facilities and offering services.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "On the morning of 14 August 2010, Richard Challen was killed by his wife Sally Challen in Claygate, Surrey, England. Sally, 56 at the time, beat the 61-year-old retired car dealer with a hammer 20 times, killing him, after he told her not to question him. She then covered the body and left a note that said, \"I love you. Sally.\" The killing occurred in the kitchen of the couple's marital home. On the following day, Sally travelled to Beachy Head, intending to kill herself.At Guildford Crown Court in Surrey in June 2011, she was convicted of his murder after a seven-day trial, for which she was jailed for life. Coercive control became a criminal offence in 2015. In February 2019 at the Court of Appeal in London, her conviction was quashed and a retrial ordered in light of her having adjustment disorder at the time she killed her husband. Sally admitted manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility and pleaded not guilty to murder. She was due to be retried on 1 July 2019. However, on 7 June 2019 at the Old Bailey in London, her plea was accepted and the retrial cancelled. The judge said that Challen controlled, isolated and humiliated his wife and was frequently unfaithful to her. He sentenced her to nine years and four months' imprisonment, which she had already served. Sally's son David supported her and fought for her in the media; he felt the murder could have been prevented.Challen and Sally met several years before they married in 1979; the couple had two sons.In May 2020, Judge Paul Matthews, sitting in the High Court in Bristol, ruled that Sally could inherit the estate of the deceased Challen, which is valued at \u00a31 million. The claim was made to help benefit Sally's children.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The laws governing child support in Israel can be tried under either civil courts or religious courts. Jewish, Muslim, Druze and Christian courts are officially recognised by the Israeli state as having jurisdiction over family matters, if a case is first filled in those courts. Secular courts have jurisdiction if a case is first filed with them.\nFollowing a 2017 supreme court case, and for ages 6-15 only, both parents are considered responsible for the maintenance of children ages 6-15, while formerly only fathers were considered responsible. For ages 0-6, and 15-18 the law still binds men only to pay child support to the mother, in any case, even when the mother earns a higher income, or when the father is half-time caretaker, which critics argue is discriminatory against men.If the obligor (the parent who should pay child support, usually the non-custodial parent) does not do so, the obligee (the parent entitled to receive the child support, usually the custodial parent) can apply to the National Insurance Institute of Israel, which will pay partial child support instead of the obligor and will then seek out the obligor in order to receive restitution of the amount paid to the obligee.\nIsraeli law bars its citizens and dual or foreign nationals with outstanding child support arrears from leaving the country until the debt is settled. Any person who received a stay of exit order is required to pay the full support payment of their children up until the age of 18 in advance, with the debt sometimes amounting to millions of US dollars. They are required to relinquish up to 100% or more of their income to satisfy the debt, and they can be jailed for up to 21 days each time they fail to make a monthly payment. British journalist Marianne Azizi estimated that hundreds of Australian men who were married to Israelis were trapped in Israel, including one man who was prohibited from leaving the country until 31 December 9999. In a 2013 Times of Israel blog post, Adam Herscu described the law as being \"draconian and excessively discriminatory against men\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The use, procuring or offering of a child by others for illegal activities, including the trafficking or production of drugs, is one of the predefined worst forms of child labour in terms of the International Labour Organization's Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, adopted in 1999.\nIt is also known as Children used by adults in the commission of crime (CUBAC).\nIn terms of the Worst Forms of Child Labour Recommendation ratifying countries should ensure that CUBAC is a criminal offence, and also provide for other criminal, civil or administrative remedies to ensure the effective enforcement of such national legislation (Article III(12) to (14)).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A citizenship test is an examination, written or oral, required to achieve citizenship in a country.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "City court or municipal court is a court of law with jurisdiction limited to a city or other municipality. It typically addresses \"violations of city ordinances and may also have jurisdiction over minor criminal cases...and over certain civil cases.\" Examples include Moscow City Court in Russia, Municipal Court of Chicago and New York City Civil Court in the United States.\nIn Sri Lanka, A special Court created under the Municipal Council's Ordinance, No. 2 of 1947 (section 562). A municipality, would appoint a Municipal Magistrate. A Municipal Magistrate may be appointed to be an additional Magistrate in addition to his other duties. They do not have civil jurisdiction, they have jurisdiction over any breach of any municipal by-laws per the Municipal Council's Ordinance. Now the local magistrate courts performs the duties of the municipal magistrate courts.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A clerical error is an error on the part of an office worker, often a secretary or personal assistant. It is a phrase which can also be used as an excuse to deflect blame away from specific individuals, such as high-powered executives, and instead redirect it to the more anonymous clerical staff.\nA clerical error in a legal document is called a scrivener's error.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Clinger\u2013Cohen Act of 1996 encompasses two laws that were together passed as part of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996 (NDA) (S. 1124; Pub.L. 104\u2013106 (text) (PDF)):\nThe Federal Acquisition Reform Act of 1996 was Division D of the NDA\nThe Information Technology Management Reform Act of 1996 was Division E of the NDA", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The term \u201ccollateral warranty\u201d originates in property law. In 1839 Nick Grimsley wrote: \u201cA collateral warranty is where the heir neither does nor could derive his title to the land from the warrantor; and yet is both de-barred from claiming title and bound to recompense in case of eviction.\u201d The concept of collateral warranty was sometimes regarded as \u201c[\u2026] the most unjust, oppressive, and indefensible in the whole range of common law.\u201dThe meaning is different when considering the actual and most common use of the term. Today a collateral warranty generally defines an agreement ancillary to another principal contract and/or a letter of appointment. For the benefice of a third party, it imposes an extended duty of care and a broader liability on two separate parties involved in a contract. Collateral warranties may be provided by designers, building contractors and specialist sub-contractors. The need for collateral warranties exists when the party that commissions a building will not carry the burden in the event of defects.\nFor instance, when an architect is appointed to design a group of dwellings for a developer. If the developer intends to sell the building to a housing association, due to privity of contract the architect would normally only be contractually liable to the developer should defects arise. The collateral warranty establishes a contractual relationship between the housing association and the architect against defect.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Collectors, Shooters and Hunters (in Portuguese: \"Colecionadores, Atiradores e Ca\u00e7adores\" - CAC), in Brazilian law, is the designation given to those citizens, who, fulfilling the imposed demands, in relation to criminal records and handling and firing proficiency, have the right to possession of firearms and ammunitions for exercise the collecting, shooting and hunting activities, being able to exercise one, two or all of them.According to data collected from the Army and the Federal Police, in January 2021, there were more than 1 million registered CACs in Brazil.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In civil law, a collegatary is a person to whom is left a legacy, as imparted by a will, in common with one or more other individuals; so called as being a joint legatary, or co-legatee.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Colony, in Polish law, is a settlement created due to the expansion of other settlements, usually towns and villages, that is located away from previously existing buildings. It can be counted as a separate settlement rather than part of a previously existing one.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Commercial law, also known as mercantile law or trade law, is the body of law that applies to the rights, relations, and conduct of persons and business engaged in commerce, merchandising, trade, and sales. It is often considered to be a branch of civil law and deals with issues of both private law and public law.\nCommercial law includes within its compass such titles as principal and agent; carriage by land and sea; merchant shipping; guarantee; marine, fire, life, and accident insurance; bills of exchange, negotiable instruments, contracts and partnership. Many of these categories fall within Financial law, an aspect of Commercial law pertaining specifically to financing and the financial markets. It can also be understood to regulate corporate contracts, hiring practices, and the manufacture and sales of consumer goods. Many countries have adopted civil codes that contain comprehensive statements of their commercial law.\nIn the United States, commercial law is the province of both the United States Congress, under its power to regulate interstate commerce, and the states, under their police power. Efforts have been made to create a unified body of commercial law in the United States; the most successful of these attempts has resulted in the general adoption of the Uniform Commercial Code, which has been adopted in all 50 states (with some modification by state legislatures), the District of Columbia, and the U.S. territories.\nVarious regulatory schemes control how commerce is conducted, particularly vis-a-vis employees and customers. Privacy laws, safety laws (e.g., the Occupational Safety and Health Act in the United States), and food and drug laws are some examples.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Community Legal Advice is a government-funded advice service set up by the Legal Services Commission as part of the Community Legal Service. It aims to help people in England and Wales deal with civil legal problems, and is part of the legal aid programme in those nations.\nIt comprises a telephone helpline, advice centres and a series of advice leaflets. Its services also previously included an informational website whose functions were taken over by the Ministry of Justice site in February 2011. See: www.legalservices.gov.uk/public/community_legal_advice_helpline.asp\nUntil November 2008 the service was known as Community Legal Service Direct, and before that as \"Just Ask!\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ghana has several business registration systems. Company registration is done by the Registrar General's Department, but this duty will be transferred to the new Office of the Registrar of Companies under the terms of the Companies Act, 2018. Both resident Ghanaian companies and branches of foreign companies are required to register and obtain a permit before operating in Ghana. In 2008-2009 procedures were simplified and the target is now to complete registration within one day.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Competing harms is a legal doctrine in certain U.S. states, particularly in New England. For example, the Maine Criminal Code holds that \"Conduct that the person believes to be necessary to avoid imminent physical harm to that person or another is justifiable if the desirability and urgency of avoiding such harm outweigh, according to ordinary standards of reasonableness, the harm sought to be prevented by the statute defining the crime charged. The desirability and urgency of such conduct may not rest upon considerations pertaining to the morality and advisability of such statute.\" New Hampshire has a similar statute. The competing harms defense was unsuccessfully raised in the trial of Carter Wentworth for his role in the Clamshell Alliance's 1977 occupation of the Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Compulsory prosecution is an aspect of certain justice systems in which the prosecutor is required to press charges if there is sufficient evidence to support a conviction. This system is used in Germany. It has also been required by the Constitution of Italy since 1948. In the United States and other countries that do not require compulsory prosecution, the lack of such a requirement has a tendency to encourage the practice of plea bargaining.  A 2012 comparison in the context of game theory suggests \"that mandatory prosecution outperforms discretionary prosecution when evidence transmission from the prosecutor to the judge is accurate and/or when the cost of litigation incurred by the prosecutor is large.\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In archaic law, a computo was a writ, thus called from its effect, which was to compel a person to yield his accounts. It was made and enforceable against the following persons:\n\nexecutors of executors\nthe guardian in socage, for waste such as major dilapidations made or suffered in the minority (under legal age period) of the heir\na bailiff\na chamberlain\na receiver This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). Cyclop\u00e6dia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Comrades\u2019 court, Russian: \u0422\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0449\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0443\u0434 (verb. \"court of comrades\") was a special form of collective justice that existed in the Soviet Union. Comrades\u2019 courts were elected for the term of two years by open voting of working collective members, and were entitled to consider minor offences and to impose fines up to 50 Rbls (compared to the average monthly salary of 120 Rbls) or to pass the case for consideration to regular courts of justice. After the breakdown of the Soviet Union comrades\u2019 courts were no longer elected and were finally abolished by adoption of Russia's new Criminal Code in 1997.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Concluding observations on the second periodic report of the Holy See was a 2014 report issued by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, regarding the handling by the Catholic Church and Holy See of cases of sexual abuse against minors.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Concurrent intent is when there is a specific intent to commit one crime, and at the same time (concurrently) an intent to commit another.:\u200a679\u200a An example is when a perpetrator plants a bomb or shoots an automatic weapon in a crowded place, with an intent to kill a specified target, the perpetrator can be found to have a concurrent intent to kill others who are not specifically targeted, but who are in the kill zone.:\u200a679\u200a Cases defining concurrent intent in common law include People v. Stone (2009) and People v. Bland (2002), each of which involve a drive-by shooting into a crowd.:\u200a677\u2013681\u200a", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A conditional dismissal is a dismissal subject to conditions\u2014for example, the dismissal of a suit for foreclosure of a mortgage, subject to receipt of payment in the amount of a tender which induced the dismissal.  Thompson v Crains, 294 Ill 270, 128 NE 508, 12 ALR 931.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The condolence ceremony or condolence council is a part of the Haudenosaunee Great Law of Peace. It governs succession to political offices after a leader dies.The ceremony is held in the community whose leader has died. Attendees are divided into two moieties: the clearminded and the downcast or bereaved. The ceremony progresses through several stages, including a recitation of the Great Law. Through the ceremony, new leaders are appointed to replace those who have died. It was typically the first item on the agenda when a Haudenosaunee council met.Among other things, the ceremony recalls the Great Peacemaker's condolence of Hiawatha and the \"transformation\" of Tadodaho from a state of confusion and disorder to a state of peace.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Constant visual observation, often abbreviated to \"constant visual\", is a term used in various Mental Health Services, Prisons and Special Schools to describe the status of a prisoner or patient who poses a threat to himself or a third party, and must therefore be kept under constant observation.\nThere are essentially two levels of constant visual observations. The highest level, employed only for those patients who are considered to be extremely high risk to either themselves or a third party, involves a care worker remaining within arms reach of the service user at all times. The second level involves only maintaining a constant watch on a patient, sometimes from a distance.\nConstant visual observations have been criticised by many service user groups.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Consumer Court is a special purpose court in India. It primarily deals with consumer-related disputes, conflicts, and grievances. The court holds hearings to adjudicate these disputes.\nWhen consumers file a case, the court  primarily looks to see if they can prove the exploitation through evidence such as bills or purchase memos. In cases where no such evidence is presented, courts rarely rule in favor of the plaintiff. The Court mostly decides its verdict based on the violations of Consumer Rights(if any).\nThe point of having a separate forum for consumer disputes is to ensure that such disputes are speedily resolved and make it less expensive.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A contingency operation is a military operation involving United States Armed Forces, conducted in response to natural disasters, terrorists, subversives, or as otherwise directed by appropriate authority to protect national interests. The designation is made by a finding by the discretion of the Secretary of Defense, and triggers the implementation of a variety of \"wartime\" plans and preparations throughout the federal government, and each of the military branches. Contingency operations are often referred to more specifically as overseas contingency operations (OCO), a term which is often substituted because there has not been a recent war on United States soil. The term's best known use is in the United States Congress' Overseas Contingency Operations funding, a discretionary budget appropriation and oft-described slush fund used originally for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, but now used more broadly for other expenditures associated primarily with the War on Terror.The Overseas Contingency Operations budget appropriation was $58.8 billion in 2016, $90 billion in 2017, $69 billion in 2018 and $71.5 billion in 2019. A U.S. House of Representatives panel issued a report in 2020 recommending that overseas contingency operations funding cease after the fiscal year.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A continuing trespass is:\n\na wrongful act involving a course of action which is a direct invasion of the rights of another.\na trespass in the taking of goods, although without intent to appropriate them, followed by an appropriation, the original trespass being deemed to continue to the time of the appropriation, so that the subsequent appropriation is larceny.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Contractual Remedies Act 1979 is a statute of the New Zealand Parliament. It provides remedies in respect of misrepresentation, repudiation or breach of contract in New Zealand.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Contractualism is a term in philosophy which refers either to a family of political theories in the social contract tradition (when used in this sense, the term is an umbrella term for all social contract theories that include contractarianism), or to the ethical theory developed in recent years by T. M. Scanlon, especially in his book What We Owe to Each Other (published 1998).Social contract theorists from the history of political thought include Hugo Grotius (1625), Thomas Hobbes (1651), Samuel Pufendorf (1673), John Locke (1689), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762), and Immanuel Kant (1797); more recently, John Rawls (1971), David Gauthier (1986) and Philip Pettit (1997).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In most Commonwealth countries, a conveyancer is a specialist lawyer who specialises in the legal aspects of buying and selling real property, or conveyancing. A conveyancer can also be (but need not be) a solicitor, licensed conveyancer, or a fellow of the Institute of Legal Executives.\nIn England and Wales, conveyancers are regulated by an official body known as the Council for Licensed Conveyancers. Its main purpose is to set entry standards and regulate the profession of licensed conveyancers effectively in order to secure adequate consumer protection, promote effective competition in the legal services market and provide choice for consumers.\nServices offered by conveyancers vary from Residential Conveyancing, Probate and Wills. Strong regulation is imposed to curb unfair practices which include among others false representation, exaction for hidden charges and double dealing.\nIn Kenya, a conveyancer can only be an admitted advocate holding a valid current practising certificate. The consequences of not holding such a certificate is fatal to any transaction he undertakes on behalf of his client, and will be void. The client is therefore under obligation to do his due diligence by ensuring that his conveyancer has a current valid practising certificate by confirming this with the law society of Kenya. This was authoritatively decided by the Court of Appeal in its decision of National Bank of Kenya Ltd. v. Wilson Ndolo Ayah.In Australia, a conveyancer is also known as a professional who specialises in property law and is governed by the Conveyancers Licensing Act 2003. Lawyers and conveyancers have the same responsibilities and liabilities when dealing with property matters but, lawyers are permitted to commence legal proceedings against other parties. On the other hand, conveyancers are permitted to hold a trust account and lawyers are required to undertake further study to be permitted to hold a trust account. To become a conveyancer, students must complete the following subjects: contract law, revenue law, mortgage law, land law, agency law, tort in private law and conduct code for conveyancers. A conveyance business must however be authorized in the state or territory where you buy or sell land.In Canada, a conveyancer is a legal clerk or a paralegal who assists lawyers in all aspects of conveying real estate.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In consumer rights legislation and practice, a cooling-off period is a period of time following a purchase when the purchaser may choose to cancel a purchase, and return goods which have been supplied, for any reason, and obtain a full refund.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Copyright abolition is a movement to abolish copyright, for example by repealing the Statute of Anne and all subsequent law made in its support. The notion of anti-copyright combines a group of ideas and ideologies that advocate changing the current copyright law. It often focuses on the negative philosophical, economic, or social consequences of copyright, and that it has never been a benefit to society, but instead serves to enrich a few at the expense of creativity. Some anti-author groups may question the logic of copyright on economic and cultural grounds. The members of this movement are in favor of a full or partial change or repeal of the current copyright law. Copyright and patents are widely rejected among anarchists, communists, socialists, free market libertarians, crypto-anarchists, info-anarchists, and the former Situationist International. \nMichele Boldrin and David K. Levine, economists at Washington University in St. Louis, have suggested that copyrights and patents are a net loss for the economy because of the way they reduce competition in the free market. They refer to copyrights and patents as intellectual monopolies, akin to industrial monopolies, and they advocate phasing out and eventually abolishing them.The classic argument in defense of copyright is the view that giving the developers a temporary monopoly over their works encourages further development and creativity, giving the developer a source of income, and thus encourages them to continue their creative work; usually copyright is secured under the Berne Convention, established by Victor Hugo and first adopted in 1886. Every country in the world has copyright laws and private information ownership has not been repealed anywhere officially. Numerous international agreements on copyright have been concluded since then, but copyright law still varies from country to country. \nCopyright is also massively rejected by those partaking in online piracy and other participants of peer-to-peer networks, who put copyrighted materials into public access. In addition, in the context of the Internet, Web 2.0, and other newer technologies, it has been argued that copyright laws need to be adapted to modern information technology.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Copyright in Bermuda applies automatically and it is not necessary to register a work to benefit from copyright protection.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Copyright law of North Korea is regulated by the Copyright Act of 2001. It introduced a 50 years p.m.a. protection, and has been amended several times.North Korea had no copyright law before that date.North Korea has been party to the Berne Convention since 2003.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Swedish copyright law is regulated by the act from 1960 ('Swedish Act on Copyright in Literary and Artistic Works'). Like in most other countries, it grants the author or relevant copyright holders exclusive rights to the work for 70 years following the author's death.History of copyright in Sweden dates back to the \u201cRoyal Act Regulating Book Printers\u201d from 1752.Court rulings of 2016 and 2017 effectively eliminated freedom of panorama in Sweden.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The corporation counsel is the title given to the chief legal officer who handles civil claims against the city in some US municipal and county jurisdictions, including negotiating settlements and defending the city when it is sued. Most corporation counsel do not prosecute criminal cases, but some prosecute traffic and local ordinance violations. In Washington, D.C., the former corporation counsel, now known as the attorney general, prosecutes juvenile delinquency cases in addition to traffic and local ordinance violations.\nIn New York City, the corporation counsel, in addition to handling all civil litigation on behalf of the city, prosecutes juvenile delinquency proceedings.The cities of New York, Chicago, and Boston, among others, use this title. Counties in Hawaii and Wisconsin have a corporation counsel as well.\nIn some jurisdictions, such as Ohio, the county prosecuting attorney is, by law, corporation counsel for the county and other governmental entities in the county.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Corpus separatum is a Latin term referring to a city or region which is given a special legal and political status different from its environment, but which falls short of being sovereign, or an independent city state. The term may refer to:\n\nCorpus separatum (Jerusalem), the 1947 UN proposal for Jerusalem\nCorpus separatum (Fiume), the historical status of Fiume (today's Rijeka, Croatia) between 1776 and 1918\nPordenone, a corpus separatum between 1378 and 1514\nNovi Pazar, a corpus separatum between 1878 and 1912Similar but different concepts include:\n\nEnclave and exclave\nCondominium (international law)\nInternational cityDuring the Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosnia and Herzegovina was sometimes described as corpus separatum as well as condominium.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Appearance of Corruption is a principle of law mentioned in or relevant to several SCOTUS decisions related to campaign finance in the United States, while the basis of the principle 'corruption' refers to dishonest or illegal behavior for personal gain. Corruption has existed since ancient times, and there are a series of factors that cause the appearance of it. On the other hand, corruption adversely affects these factors. In the process of fighting against the appearance of corruption, both the government and different organizations take steps to prevent it.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law, countersignature refers to a second signature onto a document. For example, a contract or other official document signed by the representative of a company may be countersigned by their supervisor to verify the authority of the representative. Also, a money order or other financial instrument may be signed once upon receipt, then signed again by the same person when presented for payment, as an indication that the bearer is the same person who originally received the item, and not a thief who has stolen the item before it could be carried to the place where it was to be presented.\nAn example in which a countersignature is needed is with British passport applications.In some constitutional monarchies and parliamentary republics, an order by the head of state (monarch or president respectively) is not valid unless countersigned by another authorised relevant person such as the head of government, a responsible minister or, in the case of promulgation of a parliamentary resolution, the parliamentary speaker. This effectively codifies the principle that the head of state almost always exercises his or her powers on the advice of the government.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Courage Foundation is a trust for fundraising the legal defence of individuals such as whistleblowers and journalists.\nFounded on August 9, 2013, as the Journalistic Source Protection Defence Fund by Gavin MacFadyen, Barbora Bukovska and Julian Assange it later rebranded in June 2014.People and projects supported are:\n\nJulian Assange and WikiLeaks\nEdward Snowden, NSA whistleblower\nJeremy Hammond, Stratfor hacker\nMatt DeHart\nLauri Love\nChelsea ManningThe trust advisers include Pentagon Papers whistleblower Daniel Ellsberg, former NSA executive Thomas Drake, former MI5 British intelligence officer and whistleblower Annie Machon,  Vice President of the Wau Holland Foundation Andy M\u00fcller-Maguhn, Guatemala human rights lawyer Renata \u00c1vila, and Pussy Riot.The Courage trustees are Renata \u00c1vila, Susan Benn, John Pilger, and Dame Vivienne Westwood.WikiLeaks section editor Sarah Harrison served as acting director from 2014 until April 2017, when WikiLeaks became a Courage beneficiary and Naomi Colvin began serving as director. In 2018, Barrett Brown was removed from the Courage Foundation's beneficiary list over his criticism of Julian Assange. Courage Foundation Director Naomi Colvin quit in protest.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Court of Appeal for Southern Norrland (Swedish: Hovr\u00e4tten f\u00f6r Nedre Norrland) is one of the six appellate courts in the Swedish legal system.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Court of Appeal for Western Sweden (Swedish: Hovr\u00e4tten f\u00f6r V\u00e4stra Sverige) is one of the six appellate courts in the Swedish legal system.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Court of Criminal Appeal of Northern Ireland was established on the model of the English Court by the Criminal Appeal (Northern Ireland) Act 1930. It was replaced by a general Court of Appeal by the Judicature (Northern Ireland) Act 1978.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A court usher is a position in a law court. Tasks generally performed by court ushers involve escorting participants to the courtroom, and seeing that they are suitably  hydrated, as well as ensuring the secure transaction of legal documents within the courtroom and deciding the order of cases. The roles of an usher may vary with the type of court they serve. In Scottish courts the position is called \"court officer\" or \"bar officer\" or, for the higher courts, the \"macer\".\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Courts of Guam include:\n\nLocal courts of GuamJudicial Council of GuamSupreme Court of GuamSuperior Court of GuamFederal courts located in Guam\n\nDistrict Court of Guam", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Courts of Metropolitan Magistrates is a type of magistrate courts those are situated in a division headquarter or metropolitan city, found in many countries (e.g., India, Bangladesh). The presiding officers of such Courts get appointed by the High Court.\nThe High court appoints Chief Metropolitan Magistrate for every metropolitan court. The High court may also appoint Additional Chief Metropolitan Magistrate for an area, with all or any of the powers of a Chief Metropolitan Magistrate, as may be directed by the High Court. Other than Chief Metropolitan Magistrate and Additional Chief Metropolitan Magistrate, there are also Metropolitan Magistrates also known as Magistrate of the first class who work as subordinates of Chief Metropolitan Magistrate. Any two or more metropolitan magistrates may, subject to the rules made by the CMM, sit together as a bench. All metropolitan magistrates including the ACMMs and benches of general magistrates are subordinate to the CMM.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A creative work is a manifestation of creative effort including fine artwork (sculpture, paintings, drawing, sketching, performance art), dance, writing (literature), filmmaking, and composition.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Credit card kiting refers to the use of one or more credit cards to obtain cash and purchasing power they do not have, or pay credit card balances with the proceeds of other cards. Unlike check kiting, which is illegal under nearly all circumstances, laws against credit card kiting are not completely prohibitive of the practice, thereby allowing it to be done to some degree. It is up to the banks to detect the practice and when necessary, stop it.\nIn order for prosecution to occur in a credit card kiting scheme, a bank must prove intent to deceive. Et seq. reference infers paying credit card minimum balances with credit card proceeds is de facto evidence of deceit.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Credit Support Annex, or CSA, is a legal document which regulates credit support (collateral) for derivative transactions. It is one of the four parts that make up an ISDA Master Agreement but is not mandatory. It is possible to have an ISDA agreement without a CSA but normally not a CSA without an ISDA.\nEssentially, a CSA defines the terms or rules under which collateral is posted or transferred between swap counterparties to mitigate the credit risk arising from \"in the money\" derivative positions.\nIf on any Valuation Date, the Delivery Amount equals or exceeds the Pledgor's Minimum Transfer Amount, the Pledgor must transfer Eligible Collateral with a Value at least equal to the Delivery Amount. The Delivery Amount is the amount the Credit Support Amount exceeds the Value of all posted Collateral held by the Secured Party. The Credit Support Amount is the Secured Party's Exposure plus Pledgor's Independent Amounts minus Secured Party's Independent Amounts minus the Pledgor's Threshold. The Collateral must meet the Eligibility criteria in the agreement, e.g., which currencies it may be in, what types of bonds are allowed, and which  haircuts are applied. There are also rules for the settlement of disputes arising over valuation of derivative positions.\nTo distinguish between the Schedule to the Master Agreement and the Credit Support Annex, the schedules are numbered as Parts and CSA are numbered as Paragraphs. To customise the requirements of an OTC Transaction, the clauses which are required are added as Paragraph 11 (for London Agreements) and as Paragraph 13 (for New York Agreements).\nUnder English Law, CSA are considered transactions: Any collateral listed as \u2018Eligible Collateral\u2019 is delivered as an outright transfer of title. The collateral taker becomes the outright owner of that collateral free of any third party interest.\nCompare the \"Outright transfer\" offered under English Law Credit Support Annex with \"Security Interest\" under New York Law Credit Support Annex. Both New York Law Credit Support Annex and an English law Credit Support Annex operate to create security interests in the collateral being posted, the differences are operational and can be material upon an insolvency of the other party.\n\nEnglish law credit support annex operates by way of outright transfers of title to the posted collateral\nParties might select New York or English CSA for many operational considerations, also the choice of credit support documentation can materially change the parties\u2019 rights and obligations and their standing upon an insolvency of the other party", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Certain laws are in place in Scotland to protect the welfare of children under the age of puberty. In Scotland and in the legal sense, puberty is at the age of 12 for females and 14 for the age of males. \nDefinition: \"A crime at common law for any person to indulge in indecent practises towards children under the age of puberty, whether they are consenting or not\". Examples of this could include indecently exposing private parts of a female or  male to young children, improper handling of the private parts of children, inducing children to handle the private parts of others and taking indecent photographs of children.\nIndecent conduct could be constituted as being criminal in some circumstances, e.g. indecent exposure, sexual intercourse in public view. The public element of the offence is not that it must take place in public but that it is a crime against public morals. The offence could be committed almost anywhere, including the person's own home if it could be seen through an open window by a person outside. Determination of indecency will depend on the time and place. For example, certain sex theatre shows are not illegal as they are advertised as such and should therefore not be offensive to the public if in enclosed viewing. So long as the public as aware of the content of the show, it would not be regarded as public indecency. \nIndecent assault an aggravation of the common law offence of assault, aggravated by the indecent manner in which it is committed. An assault may be indecent irrespective of the intention or motive of the accused and it does not need to be shown that the accused committed the assault for sexual gratification.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An \"appeal\" was a procedure in English law to bring about a prosecution by a private party of an individual accused of a heinous crime.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Criminal costs are financial penalties awarded against convicted criminals, in addition to the sentence they receive, in recognition of the costs of the court in bringing the prosecution.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A criminal referral or criminal recommendation is a notice to a prosecutory body, recommending criminal investigation or prosecution of one or more entities for crimes which fall into that body's jurisdiction.\nIn the U.S. federal government, regulatory and law enforcement agencies that investigate crimes must typically refer cases to the Department of Justice for prosecution at its discretion. These referrals may not require formal documentation, but may include a case report. In a direct referral, agencies refer cases to the U.S. Attorney in the district where the crime occurred. The United States Congress and its members, in their investigative role, issue criminal referrals to the Justice Department as well.State attorneys general often refer federal crimes to the Justice Department. Investigative bodies under the Justice Department itself may also issue referrals to U.S. Attorneys, such as the case against Michael Cohen in the Southern District of New York, which was referred by the Mueller investigation.Private counsel may also make criminal referrals on behalf of clients who have been victims of both civil and criminal wrongdoing.In some states, state attorneys general must receive a criminal referral from the state executive before pursuing criminal charges.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Crown prosecutor is the title given in a number of jurisdictions to the state prosecutor, the legal party responsible for presenting the case against an individual in a criminal trial. The title is commonly used in Commonwealth realms.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The crumbling skull rule is a well-established legal doctrine used in some tort law systems.  It holds that where a plaintiff had a condition or injury that predates the tort and would have naturally deteriorated or worsened over time (e.g. a crumbling skull), the defendant is not responsible to the degree that the condition or injury would have naturally worsened over time.  A defendant is only liable for the degree the injury was worsened or the hastening or acceleration of the damage caused by the tort.  The crumbling skull rule should not be confused with the related thin skull rule.The concept is sometimes applied without specific reference to the crumbling skull rule, instead being expressed as a non-absolute application of the thin skull rule.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Cryptography is the practice and study of encrypting information, or in other words, securing information from unauthorized access. There are many different cryptography laws in different nations. Some countries prohibit export of cryptography software and/or encryption algorithms or cryptoanalysis methods. Some countries require decryption keys to be recoverable in case of a police investigation.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Cundy v Le Cocq is an 1884 case in English law concerned with an offence of the Licensing Act 1872, deemed a key one which comes with strict liability.The defendant was convicted of unlawfully selling alcohol to an intoxicated person under the Licensing Act. On appeal, the defendant contended that he had been unaware of the customer's drunkenness and thus should be acquitted. The court held that knowledge was irrelevant - the question was whether a reasonable dispenser of the last drink sold would have realised the customer was clearly intoxicated.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In landlord\u2013tenant law, a notice to cure or quit is issued by a landlord when a tenant performs actions in violation of a lease.  The notice gives a tenant the option of either fixing the offending problem or vacating the rental property.  If the tenant continues performing the action(s) and does not move out, they can be evicted.\nThe term is sometimes also used in the debt-collection business to indicate to an account in arrears that action may be taken against the account holder if the debt is not rectified.  The account holder may be sent a \"Notice to cure or quit\" to let them know the status of the account.\nDepending on the jurisdiction, such a notice may be legally required before further action may take place, such as (in the case of landlord vs. tenant) being able to file an eviction suit.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Darfur war crimes court or Special Court for Darfur is a planned court to be created in Sudan for trying suspects of war crimes and crimes against humanity carried out during the War in Darfur.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Data Act is a European Union legislative proposal that aims to create a framework which will encourage data sharing. The European Commission was expected to formally present the act in the fourth quarter of 2021. Notwithstanding, the proposal was formally issued on 23 February 2022.European (harmonised) standards may be drafted by the European Standardization Organizations (ESOs) following standardisation requests from the European Commission in order to support the application of the requirement that 'products shall be designed and manufactured, and related services shall be provided, in such a manner that data generated by their use are, by default, easily, securely and, where relevant and appropriate, directly accessible to the user'. In addition, European standards and technical specifications in the meaning of Article II of Regulation (EU) 1025/2012 on European Standardisation may also support the issuing of \"standard\" contracts or transparency on how data will be used.A draft of the proposed act had earlier been leaked on 2 February 2022, and was swiftly opposed by industry.If implemented in its proposed form the Act would impact on data rights current under Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases (the Database Directive).:\u200aChapter X\u200a The European Data Act will not apply to the financial sector in Switzerland.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Data Governance Act (DGA) is a legislative proposal of the European Commission that aims to create a framework which will facilitate data-sharing. The proposal was first announced within the 2020 European strategy for data and was officially presented by Margrethe Vestager in 25 November 2020. The DGA covers the data of public bodies, private companies, and citizens. Its main aims are to safely enable the sharing of sensitive data held by public bodies, to regulate data sharing by private actors.  On 30 November 2021, the EU Parliament and Council reached an agreement on the wording of the DGA.  Formal approval by those bodies is still required but that should be procedural.The proposed legislation has been analyzed by independent parties.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "De facto corporation and corporation by estoppel are both terms that are used by courts in most common law jurisdictions to describe circumstances in which a business organization that has failed to become a de jure corporation (a corporation by law) will nonetheless be treated as a corporation, thereby shielding shareholders from liability.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The decemviri stlitibus judicandis was a civil court of ancient origin, traditionally attributed to Servius Tullius, which originally dealt with cases concerning whether an individual was free.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A deed of gift is a signed legal document that voluntarily and without recompense transfers ownership of real, personal, or intellectual property \u2013 such as a gift of materials \u2013 from one person or institution to another. It should include any possible conditions specifying access, use, preservation, etc. of the gift, although these are generally discouraged by recipient institutions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Deem in law is used to treat something as if it were really something else or it has qualities it does not have.:\u200a477\u200aDeem has been traditionally considered to be a useful word when it is necessary to establish a legal fiction either positively by \"deeming\" something to be what it is not or negatively by \"deeming\" something not to be what it is. All other uses of the word should be avoided. Phrases\nlike \u201cif he deems fit\u201d, \u201cas he deems necessary\u201d, or \u201cnothing in this Act shall be deemed to...\u201d are objectionable as unnecessary deviations from common language. \"Thinks\" or \"considers\" are preferable in the first two examples and \"construed\" or \"interpreted\" in the third.:\u200a478\u200a", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Defensive Patent License (DPL) is a patent license proposed by Jason Schultz and Jennifer Urban, directors of the Samuelson Law, Technology & Public Policy Clinic at the University of California, Berkeley as a patent licensing equivalent of the GPL copyright license.It requires entities licensing their patents under the DPL to license all of their patents under the DPL, with free licenses granted to all other DPL participants. DPL participants remain free to launch patent lawsuits against non-participants.\nDPL 1.0 was published on November 16, 2013, and a \"birthday\" celebration held at the Internet Archive. The Internet Archive was designated as the fiscal umbrella organization until it has its own non-profit entity.  It was launched on February 28, 2014 at a conference in Berkeley.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The deific decree delusion is a defense in a criminal case in which a person committed a crime in the belief that God ordered them to do it.:\u200a615\u2013626\u200a This would make the perpetrator legally insane as they would be incapable of distinguishing right from wrong.:\u200a615\u2013626\u200a", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Deliberative process privilege is the common-law principle that the internal processes of the executive branch of a government are immune from normal disclosure or discovery in civil litigations, Freedom of Information Act requests, etc.\nThe theory behind the protection is that by guaranteeing confidentiality, the government will receive better or more candid advice, recommendations and opinions, resulting in better decisions for society as a whole.  The deliberative process privilege is often in dynamic tension with the principle of maximal transparency in government.\nIn the context of the U.S. presidential offices and their workproducts, this principle is often referred to as executive privilege, or as a type of executive privilege that is distinct from \"presidential communications privilege\".\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Delphinion (ancient Greek: \u0394\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03af\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd) found in ancient Greece, was a temple of Apollo Delphinios (\"Apollo of the womb\") also known as \"Delphic Apollo\" or \"Pythian Apollo\", the principal god of Delphi, who was regarded as the protector of ports and ships.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Deputy Attorney General (DAG) is the second-highest-ranking official in a department of justice or of law, in various governments of the world.  In those governments, the deputy attorney general oversees the day-to-day operation of the department, and may act as attorney general during the absence of the attorney general.  \nIn Pakistan (DAG) is of grade 21.\nIn the United States, the deputy attorney general is appointed by the president.\nIn  Pakistan, there is additional attorney general then deputy attorney general and backbone of the attorney general's office is assistant attorney general, all are appointed by the president of Pakistan.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Derivatives law is the area of law governing derivatives. It is associated with principles of contract law, and practitioners must also have a good understanding of insolvency, netting and set-off, and conflict of laws.\nOver-the-counter derivatives are documented under master agreements, the most common of which is the International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA) Master Agreement.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Design Science License (DSL) is a copyleft license for any type of free content such as text, images, music. Unlike other open source licenses, the DSL was intended to be used on any type of copyrightable work, including documentation and source code. It was the first \"generalized copyleft\" license. The DSL was written by Michael Stutz.The DSL came out in the 1990s, before the formation of the Creative Commons. Once the Creative Commons arrived, Stutz considered the DSL experiment \"over\" and no longer recommended its use.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A development easement is a legal agreement by which a landowner surrenders the right to develop a designated parcel of property. Some local and state governments have programs to acquire development easements from private landowners to prevent conversion of farmland to other uses.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Digest of Laws of the Russian Empire (Russian: \u0421\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438, pre-1917 Russian: \u0421\u0432\u043e\u0434\u044a \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044a \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0456\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0456\u0438) was the code of penal and civil law in the Russian Empire starting on January 1, 1835.\nIt based on the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire (Russian: \u041f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0438, pre-1917 Russian: \u041f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0463 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044a \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0456\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0456\u0438), which is composed of 46 volumes.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In corporate law, the directors register is a list of the directors elected by the shareholders, generally stored in the company's minute book.  By law, companies are required to keep this list up to date to remove those directors who are deceased or resign, and to add those who have been elected by the shareholders. However, the register must also list any person who had been a director indefinitely.  The record must indicate the dates a director started and stopped holding office. As directors carry certain personal legal obligations to a corporation (for example, being responsible for any money held in trust for another person, e.g. sales taxes not remitted to a government), those seeking recourse against directors are allowed to rely on the directors register as proof that a director held office on any particular day.\nIn many jurisdictions, corporations are required to keep the list of directors up to date with the corporate affairs office where the corpororation was incorporated. This is so that both government agencies and interested third parties may be aware of the name and address of directors (for example, in order to serve a statement of claim on the corporation).\nPublicly traded corporations are usually required to notify the appropriate securities and exchange commission about any change to their directors register.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Disciplinary probation is a disciplinary status that can apply to students at a higher educational institution or to employees in the workplace. For employees, it can result from both poor performance at work or from misconduct. For students, it results from misconduct alone, with poor academic performance instead resulting in scholastic probation.For a student, disciplinary probation means that the student is on formal notice, and subject to special rules and regulations. The violation of these rules may lead to more severe forms of discipline, such as suspension, dismissal, and expulsion.For employees, disciplinary probation is one common step in a scheme of progressive discipline. It is a common replacement, in non-unionized workplaces, for the progressive disciplinary step of suspension without pay. A usual period for such probation is 90 days.\nSome companies may place permanent employees on probationary status, particularly if their performance is below a set standard or for disciplinary reasons. In this instance, the employee is usually given a period of time to either improve their performance or modify their behavior before more severe measures are taken.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Dividing territories (also market division) is an agreement by two companies to stay out of each other's way and reduce competition in the agreed-upon territories. The process known as geographic market allocation is one of several anti-competitive practices outlawed under United States antitrust laws. The term is generally understood to include dividing customers as well.\nFor example, in 1984, FMC Corp. and Asahi Chemical agreed to divide territories for the sale of microcrystalline cellulose, and later FMC attempted to eliminate all vestiges of competition by inviting smaller rivals also to collude.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The doctrine of colourability is the idea that when a legislature wants to do something that it cannot do within the constraints of its government's constitution, it colours the law with a substitute purpose, allowing it to accomplish its original goal.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Civil procedure doctrines are rules developed by case law as opposed to being set down in codes or legislation, which, together with court rules and codes, define the steps that a person involved in a civil lawsuit can (or can not) take.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In the common law tradition, the law of domestic relations is a broad category that encompasses:\n\ndivorce;\nproperty settlements;\nalimony, spousal support, or other maintenance;\nthe establishment of paternity;\nthe establishment or termination of parental rights;\nchild support;\nchild custody;\nvisitation;\nadoption; and\nEmancipation of minors.In some jurisdictions, guardianships, truancy, and matters related to juvenile delinquency are considered part of the law of domestic relations.\nMany sorts of dispute fall into this broad category; many people who will not otherwise have any dealings during their lives with the judicial system have domestic relations disputes.  Because of the volume of legal business generated by the law of domestic relations, a number of jurisdictions have established specialized courts of limited jurisdiction, sometimes called family courts, which hear domestic cases exclusively.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Brian Andr\u00e9 Doyle was a lawyer who was Attorney General of Fiji and Chief Justice of Zambia.\nHe served in Fiji as Solicitor General from 1948 to 1951, and as Attorney General from 1949 to 1956 (his tenure in these two offices evidently overlapped).\nLater he was Chief Justice of Zambia from 1969 to 1975. He went on to serve two terms as a Judge of the Botswana Court of Appeal (1973 to 1979, and 1988 to 1991).\nHe died in Brazil at the home of his son. He also had a daughter there.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Rule in Dumpor's Case is a common law rule of property law first set forth by Sir Edward Coke in 1578 (4 Coke 119b [1578]), in the case of Dumpor v. Syms.  In its most basic form, it states that once a landlord has consented to an assignment of a tenant's interest in a leasehold estate, the landlord implicitly consents to all future assignments by the assignee.\nThis rule is still operative in some U.S. states and some other jurisdictions which follow English common law. The rule was abolished in England in 1859, as it has been in a number of U.S. states, but this does not automatically invalidate the rule in other jurisdictions which follow English common law. Parties sometimes seek to contract around the rule by putting a clause in the lease agreement (or in the document approving an assignment) reserving the landlord's right to approve or disapprove a future assignment. Whether this is valid, or how the parties may circumvent the rule in a different way if they are in a jurisdiction that follows the rule, depends the law of the jurisdiction where the real property is located.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The duty to defend is a contractual indemnitor or liability insurer's duty to defend the insured or indemnified party against claims. It is generally broader than the duty to indemnify and may cover defense against claims where ultimately no damage is awarded, and possibly even against claims that would not be covered by the duty to indemnify. It covers both civil suits and alternative dispute resolution procedures. In American courts disputes regarding the application of the duty to defend are generally resolved in the insured's favor.Under California's Civil Code, in the interpretation of a contract of indemnity, \"an indemnity against claims, or demands, or liability, expressly, or in other equivalent terms, embraces the costs of defense against such claims, demands, or liability incurred in good faith\" and the person providing the indemnity \"is bound, on request of the person indemnified, to defend actions or proceedings brought against the latter in respect to the matters embraced by the indemnity, but the person indemnified has the right to conduct such defenses, if he chooses to do so\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A liability insurance company's duty to settle is defined as an implied obligation to by the insurer to a policyholder and to a claimant to attempt \"in good faith to effectuate prompt, fair, and equitable settlements of claims in which liability has become reasonably clear.\" To the surprise of many, a typical liability insurance policy makes no express contractual promise to settle. In California, \"an insurer, who wrongfully refuses to accept a reasonable settlement within the policy limits is liable for the entire judgment against the insured even if it exceeds the policy limits.\" A rationale for this duty is that \"[w]hen an offer is made to settle a claim in excess of policy limits for an amount within policy limits, a genuine and immediate conflict of interest arises between carrier and assured.\" \"An insurer who denies coverage does so at its own risk. Such factors as a belief that the policy does not provide coverage, should not affect a decision as to whether the settlement offer in question is a reasonable one.\" \"It is the duty of the insurer to keep the insured informed of settlement offers.\" \"[A]n insurer potentially can be liable for unreasonably coercing an insured to contribute to a settlement fund.\"An insurer may not \"discriminate in its claims settlement practices based upon\" certain protected classes.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Sometimes known as document bibles or transaction deal bibles, e-bibles are a means of storing, indexing and comprehensively searching large volumes of documents related to any corporate transaction.\nThey are commonly used by Legal firms to collate documents from a certain case in order to store or give to a client at the end of a project. e-bibles are a means of storing complex legal folders which were usually kept in hard copy.\nIn 2009, Proposals were put in place in order to standardise the creation of e-bibles throughout the legal industry.\nThere are few suppliers of COTS solutions, however Diskbuilder  and Ideagen (formerly Capgen) are notable exceptions.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Eakin v. Raub, 12 Sergeant & Rawle 330 (Pa. 1825), was a Pennsylvania Supreme Court case that ruled that the state supreme court had the right to review legislative acts and declare those acts as void if they contradict the state's constitution. Through this decision, the court adopted an approach to judicial review consistent with the 1803 ruling of Marbury v. Madison. The case is most notable for the dissent of Judicial Review from Justice Gibson, which challenged the position that a supreme court should be the final arbiter of constitutional quesitons.The Case was initially filed court of common pleas of Northampton county Pennsylvania by James Eakin and Ann Simpson in an attempt to achieve an ejectment of Daniel Raub, Edmund Porter, Samuel Sitgreaves, Hugh Ross, John Lippens and John Ross, who owned property in Pennsylvania while residing overseas.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The East African Court of Appeal (EACA) was a court which served as the appellate court for the British colonies in eastern Africa and west Asia.\nThe court was established in 1902 as the Eastern African Court of Appeal and was the appellate court for British Kenya, Uganda Protectorate, and Nyasaland. Later, the court's name was changed to the East African Court of Appeal, and in the 1950s to the Court of Appeal for East Africa or the Court of Appeal for Eastern Africa. The court was based in Kenya.\nOver time, the jurisdiction of the court grew to become the appellate court for the Sultanate of Zanzibar, Tanganyika, British Somaliland, Aden Protectorate, Colony of Aden, Federation of South Arabia, Protectorate of South Arabia, British Mauritius, British Seychelles, and Saint Helena.\nDecisions of the court could be appealed with leave to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.\nThe court was retained by independent Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda as the appellate court for the East African Community.\nWhen the original East African Community was abolished in 1977, so too was the court.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Harry Elias (4 May 1937 \u2013 26 August 2020) was a Singaporean veteran lawyer and Senior Counsel. One of Singapore's best litigation lawyers, he was made a Senior Counsel in 1997.Elias was instrumental in founding the Criminal Legal Aid Scheme, and also founded the eponymous firm, Harry Elias Partnership LLP.Elias died after a long illness on 26 August 2020 at the age of 83.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Environmental cleanup laws govern the removal of pollution or contaminants from environmental media such as soil, sediment, surface water, or ground water. Unlike pollution control laws, cleanup laws are designed to respond after-the-fact to environmental contamination, and consequently must often define not only the necessary response actions, but also the parties who may be responsible for undertaking (or paying for) such actions. Regulatory requirements may include rules for emergency response, liability allocation, site assessment, remedial investigation, feasibility studies, remedial action, post-remedial monitoring, and site reuse.\nDifferent laws may govern the cleanup or remediation of varying environmental media. Spill response or cleanup requirements may be enacted as stand-alone laws, or as parts of larger laws focused on a specific environmental medium or pollutant.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide (ELAW) is a public interest, nonprofit, environmental organization that helps communities protect the environment and public health through law. ELAW helps partners strengthen and enforce laws to protect themselves and their communities from toxic pollution and environmental degradation.  ELAW provides legal and scientific tools and support that local advocates need to challenge environmental abuses.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Equality of Treatment (Accident Compensation) Convention, 1925 is  an International Labour Organization Convention.\nIt was established in 1925:\n\nHaving decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to the equality of treatment for national and foreign workers as regards workmen's compensation for accidents,...", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ernst v. EnCana Corporation, 2013 ABQB 537 is a lawsuit by Jessica Ernst against EnCana Corporation, the Energy Resources Conservation Board, and Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Alberta.  EnCana is accused of contaminating, by its hydraulic fracturing, the Rosebud aquifer near Rosebud, Alberta, and the Ernst water well.  The claim is supported by the rule in Rylands v Fletcher.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Errors of various types may occur in legal proceedings and may or may not constitute grounds for appeal.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An examination support document (ESD) was a submission formerly proposed to be required to be made to the United States Patent and Trademark Office by an applicant for a United States patent under certain circumstances.  An ESD would be required to comprise at least:\n\nA statement that a prior art search was done including the fields of search and search logic;\nA listing of the references deemed most closely related to the claims pending in the patent application;\nAn identification in each reference of all of the limitations in each claim found in said reference.\nA detailed explanation pointing out how each independent claim is allowable over the prior art; and\nA showing of where each limitation in each claim is found in the specification the patent application.As of November 1, 2007, examination support documents were to be required for each patent application that had more than 5 independent claims or more than 25 dependent claims that had not had a first office action on the merits of its claims.Examination support documents were controversial. Many US patent agents or attorneys felt that they would force an inventor to, in essence, examine his or her own application.  Others felt that they would help speed up patent examination and improve patent quality.The requirement never came into effect because of a preliminary injunction and was abolished effective October 14, 2009.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Exclusive jurisdiction exists in civil procedure if one court has the power to adjudicate a case to the exclusion of all other courts. The opposite situation is concurrent jurisdiction (or non-exclusive jurisdiction) in which more than one court may take jurisdiction over the case.\nExclusive jurisdiction is typically defined in terms of subject matter.  \nFor example, 28 U.S.C. \u00a7 1334 gives the United States district courts exclusive jurisdiction over all matters arising in bankruptcy with a few exceptions.\nOn the federal level, exclusive jurisdiction allows the US Supreme Court to review the decisions in lower courts.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Excusable negligence is a paradoxical phrase, since if the failure to exercise reasonable care under the circumstances is excusable, there is no negligence. 38 Am J1st Negl \u00a7 12.  As used in statutes authorizing the opening of a default and allowing a party to defend on the merits, the standard set by courts is slippery to define, but cases seem to agree that a reasonable excuse is sufficient, where it appears that the defense is meritorious and no substantial prejudice will result from setting aside the default.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Executive Order 13876, entitled \"Imposing Sanctions With Respect to Iran\" was signed by Donald Trump on June 24, 2019. The E.O. imposed economic sanctions on the Supreme Leader of Iran, Ali Khamenei and the Office of the Supreme Leader of Iran (SLO) and authorized the imposition of sanctions on certain others determined to be associated with the Supreme Leader or the SLO.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The exhaustion of intellectual property rights constitutes one of the limits of intellectual property (IP) rights. Once a given product has been sold under the authorization of the IP owner, the reselling, rental, lending and other third party commercial uses of IP-protected goods in domestic and international markets is governed by the principle.After a product covered by an IP right, such as by a patent right, has been sold by the IP right owner or by others with the consent of the owner, the IP right is said to be exhausted. It can no longer be exercised by the owner. This limitation is also referred to as the exhaustion doctrine or first sale doctrine. For example, if an inventor obtains a patent on a new kind of umbrella, the inventor (or anyone else to whom he sells his patent) can legally prohibit other companies from making and selling this kind of umbrella, but can not prohibit customers who have bought this umbrella from the patent owner from reselling the umbrella to third parties.\nThe same applies to software patents.  If a piece of software containing a patented algorithm is redistributed by the patent owner, for example by Microsoft via GitHub, the patent is exhausted.While there is a \"fairly broad consensus\" throughout the world that patent exhaustion \"applies at least within the context of the domestic market\", \"[t]here is less consensus as to what extent the sale of an IP protected product abroad can exhaust the IP rights over this product in the context of domestic law.\" The former is the concept of \"national exhaustion\", the latter of \"regional exhaustion\" or \"international exhaustion\". The rules and legal implications of the exhaustion largely differ depending on the country of importation, i.e. the national jurisdiction.The legal concept of international exhaustion is much more controversial, and is recognized in some countries but not in others. The importation, in a country that recognizes the concept of international exhaustion, of a product sold in a foreign country with the authorization of the IP right owner cannot be prevented by the IP right owner. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), an international agreement administered by the World Trade Organization (WTO), does not address the issue of exhaustion of intellectual property rights.Brexit in 2020 caused restrictions on trade out of the UK, creating an asymmetric exhaustion status enabling imports to the UK from the EEA where there is no matching opportunity for parallel exports from the UK to the EEA. This was thought in February 2022 to be likely to continue for some time, or even indefinitely.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Expert determination is a historically accepted form of dispute resolution invoked when there is not a formulated dispute in which the parties have defined positions that need to be subjected to arbitration, but rather both parties are in agreement that there is a need for an evaluation.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Expert shopping is the practice of finding an authority on a given subject whose professional opinion is skewed toward the answer that the searching party already prefers. This is commonplace in the news media, politics, and business, though can be found in all walks of life.\nAnother well-known use is in lawsuits, when an expert witness can be paid to testify in favor of one side of the case. In this case, the expert witnesses on each side may have totally different opinions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In domestic law, extinctive prescription is the expiration of a legitimate inheritance as the result of prolonged failure to claim said inheritance. Extinctive prescription is enshrined in the United Kingdom by the Prescription Act 1832.The concept of extinctive prescription has mixed usage in international law, where it refers to the expiration of the right of a State to pursue claims if it fails to make an initial pursuit within a certain time-frame of the initial incident occurring. Some treaties specifically include it, while others specifically exempt themselves from it. There is, as of 2019, no agreed customary law about whether it exists (and to what degree) in non-stated cases.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Eyes only is jargon used with regard to classified information. Whereas a classified document is normally intended to be available to anyone with the appropriate security clearance, an \"eyes only\" designation, whether official or informal, indicates that the document is intended only for a specific set of readers. As such the document should not be read by other individuals even if they otherwise possess the appropriate clearance. Another meaning is that the document is under no circumstances to be copied or photographed, \"eyes only\" meaning that it is to be physically read by cleared personnel and nothing more, to ensure that no unauthorized copies of the text are made which might be unaccounted for.\nEYES ONLY may be used as part of the national caveats in English-speaking countries, as an addition to the security classification. The caveat designates assets of particular sensitivity to, say, the UK, or where dissemination is restricted to individuals from specific foreign nations. Unless explicitly named, information bearing a national caveat will not be sent to foreign governments, overseas contractors, international organisations or released to any foreign nationals.\nBritish regulations require notices on the document to specify a level of classification (\"TOP SECRET\", e.g.) and a \"caveat\", separated by a hyphen, e.g.,\n\nTOP SECRET \u2013 UK / US EYES ONLYand centered horizontally on the page.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Fair Credit and Charge Card Disclosure Act (abbreviated as the FCCCDA) is an American consumer protection law that requires credit card companies and loan agencies to disclose any \"fine print\" about a loan or line of credit to the consumer. This includes information about variable interest rates and fees.\nThe FCCCDA was passed in 1988. It was sponsored by Chuck Schumer and signed into law by President Ronald Reagan.This act amended the Truth in Lending Act.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A fair trade law was a statute in any of various states of the United States that permitted manufacturers the right to specify the minimum retail price of a commodity, a practice known as \"price maintenance\".  Such laws first appeared in 1931 during the Great Depression in the state of California.  They were ostensibly intended to protect small businesses to some degree from competition from very large chain stores during a time when small businesses were suffering.  Many people objected to this on the grounds that if the manufacturers could set the price, consumers would have to pay more even at large discount stores.  The complexity of the market also made the enforcement of these laws almost impractical.  As the chain stores became more popular, and bargain prices more common, there was a widespread repeal of the laws in many jurisdictions.  By 1975, the laws had been repealed completely", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Fair Use Project is part of the Stanford Center for Internet and Society at Stanford Law School. Founded in 2006, it offers legal assistance to \"clarify, and extend, the boundaries of \"fair use\" in order to enhance creative freedom.\" It is headed by Tony Falzone, lecturer at Stanford Law. It has been involved in several notable cases such as Aguiar v. Webb, Brave New Films v. Viacom, Golan v. Gonzales, Kahle v. Gonzales, Lennon v. Premise Media, Warner Brothers and JK Rowling v. RDR Books, Shloss v. Joyce, and Vargas v. BT.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In consumer law, false designation of origin occurs when the manufacturer or seller lies about the country of origin or maker of its products.  For example, if a manufacturer makes a product and then claims that it is a high end name brand product.In U.S. law, false designation of origin is defined by 15 U.S.C. \u00a7 1125.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A false lien is document that purports to describe a lien, but which has no legal basis, or which is based upon false, fictitious, or fraudulent statements or representations. In the United States, the filing of false liens has been used as a tool of harassment in \"paper terrorism\", often against government officials. The practice was pioneered by the Posse Comitatus. The Bureau of Prisons has responded by treating lien documents and personal information (such as Social Security Numbers) of federal agents, judges, etc. as contraband in federal prisons.\nThe U.S. Congress has criminalized the filing of false liens, and the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines treat the filing of a false lien against a government official as equally serious as threatening the government officials of the United States. Various U.S. states have been developing ways of combating false liens.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Federal judges are judges appointed by a federal level of government as opposed to the state/provincial/local level.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Federal jurisdiction is the jurisdiction of the federal government in any country that uses federalism. Such a country is known as a Federation.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Federal Rules Decisions is a case law reporter in the United States that is published by West Publishing as part of the National Reporter System.  The Federal Rules Decisions series publishes decisions of the United States district courts involving the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure, and Federal Rules of Evidence that are not published in the Federal Supplement.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In the state of South Carolina, the common law felony murder rule is treated as an automatic aggravator for underlying felonies. It is codified in SC Code \u00a7 16-3-20 but it is largely the creation of the state judiciary. There are six underlying predicate felonies, five of which are traditional predicate felonies such as kidnapping, larceny, robbery, burglary and rape, as well as one nontraditional predicate felony, drug trafficking. South Carolina is one of the few jurisdictions to require malice as an element for felony murder. The South Carolina Supreme Court recommended juries be permitted to infer the malice from some particular felonious purpose. Co-felons are held liable in South Carolina for \"any homicide that is the 'probable or natural consequence of the acts which were done in pursuance of this common design.'\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A fieri facias, usually abbreviated fi. fa. (Latin for that you cause to be made), is a writ of execution after judgment obtained in a legal action for debt or damages  for the sheriff to levy on goods of the judgment debtor.The term is used in English law for such a writ issued in the High Court. Some jurisdictions in the United States also employ this writ, such as the Commonwealth of Virginia.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In United States law, a finance charge is any fee representing the cost of credit, or the cost of borrowing. It is interest accrued on, and fees charged for, some forms of credit. It includes not only interest but other charges as well, such as financial transaction fees.  Details regarding the federal definition of finance charge are found in the Truth-in-Lending Act and Regulation Z, promulgated by the Federal Reserve Board.\nIn personal finance, a finance charge may be considered simply the dollar amount paid to borrow money, while interest is a percentage amount paid such as annual percentage rate (APR).  These definitions are narrower than the typical dictionary definitions or accounting definitions.\nCreditors and lenders use different methods to calculate finance charges.  The most common formula is based on the average daily balance, in which daily outstanding balances are added together and then divided by the number of days in the month.\nIn financial accounting, interest is defined as any charge or cost of borrowing money.  Interest is a synonym for finance charge.  In effect, the accountant looks at the entire cost of settlement on a Housing and Urban Development (HUD) form 1 (the HUD-1 Settlement Statement) document as interest unless that charge can be identified as an escrow amount or an amount that is charged to current expenses or expenditures other than interest, such as payment of current or prorated real estate taxes.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The fireman's rule (firefighter's rule) is a common law or statutory restriction on tort actions by public safety officials. In general, the fireman's rule bars lawsuits by firefighters, police officers and, in some jurisdictions, all government safety professionals from collecting on damages that occur in the course of their duties even in cases of clear negligence by other parties.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The \"first possession\" theory of property holds that ownership of something is justified simply by someone seizing it before someone else does. This contrasts with the labor theory of property where something may become property only by applying productive labor to it, i.e. by making something out of the materials of nature.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Although the definition may vary by jurisdiction, foreclosure consultant generally means any person who makes any solicitation, representation, or offer to any owner to perform for compensation or who, for compensation, performs any service which the person in any manner represents will in any manner do any of the following:\nStop or postpone the foreclosure sale.\nObtain any forbearance from any beneficiary or mortgagee.\nAssist the owner to exercise the right of reinstatement.\nObtain any extension of the period within which the owner may reinstate his or her obligation.\nObtain any waiver of an acceleration clause contained in any promissory note or contract secured by a deed of trust or mortgage on a residence in foreclosure or contained in any such deed of trust or mortgage.\nAssist the owner to obtain a loan or advance of funds.\nAvoid or ameliorate the impairment of the owner's credit resulting from the recording of a notice of default or the conduct of a foreclosure sale.\nSave the owner's residence from foreclosure.In some jurisdictions a foreclosure consultant must be licensed by the government.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Dame Alison Lee Caroline Foster, Lady Havelock-Allan  (born 22 January 1957), styled The Hon Mrs Justice Foster, is a British barrister and judge of the High Court of England and Wales.  \nFoster was appointed to the High Court of England and Wales in October 2019, assigned to the Queen's Bench Division.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Four Corners Rule is a legal doctrine that courts use to determine the meaning of a written instrument such as a contract, will, or deed as represented solely by its textual content.  The doctrine states that where there is an ambiguity of terms, the Court must rely on the written instrument solely and cannot consider extraneous evidence.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In property law, the term free and clear refers to ownership without legal encumbrances, such as a lien or mortgage.  So, for example: a person owns a house free and clear if he has paid off the mortgage and no creditor has filed a lien against it.\nLately there has been a resurgence in interest for free and clear properties despite being an investment form that has been prevalent from early on. Investing in free and clear properties removes the need for a bank loan entirely. \nOver 35% of all properties in the United States are owned free and clear with no outstanding mortgages or liens.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Freedom of testation is the power of a person to make a will and testament specifying whatever heirs they please. It is historically associated with English common law, and contrasted with forced heirship, where part or all of the estate is automatically inherited by the next of kin. Opponents of absolute freedom of testation have pointed to the possibility of a widow or orphan being left destitute while property of a spouse or parent is bequeathed to others. Some opponents of inheritance tax have characterized it as an abrogation of freedom of testation.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Galicia v. Trump is a case put before the New York Supreme Court in which plaintiffs alleged that they were assaulted in September 2015 by Donald Trump's security team (which included Keith Schiller) at Trump Tower while peacefully protesting Trump's statements related to Black Lives Matter and Mexican immigrants.State Supreme Court Justice Doris Gonzalez has been handling the case. In September 2019, she ordered President Trump to \"appear for a videotaped deposition\" under oath for the civil suit. She again ordered Trump to appear at a video deposition on October 18, 2021. Trump testified that he had been unaware of the incident while it unfolded and did not hear about it until a later date. In April 2022, part of the deposition transcript was released, which included Trump discussing being deathly afraid of protestors throwing fruit at him. In May, former Trump fixer Michael Cohen testified that Trump knew about the protestors at Trump Tower and said, \"Get rid of them!\" Cohen also testified that Trump had instructed his security detail to look out for pies being lodged at him.Trump also testified that he personally oversaw the compensation of his chief operating officer, Michael Calamari Sr., which became relevant to a New York criminal investigation of the Trump Organization for possible fraud. Trump's deposition in a related civil investigation by the New York Attorney General is expected to delay the trial for Galicia v. Trump.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Geographic targeting order (or GTO) is an order issued by the United States Secretary of Treasury requiring any United States domestic financial institutions that exist within a geographic area to report on transactions any greater than a specified value. GTOs are defined in the Bank Secrecy Act in 31 U.S.C. \u00a7 5326(a). They only last for a limited period of time \u2014 originally each order lasted 60 days however section 353 of the USA PATRIOT Act extended such orders to 180 days.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The GNAT Modified General Public License (short: Modified GPL, GMGPL) is a version of the GNU General Public License specifically modified for compiled units and for the generic feature found in the Ada programming language.\nThe modification is as follows:\n\nAs a special exception,  if other files  instantiate  generics from this unit, or you link  this unit with other files  to produce an executable, this  unit  does not  by itself cause  the resulting  executable  to  be covered  by the  GNU  General  Public  License.  This exception does not however invalidate  any other reasons why  the executable file  might be covered by the  GNU Public License.The GNAT Ada compiler can automate conformance checks for some GPL software license issues via a compiler directive. Use pragma License (Modified_GPL); to activate the check against the Modified GPL.  The GNAT Reference Manual  documents the License  pragma along with other compiler directives.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A government bill is a bill which is proposed, introduced or supported by a government in their country's legislature. It is most significant in the Westminster system where most bills are introduced by the government. This is in contrast to private member's bills which are introduced by members of the legislature who are not part of the executive or cabinet.\nUsually, constitutional systems that forbid members of the government from simultaneously being members of the legislature, such as South Korea and the Netherlands, give the government the right to initiate bills in its own right to allow it to introduce government bills. However, in the United States, the right to introduce bills is only given to members of Congress, who cannot simultaneously serve in the executive branch, and the government can only introduce bills \"by proxy\", via its congressional backers.\nGovernment bills are usually public bills and are often introduced into the chamber of government (in a bicameral system) on which confidence the Government depends (in parliamentary and semi-presidential systems). In the UK, forthcoming government bills are often listed in the Queen's Speech, a speech from the throne which precedes each session of Parliament.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Government of Japan Standard Terms of Use (Japanese: \u653f\u5e9c\u6a19\u6e96\u5229\u7528\u898f\u7d04, Hepburn: Seifu Hy\u014djun Riy\u014d Kiyaku) is a terms of use agreement for the content published online by Japanese government cabinet ministry websites. It was created in 2014. It allows the contents of cabinet ministry websites to be freely used, copied, publicly transmitted or otherwise modified, except when restricted by laws and ordinances. Version 1.0 of the terms of use agreement was created by the National Strategy office of Information and Communication Technology, Cabinet Secretariat (Japanese: \u5185\u95a3\u5b98\u623f\u60c5\u5831\u901a\u4fe1\u6280\u8853\u7dcf\u5408\u6226\u7565\u5ba4, Hepburn: Naikaku-kanb\u014d J\u014dh\u014d Ts\u016bshin Gijutsu S\u014dg\u014d Senryaku-shitsu) in 2014 to promote the reuse of government website content.Version 2.0 of the agreement was created in December 2015 and went into use starting in January 2016. Version 2.0 and later versions are compatible with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Grand rights is a type of music licensing, specifically covering the right to perform musical compositions within the context of a dramatic work. This includes stage performances such as musical theater, concert dance, and arrangements of music from a dramatic work.\nThe license agreements of major Performance rights organisation(PRO)s such as ASCAP and BMI only cover what are known in contrast as \"small rights\", and exclude the usage of compositions within \"dramatic\" or \"dramatico-musical\" works, or the use of compositions that originated from a dramatico-musical work. Unlike small rights, grand rights must be negotiated directly with the publisher or copyright holder of the composition. Grand rights may also be contrasted with sync licensing, the licensing of music to synchronize with video content in films, videos, videogames, etc. \n\nPrior to the establishment of PROs, license negotiations for any use of a composition were always done directly with publishers or composers. As compositions are licensed more often for non-dramatic performances, it is more efficient to manage these uses collectively. Musician Jack Vees noted that \"it is understandable that a successful composer or publisher would not want to hand over control of negotiating rights if he or she is doing pretty well in that particular arena. In one sense, this division of labor is simply a decision made by a majority of the members of a given performing rights society, because that\u2019s the way they wanted their particular club to work.\" Vees also argued that allowing PROs to engage in negotiations for use of compositions in dramatic works could encourage illegal price fixing.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Grave disability or gravely disabled is a legal status used as a criterion in addition to danger to self or others  as the basis for involuntary commitment in only 9 of 50 states of the United States.  It is not a criterion in Washington, D.C.\nIn California, it is defined as \"a condition in which a person, as a result of a mental health disorder,\" ...(or impairment by chronic alcoholism)..., \"is unable to provide for his or her basic personal needs for food, clothing, or shelter.\u201dSome states such as Louisiana also include substance-related or addictive disorders  and add medical care to needs.It may also be used in certain defined violent felony cases for mental incompetence.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Green v Hatchy Investments pty Ltd was an important appeals case in Queensland, Australia, which set a precedent for Queensland landlord-tenant law, and clarified the rule around the requirement of conciliation before a plaintiff could begin legal proceedings in court.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A grietman (from Old Frisian greta to accuse, to summon) is partly a forerunner of the current rural mayor in the province of Friesland, and partly the forerunner of a judge.  The area of jurisdiction was the municipality or gemeente.  In the judge function, the concept was also found in the Western side of  the province of Groningen.The grietman and judges were responsible for the administration and justice in the Frisian grietenij. The grietmannen were in turn elected or appointed, with the cooperation of the stadholder and the Executive Council. The grietman was often kept in the same family. The eleven Frisian cities have mayors. All 30 grietmen and the 11 mayors had a voting right in the Provincial States, thus giving the rural population a proportional representation in the province.The Municipalities of Thorbecke law (promulgated in 1851) designated the Frisian grietman as mayors.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A grievance (from Latin  gravis 'heavy') is a wrong or hardship suffered, real or supposed, which forms legitimate grounds of complaint. In the past, the word meant the infliction or cause of hardship.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Joseph Grimberg, SC was a Singaporean prominent lawyer and former Supreme Court judge. Grimberg joined Drew & Napier when he was called to the Singapore Bar in 1957. He was a senior partner at the law firm from 1967 to 1987, when he was appointed Judicial Commissioner of the Supreme Court in 1987.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A guest statute is a term used in the law of torts to describe a statute that makes it significantly more difficult for a passenger in an automobile to recover damages from the driver for injuries received in an accident resulting from ordinary negligence on the part of the driver. Instead, passengers are limited to suits based on gross negligence, recklessness, or intentional misconduct. The statute may also place a cap on the damages to be awarded, or limit damages to compensation for actual physical injuries. The original purpose of the guest statute was both to protect drivers from frivolous litigation and to protect insurance companies from collusive and fraudulent suits (wherein the passenger sues the driver in order to collect from the driver's insurer). For the same reason, some states also passed aviation guest statutes, which limit the liability of non-commercial airplane passengers. \nIn 1917, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court decided that \"unpaid drivers, analogized to gratuitous bailees, should not be held liable to their guests for automobile accidents in the absence of gross negligence.\" After this, almost 30 states adopted this heightened requirement by statute. Nebraska's guest statute was repealed in 2010 following a court case upholding its constitutionality. Oregon maintains a guest statute applicable to non-paying passengers in aircraft or watercraft limiting claims for injury, death or loss in case of an accident, unless the accident was intentional on the part of the owner or operator or caused by the gross negligence or intoxication of the owner or operator.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Commonly referred to as the \"Guardianship Convention\", the Convention of 1902 relating to the settlement of guardianship of minors, along with the other Conventions in 1902, was the Hague Conference's first effort at addressing international family law. It was the first form of family law which would stay relevant for decades afterwards; it was also the only family law treaty that was expressly preserved and revived in the Treaty of Versailles and other post World War I peace treaties.  The Guardianship Convention was written only in French and, with the Boll case, is the only Convention of the Hague Conference to ever be the principal subject of interpretation before a court with worldwide jurisdiction.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Harm is a moral and legal concept.\nBernard Gert construes harm as any of the following:\npain\ndeath\ndisability\nloss of ability or freedom\nloss of pleasure.Joel Feinberg gives an account of harm as setbacks to interests.  He distinguishes welfare interests from ulterior interests.  Hence on his view there are two kinds of harm.\nWelfare interests are \n\ninterests in the continuance for a foreseeable interval of one's life, and the interests in one's own physical health and vigor, the integrity and normal functioning of one's body, the absence of absorbing pain and suffering or grotesque disfigurement, minimal intellectual acuity, emotional stability, the absence of groundless anxieties and resentments, the capacity to engage normally in social intercourse and to enjoy and maintain friendships, at least minimal income and financial security, a tolerable social and physical environment, and a certain amount of freedom from interference and coercion.Ulterior interests are \"a person's more ultimate goals and aspirations,\" such as \"producing good novels or works of art, solving a crucial scientific problem, achieving high political office, successfully raising a family . . .\".\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Harmon Doctrine or the Harmon Doctrine of Absolute Territorial Sovereignty holds that a country has absolute sovereignty over the territory and resources within its borders.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Hartford College of Law was a law school operating in Hartford, Connecticut, from October 25, 1921, to October 27, 1948, when it was fully merged into the University of Connecticut, which had taken over administrative control of the school by lease in 1942. The school had close ties to the Travelers Insurance Company, and in 1939 also established the Hartford College of Insurance.After this establishment, it was sometimes referred to as the Hartford College of Law and Insurance. In 1943, an act of the state legislature permitted the University of Connecticut to take over the institution for a trial period of five years, to determine whether the University could effectively operate it. At the end of that time, the operation of the college having been deemed successful, it was then permanently absorbed by the University as the University of Connecticut School of Law.\nIt was founded by three lawyers one of them Allan K. Smith served as a US attorney while teaching there.\nAlumni of the institution include Louis Shapiro, a past Justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Harvard Negotiation Project is a project created at Harvard University which deals with issues of negotiations and conflict resolution.\nThe stated aims and goal of the project, according to the Harvard Law School site is as follows:\nThe mission of the Harvard Negotiation Project (HNP) is to improve the theory and practice of conflict resolution and negotiation by working on real world conflict intervention, theory building, education and training, and writing and disseminating new ideas.\nThe director of the project as of 2008 is Professor James Sebenius.The program was initiated in 1979, at the time of the commencement of activities the joint heads of the project were William Ury and Roger Fisher.The project published a text titled Getting to Yes in 1981. Getting It DONE: How to Lead When You're Not in Charge was published in 1998, Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most in 1999, and Beyond Reason: Using Emotions as you Negotiate was published in 2006.The project at some time identified four crucial factors for negotiation: people, interests, options and criteria (otherwise known as boundary conditions).The activities of the project include: theory building, education and training, publications and a conflict clinic.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A headnote is a brief summary of a particular point of law that is added to the text of a court decision to aid readers in locating discussion of a legal issue in an opinion. As the term implies, headnotes appear at the beginning of the published opinion.\nIn 1906, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co. that headnotes have no legal standing and therefore do not set precedent.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In the common law tradition, a heartbalm tort or heartbalm action is a civil action that a person may bring to seek monetary compensation for the end or disruption of a romantic or marital relationship.  A heartbalm statute is a statute forbidding such actions.Heartbalm actions in the United States typically include seduction, criminal conversation, alienation of affection, and breach of promise to marry. Of these, criminal conversation and alienation of affection are marital torts, originally restricted to husbands but in many states later made available to spouses regardless of gender. Seduction and breach of promise are nonmarital torts.In England and other common law jurisdictions, additional heartbalm actions were traditionally recognized, such as enticement and wrongful harbouring (tortious refusal to allow a husband to visit a wife who has left him). A claim for damages based on loss of consortium is also sometimes considered a heartbalm action in England and elsewhere.In the United States, heartbalm actions were widespread until high-profile stories in the early 20th century about heartbalm claims being abused for blackmail and extortion led to calls for repeal.  The first state to abolish all heartbalm actions was Indiana, with \u201cAn Act to promote public morals\u201d in 1935. By 1952, 16 more states had followed its example.  Many states that abolished other heartbalm torts retained the tort of seduction, however; of the ten states that had abolished heartbalm actions by 1938, four allowed minors to sue for seduction and three more kept the tort of seduction intact.Following a report by the Law Reform Committee in 1963, England abolished all of the traditional heartbalm torts (excluding loss of consortium) by statute in 1970.In the United States, as of 2016, eight states still allow heartbalm actions: Hawaii, Mississippi, Missouri, New Mexico, North Carolina, South Dakota, and Utah.  However, such actions are uncommon even where they are still allowed.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Hext v Yeomans (1583)   is an early defamation case wherein the Court found that slander do not lie upon inferences.  It was the origin of the mitior sensus doctrine, imputing a mere intention to commit a crime was held to be nonactionable.\nThe defendant referred to as Yeoman was accused of saying to Hext I doubt not but to see thee hanged for stricking Mr Sydmans man, who was murdered. The judge found that Yeoman had not actually asserted it was Hext who had done the murder, merely that he had struck him.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The High Court of Botswana is the highest court of Botswana. It is based in Gaborone with branches in Lobatse, Francistown, and Maun. It operates above the Magistrates' Courts of Botswana, but below the Appeal Court. The High Court is headed by the Chief Justice of Botswana.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The High Speed Rail (West Midlands - Crewe) Act 2021 is an Act of Parliament passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed on 11 February 2021 to give the legislative framework for the first stage of High Speed 2 between the West Midlands and Crewe, Cheshire.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A highway authority is a government organization responsible for public roads.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In Spain, the historic-artistic is a legal statement that gives assets declared as historical-artistic monuments in a given locality the protection of Spanish cultural goods, which is regulated by the Ministry of Culture of Spain.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "His Honour or Her Honour (American English: His Honor or Her Honor) is an honorific prefix traditionally applied to certain classes of people, in particular justices and judges and mayors. In Australia and the United States, the prefix is also used for magistrates (spelled in the American style, \"Honor\"). A corruption of the term, \"Hizzoner\", is sometimes used to irreverently refer to mayors of larger U.S. cities such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, or Philadelphia.\nIn Australia, His Honour or Her Honour is used as a title for the Administrator of the Northern Territory while in office. The Honourable is a courtesy title retained for life for a former administrator.\nIn England and Wales, it is used as a prefix for circuit judges, e.g. His Honour Judge John Smith. It is sometimes abbreviated in writing as HHJ.In Hong Kong, which retained much of England's judicial tradition, it is also used as a prefix for district court judges.\nIn Northern Ireland the prefix is also used for county court judges.\nIn Canada, His Honour or Her Honour is used as a title for the lieutenant governor of a province while in office.  The spouse of a lieutenant governor is also addressed as His or Her Honour only while the lieutenant governor is in office.  The Honourable is a courtesy title retained for life for a former lieutenant governor.\nFormerly, this style was sometimes used by an enlisted seaman when addressing the captain of a ship, though this practice has not been common since the early Nineteenth Century.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law, horizontal effect refers to the ability of legal requirements meant to apply only to public bodies to affect private rights. It arises where a court dealing with a legal dispute between purely private entities interprets a legal provision to be consistent with certain legal norms in such a way as to affect the legal rights and obligations of the parties before it.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Hudson Formula derives from Hudsons Building and Engineering Contracts and is used for the assessment of delay damages in construction claims.\nThe formula is:\n(Head Office overheads + profit) \u00f7 100 x contract sum \u00f7 period in weeks x delay in weeks\nWhere Head Office is head office overheads and profits percentage submitted in a tender.cf the Emden Formula where only the actual head office overheads percentage is used.A claimant must prove a necessity to maintain resources on the project and an inability to re-allocate them to more profitable work and must give evidence of the processes within the head office to enable an assessment of the portion of overheads, if any, that are attributable to the delay caused by the breach.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The hungry judge effect is a finding that judges were more inclined to be lenient after a meal but more severe before the break.  It has been suggested that this may be an artifact of the scheduling of cases, based on their likely outcome and duration.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ibrachy & Dermarkar law firm is a legal practice that serves business legal needs since 1932. The firm acts as legal counsel to several companies operating in Egypt.\nMa\u00eetre Charles Chalom was head of the Egyptian bar association of mixed courts, but he was also a qualified accountant. So, when he set up his legal practice in 1932, the mix of business and law was the seedling of Ibrachy and Dermarkar, the prestigious international law firm as it is known today. In 1952, Messrs. Hassan & Hussein El Ibrachy and Said Dermarkar negotiated a partnership agreement with Mr. Chalom creating Chalom, Ibrachy & Dermarkar.\nDr. Hassan Elibrachy, then the secretary of the royal cabinet, joined the firm in 1953. The firm saw another change in 1956, when Ma\u00eetre, Charles Chalom, resigned from the practice and left Egypt in 1956. That was the birth of the present Ibrachy and Dermarkar law firm; I&D, as it is known.\nThe history of I&D stands out with achievements; I&D were the main lawyers for the Baron Empain who had established the city of Heliopolis, acted as consultants for Siemens as it modernized the Egyptian telecom system during the Sadat administration era. It consulted for the Japanese group, headed by Toyo Menka Kaisha as it founded the Dekheila Steel Project, the first of its kind in Egypt.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "ID\u2013WithoutColors is a 2013 German documentary film by Riccardo Valsecchi produced by the Migrationsrat Berlin-Brandenburg. The film follows the 2012 sentence of the administrative court of Koblenz, Western Germany, which on February 27, dismissed a complaint by a black German man who was asked to show his papers while traveling by train. The judges ruled that skin color was reasonable grounds on which to carry out ID checks. The sentence confirmed for the first time the existence and practice of racial profiling in Germany since World War II. The film follows the works of such associations as KOP-Berlin, ISDB, Reach Out, Gangway Neuk\u00f6lln, which work in this field in Berlin, as well as it gives voices to activists, victims, policemen and politicians, analyzing deeply the psychological aspects of the practice of racial profiling on the victims.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Identity change describes the intentional changes to an identity document or digital identity. The topic is of particular interest in \"faceless\" financial transactions and computer security.  There are several different parties who may initiate the change:\n\nA first party. the original bearer of an identity may initiate the change\nA second party, who wishes to use the identity, may initiate the change\nA third party may initiate an identity change\nIn some instances, multiple parties cooperate to change an identity.Identity change can be categorized in several ways: \n\nIdentity takeover (identity theft / identity fraud)\nIdentity delegation\nIdentity exchange\nIdentity deletion\nIdentity restoration\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Imminent peril, or imminent danger, is an American legal concept where Imminent peril is \"certain danger, immediate, and impending; menacingly close at hand, and threatening.\" In many states in the USA, a mere necessity for quick action does not constitute an emergency within the doctrine of imminent peril, where the situation calling for the action is one which should reasonably have been anticipated and which the person whose action is called for should have been prepared to meet; the doctrine of imminent peril does not excuse one who has brought about the peril by their own negligence.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An immutable characteristic is any sort of physical attribute which is unchangeable, entrenched and innate. The term is often used to describe segments of the population which share such attributes and are contrasted from others by those attributes, and is used in human rights law to classify protected groups of people who should be protected from civil or criminal actions which are directed against those immutable characteristics.\nFor example, a legal debate about sexual orientation concerns whether it is a mutable or immutable characteristic.  If it is immutable, then homosexuality, bisexuality, asexuality, heterosexuality, etc., are all immutable characteristics that naturally occur and cannot be changed.  If it is mutable, then those characteristics can be changed.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The doctrine of implied repeal is a concept in constitutional theory which states that where an Act of Parliament or an Act of Congress (or of some other legislature) conflicts with an earlier one, the later Act takes precedence and the conflicting parts of the earlier Act become legally inoperable. This doctrine is expressed in the Latin phrase leges posteriores priores contrarias abrogant or \"lex posterior derogat priori\".\nImplied repeal is to be contrasted with the express repeal of legislation by the legislative body.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An independent adjudicator is an authorized judge in the United Kingdom who has the power to make binding decisions in a particular field.  The mechanism is designed to represent the interests of groups which would otherwise have gone unrepresented, such as students with a complaint against their university.\nIn recent years the use of independent adjudicators in British TV game shows has been increasingly popular.  The phrase was first used on a regular basis by Noel Edmonds in the Endemol show Deal or No Deal in which the independent adjudicator is 'the only person who knows where the money is'.  Increasingly, on other game shows, the independent adjudicator is used to carry out random draws where the order of play  might have implications for the contestants.  They are also used to oversee interpretation of rules and contestant complaints.\nShows where the independent adjudicator has made an on-screen appearance include Deal or No Deal, Red or Black? Series 1 and Child Genius, Channel 4.\nComedian Catherine Tate filmed a comedy sketch in the Deal or No Deal studio  and is referred to as the independent adjudicator.\n\nOffice of the Independent Adjudicator (for Higher Education in England and Wales)\nThe Office of the independent Adjudicator for the Contract Rights Renewal (CRR)\nBeyond Dispute Independent Adjudicators", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An Individual rights advocate is an advocate \"to protect the legal and human rights of individuals with disabilities.\" United States law provides for advocates to protect the legal rights of persons with disabilities. This advocacy can be life-changing:\n\nOver the last 25 years, disability rights advocacy has played a crucial role in broadening the concept of disability and of what people with disabilities can accomplish. This advocacy has been instrumental in shaping new images of people with disabilities. In emphasizing individual independence and empowerment since the beginning of the disability rights movement in the early 1970s, advocates have tried to show that people with disabilities are a vital part of society and have the right to participate fully in it.\nThere are some writers who feel that, \"only individuals have rights,\" rather than groups.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ingress, egress, and regress are legal terms referring respectively to entering, leaving, and returning to a property or country. The term also refers to the rights of a person (such as a lessee) to do so as regards a specific property. The term was also used in the Ingress into India Ordinance, 1914 when the British government wanted to screen, detain, and restrict the movement of people returning to India, particularly those involved in the Ghadar Movement.In a sale and purchase contract, it means that the buyer gets full rights to insure the property according to Standard A.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Inhlawulo [int\u0361\u026cawu\u02d0lo], in Swazi/Zulu law, is a fine or damages paidIn Zulu culture, inhlawulo refers to damages paid to the family of a woman who became pregnant out of wedlock by the father of the future child.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Institute for Legal Research is a legal research center at the UC Berkeley School of Law. It was founded in 1967 as the Earl Warren Legal Institute, after American jurist and politician Earl Warren, and was originally an Organized Research Unit of the University of California, Berkeley. It was renamed to its current name in July 2005, and became part of the UC Berkeley School of Law in July 2009.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An intellectual property (IP) infringement is the infringement or violation of an intellectual property right. There are several types of intellectual property rights, such as copyrights, patents, trademarks, industrial designs, and trade secrets. Therefore, an intellectual property infringement may for instance be one of the following:\n\nCopyright infringement, encompassing for example a software copyright infringement\nPatent infringement\nTrademark infringement\nDesign infringement\nCybersquatting", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Intentional contagion of infection, also called voluntary contagion, conscious contagion, or intentional transmission is the act by which a human being deliberately infects another with a pathogen knowing that they will be infected. In some legislations of some countries this act has been criminalized, managing to prosecute it and consider it as aggravating for fraud or recklessness.\nOne of the most frequent cases of intentional contagion is that of viruses and bacteria that are considered sexually transmitted infections, being commonly the most common methods through the malicious use of syringes and the unsafe sexual act, such as the criminal transmission of HIV.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "IPI (Interested party information) is a unique identifying number assigned by the CISAC database to each Interested Party in collective rights management. It is used worldwide by more than 120 countries and three million right holders.Two types of IPI-numbers exist, an IPI Name Number and IPI Base Number.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In United States Constitutional Law, intergovernmental immunity is a doctrine that prevents the federal government and individual state governments from intruding on each other's sovereignty. It is also referred to as a Supremacy Clause immunity or simply federal immunity from state law.\nThe doctrine was established by the United States Supreme Court in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), which ruled unanimously that states may not regulate property or operations of the federal government. In that case, Maryland state law subjected banks not chartered by the state to restrictions and taxes. In McCulloch's case, state law had attempted to impose these restrictions on the Second Bank of the United States. The Court found that if a state had the power to tax a federally incorporated institution, then the state effectively had the power to destroy the federal institution, thereby thwarting the intent and purpose of Congress. This would make the states superior to the federal government.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An intermediate appellate court is an appeals court that is not the court of last resort in its jurisdiction. For further information, see:\n\nappellate court\nappeal", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The International Open Data Charter is a set of principles and best practices for the release of governmental open data. The charter was formally adopted by seventeen governments of countries, states and cities at the Open Government Partnership Global Summit in Mexico in October 2015. The original signatories included the governments of Chile, Guatemala, France, Italy, Mexico, Philippines, South Korea, the United Kingdom and Uruguay, the cities of Buenos Aires, Minatitl\u00e1n, Puebla, Veracruz,  Montevideo, Reynosa, and the Mexican states of Morelos and Xalapa. As of 2020, 74 national and local governments are signatories.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "International speech crimes are acts of speech which are criminalized under international law. Incitement to genocide is one example, but the Nuremberg trials and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia convicted some defendants of crimes against humanity based on speech acts. For example, Serb politician Vojislav \u0160e\u0161elj was indicted for crimes against humanity, including \"war propaganda and incitement of hatred  towards  non-Serb  people\". Serbian politician Radovan Karad\u017ei\u0107 was convicted of \"participating in a joint criminal enterprise to commit crimes against humanity on the basis of his public speeches and broadcasts\". Dario Kordi\u0107 and Radoslav Br\u0111anin were also convicted of crimes based on instigating violence in public speeches.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Interstate Compact on the Placement of Children (ICPC) is a contract among all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia and the Virgin Islands providing for protection and support services for children moved between U.S. states for birth parent unification or reunification when the court has jurisdiction over the child. The ICPC ensures that the sending agency or individual does not lose jurisdiction over the child once the child moves to the receiving state. An ICPC case is closed when a child is adopted, reaches the age of majority, or becomes self-supporting or when the appropriate authorities in the sending state and receiving state agree that the ICPC case can be closed.\nThe idea for the ICPC was developed in the 1950s, and New York became the first party to the agreement in 1960.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Intracorporate Conspiracy Doctrine is a common-law doctrine in American law that states that members of a corporation, such as employees, cannot be held to have conspired among themselves, because the corporation and its agents constitute a single actor for purposes of law. Therefore, it is reasoned that there is no plurality of actors needed to constitute a conspiracy. However, the doctrine is held not to apply in some areas of law. Furthermore, in some areas of law, is not uniformly applied the same way throughout the federal circuits.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Involuntary dismissal is the termination of a court case despite the plaintiff's objection.\nIn United States federal courts, involuntary dismissal is governed by Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) Rule 41(b).\nInvoluntary dismissal is made by a defendant through a motion for dismissal, on grounds that plaintiff is not prosecuting the case, is not complying with a court order, or to comply with the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.\nInvoluntary dismissal can also be made by order of the judge when no defendant has made a motion to dismiss.  Involuntary dismissal is a punishment that courts may use when a party to a case is not acting properly.  Other punishments are found in FRCP Rule 11, Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure Rule 38, sections 1927 and 1912 of Title 28 United States Code, and inherent powers of the court.\nInvoluntary dismissal bars the case from being brought to court again, unless the judge says otherwise.\nState court rules may be different from the Federal rules and vary from state to state.\nFull Text of FRCP 41(b):\n\n(b) Involuntary Dismissal: Effect Thereof.  For failure of the plaintiff to prosecute or to comply with these rules or any order of court, a defendant may move for dismissal of an action or of any claim against the defendant.  Unless the court in its order for dismissal otherwise specifies, a dismissal under this subdivision and any dismissal not provided for in the rules, other than a dismissal for lack of jurisdiction, for improper venue, or for failure to join a party under Rule 19, operates as an adjudication on the merits.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Iudex non calculat is a maxim, principle, axiom, dictum, adage, proverb, or slogan that loosely translates as \"The judge does not calculate\". It originates from the Roman legal concept that obvious calculation errors in a court decision are not harmful to the decision itself and can be corrected at any time. Figuratively it also describes the concept that a judge does not \"add up\" the number of arguments but instead bases his or her decision on the strength of those arguments. \nJokingly, it is often used to mean \"judges (or jurists) are unable to do the math\", often by jurists themselves.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Michael Wayne Jackson (born November 18, 1963 in Fayetteville, Tennessee) is an American attorney. He is currently an Alabama district attorney. He received his undergraduate degree at Centre College with a double major in economics/management and government in 1985. He received his Juris Doctor in 1988 from Florida State University College of Law.\nJackson became a Selma, Alabama Municipal Judge in 1995 and served until 1998. In 2004, he became the first African American district attorney elected to the 4th Judicial Circuit. At that time, he was only the second African American to serve as district attorney in Alabama. While in office, Jackson has prosecuted several notable cases, including the Alabama Church Arson Cases in Bibb County, Alabama, the Alabama Artifacts Case, and the case of former state trooper James Bonard Fowler, who was charged with the murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Jammu and Kashmir Constitution Act (S. 1996, 1939 AD;  Act No. XIV of S. 1996) was promulgated by Hari Singh, the Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. The 78 sections detailed the kings' powers including his relationship with the executive, legislature and judiciary. Inspired by the British, a High Court was formed along with judicial advisors to the king. The law minister during this period was Justice Sir Lal Gopal Mukherjee.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "John v Anon [c. 1290] BL. Add. 31826, fol. 169 is a very early common law case and shows the very early development of trust law, although the decision itself is not precedent setting. The significance of the case is rather that it records a detailed view of the proceedings when one went into chancery to purchase a writ.\nThis case was very early in the common law era being heard only ten years after Edward II set up the division of various courts in the curia regis.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A judgment creditor is a party to which a debt is owed that has proved the debt in a legal proceeding and that is entitled to use judicial process to collect the debt. A creditor becomes a \"judgment creditor\" when a judgment is rendered stating that they are entitled to recover a particular debt from a judgment debtor. Following a judgment, a judgment debtor may satisfy the debt voluntarily or the judgment creditor may need to take additional steps to enforce the judgment.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In English and American law, a judgment debtor is a person against whom a judgment ordering him to pay a sum of money has been obtained and remains unsatisfied.  Such a person may be examined as to their assets, and if the judgment debt is of the necessary amount he may be made bankrupt if he fails to comply with a bankruptcy notice (in US law, an involuntary petition) served on him by the judgment creditors.\n\nIn the past, the judgment debtor could have been committed to prison or have a receiving order made against him in a judgment summons under the Debtors Act 1869.Specific debts are non-dischargeable, such as debts for fraud and civil judgments that are obtained in a civil Adversary proceeding in bankruptcy. During such proceedings (US law) the judge who presides over the bankruptcy declares that a specific debt be deemed non-dischargeable, in that the bankruptcy will not dismiss the debt, and the debtor is obligated for the full amount of the judgment for life.\nExaminations, referred to as judgment debtor exams or a JDX of the debtor are conducted in front of a district court judge, and the debtor is required to answer questions about his or her assets, or face the possibility of imprisonment for contempt of court.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A judicial officer is a person with the responsibilities and powers to facilitate, arbitrate, preside over, and make decisions and directions in regard to the application of the law.Judicial officers are typically categorized as judges, magistrates, puisne judicial officers such as justices of the peace or officers of courts of limited jurisdiction; and notaries public and commissioners of oaths. The powers of judicial officers vary and are usually limited to a certain jurisdiction.\nJudicial officials are also known as persons entitled to the enforcement of enforcement documents, the establishment of factual circumstances, the transfer of documents and any other functions provided for by law. In most countries, they are appointed and dismissed by the Minister of Justice. Their activities are strictly regulated by law and controlled by the state.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In legal Latin, juris privati means \"of private right; not clothed with a public interest.\"  Contrast juris publici.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The jurisprudence of concepts was the first sub-school of legal positivism, according to which, the written law must reflect concepts, when interpreted. Its main representatives were Ihering, Savigny and Puchta.\nThis school was, thus, the preceding trigger of the idea that law comes from a dogmatic source, imposition from man over man and not a natural consequence of other sciences or of metaphysical faith.\nAmong the main characters of the jurisprudence of concepts are:\n\nformalism, search of rights in written law\nsystemisation\nsearch for justifying specific norm with basis from more generic ones.So, according to this school, law should have prevailing sources based upon the legislative process, although needing to be proven by more inclusive ideas of a social sense.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In European legal history and the philosophy of law, the jurisprudence of interests is a doctrine of legal positivism of the early 20th century, according to which a written law must be interpreted to reflect the interests it is to promote. The main proponents of the jurisprudence of interests were Philipp Heck, Rudolf M\u00fcller-Erzbach, Arthur F. Bentley and Roscoe Pound.The school of legal positivism passed through the phase of the jurisprudence of interests after the jurisprudence of concepts. In the jurisprudence of interests, one interprets a law essentially in terms of the purposes it is intended to accomplish. This doctrine is characterized by the idea of obedience to law, and subsumption as the resolution of conflicts of interests in the concrete and in the abstract, whereby the interests necessary to life in society, as materialized in that law, should prevail. It is therefore a distinctly teleological school.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A jury questionnaire is a form that potential jurors fill out prior to voir dire. They are used in virtually all high-profile cases. Many jurisdictions \"qualify\" jurors by selecting only those who receive, complete, and return jury questionnaires. Some studies have found that large percentages of jury questionnaires are returned as undeliverable or are not returned by the recipients.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Jury sequestration is the isolation of a jury to avoid accidental or deliberate tainting of the jury by exposing them to outside influence or information that is not admissible in court. In such cases, jurors are usually housed at a hotel, where they are not allowed to read the newspaper, watch television, or access the Internet, and may have only limited contact with others, even each other.Sequestration is rare, and becoming less common, due to the expense and concerns about the impact on jury members. In most trials that last more than a single day, jurors are instead sent home for the night with instructions to isolate themselves from inappropriate influence until they return and the trial resumes. Sequestration is most commonly used in high-profile trials in which media coverage and public conversations about the case may be so ubiquitous that it is difficult for jurors to avoid. A judge also may order that a jury be sequestered to prevent others from tampering with them through undue persuasion, threats, or bribes. The trials of O.J. Simpson in 1995, George Zimmerman in 2013, Bill Cosby in 2017 were modern cases in which it was done, with the jury spending 265 days in sequestration in the Simpson case.In 2021, the jury in the Derek Chauvin murder trial was partially sequestered during the trial itself, and fully sequestered during deliberations. While the trial proceedings were ongoing, jurors were permitted to go home overnight, but parked in a secure location and were escorted between it and a private entrance to the courthouse. While at home the jurors were not monitored, the jurors were monitored at all times while in the courthouse, including during breaks and meals. The jury was fully sequestered once deliberations began.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Jury stress or juror stress is physical and mental tension that affects members of juries.  Its causes include \"exhaustion, sequestration, the mountain of evidence, and the desire to do the right thing\".Jury stress can come as a result of seeing or hearing disturbing evidence. In the cases of murder or sexual crimes, evidence can be explicit causing potential harm to the jury. Jurors can also feel a 'burden of responsibility' - they hold large amounts of power over someone else's life and the possibility of imprisonment or a fine for that person. Jury stress could, in some cases, lead to symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and increased anxiety, depression or physical symptoms such as an increase in blood pressure or nausea.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Justice and the Poor was an article on law and ethics first published in 1919, promoting the concept of free legal assistance for the poor. It was written by Reginald Heber Smith, director of the Boston Legal Aid Society.Smith challenged the legal profession to consider it an obligation to see that access to justice was available to all, without regard to ability to pay.  \"Without equal access to the law,\" he wrote, \"the system not only robs the poor of their only protection, but places in the hands of their oppressors the most powerful and ruthless weapon ever invented.\"As a result of Smith's book, the American Bar Association created the Special Committee on Legal Aid Work.  By the middle of the 20th century, virtually every major metropolitan area had some kind of legal aid program.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Justification and excuse are different defenses in a criminal case.:\u200a513\u200a Both defenses admit that the defendant committed an act proscribed by law.:\u200a513\u200a The proscribed act has justification if the act had positive effects that outweigh its negative effects, or is not wrong or blameworthy.:\u200a513\u20134\u200a The proscribed act is excused if the defendant's violation was not entirely voluntary, such as if they acted under duress or under a false belief.:\u200a513\u20134\u200a Martin v. Ohio (1986) established that states may make justification an affirmative defense, placing the burden of proof on defendant.:\u200a18\u200a Patterson v. New York (1977) established that states may make excuses, such as involving mental state, an affirmative defense, rather than part of the mens rea element the prosecution must prove beyond a reasonable doubt.:\u200a18\u200a\"Conduct... may be either justified... or excused... A defense of justification is the product of society's determination that the actual existence of certain circumstances will operate to make proper and legal what otherwise would be criminal conduct. A defense of excuse, contrarily, does not make legal and proper conduct which ordinarily would result in criminal liability; instead, it openly recognizes the criminality of the conduct but excuses it because the actor believed that circumstances actually existed which would justify his conduct when in fact they did not. In short, had the facts been as he supposed them to be, the actor's conduct would have been justified rather than excused...\"An example is that breaking into someone's home during a fire in order to rescue a child inside, is justified. If the same act is done in the belief that there was a fire, when in fact there was no fire, then the act is excused if the false belief was reasonable.\nWhat is justified under a utilitarian perspective might be excused under a retributivist standpoint, and vice versa. The American Law Institute Model Penal Code expresses \"skepticism that any fine line can be drawn states a fine line between justification and excuse can sensibly be drawn... To say someone's conduct is 'justified' ordinarily connotes that the conduct is thought to be right, or at least not undesirable; to say that someone's conduct is 'excused' ordinarily connotes that the conduct is thought to be undesirable but for some reason the actor is not to be blamed for it.\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A kommanditselskab (Danish pronunciation: [k\u02b0om\u00e6n\u02c8titsel\u02ccsk\u025b\u02c0p, k\u02b0\u0254-]; abbreviated K/S) is the Danish  equivalent of the limited partnership. The owners are divided into general partners (komplementarer in Danish) and limited partners (kommanditister in Danish). Often the only general partner of a K/S is an Anpartsselskab with the least possible capital, thus reducing the liability of the K/S to the capital of the Anpartsselskab.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Law on Control and Transparency in Business (German: Gesetz zur Kontrolle und Transparenz im Unternehmensbereich) (abbr. KonTraG) is a comprehensive law passed by the German Bundestag on 5 March 1998. It entered into force on 1 May 1998, although some provisions were adopted at later dates. It set new standards of corporate governance for German publicly listed companies. It is similar to the U.S. Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Kosovo Judicial Council (Albanian: K\u00ebshilli Gjyq\u00ebsor i Kosov\u00ebs) (KJC) is the national council of the judiciary of Kosovo. It is the oversight body that aims to ensure the independence and impartiality of the judicial system, and the administration of justice in Kosovo.The Kosovo Judicial Council is the highest oversight body of the Kosovo Judicial System and an independent institution, and its main responsibility is the administration of the entire Judicial System. The overall purpose of Kosovo Judicial Council, as mandated by the applicable legal framework is to ensure an independent, fair, apolitical, accessible, professional and impartial judicial system, which reflects the multi-ethnic nature of Kosovo as well as the internationally recognized principles of human rights and gender equality.\nTo fulfill this goal Kosovo Judicial Council is responsible for selecting and proposing judges for appointment, as well as for elaborating policies for the overall management and reform of the judicial system. Kosovo Judicial Council is the institution, which evaluates disciplines and promotes the sitting judges and lay judges. Furthermore, the Kosovo Judicial Council is responsible for the overall management and administration of all courts, for the elaboration and the implementation of the budget of the judiciary and for the establishment of new courts and court branches.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Kuala Lumpur Bar was established on 1 July 1992 at a general meeting of advocates & solicitors practising in the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur held under section 68(4) of the Legal Profession Act 1976. Before that date, practitioners in Kuala Lumpur were members of the Selangor Bar, which was later called the Selangor & Federal Territory Bar on Kuala Lumpur becoming a Federal Territory in 1974.\nThe Kuala Lumpur Bar is led by a Committee comprising the Chairman of the KL Bar and ten other members who are elected annually at the Annual General Meeting. The committee is also empowered to co-opt two additional members into the committee. The co-opted members can participate in the deliberations of the committee but have no vote. The Chairman is an ex-officio member of the Bar Council and a representative to the Bar Council is elected by members of the Kuala Lumpur Bar at their Annual General Meeting. The Honorary Secretary is appointed by the committee from amongst the members of the Kuala Lumpur Bar but by convention will be from the elected Committee. The Kuala Lumpur Bar Committee (KLBC) currently has twelve sub-committees to undertake a host of projects and activities.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A land exchange or land swap is the exchange of land between two parties, typically a private owner and a government. These parties may include farmers, estate owners, nature organizations, and governments. Land swaps may also take place between two sovereign nations for practical, geographical or economic reasons.\nThe exchange of land is undertaken for a variety of reasons, among them the conversion or rehabilitation of a parcel of land to nature. For example, after the Netherlands designated the Dutch National Ecological Network, provincial governments in the country established programs offering financial and organizational assistance for the acquisition of agricultural land and its restoration to more natural habitats.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Lands and Liberties of the Church at Ely was a 1080 court case and an appeal, where the Abbot of Ely sought recovery of lands that had been taken at the Conquest, 14 years beforehand.\nThe liberty of Ely was re-established in (King) Edgar's charters for the refounded monastery in 970. The Liber Eliensis states that Etheldreda had taken possession of the Isle of Ely in 673: 'she took possession of the Isle and had free disposal of it as her lawful property - and for evermore'.Edward the Confessor reiterated the liberties in 1052 and then William the Conqueror restated them.Wherever the church of Ely had lands, it had its own courts where defendants in cases of theft could vouch to warranty. Severing of a hand and death were among the common penalties for significant theft.The court case can be viewed as a part of a large collection of pleadings against a process of Normanization that within a decade saw 64% of land in England consolidated into the hands of just 150 individuals, and many of the nobility and churches deprived of their estates.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law, the last injurious exposure rule is the principle that when an occupational disease was caused by a succession of jobs, or could have been caused by any one of a succession of jobs, the most recent employer with the risk exposure is liable.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Lateral and subjacent support, in the law of property, describes the right a landowner has to have that land physically supported in its natural state by both adjoining land and underground structures. If a neighbor's excavation or excessive extraction of underground liquid deposits (crude oil or aquifers) causes subsidence, such as by causing the landowner's land to cave in, the neighbor will be subject to strict liability in a tort action. The neighbor will also be strictly liable for damage to buildings on the landowner's property if the landowner can show that the weight of the buildings did not contribute to the collapse of the land. If the landowner is unable to make such a showing, the neighbor must be shown to have been negligent in order for the landowner to recover damages.\nIf the landowner owns everything beneath the ground on his property, he may convey to another party the rights to mineral deposits under the land and other things requiring excavation, such as easements for buried conduits or for water wells. However, such a conveyance requires the recipient to prevent any damage to the surface of the land caused by the excavation unless the conveyance itself grants express authority for the surface land to be damaged, \"as reasonably necessary\" for the recipient to exercise his extraction rights.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Law and Business Review of the Americas (formerly NAFTA: Law and Business Review of the Americas) is an interdisciplinary law review.The journal focuses on the legal, business, economic, political, and social dimensions of economic integration in the Americas, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), and Mercosur. Articles in the journal deal with economic integration's implementation, evolution, expansion, and overall impact on doing business in the Western Hemisphere. Subject matter concerning regional integration efforts in other parts of the world and various other comparative topics in the international trade and investment areas are also addressed from time to time. Topics of particular concern to the journal include free trade, foreign direct investment, licensing, finance, taxation, litigation and dispute resolution and organizational aspects of integration efforts.\nThe journal publishes quarterly and is co-sponsored by the American Bar Association Section of International Law and Practice, Southern Methodist University's Dedman School of Law (and its Law Institute of the Americas), Cox School of Business, Department of Economics, and Department of Political Science, and the Centre for Commercial Law Studies at Queen Mary University of London. The journal is student-edited.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Each judge or courtroom in the United States have a law and motion calendar, setting aside the times when only motions and special legal arguments are heard.  These items consist of pretrial motions (such as a motion to compel relating to discovery requests) or other legal requests that are not connected to a trial, and do not include trials themselves.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A law book is a book about law. It is possible to make a distinction between \"law books\" on the one hand, and \"books about law\" on the other. This distinction is \"useful\". A law book is \"a work of legal doctrine\". It consists of \"law talk\", that is to say, propositions of law.\n\"The first duty of a law book is to state the law as it is, truly and accurately, and then the reason or principle for it as far as it is known\". The \"first requisite in a law-book is perfect accuracy\". A \"law book is supposed to state what the law is rather than what it is not\". \"One great desideratum in a law book is facility of reference\". A \"list of law books and related materials\" is a legal bibliography.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In Australia, Canada and New Zealand, a law broker is a professional that assists individuals who are searching for a lawyer.  A law broker will analyze an individual's case or legal issue and provide a customized referral to an appropriate lawyer. Some common factors that a law broker will consider are a lawyer's experience level, success rate, reputation, and quality of service. A law broker will often review legal publications, court decisions, and rely upon a network of legal contacts to provide an objective, customized referral to a client.\nThe person who coined the term \"law broker\" was an Australian solicitor Dr. Yuri Rapoport of Kohen Rapoport Group.  He started the world's first law broking firm \"Prime Law Brokers\" in 1996, which paved the way for the development of the private-sector legal referral industry in Australia, New Zealand and United Kingdom.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Law Latin, sometimes written L.L. or L. Lat., and sometimes derisively called Dog Latin, is a form of Latin used in legal contexts. While some of the vocabulary does come from Latin, many of the words and much of the vocabulary stem from English. Law Latin may also be seen as consisting of a mixture of English, French and Latin words superimposed over an English syntax.Law Latin was the language in which the legal opinions of English courts were recorded at least until the reign of George II. Under his reign, the Proceedings in Courts of Justice Act 1730 (effective from 1733), mandated that all records of legal proceedings in England were to be made in English rather than Latin. Law Latin was also used as the language of writs, royal charters, letters patent and many other legal instruments. As late as 1867, Law Latin was still in use in England and Scotland for some legal instruments.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "According to the Constitution of Estonia (Estonian: P\u00f5hiseadus), the supreme power of the state is vested in the people. The people exercise their supreme power of the state on the elections of the Riigikogu through citizens who have the right to vote. The supreme judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court or Riigikohus, with 17 justices. The Chief Justice is appointed by the parliament for nine years on nomination by the president.\nThe official Head of State is the President of Estonia, who gives assent to the laws passed by Riigikogu, also having the right of sending them back and proposing new laws. The president, however, does not use these rights very often, having a largely ceremonial role. The president is elected by a two-thirds vote of the Riigikogu. If the candidate does not gain the number of votes required, the right to elect the president goes over to an electoral body, consisting of the 101 members of Riigikogu and representatives from local councils. As other spheres, Estonian law-making has been successfully integrated with the Information Age.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The law of the Cayman Islands is a combination of common law and statute, and is based heavily upon English law.\nLaw in the Cayman Islands tends to be a combination of the very old and the very new.  As a leading offshore financial centre, the Cayman Islands has extremely modern statutes dealing with company law, insolvency, banking law, trust law, insurance and other related matters. However, in other areas of law, such as family law, the laws of the Cayman Islands are based upon old English statutes which can cause some difficulty in modern times.  Other areas of law, such as international law, are essentially regulated externally through the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London by Order in Council.  A large body of the laws of the Cayman Islands consists of the common law, which continually updates itself through judicial precedent in the Territory and in other common law countries.\nThe Cayman Islands is a dependent territory of the United Kingdom.  Although the local legislature and courts are independent from the United Kingdom, the British Government deals with all international relations on behalf of the Territory.  The Cayman Islands does not have a separate vote at the United Nations.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Law on Cooperatives was a major economic reform implemented in the Soviet Union during General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika and glasnost reforms. It was implemented in May 1988, allowed for independent worker-owned cooperatives to operate in the Soviet Union, as opposed to just state-owned enterprises, and gave guidelines as to how these cooperatives should be managed.\nWhile originally the law imposed high taxes and restrictions on employment, it was eventually revised so as not to discourage activity within the private sector.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Lawmaking is the process of crafting legislation.  In its purest sense, it is the basis of governance.  \nThis form of law making is also applied in India. It is a process which works in India on the basis of the Constitution of India.\nLawmaking in modern democracies is the work of legislatures, which exist at the local, regional, and national levels and make such laws as are appropriate to their level, and binding over those under their jurisdictions.  These bodies are influenced by lobbyists, pressure groups, sometimes partisan considerations, but ultimately by the voters who elected them and to which they are responsible, if the system is working as intended.  Even the expenditure of governmental funds is an aspect of lawmaking, as in most jurisdictions the budget is a matter of law.\nIn dictatorships and absolute monarchies the leader can make law essentially by the stroke of a pen, one of the main objections to such an arrangement.  However, a seemingly-analogous event can occur even in a democracy where the executive can make executive orders which have the force of law.  In some instance, even regulations issued by executive departments can have the force of law.  Libertarians, in particular, are known for denouncing such actions as being anti-democratic, but they have become such a salient feature of modern governance that it is hard to picture a system in which they no longer exist, because it is hard to picture the time involved in every regulation being debated prior to becoming law.  That, say libertarians, is precisely the point: if such executive orders and regulations do not stand up to legislative scrutiny, they should never be implemented.  In response to this, limits on regulatory authority have been made legislatively, and libertarians still contend for, if not the abolition of executive orders altogether, then their automatic sunset after a fixed period if not legislatively reviewed and confirmed; this policy has been adopted in some jurisdictions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Laws and Regulations for Electronic Payment in Mauritius\nThe Electronic Transactions Act (ETA).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Laws of the State of New York are the session laws of the New York State Legislature published as an annual periodical, i.e., \"chapter laws\", bills that become law (bearing the governor's signature or just certifications of passage) which have been assigned a chapter number in the office of the legislative secretary to the governor, and printed in chronological order (by chapter number). Laws are usually cited in the form of \"Chapter X of the Laws of YYYY\" or \"L. YYYY, c. X\", where X is the chapter number and YYYY is the year.\nLaws of New York is published by the Legislative Bill Drafting Commission (LBDC). The New York Secretary of State is also responsible for publishing local laws as a supplement to Laws of New York, but they have not done so in recent years. The permanent laws of a general nature are codified in Consolidated Laws of New York.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Legal and Criminological Psychology is a quarterly academic journal published by the British Psychological Society.  The journal was established in 1996. In 2018, it had an ISI impact factor of 1.764, ranking it 23 out of 65 in Criminology and Penology, 33 out of 148 in Law and 51 out of 137 in Multidisciplinary Psychology.It is abstracted and indexed by:\n\nAcademic Search Alumni Edition\nCriminal Justice Abstracts\nEmbase\nProQuest Central\nPsycINFO\nSCOPUS\nSocial Sciences Citation Index\nSocINDEX\nWeb of Science", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A legal doctrine is a framework, set of rules, procedural steps, or test, often established through precedent in the common law, through which judgments can be determined in a given legal case. A doctrine comes about when a judge makes a ruling where a process is outlined and applied, and allows for it to be equally applied to like cases. When enough judges make use of the process, it may become established as the de facto method of deciding like situations.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Legal Knowledge Interchange Format (LKIF) was developed in the European ESTRELLA project and was designed with the goal of becoming a standard for representing and interchanging policy, legislation and cases, including their justificatory arguments, in the legal domain. LKIF builds on and uses the Web Ontology Language (OWL) for representing concepts and includes a reusable basic ontology of legal concepts. The core of LKIF consists of a combination of OWL-DL and SWRL.LKIF was designed with two main roles in  mind: the translation of legal knowledge bases written in different representation formats and formalisms and to be a knowledge representation formalism which could be part of larger architectures for developing legal knowledge systems.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Legal moralism is the theory of jurisprudence and the philosophy of law which holds that laws may be used to prohibit or require behavior based on society's collective judgment of whether it is moral. It is often given as an alternative to legal liberalism, which holds that laws may only be used to the extent that they promote liberty. The debate between moralism and liberalism attracted much attention following the publication by the UK Parliament of the Wolfenden Report in 1957, which recommended that homosexuality should be decriminalised on the basis that the function of the law \"is not... in our view... to intervene in the private life of citizens, or to seek to enforce any particular pattern of behaviour\". Over the following years, H. L. A. Hart and Patrick Devlin, Baron Devlin contributed significantly to the body of literature.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A legal procurator is a warranted legal professional in Malta, Argentina and some other countries, who assists advocates in lawsuits in courts of various levels.  In Malta, a legal procurator also has rights of audience in lower courts of that country.  The profession also existed until recently in Italy, until it was abrogated and all legal procurators were given the right to practise as advocates.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Legal Research Foundation is a body affiliated with the Faculty of Law of the University of Auckland, New Zealand. It was founded in 1965 to foster legal research and links between the legal profession and the University. It publishes the New Zealand Law Review.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Legalism, in the Western sense, is the ethical attitude that holds moral conduct as a matter of rule following. It is an approach to the analysis of legal questions characterized by abstract logical reasoning focusing on the applicable legal text, such as a constitution, legislation, or case law, rather than on the social, economic, or political context. Legalism has occurred both in civil and common law traditions. It underlines both natural law and legal positivism. In its narrower versions, legalism may endorse the notion that the pre-existing body of authoritative legal materials already contains a uniquely pre-determined right answer to any legal problem that may arise.\nLegalism typically also claims that the task of the judge is to ascertain the answer to a legal question by an essentially mechanical process.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Leges Genuciae (also Lex Genucia or Lex Genucia de feneratione) were laws passed in 342 BC by Tribune of the Plebs Lucius Genucius.\nThese laws covered several topics: they banned lending that carried interest, which soon was not enforced; they forbade holding two magistracies at the same time or within the next 10 years (until 332 BC); and lastly, they required at least one consul to be a plebeian.The first time both consuls were plebeian was in 172 BC. By then, that provision was the only one that continued to be enforced.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The New York Legislative Bill Drafting Commission (LBDC) aids the New York State Legislature in drafting legislation; advises as to the constitutionality, consistency or effect of proposed legislation; conducts research; and publishes and maintains the documents of the Legislature. It is composed of two commissioners.\nThe LBDC maintains the Legislative Retrieval System (LRS) containing the full record of Legislature activity, for which it charges $2500 per session for access. The LRS version of the Consolidated Laws is published under statutory authority and is available online but is not certified pursuant to Public Officers Law \u00a7 70-b. The LBDC also publishes the Laws of New York.The LBDC is composed of two commissioners, the Commissioner for Administration and the Commissioner for Operations, each appointed jointly by the Temporary President of the Senate and the Speaker of the Assembly.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A legislative referral (or legislative referendum) is a referendum in which a legislature puts proposed legislation up for popular vote. This may either be voluntarily or, as is the case in many countries for a constitutional amendment, as a mandatory part of the procedure for passing a law. These referrals, depending on the location, can either amend a constitution or enact a change in statute. It is a form of direct democracy. In some places it is known as an authorities referendum, authorities plebiscite, government initiated referendum, or top-down referendum It may originate from the legislative branch, executive branch, or a combination of the two.An instrument of direct democracy, it is in contrast to citizens (or \"bottom-up\") initiative that is initiated from the public. With initiated statutes and amendments, voters both initiate and decide on the change of law. In a legislative referral, they only approve or reject laws which their legislature votes to place before them.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A letter of wishes is a tool used by someone setting up a trust, to pass along information to the trustees. A letter of wishes usually contains instructions or extra information for the trustees. The trustees are not legally bound to follow a letter of wishes, but it is guidance that they must take into account and in practice it is usually followed. It is mainly used because it is easy to change, unlike amending a will or trust deed, and will remain private among the trustees.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Letters of Administration are granted by a Surrogate Court or probate registry to appoint appropriate people to deal with a deceased person's estate where property will pass under Intestacy Rules or where there are no executors living (and willing and able to act) having been validly appointed under the deceased's will. Traditionally, letters of administration granted to a representative of a testator's estate are called \"letters of administration with the will annexed\" or \"letters of administration cum testamento annexo\" or \"c.t.a.\".\nEssentially, this document is issued to the person who will administer the estate of someone who dies without a will.  As outlined by the Cornell Legal Information Institute, \"The letters authorize the administrator to settle the deceased person's estate according to the state's intestate succession laws. Banks, brokerages, and government agencies often require a certified copy of the letters before accepting the administrator's authority to collect the deceased person's assets.\" If a deceased has a surviving spouse, this individual will have priority in receiving a letter of administration over others, including children; age alone does not render an individual ineligible to serve as a fiduciary.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Lex rei sitae is a legal doctrine of property law and of International private law. It is Latin for \"the law where the property is situated\". The law governing the transfer of title to property is dependent upon, and varies with, the lex rei sitae.\n\nLEX REI SITAE:  \"...real estate or immovable property is exclusively subject to the laws of the government within whose territory it is situated.\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A liability waiver is a legal document that a person who participates in an activity may sign to acknowledge the risks involved in their participation. By doing so, the company attempts to remove legal liability from the business or person responsible for the activity.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A licence to use or LTU is a licence to use an intellectual property such as a patent or trademark.  This is distinct from other types of licence such as a licence to manufacture or copy the invention or design.  It is the sort of licence commonly issued for the use of computer software.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Life imprisonment in Mexico is theoretically legal, but as of 2001, the Mexican Supreme Court stated that all persons sentenced to life imprisonment or a lengthy prison term (such as 300 years in prison) must become eligible for parole after one has served 50 years. If an offender has maintained good behavior, they become paroled after 40 years. In certain cases, offenders can be paroled after serving 60 years. Mexico does not extradite any prisoner subjected to capital punishment.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Limited jurisdiction, or special jurisdiction, is the court's jurisdiction only on certain types of cases such as bankruptcy, and family matters.Courts of limited jurisdiction, as opposed to general jurisdiction, derive power from an issuing authority, such as a constitution or a statute. Special jurisdiction courts must demonstrate that they are authorized to exert jurisdiction under their issuing authority.  In contrast, general jurisdiction courts need only to demonstrate that they may assert in personal jurisdiction over a party.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Literary property is a term used in publishing to refer to works generally covered by copyright but also an associated set of property rights that go far beyond what courts have historically permitted to be claimed as copyright infringement.\nThe Writers Guild of America, for instance, uses this term exclusively to refer to works registered with its WGA script registration service, so as not to restrict the claims it or its users can make regarding their rights.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Litigation risk analysis is a subset of decision tree analysis and is the application of decision tree analysis to litigation and lawsuits. It operates based on the idea that prosecutors do not prosecute all cases even if they have merit due to several factors such as economic considerations. This method can reveal the odds of winning a case or financial loss that a litigation would incur, especially if it is too great for the kind of offence involved or there is an imbalance between effort and need. With this tool, a prosecutor is in a better position to decide whether to pursue a case or offer a plea bargain if this is permitted.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Maine Attorney General is the chief legal advisor and prosecutor of the State of Maine. The constitutional basis of the office is Article IX, Section 11 of the Maine Constitution, and the holder of the position is chosen biennially by the Maine Legislature in joint session. Maine is the only state to select its attorney general in such a manner.The powers of the Attorney General are derived from the Maine Revised Statues Annotated, Title 5, Chapter 9. These include representing the State in civil actions, investigating and prosecuting homicides, advising district attorneys, and providing written opinions on matters of law at the request of the Governor or the Legislature. The Attorney General is empowered to appoint deputy and assistant attorneys general, who serve at the Attorney General's pleasure.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Male captus, bene detentus (wrongly captured, properly detained) is a legal doctrine, according to which the fact that a person may have been wrongly or unfairly arrested, will not prejudice a rightful detention or trial under due process. \nThere is state practice in support of the doctrine, as well as contrary state practice. In one of its cases the U.S. Supreme Court held that where a person from another country is apprehended by irregular means, the right to set up as defense the unlawful manner by which he was brought to a court belongs \"to the Government from whose territory he was wrongfully taken\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In the law of torts, malpractice, also known as professional negligence,  is an \"instance of negligence or incompetence on the part of a professional\".Professionals who may become the subject of malpractice actions include:\n\nmedical professionals: a medical malpractice claim may be brought against a doctor or other healthcare provider who fails to exercise the degree of care and skill that a similarly situated professional of the same medical specialty would provide under the circumstances.\nlawyers: a legal malpractice claim may be brought against a lawyer who fails to render services with the level of skill, care and diligence that a reasonable lawyer would apply under similar circumstances.\nfinancial professionals: professionals such as accountants, financial planners and stockbrokers, may be subject to claims for professional negligence based upon their failure to meet professional standards when providing services to their clients.\narchitects: an architect or construction professional may be accused of professional negligence for failing to meet professional standards in the design and construction of buildings and structures.\nengineers: an engineer or construction professional may be accused of professional negligence for failing to meet professional standards in the design and construction of buildings and structures.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In insurance, a managing general agent is defined legally as \"an individual or business entity appointed by an insurer to solicit applications from agents for insurance contracts or to negotiate insurance contracts on behalf of an insurer and, if authorized to do so by an insurer, to effectuate and countersign insurance contracts\". (This particular wording is from Kentucky Revised Statutes. Similar wordings can be found in the statutes of Oklahoma, Idaho, Arizona, Nevada, Wyoming, Florida, and Alabama.)\nIn the U.S. and Canada, managing general agents act as a \"fronting\" system for insurers, allowing filings to be made and proofs of insurance to be given in each other's jurisdictions.Depending on the appointment, a managing general agent may perform one of many tasks normally performed by an insurer. These include but are not limited to, sub-contracting with independent agents for placement of business, negotiating commissions, handling claims, issuing policies, processing endorsements, collecting policy premiums or being responsible for completion of regulatory reports for state or federal agencies.\nHistorically, managing general agents came about when insurance companies located in the eastern United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily in New York City, wanted to expand their markets to the western United States, but didn't have the resources to open a regional or local office. Managing General Agents filled that need by providing local resources who were able to properly underwrite the risks, service the policies, and handle claims.\nAs technology has evolved and many of the obstacles associated with conducting business in a distant geographic location were overcome, many insurance carriers have stopped using Managing General Agents. However, as the insurance market has hardened, carriers are now using Managing General Agents as a means to limit cost and increase profitability.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Bagir Manan (born 6 October 1941) is an Indonesian jurist who served as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Indonesia from 2001 to 2008. and chairman of the Indonesian Press Council between 2010 and 2016. and 2013\u20132016. He is a professor of constitutional law at Padjadjaran University.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Sir Charles Barrie Knight Mantell, PC (30 January 1937 \u2014 1 May 2010) was a British barrister judge who served as a High Court judge and a Lord Justice of Appeal. He is notable for presiding at the trial of Rosemary West.\nMantell was born in Romiley, then part of Cheshire, the second son of Francis Christopher Knight Mantell and Elsie, n\u00e9e Caton.  His younger brother was actor, Knight Mantell.  He attended Manchester Grammar School and studied law at the University of Manchester. He married (Anne) Shirley Cogger in 1960. After National Service as an education officer in the Royal Air Force between 1958 and 1961 (reaching the rank of flying officer), he was called to the bar by Gray's Inn and later served at the chambers of Sir Patrick Russell in Manchester. He practised on the Northern Circuit and was present at the trials of the Birmingham Six, Trevor Hardy and Terry Clark.\nBetween 1982 and 1985 Mantell was a Supreme Court judge in Hong Kong, returning to Britain as a judge on the Western Circuit. In 1990 he was appointed to the High Court and knighted. He was promoted to the Court of Appeal in 1997 and was sworn of the Privy Council. Retiring in 2004, he was a Surveillance Commissioner from 2006 until his death.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Manufacturing clause is a clause contained in copyright legislation requiring that as a condition of obtaining copyright, all copies of a work must be printed or otherwise produced domestically, from plates set domestically, rather than imported.  In the United States, a manufacturing clause was included in the International Copyright Act of 1891, which allowed certain non-resident aliens to obtain U.S. copyrights for the first time. The clause initially covered books, maps, photographs, and lithographs, and was subsequently extended to periodicals as well.  Its extension to all other media was proposed in the 1897 Treloar Copyright Bill, which failed in committee.  The manufacturing clause did not expire until 1986, keeping the United States out of the Berne Convention until 1989.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Manypenny Agreement is a United States Congressional act passed on February 28, 1877, it officially removed ownership of the Black Hills from the Lakota Sioux and the United States took control of 900,000 acres of the Black Hills.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The market for corporate control is the role of equity markets in facilitating corporate takeovers. This was first described in an article by HG Manne, \"Mergers and the Market for Corporate Control\". According to Manne:\n\nThe lower the stock price, relative to what it could be with more efficient management, the more attractive the take-over becomes to those who believe that they can manage the company more efficiently. And the potential return from the successful takeover and revitalization of a poorly run company can be enormous.\nIn this way the market for corporate control could magnify the efficacy of corporate governance rules, and facilitate greater accountability of directors to their investors.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Under United States legal practice, a memorandum opinion is usually unpublished and cannot be cited as precedent.  It is formally defined as: \"[a] unanimous appellate opinion that succinctly states the decision of the court; an opinion that briefly reports the court's conclusion, usu. without elaboration because the decision follows a well-established legal principle or does not relate to any point of law.\"Generally, memorandum opinions follow ordinary rules, including the application of precedent and the rule of stare decisis. However, in many courts (for example, the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of New York), the style of analysis in memorandum opinions is much more concise and conclusory than it would be in an opinion intended for publication. That is, long strings of case citations are often inserted without explication or analysis of the applicability of the cited cases. In contrast, the California Constitution requires that all appellate decisions in California must be decided \"in writing with reasons stated,\" which the Supreme Court of California has interpreted as requiring detailed written opinions even in frivolous cases. Nonetheless, the Courts of Appeal have the discretion not to certify opinions in frivolous cases for publication.Memorandum opinions are often issued in areas of well-settled law or where a particular set of facts may create imprudent case law.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In Mesopotamian marriage law, marriage was regarded as a legal contract, and divorce as its breakup were similarly affected by official procedures.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In common law, a Messenger of the Court is an officer of the court whose duties include, carrying written or verbal communications and executing orders of the court. In the case of a bankruptcy court, the Messenger's duties include seizing and taking possession of the bankrupt's estate.In the Plymouth Colony, the Messenger's duties included serving summonses, keeping the jail, and carrying out executions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Minister of Justice in the Gambia is the cabinet member who heads the Ministry of Justice. All Ministers of Justice concurrently serve as Attorney General.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Miss D refers to an abortion case in Ireland, Amy Dunne was a girl who wanted to travel to the United Kingdom for an abortion. Her identity was kept private at the time, and she was referred to only as Miss D.Amy Dunne was a teenage girl who became pregnant while under HSE care in 2007. A scan of the foetus showed it suffering from anencephaly. This fatal foetal abnormality means the baby would not live for long outside the womb. Dunne wanted to travel to the United Kingdom for an abortion, since abortion in Ireland was very heavily restricted. The HSE attempted to stop her going, from falsely telling her they had a court order preventing her from travelling, and would resort to physically restraining her if needed, and writing to the Garda S\u00edoch\u00e1na asking them to stop her travelling. Since the Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland in 1992, it has not been illegal to travel outside Ireland for an abortion.\nA High Court judge ruled that she had the right to travel to the UK, and strongly criticised the HSE's handling of the case. The HSE was ordered to pay costs, which were estimated at up to \u20ac1 million.She had a medical, not surgical abortion in the UK. The HSE refused to state if they paid for the abortion.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A missing heir is a person related to a decedent (dead person), or testator of a will, but whose residence, domicile, Post office, or other address is not known.  A missing heir may be an orphan or other person under a disability, who may need a guardian or custodian of funds.\nMissing heirs often come up in the context of legal actions involving wills, title to real property, or a quiet title action.  A private investigator, probate research firm or forensic genealogist may be hired by the executor, trustee, or administrator to find the missing heirs.\nA probate court or surrogate judge may require the service of a citation, notice of petition, summons, or subpoena to the relevant persons who may be missing persons, or may know the whereabouts of such person.\nSome courts, such as Suffolk County Probate Court in Boston, actively solicit missing heirs.Probate research companies specialize in locating missing and unknown heirs.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Mitigating evidence is evidence that is provided (usually by the defendant in a criminal trial) in order to try to establish the presence of mitigating circumstances.  The presence of mitigating circumstances can reduce the punishment imposed for the offense.  The case of the Oregon v. Guzek dealt with the issue of whether alibi evidence not introduced at trial could be introduced in the sentencing phase of a death penalty trial as mitigating evidence.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Molmutine Laws were the laws said to have been instituted over the Britons by Dyfnwal Moelmud. Very little remains known of these laws, with surviving Welsh codes simply noting that Dyfnwal's laws were largely superseded by the new codes instituted by Hywel Dda. Hywel was said, however, to have retained Dyfnwal's units of measurement.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Money Collection Act (Finnish: rahanker\u00e4yslaki, 255/2006) is a law in Finland that establishes the requirement for a permit to solicit donations. The law has got worldwide media attention twice: once when delaying crowdfunding of a textbook and the second time when Finnish Police Board targeted Wikimedia Foundation for raising funds.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Moore's Federal Practice is an American legal treatise covering the Federal Rules of Evidence, Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, and Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure. Along with Charles Alan Wright and Arthur R. Miller's Federal Practice and Procedure, it is one of the most frequently cited treatises in federal court practice in the United States.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Moret Law was a form of freedom of wombs, which was implemented by Spain in Cuba and Puerto Rico, and named after Segismundo Moret who was Spain's Minister of Overseas Territories at the time. This law implemented the abolition of slavery incrementally in Spain's Caribbean colonies. It drew from older Later American manumission traditions such as the way favorite slaves have been previously liberated under certain conditions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Dahir (Arabic: \u0638\u0647\u064a\u0631, romanized: \u1e92ah\u012br) is a Moroccan King's decree.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The National Association of Immigration Judges is a union of judges, with the stated mission \"to promote independence and enhance the professionalism, dignity, and efficiency of the Immigration Courts\". Members are judges that work in the United States' Executive Office for Immigration Review, commonly known as the \"Immigration Court\".\nFor employment purposes, Immigration judges are categorized as attorneys, not judges, by their employer, the Justice Department.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "National Mobilization Law (Chinese: \u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u56fd\u9632\u52a8\u5458\u6cd5) was legislated in the National People's Congress (NPC) of the People's Republic of China on 26 February 2010. The law gives the NPC Standing Committee the power to put the national economy and civilians in China, including foreign assets, in war-time footing if \"state sovereignty, unification, territorial integrity or security is threatened.\" The law went into effect on 1 July 2010.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The National Probate Calendar is a register of proved wills and administrations in England and Wales since 1858.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Negative checking is a process by which producers of film, television and radio programs will attempt to ensure that the names of fictional characters cannot be confused  with real life people. For instance, during the making of the series Inspector Morse, the producers of the show checked with local police authorities to ensure that the names of characters used in the program could not be confused with individuals in any real life cases. The primary reason for this practice is to prevent any possible legal action for libel which could result. The term is sometimes shortened in program credits to Neg Check.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Nemo auditur propriam turpitudinem allegans is a civil law maxim which may be translated into English as \"no one can be heard to invoke his own turpitude\" or \"no one shall be heard, who invokes his own guilt\". The maxim operated with another, in pari causa turpitudinis cessat repetitio (where both parties are guilty, no one may recover), to preclude a court from intervening in a dispute involving an unlawful transaction.On 30 June 1950, during the 475th meeting of the United Nations Security Council when discussing the validity of resolutions made in the absence of one of the permanent members, the French delegate invoked the maxim.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Nemo judex in causa sua (or nemo judex in sua causa) (which, in Latin, literally means \"no-one is judge in his own cause\") is a principle of natural justice that no person can judge a case in which they have an interest. In many jurisdictions the rule is very strictly applied to any appearance of a possible bias, even if there is actually none: \"Justice must not only be done, but must be seen to be done\".This principle may also be called:\n\nnemo judex idoneus in propria causa est\nnemo judex in parte sua\nnemo judex in re sua\nnemo debet esse judex in propria causa\nin propria causa nemo judexThe legal effect of a breach of natural justice is normally to stop the proceedings and render any judgment invalid; it should be quashed or appealed, but may be remitted for a valid re-hearing.\nThe phrase is credited to Sir Edward Coke in the seventeenth century, but has also been attested as early as 1544.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Neo-classical contract is a form of contract, defined by McNeil, describing a contract dependent upon trilateral governance, in which \"third party assistance\" is used  for resolving disputes or evaluating performance. Such contracts form a distinct group, along with classical and relational contracts, in McNeil's system of classification.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Law Society of New Brunswick is the statutory body charged with the regulation of the legal profession in the Canadian province of New Brunswick. \nThe Law Society is a member of the Federation of Law Societies of Canada, an association of the fourteen provincial and territorial bodies governing the legal profession across Canada.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The New York Codes, Rules and Regulations (NYCRR) contains New York state rules and regulations. The NYCRR is officially compiled by the New York State Department of State's Division of Administrative Rules.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The nexus of contracts theory is an idea put forth by a number of economists and legal commentators (most notably Michael Jensen and William Meckling as well as Frank Easterbrook) which asserts that corporations are nothing more than a collection of contracts between different parties \u2013 primarily shareholders, directors, employees, suppliers, and customers. Proponents of this theory contend that all disputes about the obligations of a particular corporation should be settled by resort to the methods used to interpret contracts, and that courts should not imply the existence of fiduciary duties on behalf of corporate officers and directors. Alternatively, the nexus of contracts theory can also be viewed as a method of enhancing corporate plausible deniability, insofar as it is a way of \"passing the buck\" down a chain of contractual obligations and losing all semblance of responsibility in the \"nexus.\"  This can pose a practical loophole for corporate entities, a theoretical strength for those wishing to forward corporate ideology, and a legal problem for those who wish to take corporate entities to court.  Another strength of this theory of the firm is a firm begins to transcend border and defy simple classification when it is really intertwined by its contracts into a number of different countries and with a number of different stakeholders. For example, can General Motors be classified as strictly a U.S. company if it has contractual obligations with workings in China, customers in Europe, or stock investors in Canada?", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Nimz v Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg (1991) C-184/89 is an EU labour law case, which held that a justification that part-time employees could be paid less, since full-time employees could acquire skills quicker, was doubtful.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A no-action letter is a letter written by the staff members of a government agency, requested by an entity subject to regulation by that agency, indicating that the staff will not recommend that the agency take legal action against the entity, should the entity engage in a course of action proposed by the entity through its request for a no-action letter.Often, a request is made because the legality of the course of action in question is uncertain, and in some cases a request may be granted when it is understood that the action is not technically legal, but is nonetheless acceptable according to a common sense approach to the situation.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Non bis in idem (sometimes rendered non-bis in idem or ne bis in idem) which translates literally from Latin as 'not twice in the same [thing]', is a legal doctrine to the effect that no legal action can be instituted twice for the same cause of action. It is a legal concept originating in Roman civil law, but it is essentially the equivalent of the double jeopardy doctrine found in common law jurisdictions, and similar peremptory plea (autrefois acquit/convict, 'previously acquitted/convicted') in some modern civil law countries.\nThe International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights guarantees the right to be free from double jeopardy; however, it does not apply to prosecutions by two different sovereigns (unless the relevant extradition treaty or other agreement between the countries expresses a prohibition). The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court employs a modified form of non bis in idem.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Non-binding arbitration is a type of arbitration in which the arbitrator makes a determination of the rights of the parties to the dispute, but this determination is not binding upon them, and no enforceable arbitration award is issued.  The \"award\" is in effect an advisory opinion of the arbitrator's view of the respective merits of the parties cases.  Non-binding arbitration is used in connection with attempts to reach a negotiated settlement.  The role of an arbitrator in non-binding arbitration is, on the surface, similar to that of a mediator in a mediation.  However, the principal distinction is that whereas a mediator will try to help the parties find a middle ground to compromise at, the arbitrator remains totally removed from the settlement process and will only give a determination of liability and, if appropriate, an indication of the quantum of damages payable.\nSubsequent to a non-binding arbitration, the parties remain free to pursue their claims either through the courts, or by way of a binding arbitration, although in practice a settlement is the most common outcome.  The award and reasoning in a non-binding arbitration is almost invariably inadmissible in any subsequent action in the courts or in another arbitration tribunal.\nNon-binding arbitration is utilised mostly in the United States and Canada.  It is largely unknown in Europe, although in the United Kingdom there is a practice of parties who are seeking a settlement to jointly instruct a Queen's Counsel for an opinion on the merits and likely quantum of a claim, and then to negotiate on the basis of the views expressed in that opinion.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A nonpossessory interest in land is a term of the law of property to describe any of a category of rights held by one person to use land that is in the possession of another. Such rights can generally be created in one of two ways: either by an express agreement between the party who owns the land and the party who seeks to own the interest; or by an order of a court.\nUnder the common law, there are five variations of such rights. These are:\n\neasements\nprofits\nrestrictive covenants\nequitable servitudes, and\nlicenses.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Nor\u00f0hymbra preosta lagu ('the Northumbrian priests' law') is an Old English legal text found in the manuscript Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, MS 201, pp. 43\u201346 (which otherwise includes homilies and laws by Archbishop Wulfstan of York). In the summary of the Early English Laws project, \"the law deals with offences committed against priests or churches, punishments for heathen practices, non-observance of Sundays, festivals and fasts, or for withholding church dues. The text post-dates 1023 and draws on legislation from the reigns\" of \u00c6thelred the Unready and Cnut the Great.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Nor\u00f0leoda laga is a set of laws apparently pertaining to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Mention of a Northumbrian king suggests that the text originates before the mid-tenth century, when Northumbria ceased to be an independent kingdom. The text comprises a list of the wergelds payable on the killing of people of different social statuses, with the following values:", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Nordre Vestfold District Court is a district court located in Horten, Norway.  It covers the municipalities of Horten, Hof, Holmestrand and Re and is subordinate Agder Court of Appeal.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Note issuance facility (NIF) is an underwriting agreement/arrangement in the Eurocurrency market under which borrowers place short/medium term (one to six months) notes via a syndicate of prime/commercial banks, and the borrowers' issue is backed by the commitment of the syndicate banks to purchase any paper which the borrowers may be unable to sell. Since the facility/guarantee itself is contingent, the creation of NIF does not give rise to an entry in the financial account and will be treated as an off-balance sheet item in the guarantor books. When the underwriting institution is requested to make funds available, it will acquire the actual asset (notes) and will be recorded in the financial account.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In Roman law, a novel (Latin: novella constitutio, \"new decree\"; Greek: \u03bd\u03b5\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac, romanized: neara) is a new decree or edict, in other words a new law. The term was used from the fourth century AD onwards and was specifically used for laws issued after the publishing of the Codex Theodosianus in 438 and then for the Justiniac Novels, or Novellae Constitutiones. The term was used on and off in later Roman history until falling out of use during the late Byzantine period.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A nuisance fee is a fee, fine, or penalty which is charged to deter an action, rather than to compensate for the costs of that action.  For example, a five-dollar penalty for submitting an application late does not compensate for costs associated with processing late submissions, but rather encourages people to submit on time.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Nullum tempus occurrit regi (\"no time runs against the king\"), also abbreviated to nullum tempus, is a common law doctrine.\nIn republics, it is often referred to as \"nullum tempus occurrit reipublicae\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The O\u2019Connor Justice Prize, named for former United States Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O\u2019Connor, was established in 2014 to raise visibility for rule-of-law initiatives; recognize people who have made extraordinary contributions to advancing the rule of law, justice, and human rights; and to honor O\u2019Connor's legacy.A group led by former Arizona Supreme Court Justice Ruth McGregor, who served as a law clerk for O\u2019Connor from 1981 to 1982, developed the prize to honor O\u2019Connor's legacy. The prize is administered by the Sandra Day O\u2019Connor College of Law at Arizona State University.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Obreption (from Latin obreptio, the act of stealing upon) and subreption (from Latin subreptio, the act of stealing, and Latin surripere, to take away secretly) are terms used in the canon law of the Catholic church to species of fraud by which an ecclesiastical rescript is obtained.\nIn Catholic Canon law, obreption is \"the obtaining of or attempting to obtain a dispensation from ecclesiastical authority or a gift from the sovereign by fraud\", \"a positive allegation of what is false\". Subreption in Catholic Canon law is \"a concealment of the pertinent facts in a petition, as fordispensation or favor, that in certain cases nullifies the grant\", \"the obtainment of a dispensation or gift by concealment of the truth\".The terms are also used in the same senses as in Catholic canon law in Scots law.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In civil law, obrogation (Latin: obrogat from obrogare) is the modification or repeal of a law in whole or in part by issuing a new law.In canon law, of the Catholic Church, obrogation is the enacting of a contrary law that is a revocation of a previous law; it may also be the partial cancellation or amendment of a law, decree, or legal regulation by the imposition of a newer one.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An Official Assignee is an officer in  the law court who distributes a bankrupt's assets to the creditors. He also assists the bankrupt to relieve of his obligations to the creditors.\nUnder the bankruptcy system operating in the United Kingdom before 1869, such officers were appointed by the Lord Chancellor, accountants or from the commercial world.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An offset in law, is a reduction in the amount of a judgment granted to a losing party based on debts owed by the prevailing party to the losing party. For example, if an employee successfully sued an employer for wrongful termination, the employer might be entitled to an offset if the employer could demonstrate that it had previously made an overpayment to that employee which had not been returned. A party may similarly be entitled to an offset where it can demonstrate that the prevailing party has already received compensation for its injuries through insurance, a judgment against another party liable for those injuries, or some other source.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Oliari and Others v. Italy (Application nos. 18766/11 and 36030/11) is a case decided in 2015 by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) in which the Court established a positive obligation upon member states to provide legal recognition for same-sex couples.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Open Directory License (ODL) is a public copyright license that was used by DMOZ for its content.\nUnlike open source licenses, the Open Directory License expressly forbids its applicability to software or open content hosted elsewhere. Time Warner (via the Netscape Communications Corporation) owns the compilation copyright to its unique selection of website listings (links, titles and descriptions) in the open directory on dmoz.org. As a practical matter, this includes the layouts, and the categories, and does not extend to the content Dmoz links to, or the actual links themselves.\nThe Free Software Foundation describes the ODL as a non-free license, citing the right to redistribute a given version not being permanent, and the requirement to check for changes to the license.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An oral will (or nuncupative will) is a will that has been delivered orally (that is, in speech) to  witnesses, as opposed to the usual form of wills, which is written and according to a proper format.\nA minority of U.S. states (approximately 20 as of 2009), permit nuncupative wills under certain circumstances. Under most statutes, such wills can only be made during a person's \"last sickness,\" must be witnessed by at least three persons, and reduced to writing by the witnesses within a specified amount of time after the testator's death. Some states also place limits on the types and value of property that can be bequeathed in this manner. A few U.S. states permit nuncupative wills made by military personnel on active duty. Under the law in England and Wales oral wills are permitted to military personnel and merchant seamen on duty (see law report below) and it is common practice in Commonwealth countries.\nAn analogy can be drawn to the concept of last donations (donatio mortis causa) established by Roman law and still in effect in England and Wales.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An organized industrial zone (Turkish: Organize Sanayi B\u00f6lgesi) is a kind of special economic zone in Turkey. These zones may bring together related (OIZs for function) industries or just be a special zone for many industries (mixed OIZs).\nNot every industry is allowed to operate in organized industrial zones. Organized industrial zones are not duty-free, but there are considerable tax and location(by making related industries closer) advantages. OIZs are related to industrial parks in some countries.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Outdoor relief, an obsolete term originating with the Elizabethan Poor Law (1601), was a program of social welfare and poor relief. Assistance was given in the form of money, food, clothing or goods  to alleviate poverty without the requirement that the recipient enter an institution. In contrast, recipients of indoor relief were required to enter an almshouse, orphanage, workhouse or poorhouse. Outdoor relief consisted of hot meals and provision of blankets and things necessary for homeless persons. Outdoor relief was also a feature of the Scottish and Irish poor Law systems.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Outrageous Government Conduct is a criminal defense that presupposes the defendant's predisposition to commit the crime but seeks dismissal of the indictment on the ground that the conduct of law enforcement agents was \"so outrageous that due process principles would absolutely bar the government from invoking judicial process to obtain a conviction.\" The defense must prove that law enforcement agents' tactics violated \"that 'fundamental fairness, shocking to the universal sense of justice,' mandated by the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment.\"\nThe Outrageous Government Conduct defense is related to but distinct from the entrapment defense. The Outrageous Government Conduct defense is a bar to prosecution which is decided by the judge based on legal theory while entrapment is an affirmative defense which is considered, potentially, by a jury. Additionally, predisposition to commit a crime is irrelevant to the Outrageous government Conduct defense and can succeed despite evidence of predisposition.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Overcharging, in law, refers to a prosecutorial practice that involves \"tacking on\" additional charges that the prosecutor knows he cannot prove. It is used to put the prosecutor in a better plea bargaining position.  The term has been defined in different ways. Alschuler writes that \"to prosecutors, overcharging is accusing the defendant of a crime of which he is clearly innocent to induce a plea to the 'proper' crime. Defense counsel identify two types of overcharging. 'Horizontal' overcharging is the unreasonable multiplying of accusations against a single defendant. He may be either charged with a separate offense for every technical criminal transaction in which he participated, or the prosecutor may fragment a single criminal transaction into numerous component offenses. 'Vertical' overcharging is charging a single offense at a higher level than the circumstances of the case seem to warrant.\" Vertical overcharging is deemed to be the more abusive of the two practices. In defense of overcharging, it has been argued that in order to obtain a plea bargain that results in a lower sentence than the prosecutor's original position, while still obtaining a penalty that promotes public safety, the prosecutor must select an initial charge higher than is penologically appropriate.Although theoretically overcharging is impermissible, courts are reluctant to dismiss charges that are supported by probable cause. American Bar Association guidelines discourage overcharging, but do not prohibit it. It has been said that rules aimed at combating prosecutorial vindictiveness that force prosecutors to justify any distinct indictments brought subsequent to an initial charge raise the possibility of overcharging. It has been argued that restrictions on the current practice of plea bargaining would most likely result in a reduction in overcharging by the prosecutor.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Overlawyered was a law blog on the subject of tort reform run by author Walter Olson. Founded in 1999, it is \"widely considered to be the oldest legal blog and is also one of the most popular\", according to Law.com.The subject of the site is alleged absurdities, excesses, and abuse of the American tort law system.  Its regular readership includes thousands of lawyers in the United States, as well as physicians, and readers in other countries considering American-style tort systems.On April 26, 2013, Olson announced the blog had affiliated itself with the Cato Institute, where he is a senior fellow.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In criminal law, an overt act is the one that can be clearly proved by evidence and from which criminal intent can be inferred, as opposed to a mere intention in the mind to commit a crime.  Such an act, even if innocent per se, can potentially be used as evidence against someone during a trial to show participation in a crime. For instance, the purchase of a ski mask, which can conceal identity, is generally a legal act but may be an overt act if it is purchased in the planning of a bank robbery.\nThe term is more particularly employed in cases of treason, which must be demonstrated by some overt or open act in some jurisdictions. This rule was enacted in the law of England (see the Treason Act 1547), and was later adopted by the United States in Article III, Section 3 of the United States Constitution, which provides that \"No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.\"  In Cramer v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that \"every act, movement, deed, and word of the defendant charged to constitute treason must be supported by the testimony of two witnesses.\" In Haupt v. United States (330 U.S. 631), however, the Supreme Court found that two witnesses are not required either to prove intent or to prove that an overt act is treasonable. The two witnesses, according to that decision, are required to prove only that the overt act occurred.In some jurisdictions, a defendant cannot be convicted of criminal conspiracy unless an overt act is proved.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ownership unbundling is the process by which a company is divested of some of its asset via legislation. This is often done to break up monopolies. Vertically integrated businesses are often ownership unbundled to achieve more competitive markets. The First Railway Directive and Third Energy Package in the EU both have this as their aims.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ox Tax (Hungarian: \u00f6k\u00f6rad\u00f3) is a tax of the Szeklers of Transylvania in medieval Hungarian law. When a boy was born by the Queen, the \"pedestrian\" i.e. footsoldier Sz\u00e9kelys had to contribute for the treasury one ox after every six oxen of theirs. When Louis II of Hungary was born in 1506, the Szeklers refused to pay this tax, therefore, king Vladislas II of Hungary sent P\u00e1l Tomori to Transylvania in order to collect the tax, but his troops were beaten at Marosv\u00e1s\u00e1rhely (Romanian: T\u00e2rgu Mure\u015f) by the Szeklers.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Palace Law (Thai: \u0e01\u0e0e\u0e21\u0e19\u0e40\u0e17\u0e35\u0e22\u0e23\u0e1a\u0e32\u0e25, also spelled \u0e01\u0e0e\u0e21\u0e13\u0e40\u0e11\u0e35\u0e22\u0e23\u0e1a\u0e32\u0e25, RTGS: kot monthianban) is a class of legal texts in the history of Thailand, dating from the Ayutthaya period (14th\u201318th centuries). It prescribed the functions of the monarchy, royal court and government, probably serving like a constitution during early Ayutthaya. It was one of the 27 laws compiled in the 1805 Three Seals Code on the orders of King Rama I, following the fall of Ayutthaya.Today, a handful of palace laws dating from the reign of King Vajiravudh (Rama VI, r. 1910\u20131925) remain in force, the most significant of which is the 1924 Palace Law of Succession, which is deferred to by the constitution.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Papua New Guinea Constitutional and Law Reform Commission (CLRC-PNG) is a government commission in Papua New Guinea. Established by parliamentary act in 2004, the Commission is charged with considering reforms to the law of Papua New Guinea.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Parallel litigation is a scenario in which different courts are hearing the same claim(s).  In the United States, parallel litigation (and the \"race to judgement\" that results)is a consequence of its system of \"dual sovereignty, in which both state and federal courts have personal jurisdiction over the parties.  A major exception to this rule is that a second parallel In rem proceeding will be enjoined by the first court to obtain jurisdiction, as it has already been drawn into constructive possession of the object of the dispute.  \nIn rare cases the federal courts have announced a policy of not hearing (abstaining from) a case when there is parallel litigation going on in state courts, following the Colorado River abstention doctrine.  In that case, the federal government sued for adjudication of certain water rights in Colorado; parties to a state court proceeding joined the U.S. as a defendant, and the Supreme Court said the federal courts should defer to that parallel litigation.  This analysis can be conceptualized as a Forum non conveniens analysis in which there is already an alternative forum in play.  \nThe general rule is that \"[a]bstention from the exercise of federal jurisdiction is the exception, not the rule.\"  Moses H. Cone Mem'l Hosp. v. Mercury Constr. Corp., 460 U.S. 1, 14 (1983) (citing Colo. River Water Conserv. Distr. v. United States, 424 U.S. 800, 813 (1976)).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Paris, Biblioth\u00e8que nationale de France, MS lat. 4404 is a medieval manuscript from the 9th century containing, among other legal texts, the Breviary of Alaric, and is notable also for containing illustrations of rulers.\nThe earliest examples of illustrations of rulers may have been illuminations in legal manuscripts, with lat. 4404 frequently cited as an instance: its frontispiece depicts Theodosius, Valentian, Marcian, and Majorian. The Breviary of Alaric is the only text in the manuscript with annotations.The version of the Lex Salica was called a shortened version by Georg Heinrich Pertz, but Jean Marie Pardessus and Georg Waitz referred to it as amplification. Waitz, following Pardessus, refers to the Lex Salica in 4404 as \"the only manuscript where no trace of Christianity can be found\", apparently neglecting the introduction to the text which speaks of the Franks as a people of God. While those authors saw in the version in 4404 \"the most ancient\" version of the text, Simon Stein argues that the number of mistakes alone is sufficient to prove that this is not the case.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A partially disclosed principal is one whose agent reveals that he has a principal, but does not reveal the principal's identity. This concept has important implications in liability law. It is in contrast to a disclosed principal and undisclosed principal.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A partnership limited by shares is a hybrid between a partnership and a limited liability company.  The capital and ownership of the company is divided between shareholders who have a limited liability and one or more partners who have full liability for the remainder of the company's debts.  The partner(s) will usually direct the operations of the company while the shareholders are passive investors.\n\nIn Belgium and the Netherlands, this structure is known as Commanditaire vennootschap op aandelen (CommVA/CVA).\nIn Denmark, this structure is known as Partnerselskab (or Kommanditaktieselskab).\nIn France, this structure is known as Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 en commandite par actions (SCA).\nIn Germany, this structure is known as Kommanditgesellschaft auf Aktien (KGaA) and is not common.\nIn Italy, this structure is known as Societ\u00e0 in accomandita per azioni (s.a.p.a).\nIn Iceland, this structure is known as Samlagshlutaf\u00e9lag (slhf.).\nIn Poland, this structure is known as sp\u00f3\u0142ka komandytowo-Akcyjna (S.K.A.).\nIn Spain, this structure is known as sociedad comanditaria por acciones (SCA).\nIn Portugal, this structure is known as sociedade em comandita por ac\u00e7\u00f5es.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A patent classification is a system for examiners of patent offices or other people to categorize (code) documents, such as published patent applications, according to the technical features of their content. Patent classifications make it feasible to search quickly for documents about earlier disclosures similar to or related to the invention for which a patent is applied for, and to track technological trends in patent applications.\nSearches based on patent classifications can identify documents of different languages by using the codes (classes) of the system, rather than words. Patent classification systems were originally developed for sorting paper documents, but are nowadays used for searching patent databases.\nThe International Patent Classification (IPC) is agreed internationally. The United States Patent Classification (USPC) is fixed by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). The Derwent classification system is fixed by an enterprise. The German Patent Classification (DPK) was fixed by the German Patent Office (Deutsches Patentamt).\nIn October 2010, the European Patent Office (EPO) and USPTO launched a joint project to create the Cooperative Patent Classification (CPC) in order to harmonise the patent classifications systems between the two offices. CPC from 2013 replaces the European Classification (ECLA), which was based on the IPC but adapted by the EPO.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A patent court is a court specializing in patent law, or having substantially exclusive jurisdiction over patent law issues. In some systems, such courts also have jurisdiction over other areas of intellectual property law, such as copyright and trademark.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Patentleft is the practice of licensing patents (especially biological patents) for royalty-free use, on the condition that adopters license related improvements they develop under the same terms. Copyleft-style licensors seek \"continuous growth of a universally accessible technology commons\" from which they, and others, will benefit.Patentleft is analogous to copyleft, a license which allows distribution of a copyrighted work and derived works, but only under the same or equivalent terms.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A pauper's oath is a sworn statement or oath by a person of being completely destitute or a pauper, without much money or property.\nA person without the ability to pay court costs, also known as \"being indigent\", has the option to swear a pauper's oath to file a lawsuit without paying filing fees. Prisoners filing legal actions often use a pauper's oath because persons in prison are often completely without money or any means of acquiring any.\nHistorically, especially during the Great Depression, the pauper's oath was required as a prerequisite for receiving welfare in the United States.\nOne pauper's oath used when establishing indigent status under US federal law is as follows:\nI do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I have not any property, real or personal, exceeding $20, except such as is by law exempt from being taken on civil process for debt; and that I have no property in any way conveyed or concealed, or in any way disposed of, for my future use or benefit.\n\"So help me God,\" at the end, is optional.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In real estate and real property law, peaceable possession is \"holding property without any adverse claim to possession or title by another\".Quiet title is used to refer to the new owner's peaceable possession.  Property title, or ownership, also includes possession, but is a greater property right than the latter.  Therefore, peaceable possession may also refer to a tenant's, or lessee's, warranty of Quiet enjoyment, or require such for a quiet title action. Cotenants take property together in peaceable possession. Peaceable possession is sometimes defined in the negative, that is, a trespasser lacks it.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The peculiar risk doctrine is a legal doctrine in the U.S. state of California by which an owner or employer can be held vicariously liable for damages caused by an independent contractor negligently performing his or her work.\nThe doctrine was created \"to ensure that innocent third parties injured by the negligence of an independent contractor hired by a landowner to do inherently dangerous work on the land would not have to depend on the contractor's solvency in order to receive compensation for the injuries. Under the peculiar risk doctrine, a person who hires an independent contractor to perform work that is inherently dangerous can be held liable for tort damages when the contractor's negligent performance of the work causes injuries to others\" (see Andreini case). There need not be any fault found on the part of the person who hires the independent contractor.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In civil procedure a penal notice is a warning endorsed on a court order, which notifies the recipient is liable to committal to prison or to pay a fine for breach of the order.  In the case of a company or corporation, their assets may be seized.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Permission culture is a term often employed by Lawrence Lessig and other copyright activists such as Luis Villa and Nina Paley to describe a society in which copyright restrictions are pervasive and enforced to the extent that any and all uses of copyrighted works need to be explicitly leased. This has both economic and social implications: in such a society, copyright holders could require payment for each use of a work and, perhaps more importantly, permission to make any sort of derivative work.\nLawrence Lessig describes permission culture in contrast with free culture. While permission culture describes a society in which previous creators or those with power must grant people permission to use material, free culture ensures that anyone is able to create without restrictions from the past. An example Lessig cites in his book, Free Culture, is photography. In this example, if the legal environment surrounding the early stages of photography had been stricter with what constituted ownership and leaned more towards permission culture, photography would have developed in a drastically different manner and would be limited.An implication of permission culture is that creators are blocked by systemic procedures and this discourages innovation. Requiring permission in this sense means that creators will have to prove their usage of material is fair, even where legally unnecessary, which is a process that some would decide not to continue.This term is often contrasted with remix culture.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Personal Information Agent (PIA) is an individual, business, or organization who is expressly authorized by another identifiable individual in dealings with third persons, businesses or organizations concerning Personally identifiable information (PII). PIA status allows access to information pertaining to an identifiable individual and the records and associated files of that identifiable individual. This normally includes, but is not limited to, financial files, correspondence, memorandum, machine-readable records and any other documentary material, regardless of physical form or characteristics. Access of these records extends to any copy of any of those things, pertaining to that identifiable individual and including the right to audit and monitor activities that involve the process for notification and reporting of unauthorized disclosure or PII breaches.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In broadcast law (particularly within U.S. law), the pervasiveness doctrine is the doctrine stating that media content of broadcasts is subject to regulation because broadcast radio waves are available to anyone and therefore \"uniquely pervasive\". In general, profanity and sex, or other adult material deemed \"indecent\" by a broadcasting authority, may not be broadcast outside of overnight \"watershed\" or \"safe harbor\" hours when children are unlikely to be awake. Material deemed \"obscene\" may still be prohibited at all times.\nThis doctrine has generally been held to apply only to the AM broadcast band (medium wave), FM broadcast band (VHF band II), and TV broadcast bands (VHF band I and band III, and UHF). It does not apply to cable TV, cable radio, satellite TV, satellite radio, or other forms of electronic media, because although they also use publicly owned airwaves, these are subscription services which the listener or viewer must explicitly request, and are subject to conditional access, analog scrambling, or digital encryption.\nThe origin of the name comes from the Federal Communications Commission's 1978 legal case against Pacifica Radio, when the U.S. Supreme Court used the term to justify the verdict against the broadcaster. The Federal Communications Commission v. Pacifica Foundation case is considered a landmark for American broadcasters.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A petition for stay is a legal action filed in an appeals court asking the court to stop (stay) the decision of a lower court.:\u200a871\u200a", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Pilot Records Improvement Act (PRIA) of 1996 is a United States federal law created in response to several fatal aviation accidents attributed to pilot error. Many of the accidents could have been avoided if the current operator was made aware of the pilot's past safety records. The act allows operators to see an applicant's flight qualifications and other safety-related records, as provided by the FAA and the applicant's previous employers.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "\"Piracy is theft\" was a slogan used by UK non-profit organization FAST (Federation Against Software Theft). It was first used in the 1980s and has since then been used by other similar organisations such as MPAA. It has also been used as a statement, although that has been challenged as being inaccurate.\nCopyright holders frequently refer to copyright infringement as theft, although such misuse has been rejected by legislatures and courts. In copyright law, infringement does not refer to theft of physical objects that take away the owner's possession, but an instance where a person exercises one of the exclusive rights of the copyright holder without authorization. Courts have distinguished between copyright infringement and theft.\nFor instance, the United States Supreme Court held in Dowling v. United States (1985) that bootleg phonorecords did not constitute stolen property. Instead,\n\n\"interference with copyright does not easily equate with theft, conversion, or fraud. The Copyright Act even employs a separate term of art to define one who misappropriates a copyright: '[...] an infringer of the copyright.'\"\n\nThe court said that in the case of copyright infringement, the province guaranteed to the copyright holder by copyright law \u2013 certain exclusive rights \u2013 is invaded, but no control, physical or otherwise, is taken over the copyright, nor is the copyright holder wholly deprived of using the copyrighted work or exercising the exclusive rights held.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A planning and zoning commission is a local elected or appointed government board charged with recommending to the local town or city council the boundaries of the various original zoning districts and appropriate regulations to be enforced therein and any proposed amendments thereto.  In addition, the Planning and Zoning Commission collects data and keeps itself informed as to the best practices generally in effect in the matter city planning and zoning.  It may be qualified to act on measures affecting the present and future movement of traffic, the segregation of residential and business districts and the convenience and safety of persons and property in any way dependent on city planning and zoning. \nSome jurisdictions also have a separate planning board and a separate zoning board, with each respective board performing the specified function (amending the comprehensive plan versus rezoning) as opposed to a unified planning and zoning board that deals with both.\nThe chairman of the Planning and Zoning Commission (or a staff member) is responsible for publishing public hearings in the newspaper about certain matters that come before the commission.  Most municipal or county Planning and Zoning Commissions consist of five to seven members.  This number does not include alternates. In some states, planning and zoning commissions are regional or county.\nSome communities elect planning and zoning commission members.  In other jurisdictions, the Planning and Zoning Commissioners are appointed by the Mayor or First Selectman of the city or town and approved by the city's legislative body, i.e. city council, board of aldermen, etc. Some planning commissioners are appointed by the City Commission as a whole. Some larger local jurisdictions refer to the single head of the planning department as a planning commissioner, but that is not to be confused with planning commissioners who make up the planning commission.  \nPlanning and zoning commissions may also be approving agencies for development permits and specific variances to the zoning code for development. Other jurisdictions may have separate zoning board of adjustments and appeals that perform the function instead of the planning and zoning commission doing it. In fact, some of those jurisdictions have featured court appointed boards of adjustment and appeals due to the quasi-judicial functions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Playing Cards Act is a law in Thailand that prohibits individuals from owning more than 120 playing cards that have not been registered by the Excise Department. The current law was passed in 1943, superseding previous acts. The Playing Cards Acts are part of Thailand's strict anti-gambling laws dating back to 1935. To ensure legal possession of playing cards, under Section 12 of the law, a competent official has the power to enter anywhere between sunrise and sunset to conduct a search.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Plenary adoption (French: adoption pl\u00e9ni\u00e8re Japanese: \u7279\u5225\u990a\u5b50\u7e01\u7d44 Korean: \uce5c\uc591\uc790 \uc785\uc591) is an alternate form of adoption which terminates the relationship between birth parent and child.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A plumbing code is a code that provides regulations for the design, installation and inspection of building plumbing and sanitary systems. In the United States, jurisdictions enact their own codes, some of which are based upon model plumbing codes. The most widely adopted plumbing code in the United States is the International Plumbing Code published by the International Code Council (ICC). This code is also used as the basis for the plumbing codes of some other countries. Another model plumbing code published and utilized widely across the United States is the Uniform Plumbing Code, published by the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO), a multinational operation with offices in 13 nations. IAPMO codes are developed using ANSI consensus development procedures. This code serves as the basis for the national plumbing codes in India and Indonesia.Plumbing codes mainly focus on venting. Improper venting can release noxious fumes into homes and buildings.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A positive covenant is a kind of agreement relating to land, where the covenant requires positive expenditure by the person bound, in order to fulfil its terms.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In legal usage, a possessory action may refer to:\n\nAn action brought to recover possession of property.\nAn action to recover possession of real estate, such as ejectment or forcible entry and detainer.\nAn action to recover possession of personal property, such as replevin.\nIn Louisiana, an action to recover, maintain, or get into the possession of immovable property or of a right upon or growing out of it. Code Proc. La. \u00a7 6.; Preston v Zabrisky, 2 La 226, 227. The dispossessed party must have had quiet and undisturbed possession for a year and a day of the property before bringing an action.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Harvard Law defines poverty law as, \"the legal statutes, regulations and cases that apply particularly to the financially poor in his or her day to day life\". In a commonsense understanding and in practice, the goal of poverty law is to protect the disadvantaged poor from unfair treatment by the law. Poverty law often overlaps with federal benefits and welfare policies. Pertinent federal government benefits include Medicaid; cash public assistance (more commonly known as Welfare); and the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) program, previously known as the food stamps program. Poverty law frequently involves questions of administrative law, civil rights law, constitutional law, employment law, and health law.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An Act confirming all the Statutes made in England (10 Hen.7 c.22; short title Poynings' Law in Northern Ireland and Poynings' Act 1495 in the Republic of Ireland) is an act passed by the Parliament of Ireland which gave all statutes \"late made\" by the Parliament of England the force of law in the Lordship of Ireland. It was passed by Poynings' Parliament, along with other acts strengthening English law in Ireland, one of which was commonly called \"Poynings' Law\" until its virtual repeal by the Constitution of 1782.\nMany of the English acts adopted by Poynings' Law  were repealed with respect to Ireland by the Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872, having already been repealed with respect to England by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and others.  Poynings' Law itself remains in force in Northern Ireland. In the republic, it was repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 2007, without thereby repealing the English statutes it referred to, a few of which remain in force.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Predatory marriage is the practice of marrying an elderly person exclusively for the purpose of gaining access to their estate upon their death. While the requirements for mental capacity to make a valid will are high, in most jurisdictions the requirements for entering into a valid marriage are much lower; even a person suffering dementia may enter into marriage. In many jurisdictions, a marriage arrangement will invalidate any previous will left by the person, resulting in the spouse inheriting the estate.In the United Kingdom a campaign, Predatory Marriage UK (originally known as Justice for Joan) was started, working to change laws and procedures around marriage to reduce this practice, supported by lawyer Sarah Young of Ridley and Hall. The local MP, Fabian Hamilton MP, introduced a bill in Parliament during 2018 entitled the Marriage and Civil Partnership (Consent) Bill, to establish that marriage should no longer always revoke a previous will and have introduced other protections against predatory marriage. The bill was passed but ran out of parliamentary time, but work is continuing.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The prediction theory of law was a key component of the Oliver Wendell Holmes's jurisprudential philosophy.  At its most basic, the theory is an attempted refutation of most previous definitions of the law.  Holmes believed that the law should be defined as a prediction, most specifically, a prediction of how the courts behave.  His rationale was based on an argument regarding the opinion of a \"bad man.\"  Bad men, Holmes argued in his speech \"The Path of the Law\", care little for ethics or lofty conceptions of natural law; instead they care simply about staying out of jail and avoiding the payment of damages.  In Holmes's mind, therefore, it was most useful to define \"the law\" as a prediction of what will bring punishment or other consequences from a court.\nThe theory played a key role in influencing American legal realism.\nH. L. A. Hart criticized the theories in his The Concept of Law (1961). He argued that (1) they were blind to the internal point of view towards law, the sense shared by officials and law-abiding citizens that rules of law 'ought' to be obeyed, and (2) they undervalue \"the ways in which the law is used to control, to guide, and to plan life out of court.\" As for the 'bad man', Hart asks, \"Why should not law be equally if not more concerned with the 'puzzled man' or 'ignorant man' who is willing to do what is required, if only he can be told what it is? Or with the 'man who wishes to arrange his affairs' if only he can be told how to do it?\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A preferred charge is an interim step in the United States' military justice system.According to Jonathon Turley, a law professor at George Washington University, testifying before the Senate Intelligence Committee, the US military justice system equivalent of a formal charge is only leveled following the recommendation of an article 32 hearing -- a hearing held under the authority of article 32 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Prepared testimony is a form of testimony which is prepared ahead of time, and is then presented verbally or in writing. It is attested as true by the author(s), or given under oath. Typically it is given to a large body or organization. Questions may be posed to the attestor or witness, but the forum where the testimony is given may not permit this, or it may be impractical, or questioning may be cast implicitly in the form of further testimony by others.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A present sense impression, in the law of evidence, is a statement made by a person (the declarant) that conveys his or her sense of the state of an event or the condition of something.  The statement must be spontaneously made while the person was perceiving (i.e. contemporaneous with) the event or condition, or \"immediately thereafter.\"  The permissible time lapse between event and statement may range from seconds to minutes, but probably not hours.  The subject matter and content of the statement are limited to descriptions or explanations of the event or condition, therefore opinions, inferences, or conclusions about the event or condition are not present sense impressions.  An example of present sense impression is of a person saying, \"it's cold\" or \"we're going really fast\".\nUnder the Federal Rules of Evidence [FRE 803(1)], a statement of present sense impression is an exception to the prohibition on use of hearsay as evidence at a trial or hearing, and is therefore admissible to prove the truth of the statement itself (i.e. to prove that it was in fact cold at the time the person was speaking, or to prove that the person was indeed traveling very fast).  The basis for this exception is the belief that the statement is likely reliable and true, as there is no time for reflection, distortion, or fabrication.\nThe witness testifying about the statement need not be the declarant who, with firsthand knowledge about the event and condition, would normally make a better witness.  The witness must have personal knowledge of declarant's making of the statement, but need not have personal knowledge of the event or the content of the statement.  For example, a policeman observed from a distance that a reporter was dictating into a voice-recorder while a shooting was going on, but could not hear what the reporter was dictating.  The reporter is unavailable to testify.  The policeman testifies that he saw the reporter make the dictation.  Upon proper authentication, that portion of the audio-recording containing descriptions or explanations of the shooting is admissible as present sense impression.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A presidential exemption is the power of President of a state to overrule or exempt certain laws or legal decisions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The \"presumption of legitimacy\" is a common law rule of evidence that states that a child born within the subsistence of a marriage is presumed to be the child of the husband.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Presumption of paternity in paternity law and common law is the legal determination that a man is \"presumed to be\" a child's biological father without additional supportive evidence, usually as a result of marriage.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Presumption of Sanity is a legal presumption.  Its effect is that a person who faces criminal trial is presumed sane until the opposite is proved.  Similarly, a person is presumed to have testamentary capacity until there is evidence to undermine that presumption.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Prevention of Crime Act 1959 (Malay: Akta Pencegahan Jenayah 1959) is a Malaysian law which enacted to deal with crime prevention and for the control of criminals, members of secret societies, terrorists and other undesirable persons. Persons detained under the Act were not precluded from making a claim 'Habeas Corpus' (a court order to release the person detained is not in accordance with legal procedures that should be). Originally, POCA only came into force in peninsular Malaysia.\nThe act is necessary to stop action by a substantial body of persons both inside and outside Malaysia to cause, or to cause a substantial number of citizens to fear, organized violence against persons or property.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Primary physical custody is a term that is often used in child custody orders to denote the parent with whom a child spends or lives the majority of the time with.  It is a term that is often used in cases where one parent has more time with his/her child than the other.  \nTraditionally Courts have favored children having an exclusive home in order to encourage stability in children's lives. Fathers regularly report a perception that mothers are favored when deciding physical custody of infants. This may be in part because sexist laws have been passed in states that younger children (of tender years) should be with their mother until a certain age of maturity. Research by Joan B. Kelly, Ph.D., and Michael E. Lamb, Ph.D. have challenged this philosophy in recent years.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A person's primary residence, or main residence is the dwelling where they usually live, typically a house or an apartment. A person can only have one primary residence at any given time, though they may share the residence with other people. A primary residence is considered to be a legal residence for the purpose of income tax and/or acquiring a mortgage.\nCriteria for a primary residence consist mostly of guidelines rather than hard rules, and residential status is often determined on a case-by-case basis.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The principle of conferral is a fundamental principle of European Union law. According to this principle, the EU is a union of its member states, and all its competences are voluntarily conferred on it by its member states. The Union has no competences by right, and thus any areas of policy not explicitly agreed in treaties by all member states remain the domain of the member states. This indicates that the member states have the right to deal with all matters that fall outside the agreements of the Treaties and the EU can only act within the conferred competences defined by the Member States in the treaties.This principle has always underpinned the European Union, but it was explicitly specified for the first time in the proposed and rejected Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. The principle carried over into its replacement, the Treaty on European Union. It is spelled out fully in Articles 4 and 5 of the TEU.\nBoth Articles make clear that the Union acts only within the limits of the competences conferred upon it by the Member States, but then state clearly that \"Competences not conferred upon the Union in the Treaties remain with the Member States.\" Article 4(1) repeats this and goes on to stipulate that \"The Union shall respect the equality of Member States before the Treaties as well as their national identities, inherent in their fundamental structures, political and constitutional, inclusive of regional and local self-government. It shall respect their essential State functions, including ensuring the territorial integrity of the State, maintaining law and order and safeguarding national security. In particular, national security remains the sole responsibility of each Member State.\"\nIn many areas the Union has shared competence with the Member States. Once the Union has passed legislation in these fields competence moves to the Union.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Prior consistent statements and prior inconsistent statements, in the law of evidence, occur where a witness, testifying at trial, makes a statement that is either consistent or inconsistent, respectively, with a previous statement given at an earlier time such as during a discovery, interview, or interrogation. The  examiner can impeach the witness when an inconsistent statement is found, and may conversely bolster the credibility of an impeached witness with a prior consistent statement.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Prior review occurs when executive persons read and review materials before they have been made available to the public.\nPrior review is distinct from prior restraint, the government prohibition of speech in advance of ts publication.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Private benefits of control is a technical term used by corporate lawyers and economists. It refers to the economic gain from exerting influence on a company by large shareholders at the expense of small shareholders.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Private International Law (Implementation of Agreements) Act 2020 puts gives primary legislative effect to the  1996, 2005 and 2007 Hauge Conventions as signed at The Hague. Section 2 of the Act allows the Government to implement other international agreements relating to private international law through secondary legislation.It received royal assent on 14 December 2020.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A privilege log is a document that describes documents or other items withheld from production in a civil lawsuit under a claim that the documents are \"privileged\" from disclosure due to the attorney\u2013client privilege, work product doctrine, joint defense doctrine, or some other privilege.  Rule 26(b)(5)(A) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure requires that a party who withholds information on grounds of privilege must (i) expressly make the claim; and (ii) describe the nature of the documents, communications, or tangible things not produced or disclosed\u2014and do so in a manner that, without revealing information itself privileged or protected, will enable other parties to assess the claim.  A party withholding privileged documents from discovery complies with Rule 26(b)(5)(A) by producing a log containing the following information for each withheld document:  the date, type of document, author(s), recipient(s), general subject-matter of the document, and the privilege being claimed (e.g., attorney-client). A production log or similar document may explain where documents on the privilege log were found, identify lawyers on the log, or provide other information.\nWhenever a claim of privilege is made, the person making the claim has the burden of showing that the privilege applies. Therefore, it is generally the withholding party's burden to provide sufficient information on its privilege log to allow the opposing party to assess the claim of privilege, inquire further, or seek in camera review of the withheld documents or other Court involvement, if necessary.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law the general term privilege revocation is often used when discussing some paper, such as a drivers licence, being voided after a (negative) condition is met by the holder.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A prize court is a court (or even a single individual, such as an ambassador or consul) authorized to consider whether prizes have been lawfully captured, typically whether a ship has been lawfully captured or seized in time of war or under the terms of the seizing ship's letters of marque and reprisal.  A prize court may order the sale or destruction of the seized ship, and the distribution of any proceeds to the captain and crew of the seizing ship.  A prize court may also order the return of a seized ship to its owners if the seizure was unlawful, such as if seized from a country which had proclaimed its neutrality.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Procedural due process is a legal doctrine in the United States that requires government officials to follow fair procedures before depriving a person of life, liberty, or property.:\u200a657\u200a When the government seeks to deprive a person of one of those interests, procedural due process requires at least for the government to afford the person notice, an opportunity to be heard, and a decision made by a neutral decisionmaker. Procedural due process is required by the Due Process Clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution.:\u200a617\u200aThe article \"Some Kind of Hearing\" written by Judge Henry Friendly created a list of basic due process rights \"that remains highly influential, as to both content and relative priority.\" The rights, which apply equally to civil due process and criminal due process, are the following:\nAn unbiased tribunal.\nNotice of the proposed action and the grounds asserted for it.\nThe opportunity to present reasons for the proposed action not to be taken.\nThe right to present evidence, including the right to call witnesses.\nThe right to know the opposing evidence.\nThe right to cross-examine adverse witnesses.\nA decision based only on the evidence presented.\nOpportunity to be represented by counsel.\nA requirement that the tribunal prepare a record of the evidence presented.\nA requirement that the tribunal prepare written findings of fact and the reasons for its decision.Not all the above rights are guaranteed in every instance when the government seeks to deprive a person life, liberty, or property. At minimum, a person is due only notice, an opportunity to be heard, and a decision by a neutral decisionmaker. Courts use various tests to determine whether a person should also be guaranteed any of the other above procedural rights.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The product/process distinction is the distinction between the product information and the process information of a consumer good. Product information is information that pertains to a consumer good, namely to its price, quality, and safety (its proximate attributes). Process information is information that pertains to the means by which the consumer good is made i.e. the working conditions under which it comes into being, as well as the treatment of animals involved in its production chain (its peripheral attributes).\nThe product/process distinction is used by the World Trade Organization (WTO) as a way to determine whether or not a complaint filed by an importing nation is valid and warrants trade barriers against the exporting nation. Under WTO rules, an importing nation can lodge a complaint with the WTO that the exporting nation uses methods for obtaining or producing the good in question that the importing nation finds to be immoral or unethical. If the independent World Trade Organization Advisory Board, made up of a panel of international law and trade experts, finds that the importing nation has a legitimate complaint, enforces said ethical standards for domestic production, and isn't trying to merely skirt its free trade obligations, then the Board will rule that trade barriers are justified. Despite what World Trade Organization officials have said, in practice the World Trade Organization finds these complaints illegitimate the vast majority of the time.For example, if the European Union (EU) wants to ban imports of cosmetics that were tested on laboratory animals on grounds that such testing is unethical, it can file a complaint with the World Trade Organization and, in theory, the WTO would allow the EU to enact trade barriers provided that the EU bans its own domestic cosmetic producers from testing on laboratory animals. \nIn these cases, however, the World Trade Organization has consistently ruled that such barriers are illegal because only the process is different, while the final product itself is not. Therefore, the WTO has made the product/process distinction an important factor in determining whether trade barriers are justified.The World Trade Organization has stated that if nations were able to enact barriers merely because the importing nation's standards differ from their own, control could be lost and barriers could be enacted around the world for frivolous reasons. However, many complain that these rulings go against the stated intentions of the World Trade Organization, and prove that the organization often puts commercial interests above environmental, ethical, and  human rights issues.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Proof of insurance (POI) is any type of documentation that a person can provide to another individual proving that the person has valid insurance with an insurance company.\nThe most common form of a POI is a paper card provided by the insurance company listing policy information and effective dates.\nWhere vehicle insurance is compulsory, many states require that a person carry proof of insurance in their automobiles or on their person while driving.  If a person is questioned by a law enforcement official, they must provide proof of insurance.  A citation is generally issued if the person cannot provide such documentation.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Propination laws were a privilege granted to Polish szlachta that gave landowners a monopoly over profits from alcohol consumed by their peasants. Propination is a historical right to distill spirits.\nIn many cases, profits from propination exceeded those from agricultural production or other sources.\nThese laws usually included:\n\npeasants were not allowed to purchase any alcohol not produced in their owner's distillery\nalternatively, they could be allowed to brew their own drinks but had to pay a fee according to the amount produced\npeasants had to buy at least a given quota of vodka or okovita.  Those who didn't comply had the remaining amount dumped in front of their houses and had to pay the costs.These laws first appeared in the 16th and were widespread by the 17th century.  They lasted until 1845 (Prussian partition), 1889 (Galicia) and 1898 (Russian Partition).\nPropination was the main cause for massive alcoholism in Poland; also, because taverns in rural region were leased nearly exclusively to Jews who took part in enforcing these privileges, it was also a major reason for anti-semitism among peasants.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A prosecution association was an organization of citizens, typically in the same community, who paid dues to cover one another's costs of privately prosecuting offenders should a crime be committed against them.These were particularly popular in places and times when there was no public police force (the first public police force in Britain was established in 1829) and when citizens were allowed to prosecute offenders directly rather than relying on public prosecutors. The prosecution associations sometimes also provided crime insurance to their members, and would go after offenders in an effort to obtain restitution.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In United States government contracting, a provision or solicitation provision is a written term or condition used in a solicitation. A solicitation provision applies only before a contract is awarded to a vendor. This distinguishes provisions from clauses, which apply after contracts are awarded (and possibly before).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Public Access Scheme (a.k.a. \"Direct Access\") allows members of the public in England and Wales to instruct a barrister directly.  In the past, it was necessary for clients to use a solicitor or other third party in order to instruct a barrister.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Proposed bills are often categorized into public bills and private bills. A public bill is a proposed law which would apply to everyone within its jurisdiction. This is unlike a private bill which is a proposal for a law that would apply to a particular individual or group of individuals, or corporate entity. After a bill is enacted, these bills become public acts and private acts, respectively.\nPrivate law can afford relief from another law, grant a unique benefit or powers not available under the general law, or relieve someone from legal responsibility for some allegedly wrongful act. There are many examples of such private law in democratic countries, although its use has changed over time. A private bill is not to be confused with a private member's bill, which is a bill introduced by a \"private member\" of the legislature rather than by the ministry.\n\nThe term \"public bill\" differentiates such a bill from a private bill, which is a legislative bill affecting only a single person, group, or area, such as a bill granting a named person citizenship or, previously, granting named persons a legislative divorce.\nIn practice, a (technically) public act can have the effect of a private act by the addition of restrictions such as limiting the act's effect to areas falling within a certain population bracket.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Public Domain Mark (PDM) is a symbol used to indicate that a work is free of known copyright restrictions and therefore in the public domain. It is analogous to the copyright symbol, which is commonly used to indicate that a work is copyrighted, often as part of a copyright notice. The Public Domain Mark was developed by Creative Commons and is only an indicator of the public domain status of a work -- it itself doesn't release a copyrighted work into the public domain like CC0.\nThe symbol is encoded in Unicode as U+1F16E \ud83c\udd6e CIRCLED C WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH, which was added in Unicode 13.0.As there is no single definition of public domain and copyright laws differ by jurisdiction, a work can be in the public domain in some countries while still being under copyright in others (so called hybrid status). It is also difficult to assess the legal status of many works. The PDM is recommended to be used only for works that are likely free from any copyright restrictions worldwide.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Public Interest Disclosure Act  is a stock short title used in the United Kingdom and several Australian jurisdictions for legislation that is intended to protect whistleblowers:", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Under common law, public-interest privilege prevents the compulsory disclosure of documents or information which is against the public interest.  There is a balance between public interests- if the public interest in secrecy is greater than the public interest in disclosure, it will be privileged.  The public interest in disclosure is the principle that a court of justice ought not be denied access to relevant information, and that the opposing party should have access to all relevant information to make their case.Unlike other privileges, this right is not vested in any party or entity.  The court may, of its own motion, prevent admission of evidence if it thinks it may disclose privileged information.  The government need not be a party to proceedings for privilege to be raised. Privilege, being vested in the public interest and not a party, cannot be waived by a party.   However, if the information has been published elsewhere this is a very strong factor towards the public interest of disclosure.This privilege may be claimed on two bases.  Firstly, that the documents belong to a class of documents which the public interest requires should not be disclosed.  In Australia, even for documents belonging to a very high level documents, such as cabinet papers, the court must interrogate whether it really is prejudicial to the public interest to disclose it.  Australian judges in general have been more willing to disclose information than judges in England or Canada.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Public prosecutor's offices are criminal justice bodies attached to the judiciary.\nThey are separate from the courts in Germany, Austria and the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, and are called the Staatsanwaltschaft.\nThis kind of office also exists in Mainland China, Taiwan and Macau (which continues to follow the Portuguese legal system), and in some countries in Central Europe including Slovakia, Slovenia, Poland and the Czech Republic.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Public use is a legal requirement under the Takings Clause (\"nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation\") of the Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, that owners of property seized by eminent domain for \"public use\" be paid \"just compensation.\"\nThe distinction between public use and public purpose has created a doctrinally confusing and highly controversial subset of public use doctrine. This controversy was renewed after the Supreme Court's decision in Kelo v. City of New London (2005).  In that decision, the Court upheld the precedent regarding economic development takings set forth in Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff and Berman v. Parker, and permitted, in a 5\u20134 decision, the taking of private property that was to be transferred to a private developer.  In United States v. Gettysburg Electric Ry. Co., 160 U.S. 668 (1896), the Supreme Court ruled in 1896 that seizing the railway for Gettysburg Battlefield historic preservation \"seems\" to be \"a public use\".Takings that are not \"for public use\" are not directly covered by the doctrine, however such a taking will likely violate due process rights under the Fourteenth Amendment or other applicable law.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A puisne judge or puisne justice (; from French: puisn\u00e9 or pu\u00een\u00e9;  puis, 'since, later' + n\u00e9, 'born', i.e. 'junior') is a dated term for an ordinary judge or a judge of lesser rank of a particular court. \n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In property law of countries with a common law background, including the United States and some Canadian provinces, pur autre vie (Law French for \"for another['s] life\") is a duration of a proprietary freehold interest in the form of a variant of a life estate.While it is similar to a standard life estate pur sa vie (for his or her own life), it differs in that a person's life interest will last for the life of another person, the cestui que vie, instead of his or her own.  For example, if Bob is given use of the family house for as long as his mother lives, he has possession of the house pur autre vie.  A life estate pur autre vie can be created when a contingent remainder is destroyed, in a Doctrine of Merger situation, where one person acquires the life estate of another and thereby destroys a remainder not already vested. It can also arise when a life tenant alienates his life estate to another, whereby the person to whom the estate is devised gains a life estate pur autre vie of the original life tenant.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Pyramiding is a practice in which an employer that withholds payroll taxes from its employees intentionally fails to remit those withholdings to the taxing authority. Businesses that engage in pyramiding often file for bankruptcy to discharge the tax liabilities and start anew under a new name and perpetuating the same scheme. In the United States, employers may face federal as well as state criminal penalties for engaging in pyramiding. Pyramiding is one of the more common forms of employment tax evasion.The term \"pyramiding\" refers to the accumulation of tax liability from each successive failure to remit payments. Another term for a business that engages in pyramiding is an \"in-business repeater\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Qui facit per alium facit per se (anglicised Late Latin), which means \"He who acts through another does the act himself\", is a fundamental legal maxim of the law of agency. It is a maxim often stated in discussing the liability of employer for the act of employee in terms of vicarious liability.\"According to this maxim, if in the nature of things, the master is obliged to perform the duties by employing servants, he is responsible for their act in the same way that he is responsible for his own acts.The maxim is a shortened form of the fuller 18th-century formulation: qui facit per alium, est perinde ac si facit per se ipsum: \"whoever acts through another acts as if he were doing it himself.\"\nIndirectly, the principle is in action or present in the duty that has been represented by the agent so the duty performed will be seen as the performance of the agent himself. Whatever a principal can do for himself, can be done through an agent. The exception to this maxim would be acts of personal nature.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "R v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, ex p Rees-Mogg was an English legal case in which Times journalist and life peer William Rees-Mogg, challenged the legality of the Maastricht Treaty by judicial review. The case was based on Rees-Mogg's call for a declaration that by ratifying the Treaty on the EU, the Government transferred certain prerogative powers without statutory authority.\nThe case is notable for its liberal approach to the question of locus standi in judicial review cases.\nThe principle of parliamentary sovereignty will not therefore be affected since such making of treaty does not change any domestic law.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "R v Secretary of State for the Home Department ex parte Fire Brigades Union [1995] UKHL 3  was a House of Lords case concerning  the awarding of compensation under the Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme. The case is considered significant in constitutional terms for its ruling on the extent of Ministerial prerogative powers.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "\"Race to the courthouse\" is an informal name used to describe the rule in some jurisdictions that the first conveyance instrument, mortgage, lien or judgment to be filed with the appropriate recorder's office, will have priority and prevail over documents filed subsequently, irrespective of the date of execution of the documents at issue.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Re-importation or reimportation is the importation of goods into a country which had previously been exported from that country. A number of legal issues arise with the re-importation of goods, particularly where the goods were not designed for sale in the country from which they were initially exported. Because prices differ from one country to another, a re-importer may purchase goods in another country where they are sold at a low price and re-import them in order to undercut the price at which the goods are being sold in the country to which they are imported. Such re-imported goods may constitute grey market goods.\nRe-importation occurs often when excise taxes are high on a commodity, such as alcohol. Buyers who desire certain domestic products, but do not wish to pay the high excise tax, can buy it from another country where the excise tax is lower. This occurs, for example, when re-importing Koskenkorva Viina, a Finnish product, from Estonia to Finland.\nThe permissibility of re-importation varies based on the product and the jurisdiction involved. For example, Canada prohibits re-importation of books exported from Canada for sale in other countries, while the U.S. prohibits re-importation of products made with packaging or formulations unique to the country to which it has been exported.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law, rebuttal is a form of evidence that is presented to contradict or nullify other evidence that has been presented by an adverse party. By analogy the same term is used in politics and public affairs to refer to the informal process by which statements, designed to refute or negate specific arguments (see Counterclaim) put forward by opponents, are deployed in the media.In law, special rules apply to rebuttal; rebuttal evidence or rebuttal witnesses must be confined solely to the subject matter of the evidence rebutted.  New evidence on other subjects may not be brought in rebuttal.  However, rebuttal is one of the few vehicles whereby a party may introduce surprise evidence or witnesses. The basic process is as follows:  both sides of a controversy are obliged to declare in advance of trial what witnesses they plan to call, and what each witness is expected to testify to. When either a plaintiff (or prosecutor) or defendant brings direct evidence or testimony which was not anticipated, the other side may be granted a specific opportunity to rebut it.  In rebuttal, the rebutting party may generally bring witnesses and evidence which were never before declared, so long as they serve to rebut the prior evidence.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law, a reciprocal obligation, also known as a reciprocal agreement is a duty owed by one individual to another and vice versa. It is a type of agreement that bears upon or binds two parties in an equal manner.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A recorded recollection (sometimes referred to as a prior recollection recorded), in the law of evidence, is an exception to the hearsay rule which allows witnesses to testify to the accuracy of a recording or documentation of their own out-of-court statement based on their recollection of the circumstances under which the statement was recorded or documented - even though the witness does not remember the events attested to in the statement. It is sufficient that the witness is able to testify to having made the recording, and to having written an accurate statement at that time.\nUnder the Federal Rules of Evidence, \u00a7 803 (5), a recorded recollection is defined as follows.\n\nA memorandum or record concerning a matter about which a witness once had knowledge but now has insufficient recollection to enable the witness to testify fully and accurately, shown to have been made or adopted by the witness when the matter was fresh in the witness' memory and to reflect that knowledge correctly. If admitted, the memorandum or record may be read into evidence but may not itself be received as an exhibit unless offered by an adverse party.The rule is followed by most U.S. states as laid out in the Federal Rules of Evidence; the evidence thus presented may be read into the record, but the actual recording or document may not be given to the jury, except under very narrow circumstances.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In United States tax law the recovery of capital doctrine protects a portion of investment receipts from being taxed, namely the amount that was initially invested. This is because the investor is receiving his or her own money which is being returned to him or her.\nFor example, if a person purchased stock in a company totalling $10,000 and then sold it a few years later for $15,000, only $5,000 would be eligible for taxation. The initial $10,000 is protected under the recovery of capital doctrine.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Though in general, each business may decide with whom they wish to transact, there are some situations when a refusal to deal may be considered an unlawful anti-competitive practice, if it prevents or reduces competition in a market. The unlawful behaviour may involve two or more companies refusing to use, buy from or otherwise deal with a person or business, such as a competitor, for the purpose of inflicting some economic loss on the target or otherwise force them out of the market. A refusal to deal (also known as a group boycott) is forbidden in some countries which have restricted market economies, though the actual acts or situations which may constitute such unacceptable behaviour may vary significantly between jurisdictions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A registered owner is usually the person or entity that is on the government records as being the legal owner of certain property, such as real estate or a motor vehicle, as well as ships. The registration of shares in a company is usually required to be managed by the company. The registered owner of a property in question is normally presumed, sometimes conclusively, to be the legal owner of the property and is said to \u201chold the title\u201d or is \u201cregistered on the title\u201d. \nOwnership of property usually implies a right of possession, as opposed to the party that has right of property. The party that has the right of property is referred to as a lienholder, and in the event the registered owner fails to pay off the lien according to the agreed-to terms, the lienholder has the right to invoke repossession of the property.\nIn jurisdictions that have adopted the Torrens system of land registration and title, the register of land holdings provides conclusive evidence (termed \"indefeasibility\") of title of the person recorded on the register as the proprietor (owner), and of all other interests recorded on the register.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The registrar is a chief executive officer of a judicial forum. They are in charge of the entire registry of the department.\nIn common law jurisdictions, registrars are usually judicial officers with the power to hear certain civil matters such as interlocutory applications and assessment of damages.  In some jurisdictions, they may also hear trials of cases if both parties consent.  Registrars are assisted by deputy-registrars, who in common law jurisdictions are sometimes called masters.The registrar is the chief administrator of the department, normally they happen to be the head of the department. The posts of the registrar are generally created in a judicial forums such as tribunals, high courts and supreme courts and in educational universities. In the judicial forum, they manage both administrative and judicial sides in departments under the authority of the president/chairman of the tribunals and chief justices of the high courts and supreme courts. The government may also appoint one or more assistant/deputy registrars. They help the courts, the registrar, the president/chairperson, and the judges in all their official/judicial functions. They are exercising delegated powers of the Registrar. They are guardian of the seals and responsible for the court's archives and publications. \nThe registrar is responsible for the administrative and judicial work as are assigned by the president/chairman/judges of the tribunal/court. In the event of necessities, the registrar may pass interlocutory orders for staying the proceedings as he deems fit until the appeal is heard by the other courts.\nIn other jurisdictions, the registrar exercises his powers with the change of nomenclature. Normally, the status of the registrar is equal to that of the district judge of Higher Judicial Service.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Regulatory law refers to secondary legislation, including regulations, promulgated by an executive branch agency under a delegation from a legislature. It contrasts with statutory law promulgated by the legislative branch, and common law or case law promulgated by the judicial branch.\nRegulatory law also refers to the law that governs conduct of administrative agencies (both promulgation of regulations, and adjudication of applications or disputes), and judicial review of agency decisions, usually called administrative law. Administrative law is promulgated by the legislature (and refined by judicial common law) for governing agencies.\nThe administrative agencies create procedures to regulate applications, licenses, appeals and decision making. In the United States, the Administrative Procedure Act is responsible for all federal agency policies.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In law of evidence, relationship evidence describes a particular class of circumstantial evidence - evidence of events and interactions between witnesses (often the accused and the complainant) extraneous to the offences charged. The admissibility of this type of evidence derives from common law principles that stand outside the direct operation of the Uniform Evidence Acts (\"UEA\").", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In the US, and possibly other common law countries, a \"relief defendant\" or \"nominal defendant\" is a person named in civil litigation who is not accused of wrongdoing. However, it is alleged that the relief defendant has received property originally obtained illegally and to which the relief defendant has no legitimate claim. It is not necessary that the relief defendant receive the property in question knowingly; however, a valid negotiated consideration creates a \"legitimate claim\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In arbitration, the repeat-player effect is a proposition that, outside of the collective bargaining context, employers attain more favorable outcomes in arbitration.Factors contributing to the repeat-player effect include employers' having more information to gain an advantage in the arbitrator selection process, as well as influence on arbitrators, who may want to rule in the employer's favor to be selected in future arbitrations.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Reporter of Decisions (sometimes known by other titles, such as Official Reporter or State Reporter) is the official responsible for publishing the decisions of a court. Traditionally, the decisions were published in books known as case reporters or law reports. In recent years, the reporter's duties have been broadened in many jurisdictions to include publication through electronic media.\nIn the United States, the most prominent Reporter of Decisions is the Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States, an officer of the Supreme Court of the United States, responsible for reporting the decisions of that court in the official report volumes, known as the United States Reports.  In contrast, the United States courts of appeals have not historically appointed official reporters of decisions, relying instead on the private company West Publishing to report appellate decisions in its Federal Reporter series.In many jurisdictions, older collections of case reports are known by the name of the reporter who served during the time when they were collected.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Reputation parasitism, reputation leeching or credibility leeching is a legal term regarding marketing. It refers to when one advertiser uses another brand's good reputation to market his own product. In many places it is illegal to do so. For instance in Sweden it is outlawed according to Marknadsf\u00f6ringslagen (\"Swedish Marketing Act\") (1995:450). Examples include having a product in a design that is very similar to an existing product or using a similar name.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A request for production is a legal request for documents, electronically stored information, or other tangible items made in the course of litigation. In civil procedure, during the discovery phase of litigation, a party to a lawsuit may request that another party provide any documents that it has that pertain to the subject matter of the lawsuit. For example, a party in a court case may obtain copies of e-mail messages sent by employees of the opposing party.  \nThe responding party is required to furnish copies of any documents that are responsive to the request, except for those that are legally privileged. The responding party also can submit a response to the requestor explaining why the documents cannot be produced. For example, the responding party may indicate that documents are unavailable because they have been destroyed, that it would be unduly burdensome to produce the documents, or that the documents are not in possession of the responding party. However, the requestor then may file a Motion to Compel discovery to ask the court to order the responding party to produce documents.    \nThe rules governing requests for the production of documents vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction; in the U.S. Federal court system, such requests are governed by Rule 34 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Res inter alios acta, aliis nec nocet nec prodest (Latin for \"a thing done between some does not harm or benefit others\") is a law doctrine which holds that a contract cannot adversely affect the rights of one who is not a party to the contract.\n\"Res inter alios\" has a common meaning: \"A matter between others is not our business.\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A residence permit (less commonly residency permit) is a document or card required in some regions, allowing a foreign national to reside in a country for a fixed or indefinite length of time.\nThese may be permits for temporary residency, or permanent residency. The exact rules vary between regions. In some cases (e.g. the UK) a temporary residence permit is required to extend a stay past some threshold, and can be an intermediate step to applying for permanent residency.\nResidency status may be granted for a number of reasons and the criteria for acceptance as a resident may change over time. In New Zealand the current range of conditions include being a skilled migrant, a retired parent of a New Zealand National, an investor and a number of others.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Resident Judge is in most jurisdictions the next highest ranking judge beneath the Chief Justice or, in some jurisdictions President Judge.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A retaliatory arrest or retaliatory prosecution is an arrest or prosecution undertaken in retaliation for a person's exercise of their civil rights. It is a form of prosecutorial misconduct.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands is a United States federal law that repealed and replaced the previous Organic Act of the Virgin Islands. It was passed on July 22, 1954 by the U.S. Congress to act as the basis for law in the United States Virgin Islands. Like other organic acts it functions as a constitution for a territory of the United States.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Revised Statutes is a term used in some common law jurisdictions for a collection of statutes that have been revised to incorporate amendments, repeals and consolidations.  It is not a change to the law, but designed to make the body of statutes more accessible.\nStatute revisions have occurred in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Ireland, and the United States.  In federal states, statute revisions can occur at both the federal level, and the state or provincial level.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Rex v. Chisser, Court of King's Bench (1678), T. Ryan 275, 83 Eng. Rep. 142, is a criminal case interpreting possession and criminal intent in larceny.:\u200a947\u200a A merchant handed merchandise to Chisser, who then haggled over the price then ran out of the shop with the merchandise without agreeing to a price.:\u200a947\u200a At the time, common law was that larceny required a trespass to acquire possession.:\u200a947\u200a Although the property was handed to Chisser, the court found that although the merchant gave physical possession to Chisser, the property was still in legal possession by the merchant because there was no completed contract for the transfer in that the price was still being negotiated, and the act of running proved the felonious intent (felleo animo).:\u200a947\u200a", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Right of entry refers to one's right to take or resume possession of land, or the right of a person to go onto another's real property without committing trespass.  It also refers to a grantor's power to retake real estate from a grantee in the case of a fee simple subject to condition subsequent.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Rights Managed, or RM, in photography and the stock photo industry, refers to a copyright license which, if purchased by a user, allows the one-time use of the photo as specified by the license. If the user wants to use the photo for other uses an additional license needs to be purchased. RM licences can be given on a non-exclusive or exclusive basis. In stock photography RM is one of the two common license types together with royalty-free, subscription and microstock photography being business models often confused as separate license types (both use the royalty-free license type).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Royal Pragmatic on Marriage (in Spanish, Real Pragm\u00e1tica) was a form of legislation introduced by the Spanish Crown in order to control the institution of marriage, by requiring children to obtain permission from their parents before marrying, and allowing disinheritance in case of disobedience. The first Royal Pragmatic was passed on 23 March 1776.\nThe idea behind this legislation is that a family may object if they feel that the future spouse is of unequal social standing. Jeffrey M. Shumway's The Case of the Ugly Suitor and Other Histories of Love, Gender, and Nation in Buenos Aires, 1776-1870 explores the legal backing of this concept through much of Argentina's history.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Royalty-free (RF) material subject to copyright or other intellectual property rights may be used without the need to pay royalties or license fees for each use, per each copy or volume sold or some time period of use or sales.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Sir Gibuna Gibbs Salika  (born 11 August 1955) is the current Chief Justice of Papua New Guinea. He is currently the longest serving judge of the National and Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Scania and Blekinge Court of Appeal (Swedish: Hovr\u00e4tten \u00f6ver Sk\u00e5ne och Blekinge) is one of the six appellate courts in the Swedish legal system.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Schedule of Values (SOV) is a detailed schedule apportioning the original contract sum and all change orders, among all cost code divisions or portions of the work. The Schedule of Values shall be based on the approved budget or the approved Fixed Price, or GMP, Cost-Plus Contract type as applicable. See the executed contract agreement for additional language regarding the Schedule of Values. Each Project/Job shall have a separate Schedule of Values. If multiple Projects/Jobs are included in one contract, then the Contractor/Vendor must create a separate Schedule of Values which clearly segregates costs among each Job for billing, reporting and audit purposes.\"\"For Projects/Jobs with multiple \u201cextra\u201d categories, the Contractor/Vendor must create separate Schedule of Values which clearly segregates costs among each \u201cExtra\u201d category for billing, reporting and audit purposes (breakdown to be determined by Owner.) The Schedule of Values must be approved prior to first Payment Application. Schedule of Values can only be changed with approved Budget Transfer process in project accounting software, or by Change Order. After the Schedule of Values is approved, it becomes the basis for all Contractor/Vendor invoices for hard and soft costs.\"When using the Schedule of Values (SOV) for pay applications the submitter will typically bill on a percentage basis. That is to say that the amount billed that month is __% of the overall line item. This value is then added to the total amount billed from previous pay requests. This total amount would be the total work completed to date. The balance to finish is then calculated by subtracting the total completed to date from the original line item total. The Architect or Owner\u2019s representative will then review and approve the amount due to the contractor during that pay period.\nA template that can be used for a typical SOV is the ConsensusDocs 293 - Schedule of Values. The American Institute of Architects Contract Documents department does not currently publish a standard schedule of values form.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A school district solicitor is a type of solicitor general appointed by a local school district to represent the school district's legal interests and advise the district's governing body in the proper operation of the school district. The types of matters handled by school district solicitors can vary significantly, and often include drafting and making recommendations on policies; assisting with labor and employment matters; drafting and reviewing contracts for supplies, construction projects, real estate and more; representing schools in litigation; and assuring compliance with state and federal regulations governing the operation of schools.\nMost local school districts are not sovereign entities, but instead get power from whatever state law creates them. In recent decades, state and federal laws regulating public school districts have become increasingly complex.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Scope of employment is the legal consideration of the various activities which may occur in the performance of a person's job, especially those acts which are reasonably relative to the job description and foreseeable by the employer.\nKey examples of this consideration under US law can include tort liability of the employer due to a duty to supervise or control the employee. If a security guard harms a customer in a retail store, a court may consider if the employee's harmful acts were foreseeable by the employer to the point that the employer should have instituted reasonable precautions to prevent the resulting harm.  Extreme examples would likely find the employer is liable for the employee using a gun which was permitted on the job, but perhaps not if strict instructions against carrying guns on the job had been given to the employee who ignored them.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The scope of review refers generally to the right to have an issue raised on appeal. It entails whether an issue was preserved by or available to an appellant on appeal. Scope of review is to the appellate court what the burden of proof is to the trial court. For example, in the United States, a party can preserve an issue for appeal by raising an objection at trial.\nScope of review further relates to matters such as which judicial acts the appellate court can examine and what remedies it can apply.The scope of review for administrative law evolved substantially in the 1970s and 1980s.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In patent law, a search report is a report established by a patent office, which mentions documents which may be taken into consideration in deciding whether the invention to which a patent application relates is patentable. The documents mentioned in the search report usually form part of the prior art.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A second opinion is an opinion on a matter disputed by two or more parties.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A secret trust is a trust which arises when property is left to a person (the legatee) under a will on the understanding that they will hold the property as trustee for the benefit of beneficiaries who are not named in the will.\nSecret trusts are divided into two types:\n\nFully secret trusts, where the will is totally silent as to the existence of a trust; and\nSemi secret trusts or half secret trusts, where the will provides that the legatee is to hold the property on trusts, but does not specify the terms of the trust or the beneficiary.Secret trusts are something of a historical anachronism. They arose because in most common law jurisdictions, wills are public documents after they have been admitted to probate, and where the testator wishes to leave a legacy to (for example) a mistress or an illegitimate child without causing pain or embarrassment to his family, he could devise the property to a trusted person to avoid the name of the mistress or illegitimate child appearing in the will. They fall outside of the Wills Act.\nDespite their rarity, secret trusts still remain a staple of many law courses at university level, as they represent a rare exception to the rule that any disposition on death must be by way of a will (or a document incorporated by reference into a will) which complies with the applicable statutory requirements in the relevant jurisdiction.  Historically, the courts have felt it more important to uphold the rights of the putative beneficiary and to avoid the unjust enrichment of the legatee than to uphold the general rule of public policy that property must devolve by will on death.\nThe All-Woman Supreme Court in Texas was convened to deal with the results of a secret trust.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992 is an act that was enacted for regulation and development of securities market in India. It was amended in the years 1995, 1999, and 2002 to meet the requirements of changing needs of the securities market.\nIt was the 15th Act of 1992. The Act provides for the establishment of Securities and Exchange Board of India following the Harshad Mehta scam.\nThe Act contains 10 Chapters and 91 Sections.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 also known as SCRA is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted to prevent undesirable exchanges in securities and to control the working of stock exchange in India. It came into force on 20 February 1957.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Security for costs is a common law legal concept of application only in costs jurisdictions, and is an order sought from a court in litigation.\nThe general rule in costs jurisdiction is that \"costs follow the event\". In other words, the loser in legal proceedings must pay the legal costs of the successful party. Where a defendant has a reasonable apprehension that its legal costs will not be paid for by the plaintiff if the defendant is successful, the defendant can apply to the court for an order that the plaintiff provide security for costs.  Furthermore, the amount that is ordered by the Judge is in direct correlation to the strength or weakness of the plaintiff's case brought herewith. The weaker the probability of the plaintiff prevailing, the higher the security order.\nTypically a claimant will be outside the jurisdiction of the court: the law of security for costs recognises that orders of the court relating to payment of a party's legal costs can be very difficult to enforce in non-common law jurisdictions, and so will order security to be provided. Security can also be ordered where a plaintiff is insolvent, or prone to vexatious litigation.\nSecurity is usually provided in the form of a bank cheque paid into the court, or held in a trust account operated jointly by both the plaintiff's and defendant's lawyers.\nIf the defendant is successful, the money can be applied against the costs order. If the claimant is successful, the security is returned to the claimant.\nThere are conditions that need to be satisfied for the court to grant security of costs. The first condition is if it is satisfied, having regard to all the circumstances of the case, that it is just to make such an order.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In jurisprudence, selective prosecution is a procedural defense in which defendants argue that they should not be held criminally liable for breaking the law, as the criminal justice system discriminated against them by choosing to prosecute. In claims of selective prosecution, defendants essentially argue that it is irrelevant whether they are guilty of violating a law, but that the fact of being prosecuted is based upon forbidden reasons. Such a claim might, for example, entail an argument that persons of different age, race, religion, or gender, were engaged in the same illegal acts for which the defendant is being tried and were not prosecuted, and that the defendant is only being prosecuted because of a bias. \nIn the United States, this defense is based upon the 14th Amendment, which stipulates, \"nor shall any state deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.\" The U.S. Supreme Court has defined the term as: \"A selective prosecution claim is not a defense on the merits to the criminal charge itself, but an independent assertion that the prosecutor has brought the charge for reasons forbidden by the Constitution.\"  The defense is rarely successful; some authorities claim, for example, that there are no reported cases in at least the past century in which a court dismissed a criminal prosecution because the defendant had been targeted based on race. In United States v. Armstrong (1996), the Supreme Court ruled the Attorney General and United States Attorneys \"retain 'broad discretion' to enforce the Nation's criminal laws\" and that \"in the absence of clear evidence to the contrary, courts presume that they have properly discharged their official duties.\" Therefore, the defendant must present \"clear evidence to the contrary\", which demonstrates \"the federal prosecutorial policy 'had a discriminatory effect and that it was motivated by a discriminatory purpose.'\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Self-dealing is the conduct of a trustee, attorney, corporate officer, or other fiduciary that consists of taking advantage of their position in a transaction and acting in their own interests rather than in the interests of the beneficiaries of the trust, corporate shareholders, or their clients. According to the political scientist Andrew Stark, \"[i]n self-dealing, an officeholder's official role allows her to affect one or more of her own personal interests.\" It is a form of conflict of interest.Self-dealing may involve misappropriation or usurpation of corporate assets or opportunities. Political scientists Ken Kernaghan and John Langford define self-dealing as \"a situation where one takes an action in an official capacity which involves dealing with oneself in a private capacity and which confers a benefit on oneself.\"Examples include \"work[ing] for government and us[ing] your official position to secure a contract for a private consulting company you own\" or \"using your government position to get a summer job for your daughter.\"Where a fiduciary has engaged in self-dealing, this constitutes a breach of the fiduciary relationship. The principal of that fiduciary (the person to whom duties are owed) may sue and both recover the principal's lost profits and disgorge the fiduciary's wrongful profits.\nIn the United States, repeated self-dealing by a private foundation can result in the involuntary termination of its tax-exempt status.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Separate opinion is a term used by the European Court of Human Rights for both concurring opinion and dissenting opinion.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A sessions house in the United Kingdom was historically a courthouse that served as a dedicated court of quarter sessions, where criminal trials were held four times a year on quarter days. Sessions houses were also used for other purposes to do with the administration of justice, for example as a venue for the courts of assize (Assizes). The courts of quarter sessions and assize, which did not necessarily sit in dedicated premises, were replaced in England by permanent Crown Courts by the Courts Act 1971, and in 1975 in Scotland by other courts. Several buildings formerly used as sessions houses are still named \"Sessions House\"; some are still used for the administration of justice (e.g., London Sessions House, now the Central Criminal Court at the Old Bailey), while others have different uses. Some are listed buildings of architectural importance.\nAn incomplete list of English & Welsh Sessions Houses:\n\nCentral Criminal Court at the Old Bailey, formerly sessions house of the Lord Mayor and Sheriffs of the City of London and of Middlesex\nSessions House, Beverley, a former courthouse in East Riding of Yorkshire\nSessions House, Liverpool, a former courthouse in Liverpool\nSessions House, Northampton, a former courthouse in Northamptonshire\nSessions House, Preston, a courthouse in Lancashire\nMiddlesex Sessions House, a former courthouse in the London Borough of Islington\nSessions House, Usk, a former courthouse in Monmouthshire, WalesAn incomplete list of Irish Sessions Houses, for the period up to c.1900 under British rule.  \n\nSessions House, Dublin, Ireland.\nSessions House, Market Square, Roscommon, Ireland Some buildings in the US are known as Sessions Houses; some are on the National Register of Historic Places:\n\nSessions House (Painesville, Ohio)\nSessions-Pope-Sheild House, Yorktown, Virginia", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "SEXINT is the practice of monitoring and/or characterizing/indexing the pornographic preferences of internet users in an effort to later use the information for blackmail. The term is a portmanteau of sexual intelligence retrieved on an intelligence service target and was first used by Jennifer Granick, Director of Civil Liberties at the Stanford Center for Internet and Society.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Sexual Offences Act, 1995 is an Act of the Parliament of Antigua and Barbuda. It replaced all previous law on sexusl offences, codifying a wide range of offences including rape, \"marital sexual assualt\" (i.e. marital rape), sexual intercourse with minors and mentally subnormal people, incest, buggery, bestiality, indecent assault, \"serious indecency\", procuration, procuring defilement of a person, detention or abduction of a person for sexual purposes, brothel-keeping, and living on the earnings of prostitution.As of 2022, it remains in force, with the exception of sections 12 and 15, which have been struck down by the High Court.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A shadow defense is a legal defense that cannot be sustained on its own merits but opens the door to introducing evidence that will assist in seeking jury nullification, and gives the jury an excuse to acquit. A \"shadow defense\" also may refer to a tactic by defending counsel that is not expected to be successful as a matter of law; it is, instead, a pretext for bringing information into the court that would otherwise be irrelevant and therefore inadmissible.\nAn insanity defense might be used to present evidence about a person's troubled childhood, for instance, or a defendant might claim self-defense or duress in order to present evidence about an abusive relationship that nonetheless did not present an imminent mortal danger to the defendant. \nAn entrapment defense opens the door to presenting evidence about the behavior of police and informants.\nIt is reversible error for a trial court to refuse a jury instruction on a theory of defense after a defendant makes a threshold showing as to each element of the defense.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A shell bill is a legislative bill, typically with no substantive provisions, that is introduced for purposes of later being amended to include the actual legislative proposals advanced by the introducer. This device is used for a number of purposes, such as conforming to the rules adopted by a legislative body as to timely introduction of legislation, or abiding by constitutional procedural requirements.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The shelter rule is a doctrine in the common law of property under which a grantee who has received an interest in property from a bona fide purchaser will also be protected as a bona fide purchaser, even if the grantee would not legally qualify for this status. The grantee is \"sheltered\" from other claims by the grantor's status as an actual bona fide purchaser.\nThis rule comes into play in situations under a number of circumstances. For example, where a bad actor agrees to convey the same real property to multiple other parties. For example, if Oscar conveys Blackacre by deed to Andrew on Monday; before Andrew records the conveyance, Oscar conveys Blackacre to Bob, who is a bona fide purchaser and who is unaware of Oscar's previous conveyance of the same property. Bob then conveys Blackacre to Charles, but before the conveyance, Andrew notifies Charles of the deed conveyed from Oscar to Andrew. Since Charles has notice of the prior conveyance, Charles does not qualify to be a bona fide purchaser. However, under the shelter rule, Charles will receive the same treatment as Bob, and will prevail over Andrew in a legal contest over the ownership of Blackacre.\nThe rule has several purposes. One is to allow a bona fide purchaser, who is entitled to hold and enjoy the property, to have a congruent entitlement to sell that property. Another is to prevent the use of the property from being held up in litigation.\nThere are two exceptions to the shelter rule:\n\nWhere the property is reconveyed by the good faith purchaser to an original grantor who had notice of an outstanding interest in the property.\nWhere the property is conveyed by the good faith purchaser to a person who had violated a trust or duty with respect to the property.The shelter rule also applies to the transfer of negotiable instruments. If the recipient of a negotiable interest is a donee (that is, a person who receives by gift), that person would generally not have the rights of a holder in due course - that is, a person who received the instrument for value and without notice of other claims. However, if the gift was received from a qualifying holder in due course of the same instrument, the shelter rule gives the donee the right to recover on the instrument.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Shock probation is the US legal policy by which a judge orders a convicted offender to prison for a short time, and then suspends the remainder of the sentence in favor of probation. It is hoped that the initial experience of prison will provide an effective deterrent to recidivism.\nIn shock probation, a convicted offender is sentenced to prison and starts serving his sentence. After three to six months, the judge re-sentences the prisoner to probation, and the prisoner is released under supervision. Shock probation is usually considered when a prisoner is a first-time offender and a judge believes, given the circumstances of the case, that the prisoner has a chance at reform which may be enhanced by being released.\nShock probation is not used in all U.S. states.  In states where it is used, shock probation is at the discretion of the judge.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A shoulder tap is an act in which a minor asks an adult to purchase alcohol for the minor. The definition of minor and adult vary by jurisdiction depending on the drinking age, but is usually between ages 18\u201321. Typically, the minor will walk around a convenience store and solicit help from a passing adult stranger. This is also commonly known as a \"Hey Mister\". A Los Angeles Police Department survey indicated that almost half of minors who attempt to acquire alcohol use this \nmethod. Such communities use sting operations to deter adult assistance and promote awareness of the legal consequences of helping minors obtain alcohol.In 2001, a Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) chapter conducted a small unscientific study in Massachusetts, in which teens stood in front of 15 stores and asked 100 adults apparently over the age of 21 to buy them alcohol. 83 of the adults refused and 17 agreed.In Central Scotland the practice is commonly referred to as a \"jump-in\".\nA Midwestern variation on the shoulder tap is for minors to question whether or not a chosen person of age would purchase alcohol for them. Conversationally, the game takes the form of \"Would (person) buy for us?\" The person can be a friend, acquaintance, family member, stranger, historical figure or celebrity. This game can be imaginative and speculative in nature and just for fun, or the player(s) can actually begin the process of seeking people who can realistically acquire alcohol for them.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Sikkim Judicial Academy was inaugurated at Sokeythang, Gangtok on June 28, 2018. A Supreme Court Judge Mr. Altamas Kabir, laid the foundation stone of the at on 15 May 2012.\nThe Academy was to be the second in the North East Region after the first one in Guwahati. The new complex will cater to the academic, administrative and residential needs of the Judicial Academy in imparting training and judicial education to newly inducted civil judges, judicial magistrates and district judges as well as in arranging continuous judicial education programmes for in-service judicial officers and prosecutors. It will also conduct training courses for new prosecutors.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Siyasa (\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u0629) is an Arabic term associated with political authority. In pre-modern Islamic literature it was used to refer to statecraft and management of the affairs of the state. This usage has given rise to the sense of \"politics\" that the word has in modern Arabic. In classical Islamic works of Greek-influenced political theory, such as al-Farabi's al-Siyasa al-Madaniyya, the term refers to a branch of philosophy that studies the art of managing a polity. In Sunni Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), the term appears in the phrase siyasa shar'iyya, which literally means governance according to sharia. The phrase refers to the doctrine, sometimes called the political dimension of Islamic law, which was elaborated in the late medieval period in an attempt to harmonize Islamic law with the practical demands of statecraft. The doctrine emphasized the religious purpose of political authority and advocated non-formalist application of Islamic law if required by expedience and utilitarian considerations. It first emerged in response to the difficulties raised by the strict procedural requirements of Islamic law, which rejected circumstantial evidence and insisted on witness testimony, making criminal convictions difficult to obtain in courts presided over by qadis (sharia judges). In response, Islamic jurists permitted greater procedural latitude in limited circumstances, such as adjudicating grievances against state officials in the mazalim courts administered by the ruler's council and application of \"corrective\" discretionary punishments for petty offenses. However, under the Mamluk sultanate, non-qadi courts expanded their jurisdiction to commercial and family law, running in parallel with sharia courts and dispensing with some formalities prescribed by fiqh. Further developments of the doctrine attempted to resolve this tension between statecraft and jurisprudence. In later times it has been employed to justify legal changes made by the state in view of public interest, as long as they are not contrary to sharia. It was invoked by Ottoman rulers to promulgate a body of administrative, criminal, and economic laws known as qanun.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A slip and fall injury, also known as a trip and fall, is a premises liability claim, a type of personal injury claim or case based on a person slipping (or tripping) on the premises of another and, as a result, suffering injury.  It is a tort. A person who is injured by falling may be entitled to monetary compensation for the injury from the owner or person in possession of the premises where the injury occurred.Liability for slip or trip and fall injuries may arise based upon a defendant's ownership of the premises where the injury occurred, their control of the premises, or both. For example, a store may be liable for a slip-and-fall injury that occurs inside of its premises, even though it rents those premises, because it has exclusive control of the interior of the rented property. The owner of the premises (the store's landlord) may have sole or shared liability for an injury that occurs outside of the store's exclusive premises, such as the injury from a fall on the sidewalk or in the parking lot of a shopping mall.Property owners have two basic defenses to slip and fall claims:\nLack of negligence: The defendant may argue that they were not negligent in creating the condition that caused a person to trip or slip, or were not negligent in correcting the condition before injury occurred. For example, the owner of a grocery store may claim that the banana that a patron slipped upon had been dropped on the floor only moments ago by another patron, and that, in the exercise of due diligence, a typical store owner acting with reasonable care would not have had time to discover the danger and take measures to mitigate the danger.\nLack of fault: The defendant may claim that the injured person was responsible for his or her own injury. For example, the owner may claim that any reasonable patron, exercising due diligence for his or her own safety, would see a banana on the floor, and take those measures necessary to avoid slipping on it.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The small penis rule is an informal strategy used by authors to evade libel lawsuits. It was described in a New York Times article by Dinitia Smith in 1998:\n\n\"For a fictional portrait to be actionable, it must be so accurate that a reader of the book would have no problem linking the two,\" said Mr. Friedman. Thus, he continued, libel lawyers have what is known as \"the small penis rule\". One way authors can protect themselves from libel suits is to say that a character has a small penis, Mr. Friedman said. \"Now no male is going to come forward and say, 'That character with a very small penis, that's me!'\"\nThe small penis rule was referenced in a 2006 dispute between Michael Crowley and Michael Crichton. Crowley alleged that after he wrote an unflattering review of Crichton's novel State of Fear, Crichton included a character named \"Mick Crowley\" in the novel Next. The character is a child rapist, described as being a Washington, D.C.\u2013based journalist and Yale graduate with a small penis.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Smell rights are claims of ownership to particular smells. These rights can include copyright or non-conventional trademark.\nIn France, the scent of a perfume is not eligible for copyright.In 2006, a Dutch court ruled that a perfume could have a copyright.Legal commentators have described possible systems for trademarking scents.In the United States, Hasbro has a trademark for the smell of Play-Doh.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Software law refers to the legal remedies available to protect software-based assets. Software may, under various circumstances and in various countries, be restricted by patent or copyright or both. Most commercial software is sold under some kind of software license agreement.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Sole custody is a child custody arrangement whereby only one parent has custody of a child. In the most common use of the term, sole custody refers to a context in which one parent has sole physical custody of a child.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Solicitor General of the Gambia is a senior government lawyer in the Gambia who serves as the second most senior official in the Ministry of Justice after the Attorney General/Minister of Justice. The incumbent Solicitor General is Cherno Marenah.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Son assault demesne, or \"his own first assault,\" is a form of a plea to justify an assault and battery, by which the defendant asserts that the plaintiff committed an assault upon him, and the defendant merely defended himself. When the plea is supported by evidence, it is a sufficient justification, unless the retaliation by the defendant were excessive, and bore no proportion to the necessity, or to the provocation received. Character evidence that the plaintiff was noted for quarrelsomeness is generally admissible where an answer of son assault demesne is filed.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Southern Africa Litigation Centre or SALC is a non-profit organization based in Johannesburg, South Africa which supports human rights lawyers in Southern Africa countries with expert legal advice, technical support and funding. The SALC was created by Mark Ellis and Twanda Mutasah.\nThe SALC is a joint project of the International Bar Association's Human Rights Institute (IBAHRI) and the Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa (OSISA), and focuses on three principal areas: support for human rights cases, advice on constitutional advocacy in the Southern African region, and training in human rights and rule of law issues. It is based in Johannesburg, and operates in Angola, Botswana, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe.Important cases in which the Centre has acted include Southern Africa Litigation Centre v National Director of Public Prosecutions, National Commissioner of the SAPS v Southern Africa Litigation Centre, and Mmusi and Others v Ramantele and Another. The Centre supported The Lesbians, Gays & Bisexuals of Botswana also known by the acronym LeGaBiBo or LEGABIBO in a successful challenge to a refusal to register the LEGABIBO. The Centre incubated AfricanLII from October 2010 to March 2013.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Charles F. Southmayd Professorship  at the Yale Law School was established in 1913 by a gift in memory of Charles F. Southmayd, LL.D. 1884, from his sister, Emily F. Southmayd. Scott J. Shapiro is the current Charles F. Southmayd Professor of Law and Professor of Philosophy at Yale Law School, appointed in April 2012. Akhil Reed Amar was formerly Southmayd Professor of Law, until 2008 when he was named a Sterling Professor of Law. Earlier Southmayd law professors included Boris I. Bittker, named Southmayd Professor in 1958, then Sterling Professor of Law in 1970, and Arthur Allen Leff.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Sovereign Internet Law (Russian: \u0417\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d \u043e \u00ab\u0441\u0443\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0435\u00bb) is the informal name for a set of 2019 amendments to existing Russian legislation that mandate Internet surveillance and grants the Russian government powers to partition Russia from the rest of the Internet, including the creation of a national fork of the Domain Name System.In a statement released by the State Legal Department on March 13th 2019, the federal law was aimed at \"suppressing the dissemination of unreliable socially significant information under the guise of reliable messages that creates a threat of harm to the life and (or) health of citizens, property, a threat of massive disruption of public order and (or) public safety, or a threat of interfering with the functioning or termination of the functioning of facilities life support, transport or social infrastructure, credit institutions, energy facilities, industry and communications.\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Special administrator is a court-appointed person who administrates a court-defined part of an estate during probate. A special administrator with expertise in automobiles, for example, would administrate the probate of the deceased's car collection. A special administrator can also oversee an entire estate, albeit for a limited time (in case of emergency). In this case, the special administrator's job is to maintain the estate, not take control of the probate.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A special law is a type of legislation.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Special Narcotics Prosecutor for the City of New York is a city-wide position appointed by the five county district attorneys of New York City. The office is responsible for the prosecution of felony violations of narcotics laws within New York City. The current holder of the office is Bridget G. Brennan.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A specific devise is a devise of a certain piece of real estate to a certain person or persons.  It is like a specific legacy, but is limited (by the word \"devise\") to real estate.\nFurthermore, the testator intends for that very particular item and only that item to satisfy the devise. For example, a specific devise would be \"My 1959 Gold Rolex.\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A specimen charge is a type of criminal charge that can be made under the United Kingdom's legal system. It can be made when an individual is being charged with numerous violations of the same offence. It is used to simplify charging the person, as they would otherwise have to be charged with each individual offence.\nAn example of someone being convicted on specimen charges is a 2005 case in England where a man pleaded guilty to specimen charges after he was found to be in possession of 19,000 indecent images of children. Another example would be the Denmark Place fire trial, where the culprit, whose act of arson had killed 37 people, was given a specimen charge of the murder of just one of the victims.\nOther examples of when specimen charges could be laid include:\n\nObtaining social security benefits by deception for a specific sum of money on a specific day, evidence being adduced of a pattern of other such offences.\nIndecently assaulting of a child who states they have been abused in the same way on many occasions, but cannot say precisely when or how often.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Speculative damages are damages claimed by a plaintiff for losses that may occur in the future, but are highly improbable. They can not be used as a basis for recovery in tort or contract cases. Example: A plaintiff claims the tortfeasor's failure to deliver a shipment not only hurt his current sales, but also customer satisfaction and thus future sales as well.\nThere is, however, one way that speculative damages can be recovered.  If the plaintiff can prove that the speculative damages are reasonably likely to occur, he can recover the damages up to the amount that is reasonably likely to occur.  The damages do not have to be proven with absolute certainty, only reasonable certainty.For example, if the aforementioned small business owner claims that the tortfeasor's claims hurt his customer satisfaction, and proved it by showing security camera footage of one of his most frequent customers being so upset over the business' inability to deliver the product that he ordered that he stormed out of the store and vowed to never come back, then the business owner might have something.  However, he would only be able to collect on future sales for that one customer, as no other customer's future sales are \"reasonably likely to occur.\"\nBallentine's Law Dictionary has been used to define Speculative Damages in court cases such as Hawkinson v Johnston and Murphy v Hobbs:\n1. Damages not proved with reasonable certainty, the trier of the fact being left to speculate as to the actual damages suffered by the plaintiff.\n2. Damages are not speculative merely because they cannot be computed with mathematical exactness, if under the evidence they are capable of reasonable approximation.\n3. \"So long as the jury are considering the material pecuniary injury, and the physical pain, their inquiry relates to what are termed actual damages; but when authorized by a vicious intent of the wrongdoer, they turn to the realm of mental anguish, public indignity, wounded sensibility, etc., the damages may more appropriately be described as presumptive, speculative, or imaginary.\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Standby counsel or advisory counsel refers to a lawyer who assists a client who has invoked his right to self-representation. If the client becomes disruptive or otherwise unable to conduct his own defense, the judge may order the standby counsel to take over the defense. Standby counsel also remains available during the trial for consultation. Standby counsel was ruled to be not a violation of the defendant right to self-representation in McKaskle v. Wiggins, 465 U.S. 168 (1984).\nJack Kevorkian had standby counsel in his fifth trial.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Center for Internet and Society (CIS) is a public interest technology law and policy program founded in 2000 by Lawrence Lessig at Stanford Law School and a part of Law, Science and Technology Program at Stanford Law School. CIS brings together scholars, academics, legislators, students, programmers, security researchers, and scientists to study the interaction of new technologies and the law and to examine how the synergy between the two can either promote or harm public goods like free speech, innovation, privacy, public commons, diversity, and scientific inquiry. CIS strives to improve both technology and law, encouraging decision makers to design both as a means to further democratic values.\nCIS provides law students and the general public with educational resources and analyses of policy issues arising at the intersection of law, technology and the public interest. Through the Fair Use Project, CIS also provides legal representation to clients in matters that raise important issues of free expression, civil rights and technology. CIS sponsors a range of public events including a speakers series, conferences and workshops.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "State liability is the legal liability of a state. It refer to the liability of an organ of state or public authority in that state's own domestic legal system, typically under special principles within the law of tort.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In United States law, a statement against interest is a statement made by a person which places them in a less advantageous position than if they had not made the statement and is, as a consequence, deemed credible as evidence (usually within a legal trial).  For example, if a driver in an automobile accident boasts publicly that they were speeding, it may represent a legal admission of liability. It is analogous to the criminal equivalent, the statement against penal interest which is a statement that puts the person making the statement at risk of prosecution. In the United States federal court system and many state courts, statements against interest by individuals who are not available to be called at trial (but not other persons) may be admitted as evidence where in other circumstances they would be excluded as hearsay.\nUnder the Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 804(b)(3) provides:\n\"A statement that:\n(A) a reasonable person in the declarant's position would have made only if the person believed it to be true because, when made, it was so contrary to the declarant\u2019s proprietary or pecuniary interest or had so great a tendency to invalidate the declarant\u2019s claim against someone else or to expose the declarant to civil or criminal liability; and\n(B) is supported by corroborating circumstances that clearly indicate its trustworthiness, if it is offered in a criminal case as one that tends to expose the declarant to criminal liability.\"  See Fed. R. Evid. 804(b)(3).  The rule was last amended on December 1, 2010.  See Legislative History (with links to key documents).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Stationhouse bail is a type of bail in the US through which bail is set and can be paid by a defendant accused of a misdemeanor at the police station. This allows them to be released prior to appearing before a judge. Stationhouse bail uses a fixed amount in order to make bail for certain law violations.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A status conference is a court-ordered meeting with a judge (or under some circumstances an authorized counsel) where they decide the date of the trial or to get updated information on a defendant for ongoing conditions, set forth previously by the courts such as house arrest or home monitoring.\nIf a party does not attend the status conference, that party's requests for scheduling changes will be ignored. If the plaintiff and/or a representative of plaintiff does not attend the status conference, the action may be dismissed.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Statute Book is \"the surviving body of enacted legislation published by authority\" in \"a number of publications\".In England at the end of 1948, the Statute Book printed by authority consisted of the twenty-four volumes of The Statutes: Second Revised Edition and the thirty-three volumes of Public General Acts published annually since 1920, making in all fifty-seven volumes.In A First Book of English Law, Owen Hood Phillips said that there is no Statute Book. John Baker said that \"the statute book\" was no closer to being a historical entity than \"the\" register of writs was.In autumn 1947, the Statute Law Committee was given terms of reference \"to consider the steps necessary to bring the Statute Book up to date by consolidation, revision, and otherwise\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Statute of the Court of Justice of the European Union (C 83/210) contains the main EU law rules on how the Court of Justice of the European Union should function.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Statutory damages for copyright infringement are available under some countries' copyright laws.  \nThe charges allow copyright holders, who succeed with claims of infringement, to receive an amount of compensation per work (as opposed to compensation for losses, an account of profits or damages per infringing copy).  Statutory damages can in some cases be significantly more than the actual damages suffered by the rightsholder or the profits of the infringer.\nAt least in the United States, the original rationale for statutory damages was that it would often be difficult to establish the number of copies that had been made by an underground pirate business and awards of statutory damages would save rightsholders from having to do so.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Statutory holdback or contract holdback is the legal requirement found in most common law jurisdictions' contract law that requires an owner engaging a contractor to hold a particular percentage of payment for a stipulated length of time.  This is done to ensure that any and all parties working on a contract are paid.  Any subcontractors who have worked on the project are entitled to payment based on quantum meruit, and the courts will allow a lien against any property which their work has improved, should they not receive payment.  In order to expedite and simplify the overall process, holdbacks can be claimed against by any subcontractors who are denied payment by the contractor who employed them on the project.  Under these conditions, the subcontractor may collect payment from the owner, who then reduces his final payment (i.e. when releasing what remains of the holdback) to the contractor.  Note that the subcontractor is entitled to payment based on quantum meruit, irrespective of whether or not the subcontractor has privity of contract with the owner.\nIn some jurisdictions, there are two or more holdbacks.  For example, Ontario, Canada or the British Columbia Builders Lien Act employs both a basic and a finishing holdback.  The basic holdback is 10% of the total project cost, and is released after 45 days from substantial completion of a project.  The finishing holdback is 10% of the value of work still left to be completed after substantial completion of the project, and is released only after 45 days from completion of the project.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Stick licensing is the practice of licensing a patent or other form of intellectual property where the patent holder threatens to sue the licensee for patent infringement if the licensee does not take a license. In contrast to the stick licensing, the \"carrot licensing\" is a \"friendly approach in luring the target to adopting one's invention and taking a license\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Stipendiary magistrates were magistrates that were paid for their work (they received a stipend). They existed in the judiciaries of the United Kingdom and those of several former British territories, where they sat in the lowest-level criminal courts.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Stovin v Wise [1996] UKHL 15 is an English tort law case about a highway authority's liability in negligence. The majority speech of Lord Hoffmann contains important principles about omissions liability and the liability of public authorities.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A subordination agreement is a legal document used to make the claim of one party junior to (or inferior to) a claim in favor of another.  It is generally used to grant first lien status to a lienholder who would otherwise be secondary to another party, with the approval of the party that would otherwise have first lien.  Typically a subordination arises when there are two existing mortgages, a first mortgage and a second mortgage, and the mortgagor intends to refinance the first mortgage.  If the holder of the second mortgage does not subordinate the lien of its mortgage to the new mortgage, the new lender will not refinance the first mortgage.  However, the second mortgage holder does not want to release its mortgage and re-file, due to additional costs and priority problems, so it will subordinate its lien to the lien of the replacement mortgage.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Succession Act 1965 in Irish law was intended to provide for the surviving spouse of the deceased\nif the deceased was intestate or specified a less than equitable share of the estate.  Up to then, Irish\ncitizens could apportion their estate as they wished without regard to the needs of their spouse or family.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Summa Parisiensis is an anonymous commentary on the Decretum Gratiani from about 1170.The Decretum Gratiani or Concordia discordantium canonum is a collection of Catholic Church Canon law compiled and written in the 12th century as a legal textbook by the jurist known as Gratian.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The term super statute was applied in 2001 by William Eskridge and John Ferejohn to characterize an ordinary statute whose effort \"to establish a new normative or institutional framework ... 'stick[s]' in the public culture\" and has \"a broad effect on the law\". As a result, it has a \"quasi-constitutional\" significance that exceeds its formal status as a statute.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A supernumerary judge or supernumerary magistrate is a judge who has retired from a full-time position on a court, but continues to work part-time. Generally, when a judge becomes supernumerary a vacancy is created, and the appropriate person or body may subsequently make a new appointment to that Court.\nThe role of supernumerary judges varies by jurisdiction. In the United States federal courts, this describes the status of judges who have taken senior status. Supernumerary judges are widely used in Alabama, for example, where the chief justice of the state supreme court can assign retired judges or justices to act as supernumerary judges on any court of the state. Supernumerary judicial positions are also widely used in Canada.In Canada, a judge may request supernumerary status when they have continued in judicial office for at least 15 years and their combined age and number of years in judicial office is not less than 80 or they have attained the age of 70 years and have continued in judicial office for at least 10 years. The salary of each supernumerary judge of a superior court is the salary annexed to the office of a judge of that court other than a chief justice, senior associate chief justice or associate chief justice.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Supreme Court of Cassation (Bulgarian: \u0412\u044a\u0440\u0445\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043d \u043a\u0430\u0441\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d \u0441\u044a\u0434, romanized: V\u01cerhoven kasatsionen s\u01ced) is the final court of appeal in the Republic of Bulgaria. Its work is governed by the Constitution of 1991. According to Article 124, it exercises supreme judicial power over the application of the law in all courts. The Supreme Court of Cassation may even overturn a final decision by a lower court. It also takes part in the appointment of judges for the Constitutional Court. The Supreme Court of Cassation, however, does have to hand cases over to the Constitutional Court when it finds a contradiction between the laws and the Constitution of the Republic. If a question of constitutionality arises, the court may refer it to the Constitutional Court.The Chairman of the Court is appointed for a seven-year term and is dismissed by the President of the Republic on motion from the Supreme Judicial Council. The Chairman is not eligible for a second term.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Supreme Court of Justice is the apex court for civil, criminal and administrative matters in the hierarchy of Cape Verde's legal system.The Court has its origins in the National Council of Justice that was established in July 1975 following Cape Verde's independence.  With the promulgation of the 1980 constitution, the Court took its present name. The 1992 Constitution codified the Court's independence.The President of the Court is appointed by the President of the Republic, from among the Court's member judges, after consultation with the Supreme Council of the Magistrates, the body tasked with the promotion, placement and discipline of the judiciary.  The Court has a minimum of five members; one is appointed by the President, one by the Parliament and the remainder elected by the Supreme Council of the Magistrates.In 2015, Maria de F\u00e1tima Coronel was appointed President of the Supreme Court of Justice.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Supreme Court of Vanuatu is the superior court of Vanuatu and is based in Port Vila. The Court consists of the Chief Justice and three puisne judges. \nAppeals from the Supreme Court are heard by the Court of Appeal of Vanuatu, which is the supreme appellate court in the country. The Court of Appeal is constituted from time to time as the need arises.\nWith the exception of the Chief Justice, all members of the judiciary are appointed by the President of Vanuatu, who acts on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission, pursuant to Article 47(2) of the Constitution of Vanuatu). The Chief Justice is appointed by the President after consultation with the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition, pursuant to Article 49(3) of the Constitution.The present Chief Justice of the Court is Vincent Lunabek.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Syllabus in the legal profession refers to a paragraph that lists the laws used in the determination of most legal opinions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Etuate Tavai (died 1999) served as Attorney General of Fiji from 1996 to 1999. He also served as a Senator. In this capacity he refused to legalize same-sex marriage and other homosexual relationships.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Taxable wages, in payroll, is the sum of all earnings by an employee that are eligible for a particular type of tax. Each tax is different and has different regulations about limits to the amount of wages that can be considered taxable with respect to that tax.\nIn the United States, contributing to a 401(k) account will cause one's taxable wages to be lower than gross wages.  Some taxes, such as Social Security, have other exemptions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Temporary licence, formally called release on temporary licence (ROTL) and also informally known as temporary release, is a form of temporary parole for prisoners in jail in English and Welsh prisons.ROTL is divided into three categories:\n\ncompassionate licence\nThis class of licence is granted for exceptional personal circumstances, including funerals of close relatives, marriages, and medical appointments.\nfacility licence\nThis class of licence is granted to allow prisoners to participate in Community Service projects, attend life skills or education courses, undergo employment training, act as a police witness, attend at proceedings at civil courts, or visit a legal advisor.\nresettlement licence\nThis class of licence is granted to allow prisoners to make arrangements for their release, including spending time at their release address, maintaining family ties, making arrangements for accommodation and for work or training upon release.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Ten Abominations (\u5341\u60e1) were a list of offenses under traditional Chinese law which were regarded as the most abhorrent, and which threatened the well-being of civilized society.  They are listed below. The first three were capital offences:\n\nPlotting rebellion (\u8b00\u53cd): to overthrow the current regime. The commentary states: \"The ruler or parent has no harbours [from plots]. If he does have such plots, he must put them to death.\" This means that if one harbours rebellious thoughts against the ruler or father, he must then put them to death.\nPlotting great sedition (\u8b00\u5927\u9006): to damage or destroy royal temples, tumuli, or palaces. The ancient Chinese belief in feng shui equated intentional damaging of royal property with casting a curse on the sovereign. This type of person breaks laws and destroys order and goes contrary to virtue.\nPlotting treason (\u8b00\u53db): to defect to an enemy state, usually carrying national secrets.\nParricide (\u60e1\u9006): to harm or murder one's own parents and grandparents; to murder one's own or husband's elder relatives.\nDepravity (\u4e0d\u9053): to murder three or more innocent people; to disembowel a victim's body after committing a murder; to produce gu (poison) and use it to cast curses.\nGreat irreverence (\u5927\u4e0d\u656c): L\u00e8se-majest\u00e9; to show disrespect to the Emperor or his family.\nLack of filial piety (\u4e0d\u5b5d): to maltreat one's parents or grandparents, or to procure entertainment during periods of mourning (up to three years for one's parents).\nDiscord (\u4e0d\u7766): to harm or sue one's husband or elder relatives.\nUnrighteousness (\u4e0d\u7fa9): petty treason; to murder one's superiors, mentor, or local government officials.\nIncest (\u5167\u4e82): actually defined as having affairs with the wives or concubines of one's father, grandfather, or other elder male relatives.Legal privileges, such as the Eight Deliberations, were not applicable to the Ten Abominations due to their seriousness.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Tenant-right is a term in the common law system expressing the right to compensation which a tenant has, either by custom or by law, against his landlord for improvements at the termination of his tenancy.In England, it was governed for the most part by the Agricultural Holdings Acts and the Allotments and Small Holdings Acts. The preceding were reformed by the Agricultural Tenancies Act 1995. In Ireland, tenant-right was a custom, prevailing particularly in Ulster, known as the Custom of Ulster, by which the tenant acquired a right not to have his rent raised arbitrarily at the expiration of his term. This resulted in Ulster in considerable fixity of tenure and, in case of a desire on the part of the tenant to sell his farm, made the tenant-right of considerable capital value, amounting often to many years' rent.The Evesham Custom is one example of a tenant-right custom still in 21st century operation, having been given a specific exemption from the Agricultural Tenancies Act 1995.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Tennessee Heritage Protection Act (THPA) was enacted in 2013, and amended in 2016 and 2018. It prohibits the removal, relocation, or renaming of a memorial that is, or is located on, public property without permission (a waiver). Permission requires a two-thirds vote of approval from the 29 member board of the Tennessee Historical Commission, 24 of whose members are appointed by the Governor and the remainder ex-officio. The purpose of the Act is to prevent the removal of Confederate memorials from public places in Tennessee. As put by the New York Times, the Act shows \"an express intent to prevent municipalities in Tennessee from taking down Confederate memorials.\"In 2018, because of Memphis's transfer of ownership of statues of Robert E. Lee and Nathan Bedford Forrest as a means of removing them (see Memphis Greenspace), an amendment to the Act prohibits municipalities from selling or transferring ownership of memorials without permission. The amendment also \"allows any entity, group or individual with an interest in a memorial to seek an injunction to preserve the memorial in question.\"Under the THPA, as of August, 2020, the Tennessee Historical Commission board has  permitted the removal and relocation of several World War II monuments in Chattanooga, and has approved the sale of several acres of the historic Sam Davis Home in Smyrna for commercial development. Davis was known as the \u201cBoy Hero of the Confederacy.\u201d The Commission has heard a total of four cases, one of which was Memphis's application to remove the Nathan Bedford Forrest statue.In 2018 The Tennessee Historical Commission acknowledged that one member (Judge David Tipton) also belonged to the Sons of Confederate Veterans. The Memphis Mayor's office has said that as of 2016 there were several people who belonged to both organizations.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The labour law of Thailand takes place under the framework of several acts of parliament and decrees, primarily the Labour Protection Act, B.E. 2541 (1998), and is mainly governed by the Ministry of Labour. Most of the legal framework was developed during the mid-to-late twentieth century, as Thailand's economy saw rapid expansion beginning in the Cold War period.\nWhile the law protects workers' rights of association and organization for collective bargaining, and allows workers to form unions, in practice the protections are inadequate, leading to a generally weak union system. The laws also only protect workers in the formal labour sector, and often don't reach Thailand's large migrant worker population, many of whom are employed illegally.  The practice of modern slavery in some of the country's industries became a subject of international attention in the 2010s, with the government attempting to address the issues in response.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Theft by finding occurs when someone chances upon an object which seems abandoned and takes possession of the object but fails to take steps to establish whether the object is genuinely abandoned and not merely lost or unattended. In some jurisdictions  the crime is called \"larceny by finding\" or \"stealing by finding\".\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Third line forcing is a form of exclusive dealing involving the supply of goods or services on the condition that the purchaser buys goods or services from a particular third party, or a refusal to supply because the purchaser will not agree to that condition.\nThird line forcing is strictly prohibited by the Australian Competition and Consumer Act 2010 and Algerian law also (article 06 of the ordinance n\u00b0 03-03 of July 19 2003).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In some custody situations, it is possible that the child/children will not remain with either of their natural, biological, parents, but instead custody is awarded to a third person Generally speaking, third-party custody occurs when one of two options occur:.\nThe biological parents do not want custody of the child/children.\nThe biological parents are incapable of caring for the child/children.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The tools of trade are items that are exempt from attachment under bankruptcy law or from seizure.\nThe exemption exists in many jurisdictions.  For examples:\n\nIn England, the Bankrupts (England) Act 1825 (6 Geo IV) included it in a short list of exemptions: \"tools of trade, necessary household furniture, and the wearing apparel of himself, his wife and children\".  The Bankruptcy Act 1883 and the Bankruptcy Act 1890 contained the same exception. The Bankruptcy Act 1914 contained an exception. The Insolvency Act 1986 that is nowadays applicable states \"such tools, books, vehicles and other items of equipment as are necessary to the bankrupt for use personally by him in his employment, business or vocation\".\nIn Australia the Bankruptcy Act 1966 exempts the \"ordinary tools of trade, plant and equipment [\u2026] ordinary professional instruments and professional reference books\".\nAll of the provinces of Canada have a tools of trade exemption in their various bankruptcy laws.\nIn the United States, the Bankruptcy Code (USC 2) \u00a7522(f) exempts implements, professional books, and tools of the trade.All of these owe this exemption to the provisions for bankrupts that existed in English common law before it was codified by statute.What exactly constitute one's tools of trade comes down to case law, and the case law of the United States exemplifies how complex such case law often is.\nFarmers have claimed mechanical cream separators.\nA professional forest guide claimed his canoe as exempt, but was not allowed to claim his rifle.\nA car used only for commuting to work is not a tool of the trade, but a motor vehicle can be, including a farm tractor.\nBreeding stock can be, as can be a logging truck and trailer.\nHowever, some cases have limited the exemption to personal hand tools and not large machinery or power tools.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "\"Toward a Fair Use Standard\", 103 Harv. L. Rev. 1105 (1990), is a law review article on the fair use doctrine in US copyright law, written by then-District Court Judge Pierre N. Leval.  The article argued that the most critical element of the fair use analysis is the transformativeness of a work, the first of the statutory factors listed in the Copyright Act of 1976, 17 U.S.C. \u00a7 107.   \nLeval's article is cited in the Supreme Court's 1994 decision in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., which marked a shift in judicial treatment of fair use toward a transformativeness analysis and away from emphasizing the \"commerciality\" analysis of the fourth factor.  Prior to Leval's article, the fourth factor had often been described as the most important of the factors. \nIn his article, Leval noted: \n\nI believe the answer to the question of justification turns primarily on whether, and to what extent, the challenged use is transformative. The use must be productive and must employ the quoted matter in a different manner or for a different purpose from the original. ...[If] the secondary use adds value to the original\u2014if the quoted matter is used as raw material, transformed in the creation of new information, new aesthetics, new insights and understandings\u2014this is the very type of activity that the fair use doctrine intends to protect for the enrichment of society.\nTransformative uses may include criticizing the quoted work, exposing the character of the original author, proving a fact, or summarizing an idea argued in the original in order to defend or rebut it. They also may include parody, symbolism, aesthetic declarations, and innumerable other uses.\nLeval's article was published with an accompanying article by Lloyd Weinreb \"Fair's Fair: A Comment on the Fair Use Doctrine\", 103 Harvard Law Review 1137 (1990), which generally critiqued Leval's thesis.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A trademark examiner is an attorney employed by a government entity such as the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) to determine whether an applicant should be permitted to receive a trademark registration, thus affording legal protection to the applicant's trademark. The job of a trademark examiner is thus to examine marks applied for to determine if they run afoul of any prohibitions on registration, such as infringing upon an existing registration of the same mark, or constituting the generic name of the goods with which the mark is associated.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Transaction documents  refers to legally relevant documents that are either printed, inserted and mailed, or electronically presented. They consist of a mixture of fixed and variable data. \nThese documents are usually created by organizations through their financial computing system and then delivered to other parties (such as clients) through the post office or through an electronic billing system. The printed transaction documents, once delivered to the post office, conform to the mail box rule. \nCommon examples of transaction documents are:\n\nbills\nbank statements (and credit card, financial services, etc.)\ninsurance policies\nnotices\nother legally relevant correspondence, etc.Xplor international is a technical association that focuses on the best practices and technologies associated with these documents.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Treaty of Kruszwica (German: Vertrag von Kruschwitz), signed on 16 June 1230, was concluded between Konrad I of Masovia and the Teutonic Knights. According to this agreement, the Duke of Masovia transferred to the Teutonic Order the lands of Che\u0142mno. In addition, Konrad I would recognize the independence of the Teutonic Order and its rule over all other conquests made in Prussia and beyond the borders of Poland.\nThe text is only known by later references, as the original document is not preserved. According to the historian Max Perlbach (1848\u20131921), the Knights had forged it to create a legal basis for their secular possessions, however Perlbach's thesis has been seriously called into question by modern historians.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Truth (NZ) Ltd v Holloway [1961] NZLR 22 (PC) is a case of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council on appeal from the Court of Appeal of New Zealand regarding the legal issue of defamation and free speech.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Tucker v News Media Ownership Ltd HC Wellington CP477/86 [1986] NZHC 216; [1986] 2 NZLR 716  is a cited case in New Zealand regarding claims for breach of privacy and infliction of emotional distress", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Turkish Bars Association (correctly, the Union of Turkish Bar Associations) or T\u00fcrkiye Barolar Birli\u011fi (TBB)  has been established in 1969 and is an organisation for Turkish lawyers, uniting over 70,000 lawyers in 79 Turkish bar associations. Established in 1969, it is headquartered in Ankara. The current president is Erin\u00e7 Sa\u011fkan Erin\u00e7 Sa\u011fkan.The TBB is a member of the International Bar Association and the European Bar Federation.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ultramercial, LLC is an online advertising company. The company primarily specializes in interactive advertisements, which emphasize user engagement in exchange for access to premium content, such as video, games, and public internet access. The company claimed that its system was effective, with a 4.84% average click-through rate in 2008 (in comparison to traditional advertisements).The company was the subject of a patent infringement lawsuit against Hulu, YouTube and WildTangent; in the lawsuit, Ultramercial accused the two companies of infringing its patent US 7346545  (\"the '545 Patent,\" filed in 2001), covering the business model surrounding a \"Method and system for payment of intellectual property royalties by interposed sponsor on behalf of consumer over a telecommunications network\". In other words, the '545 Patent was directed to modeling the value of certain programming based on the number of advertisements consumers would continue to watch, a more direct valuation of consumers' time that previous models based directly on dollars spent in advertisement campaigns. While WildTangent challenged the validity of the patent in 2011 because they felt it was too abstract, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit upheld Ultramercial's patent, stating that it \"does not simply claim the age-old idea that advertising can serve as currency. Instead [it] discloses a practical application of this idea.\" The court also asserted that the technical elements required to implement the system described were intricate enough to not be abstract.In 2012, the Supreme Court ordered the Federal Circuit to re-examine the case in the wake of several recent patent rulings on \"abstract\" concepts. This ruling came in the wake of the Supreme Court's ruling on patentable subject matter in Mayo Collaborative Services v. Prometheus Laboratories, Inc. This opinion was also issued shortly after the America Invents Act (\"AIA\") went into effect, drastically changing the statutory landscape of US Patent Law. On June 21, 2013, the Federal Circuit upheld its decision and ruled that Ultramercial's patents validly claimed methods of using advertising as a medium of exchange.On November 14, 2014, the Federal Circuit reversed its prior rulings and found that the \"patent does not claim patent eligible subject matter and accordingly affirm the district court\u2019s grant of WildTangent\u2019s motion to dismiss.\" This reversal came in the wake of the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank International, a benchmark case for doctrine-disruptive precedent defining patent eligible subject matter.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "An undue hardship is an American legal term referring to special or specified circumstances that partially or fully exempt a person or organization from performance of a legal obligation so as to avoid an unreasonable or disproportionate burden or obstacle.For example, employers are required to provide a reasonable accommodation to qualified individuals with disabilities, but when an accommodation becomes too taxing on the organization it is classified as an undue hardship and is no longer required.  \nThese hardships include the nature and cost of the accommodation in relation to the size, resources, nature, and structure of the employer's operation.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Directive 93/13/EEC is a European Union directive (then called European Economic Community directive) governing the use of surprising or onerous terms used by business in deals with consumers.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The United Arab Emirates Anti-Discrimination Law was enacted in the United Arab Emirates on July 20, 2015, when it was signed by President Sheikh Khalifa. Under this law, any form of discrimination against people and religion is outlawed. Penalties include jail terms ranging from six months to over 10 years and/or fines ranging in amounts from DH 50,000 to DH 2,000,000.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Unlicensed broadcasting, also called pirate broadcasting is a term used for any type of broadcasting without a broadcast license.\nSome  unlicensed broadcasting, such as certain low-power broadcasting, may be legal.  For example, in the United States, Title 47 CFR Part 15 (or \"part 15\"), is a regulation that allows unlicensed broadcasting within a range of just a few meters. Legal broadcast methods may include ISM bands, used legally at low power to broadcast for personal use, a video sender, used to distribute video (sometimes wireless security cameras) within a home or small business, or FM transmitters, used to transmit satellite radio or digital media players to stereo systems which have no wired input (i.e. car radios).\nThe term \"pirate broadcasting,\" by contrast, is almost always used to indicate broadcasting that is illegal, particularly as applied to pirate radio and pirate television. The justifications usually given for legal prohibitions on broadcasting include the need to keep certain broadcast frequencies open for emergency communications, the need to control the broadcasting of material that is obscene or violates copyrights, and the preservation of government revenue derived from licensing airwaves.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Unregistered cohabitation is a legal status (sometimes de facto) given to same-sex or opposite-sex couples in certain jurisdictions. They may be similar to common-law marriages.\nMore specifically, unregistered cohabitation may refer to:\n\n Unregistered cohabitation in Australia and De facto relationships in Australia Domestic relationships and domestic partnerships in the Australian Capital Territory\n Domestic relationships in New South Wales\n De facto unions in the Northern Territory\n De facto unions in Norfolk Island\n De facto relationships in Queensland\n Close personal relationships in South Australia\n Personal relationships in Tasmania\n Domestic relationships in Victoria\n De facto unions in Western Australia\n Various de facto relationships in Canada Adult interdependent relationship in Alberta\n Common-law relationships in Manitoba\n Domestic partnership in Nova Scotia\n Civil unions and de facto relationships in Quebec\n De facto unions in Colombia\n Unregistered cohabitation in Croatia\n Unregistered cohabitation in Israel\n Samenlevingscontract in the Netherlands\n De facto relationships in New Zealand\n Unregistered cohabitation in Poland\n Unregistered cohabitation in San Marino\n Unregistered cohabitation in SpainSome other countries and sub-national regions recognize unregistered cohabitation, as listed in the Civil union article.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Urban Wetlands Law (Spanish: Ley de Humedales Urbanos) is a Chilean law regulating wetlands in urban areas. The law intends to provide a set of \"minimal criteria for the sustainability of urban wetlands, safeguarding its ecological characteristics and their functioning, and to maintain the hydrological regime, both on surface and under the ground\".At the request of municipal government the law allows for the Ministry of the Environment to  declare official urban wetlands. The Ministry of the Environment can also declare official urban wetlands by its own initiative.The law modidies the General Environmental Law (Ley 19300) and the General Law on Urbanism and Constructions (Decreto 458) as to consider either wetlands in general or urban wetlands in their provisions.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "V85 refers to a principle on vehicle traffic law where the legal speed limit of a motorway is decreased 15%  due to hazardous weather conditions. This is a common practice amongst many countries within the European Union, most notably France.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Vava\u02bbu Code was instituted in Vava\u02bbu, Tonga in 1839, by King George Tupou I. It contained the country's first ever written laws, and formed the bases of the first constitution of the Kingdom. It delineated an ordered society where the monarch, chiefs, and subjects live in mutual obligation and also guaranteed the rights of the commoners for the first time. Along with the legal system it set up, the Code established the sovereign's intention creating a government \"by law\", one that is respected by the Europeans.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Vav\u0159i\u010dka and Others v. the Czech Republic, applications 47621/13, 3867/14, 73094/14, 19306/15, 19298/15, and 43883/15 (ECtHR April 8, 2021), is a 2021 case decided by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), holding that the nation of the Czech Republic did not violate the European Convention on Human Rights by imposing a vaccination mandate on children in that country.The legal challenge was initially filed by Czech citizen Pavel Vav\u0159i\u010dka, who had received a fine for refusing to vaccinate his children for tetanus, hepatitis B, and polio. The court found that the public health interest in achieving herd immunity from contagious diseases outweighed the individual right to privacy, and that the Czech law contained sufficient provisions for the exemption of those with medical or religious reasons for not receiving vaccination, neither of which were demonstrated by the objecting parent.The case was the first in which the ECtHR had ruled on the question of compulsory vaccination.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In Southern France, a viguerie (French pronunciation: \u200b[vi\u0261\u0281i]; Latin: vicaria) was a mediaeval administrative court. A viguerie is named for the place it serves or is found in, that is, the main town of the borough, which need not be its chef-lieu (administrative capital).\nAppearing during the Carolingian dynasty, the viguerie started as the seat of civil and criminal justice, taking its name from the Count or Viscount. With the decline of feudal power and its transfer to Royal jurisdiction, the viguerie became the lowest court, dealing only with day-to-day affairs. It was administered by a viguier, a judge whose remit varied, over time and space, from that of a judge of a Court of Assize to that of a judge of a Court of Common Pleas.\nVigueries largely disappeared after 1749, following an edict suppressing the lower courts. Even so, in many regions such as Provence, they survived until the French Revolution. In Languedoc, Rouergue and Carlad\u00e9s, they transformed into the lowest Courts of Appeal.\nIn other regions similar courts were named for the title of the title or rank of the person who held responsibility for them, such as ch\u00e2tellenie (administered by a ch\u00e2telain), pr\u00e9v\u00f4t\u00e9 (under a pr\u00e9v\u00f4t), vicomt\u00e9 (under a viscount), and a bailie or baillage or s\u00e9n\u00e9chauss\u00e9e (administered by a baliff).", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A visiting judge is a judge appointed to hear a case as a member of a court to which he or she does not ordinarily belong. In United States federal courts, this is referred to as an assignment \"by designation\" of the Chief Justice of the United States (for inter-circuit assignments) or the Circuit Chief Judge (for intra-circuit assignments), and is authorized by 28 U.S.C. \u00a7 292 (for active district judges) or  28 U.S.C. \u00a7 294 (for retired justices and judges).In many United States Courts of Appeals it is not uncommon for a district judge to sit on a panel as a visiting judge; less frequently it is a judge from another circuit (in active service or, more commonly, in senior status). Retired Supreme Court justices have done the same, including Justices Sandra Day O'Connor and David Souter, and very unusually, sitting justices (in 1984, for example, Justice William Rehnquist served as a visiting judge for a jury trial in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia). This is sometimes done to ease caseload pressures, and sometimes (as in Rehnquist's case) for experience. In other cases, notably those of some judges in senior status, the individual may sit in a different court for personal reasons (such as sitting in areas popular with retirees such as Florida or in a person's hometown).\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Voivodeship administrative court (Polish: wojew\u00f3dzki s\u0105d administracyjny) is the first instance administrative court in Poland. The headquarters of the court departments are located in the cities of Bia\u0142ystok, Bydgoszcz, Gda\u0144sk, Gliwice, Gorz\u00f3w Wielkopolski, Kielce, Krak\u00f3w, Lublin, \u0141\u00f3d\u017a, Olsztyn, Opole, Pozna\u0144, Rzesz\u00f3w, Szczecin, Warsaw (including a branch division located in Radom), and Wroc\u0142aw.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Voivodeship court was a common court of the first instance in Polish People's Republic from 1950 to 1989, and in the Third Polish Republic from 1989 to 1998. On 1 January 1999, the voivodeship courts, had been reformed into the regional courts, with the 2nd article of the 1st legislative act of 18 December 1998.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Vollrausch (intoxication) is a criminal provision (Section 323a of the German Criminal Code) which complements Actio libera in causa in German criminal law.\nIf a person who voluntarily and deliberately gets drunk but he or she did not intend to commit a crime before drinking but he or she satisfied the actus reus of another criminal offence, he or she might be criminally liable for the offence of 'Vollrausch'.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Voluntary dismissal is termination of a lawsuit by voluntary request of the plaintiff (the party who originally filed the lawsuit).  A voluntary dismissal with prejudice (meaning the plaintiff is permanently barred from further litigating the same subject matter) is the modern descendant of the common law procedure known as retraxit.In the United States, voluntary dismissal in Federal court is subject to Rule 41(a) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.  Rule 41(a)'s full text can be found below.  Simply stated, Rule 41(a) allows the plaintiff to make a dismissal as long as the defendant has not filed an answer or filed a motion for summary judgment. \nIf the defendant has taken such action, dismissal is only proper under two circumstances:\na. all defendants stipulate to dismissal; or\nb. the judge overseeing the case rules for the case to be dismissed\nOnce the case has been voluntarily dismissed, if it is brought to court again a dismissal in this second case will mean the case can never again be brought back to court.\nIf the defendant has a counterclaim, the case can only be dismissed if the counterclaim can still stand as its own case. \nFull text of Rule 41 (a) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure:(a) Voluntary Dismissal: Effect Thereof\n\n(1) By Plaintiff; By Stipulation.  Subject to the provisions of Rule 23(e), of Rule 66, and of any statute of the United States, an action may be dismissed by the plaintiff without order of court (i) by filing notice of dismissal at any time before service by the adverse party of an answer or of a motion for summary judgment, whichever first occurs, or (ii) by filing a stipulation of dismissal signed by all parties who have appeared in the action.  Unless otherwise stated in the notice of dismissal or stipulation, the dismissal is without prejudice, except that a notice of dismissal operates as an adjudication upon the merits when filed by a plaintiff who has once dismissed in any court of the United States or of any state an action based on or including the same claim.(2) By Order of Court.  Except as provided in paragraph (1) of this subdivision of this rule, an action shall not be dismissed at the plaintiff's instance save upon order of the court and upon such terms and conditions as the court deems proper.  If a counterclaim has been pleaded by a defendant prior to the service upon the defendant of the plaintiff's motion to dismiss, the action shall not be dismissed against the defendant's objections unless the counterclaim can remain pending for independent adjudication by the court.  Unless otherwise specified in the order, a dismissal under this paragraph is without prejudice.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A warehouseman can be someone who works in a warehouse, usually delivering goods for sale or storage, or, in older usage, someone who owns a warehouse and sells goods directly from it or from a shop fronting onto the warehouse (similar to a modern Cash and carry).An Italian warehouseman was someone who stocked goods from Italy such as pasta, olive oil, pickles, perfumes, fruits, paints and pigments (they were often known as Oil and Italian warehouseman or Oilman and Italian warehouseman to highlight the selling of oil products).A Manchester warehouseman was a wholesaler of linen and cloth made in the factories surrounding Manchester in the North-West of England.In law, a warehouseman can be entitled to a warehouseman's lien for work done but not yet paid for.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Warrant of Restitution is a court order which empowers a property owner to use court bailiffs to enforce a possession order which was gained previously.A common use of such a warrant is for a landlord to remove tenants which have re-entered the property after eviction. The warrant allows the bailiffs to remove all people found on the property.  There is normally no requirement to start additional legal proceedings as it is effectively an additional warrant of possession.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A watching brief is a method normally used in criminal cases by lawyers to represent clients not directly a party to the suit and to function as an observer. The method is normally used to help protect the rights and interests of victims of a crime, or also to protect a defendant from possible malicious prosecution. This method is used in countries such as Australia and Malaysia. Essentially, the lawyer must familiarize himself with the case at hand and understand the legal implication of every action or omission vis a vis his clients' interests.\nIn other countries like Kenya, the lawyer watching brief has to work hand in hand with the prosecutor to ensure that the police file is availed in court at the hearing and witnesses bonded to attend court. Whereas the lawyer is not strictly performing the duty of the police, the advocate watching brief plays a crucial role in ensuring that the evidence presented to court is sufficient to secure a conviction for the offender thus preventing his or her client from civil suits for malicious prosecution arising from an acquittal.\nTo familiarize oneself with the matter, it is absolutely necessary that the lawyer obtains all witness statements and documents to be relied on and peruses them carefully. Should there be a loophole in the evidence, the lawyer should raise it with the prosecution for redress. To achieve this, it is imperative that the lawyer develops a cordial relationship with the prosecutor so that the information flowing to the prosecutor will appear as persuasive suggestions as opposed to orders which are more often likely to be ignored since the lawyer has no control over the prosecutor in his line of duty. Further, in Kenya, apart from introducing themselves, the lawyer watching brief has no right of audience before the court and so the prosecutor becomes his mouthpiece.\nIn other words, being retained to watch brief should never be one passive, boring duty but one that should interest every lawyer interested in criminal jurisprudence. It is actually calling to account every party in the trial without being heard, working behind the scenes, and giving the much needed backup to the side enforcing your client's rights.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Water Protection Zone is a statutory regulation imposed under Schedule 11 to the Water Resources Act 1991. The power was subsequently subsumed into The Water Resources Act (Amendment) (England and Wales) Regulations 2009. The only example in the UK was applied to the River Dee in 1999 as The Water Protection Zone (River Dee Catchment) Designation Order 1999 which covers the whole of the River Dee catchment from the headwaters down to the final potable water abstraction point at ChesterThe creation of this protection zone gave powers to the then Environment Agency (now Natural Resources Wales) to monitor and control the use and storage of any potentially polluting substance brought into the catchment for any industrial or commercial operation - a controlled activity as defined by the order. All such controlled activities require a permit to be issued and the conditions of the permit are determined by a risk analysis mathematical model involving the nature of the substance, its quantity and the distance from any vulnerable drinking water intake.\nApplications for consent are required to complete an formal applicationFollowing a serious degradation of the quality of the River Wye, there have been calls for a new water protection zone to be established for that river.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In 1975 the United States Supreme Court in the case of NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc.  420 U.S. 251 (1975) upheld a National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) decision that employees have a right to union representation at investigatory interviews. These rights have become known as the Weingarten Rights.\nDuring an investigatory interview, the Supreme Court ruled that the following rules apply:\n\nRule 1\nThe employee must make a clear request for union representation before or during the interview. The employee cannot be punished for making this request.\nRule 2\nAfter the employee makes the request, the employer must choose from among three options:Grant the request and delay questioning until the union representative arrives and (prior to the interview continuing) the representative has a chance to consult privately with the employee;\nDeny the request and end the interview immediately; or\nGive the employee a clear choice between having the interview without representation, or ending the interview.Rule 3\nIf the employer denies the request for union representation, and continues to ask questions, it commits an unfair labor practice and the employee has a right to refuse to answer. The employer may not discipline the employee for such a refusal.In July 2000, the NLRB under the Clinton administration extended the Weingarten Rights to employees at nonunionized workplaces. On June 15, 2004, the NLRB under the George W. Bush administration effectively reversed the previous ruling by a three to two vote.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Weisth\u00fcmer is a collection  of partially oral legal traditions from rural German-speaking Europe\nby Jacob Grimm, published in four volumes (1840\u20131863), intended for use in research into Germanic law.The German term Weisthum (post-1901 spelling Weistum) in the sense of \"historical legal text\" originates in the region of the middle Rhine and the Moselle. In southern Germany, equivalent terms were Ehaft or Ehafttaiding, in the Alsace Dinghofrodel, in Switzerland Offnung, in Austria Banntaiding, and in Low German Willk\u00fcr or Beliebung. Rural oral legal traditions are found primarily in the Alamannic and Austro-Bavarian regions of German-speaking Europe. According to the more recent research, Weistum texts are to be addressed as \u00aba standardized artefact intended for a circumscribed circle of legitimate or addressed recipients, namely the \"dominion\" and the peasant landed gentry/court inmates.\u00bb", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The West African Court of Appeal (WACA) was a court which served as the appellate court for the British colonies of Gold Coast, Nigeria, Gambia, and Sierra Leone.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The West Indian Court of Appeal (WICA) was a court which served as the appellate court for the British colonies of Trinidad and Tobago, British Guiana, Barbados, the Leeward Islands, Grenada, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent from 1919 until the creation of the Federal Supreme Court of the West Indies Federation in 1958.\nThe court was created by the West Indian Court of Appeal Act 1919, an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Decisions of the court could be appealed with leave to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Wex is a collaboratively-edited legal dictionary and encyclopaedia,  intended for broad use by \"practically everyone, even law students and lawyers entering new areas of law\".It is sponsored and hosted by the Legal Information Institute (\"LII\") at the Cornell Law School.  Much of the material that appears in Wex was originally developed for the LII's \"Law about...\" pages, to which Wex is the successor.\nWex accepts contributions from qualified experts and takes pains to qualify them. It screens editors before allowing them to contribute.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A Wigmore chart (commonly referred to as Wigmorean analysis) is a graphical method for the analysis of legal evidence in trials, developed by John Henry Wigmore. It is an early form of the modern belief network.After completing his Treatise in 1904, Wigmore \"became convinced that something was missing.\" He set up a system for analyzing evidence that consisted of lines, used to represent reasoning, explanations, refutations, and conclusions; and shapes which represent facts, claims, explanations, and refutations.Although Wigmore taught his analytic method in the classroom during the early 20th century, the Wigmore chart was all but forgotten by the 1960s.  Recent scholars have rediscovered his work and used it as a basis for modern analytic standards.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "The Witness Service (also known as Citizens Advice Witness Service) is a service in England and Wales for witnesses who have to give evidence in criminal courts. The Witness Service offers practical and emotional support and is a free service. The service is funded by the UK government's Ministry of Justice, which also publishes general advice about testifying in court \n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A witness statement is a signed document recording the evidence of a witness. A definition used in England and Wales is \"a written statement signed by a person which contains the evidence which that person would be allowed to give orally\".The United States Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure defines a witness statement as: \"(1) a written statement that the witness makes and signs, or otherwise adopts or approves; (2) a substantially verbatim, contemporaneously recorded recital of the witness's oral statement that is contained in any recording or any transcription of a recording; or (3) the witness's statement to a grand jury, however taken or recorded, or a transcription of such a statement.\"", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A wordmark, word mark, or logotype, is usually a distinct text-only typographic treatment of the name of a company, institution, or product name used for purposes of identification and branding. Examples can be found in the graphic identities of the Government of Canada, FedEx, and Microsoft. The organization name is incorporated as a simple graphic treatment to create a clear, visually memorable identity. The representation of the word becomes a visual symbol of the organization or product.\nIn the United States and European Union, a wordmark may be registered, making it a protected intellectual property. \nIn the United States, the term \"word mark\" refers not to the graphical representation but to only the text.In most cases, wordmarks cannot be copyrighted, as they do not reach the threshold of originality.\nThe wordmark is one of several different types of logos, and is among the most common. It has the benefit of containing the brand name of the company (i.e. the Coca-Cola logo) as opposed to the brandmark used by, for example, Apple.\nWordmark logos are often confused with lettermark logos. Wordmark logos are unique text-only typographic treatment of the brand's name where the name becomes the instant identification of the brand. Whereas, lettermark logos are made up of initials of the brand name or business. Lettermarks are also text-only but they are shorter. Some examples of lettermark logos include: IBM, CNN, P&G, HBO, and LG logo.\n\n", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A working paper or work paper may be: \n\nA preliminary scientific or technical paper.  Often, authors will release working papers to share ideas about a topic or to elicit feedback before submitting to a peer reviewed conference or academic journal.  Working papers are often the basis for related works, and may in themselves be cited by peer-review papers. They may be considered as grey literature.\nSometimes the term working paper is used synonymously as technical report.  Working papers are typically hosted on websites, belonging either to the author or the author's affiliated institution. The United Nations uses the term \"working paper\" in approximately this sense for the draft of a resolution.\nDocuments required for a minor to get a job in certain states within the United States. Such papers usually require the employer, parent/guardian, school, and a physician to agree to the terms of work laid out by the employer.\nAudit working papers: Documents required on an audit of a company's financial statements. The working papers are the property of the accounting firm conducting the audit. These papers are formally referred to as Audit Documentation or sometimes as the audit file. The documents serve as proof of audit procedures performed, evidence obtained and the conclusion or opinion the auditor reached (AU 339.05). For more information, see AS 3 and AU 339 or www.aicpa.org.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "A writ of attachment is a court order to \"attach\" or seize an asset.  It is issued by a court to a law enforcement officer or sheriff. The writ of attachment is issued in order to satisfy a judgment issued by the court.  A prejudgment writ of attachment may be used to freeze assets of a defendant while a legal action is pending.  Common grounds for obtaining a prejudgment writ of attachment are that a defendant has committed fraud or that a defendant is prepared to hide assets from a court.\nOne species of this writ is called a \"writ of body attachment\".  This writ may be available to a court wishing to bring into its presence a person who has been held in contempt of court.  In this situation, the writ is also sometimes called a \"writ of bodily attachment\", an \"order of commitment for civil contempt\", or a \"warrant for civil arrest\".", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Wulfstan v Thomas was an early court case in English law. Bishop Wulstan, later Saint Wulfstan, was appealing to the new king against the taking of estates that had belonged to the Cathedral at Worcester.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "Ranitidine, a heartburn medicine sold under the brand name Zantac among others, was pulled from shelves in 2019,\nfollowing disclosure\n of potential carcinogenic effects,\n which its manufacturers were accused of \"engaging in a decades-long scheme to conceal.\"By 2020 the US Food and Drug Administration was telling consumers to discard whatever Zantac they still had.", "label": "Law"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, negative definiteness is a property of any object to which a bilinear form may be naturally associated, which is negative-definite. See, in particular:\n\nNegative-definite bilinear form\nNegative-definite quadratic form\nNegative-definite matrix\nNegative-definite function", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the adjective Noetherian is used to describe objects that satisfy an ascending or descending chain condition on certain kinds of subobjects, meaning that certain ascending or descending sequences of subobjects must have finite length. Noetherian objects are named after Emmy Noether, who was the first to study the ascending and descending chain conditions for rings. Specifically:\n\nNoetherian group, a group that satisfies the ascending chain condition on subgroups.\nNoetherian ring, a ring that satisfies the ascending chain condition on ideals.\nNoetherian module, a module that satisfies the ascending chain condition on submodules.\nMore generally, an object in a category is said to be Noetherian if there is no infinitely increasing filtration of it by subobjects. A category is Noetherian if every object in it is Noetherian.\nNoetherian relation, a binary relation that satisfies the ascending chain condition on its elements.\nNoetherian topological space, a topological space that satisfies the descending chain condition on closed sets.\nNoetherian induction, also called well-founded induction, a proof method for binary relations that satisfy the descending chain condition.\nNoetherian rewriting system, an abstract rewriting system that has no infinite chains.\nNoetherian scheme, a scheme in algebraic geometry that admits a finite covering by open spectra of Noetherian rings.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Order in mathematics may refer to:", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, p-adic cohomology means a cohomology theory for varieties of characteristic p whose values are modules over a ring of p-adic integers. Examples (in roughly historical order) include:\n\nSerre's Witt vector cohomology\nMonsky\u2013Washnitzer cohomology\nInfinitesimal cohomology\nCrystalline cohomology\nRigid cohomology", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, positive definiteness is a property of any object to which a bilinear form or a sesquilinear form may be naturally associated, which is positive-definite. See, in particular:\n\nPositive-definite bilinear form\nPositive-definite function\nPositive-definite function on a group\nPositive-definite functional\nPositive-definite kernel\nPositive-definite matrix\nPositive-definite quadratic form", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A quasiperiodic tiling is a tiling of the plane that exhibits local periodicity under some transformations: every finite subset of its tiles reappears infinitely often throughout the tiling, but there is no nontrivial way of superimposing the whole tiling onto itself so that all tiles overlap perfectly.\nSee\n\nAperiodic tiling and Penrose tiling for a mathematical viewpoint.\nQuasicrystal for a physics viewpoint.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the term socle has several related meanings.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Stationary distribution may refer to:\n\nA special distribution for a Markov chain such that if the chain starts with its stationary distribution, the marginal distribution of all states at any time will always be the stationary distribution.  Assuming irreducibility, the stationary distribution is always unique if it exists, and its existence can be implied by positive recurrence of all states. The stationary distribution has the interpretation of the limiting distribution when the chain is irreducible and aperiodic.\nThe marginal distribution of a stationary process or stationary time series\nThe set of joint probability distributions of a stationary process or stationary time seriesIn some fields of application, the term stable distribution is used for the equivalent of a stationary (marginal) distribution, although in probability and statistics the term has a rather different meaning: see stable distribution.\nCrudely stated, all of the above are specific cases of a common general concept. A stationary distribution is a specific entity which is unchanged by the effect of some matrix or operator: it need not be unique. Thus stationary distributions are related to eigenvectors for which the eigenvalue is unity.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Stratification has several usages in mathematics.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a strong topology is a topology which is stronger than some other \"default\" topology. This term is used to describe different topologies depending on context, and it may refer to:\n\nthe final topology on the disjoint union\nthe topology arising from a norm\nthe strong operator topology\nthe strong topology (polar topology), which subsumes all topologies above.A topology \u03c4 is stronger than a topology \u03c3 (is a finer topology) if \u03c4 contains all the open sets of \u03c3.\nIn algebraic geometry, it usually means the topology of an algebraic variety as complex manifold or subspace of complex projective space, as opposed to the Zariski topology (which is rarely even a Hausdorff space).\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a supersingular variety is (usually) a smooth projective variety in nonzero characteristic such that for all n the slopes of the Newton polygon of the nth crystalline cohomology are all n/2 (de Jong 2014). For special classes of varieties such as elliptic curves it is common to use various ad hoc definitions of \"supersingular\", which are (usually) equivalent to the one given above.\nThe term \"singular elliptic curve\" (or \"singular j-invariant\") was at one times used to refer to complex elliptic curves whose ring of endomorphisms has rank 2, the maximum possible. Helmut Hasse discovered that, in finite characteristic, elliptic curves can have larger rings of endomorphisms of rank 4, and these were called \"supersingular elliptic curves\". Supersingular elliptic curves can also be characterized by the slopes of their crystalline cohomology, and the term \"supersingular\" was later extended to other varieties whose cohomology has similar properties. The terms \"supersingular\" or \"singular\" do not mean that the variety has singularities.\nExamples include:\n\nSupersingular elliptic curve. Elliptic curves in non-zero characteristic with an unusually large ring of endomorphisms of rank 4.\nSupersingular Abelian variety Sometimes defined to be an abelian variety isogenous to a product of supersingular elliptic curves, and sometimes defined to be an abelian variety of some rank g  whose endomorphism ring has rank (2g)2.\nSupersingular K3 surface. Certain K3 surfaces in non-zero characteristic.\nSupersingular Enriques surface. Certain Enriques surfaces in characteristic 2.\nA surface is called Shioda supersingular if the rank of its N\u00e9ron\u2013Severi group is equal to its second Betti number.\nA surface is called Artin supersingular if its formal Brauer group has infinite height.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In number theory, a symbol is any of many different generalizations of the Legendre symbol. This article describes the relations between these various generalizations.\nThe symbols below are arranged roughly in order of the date they were introduced, which is usually (but not always) in order of increasing generality.\n\nLegendre symbol  \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              a\n              p\n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left({\\frac {a}{p}}\\right)}\n   defined for p a prime, a an integer, and takes values 0, 1, or \u22121.\nJacobi symbol \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              a\n              b\n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left({\\frac {a}{b}}\\right)}\n   defined for b a positive odd integer, a an integer, and takes values 0, 1, or \u22121. An extension of the Legendre symbol to more general values of b.\nKronecker symbol \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              a\n              b\n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left({\\frac {a}{b}}\\right)}\n   defined for b any integer, a an integer, and takes values 0, 1, or \u22121. An extension of the Jacobi and Legendre symbols to more general values of b.\nPower residue symbol \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              a\n              b\n            \n          \n          )\n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                a\n                b\n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            m\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left({\\frac {a}{b}}\\right)=\\left({\\frac {a}{b}}\\right)_{m}}\n   is defined for a in some global field containing the mth roots of 1 ( for some m), b a fractional ideal of K built from prime ideals coprime to m. The symbol takes values in the m roots of 1. When m = 2 and the global field is the rationals this is more or less the same as the Jacobi symbol.\nHilbert symbol The local Hilbert symbol (a,b) = is defined for a and b in some local field containing the m roots of 1 (for some m) and takes values in the m roots of 1. The power residue symbol can be written in terms of the Hilbert symbol. The global Hilbert symbol  \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        a\n        ,\n        b\n        \n          )\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              \n                a\n                ,\n                b\n              \n              p\n            \n          \n          )\n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              \n                \n                  a\n                  ,\n                  b\n                \n                p\n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            m\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (a,b)_{p}=\\left({\\frac {a,b}{p}}\\right)=\\left({\\frac {a,b}{p}}\\right)_{m}}\n   is defined for a and b in some global field K, for p a finite or infinite place of K, and is equal to the local Hilbert symbol in the completion of K at the place p.\nArtin symbol The local Artin symbol or norm residue symbol \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03b8\n          \n            L\n            \n              /\n            \n            K\n          \n        \n        (\n        \u03b1\n        )\n        =\n        (\n        \u03b1\n        ,\n        L\n        \n          /\n        \n        K\n        )\n        =\n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              \n                L\n                \n                  /\n                \n                K\n              \n              \u03b1\n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta _{L/K}(\\alpha )=(\\alpha ,L/K)=\\left({\\frac {L/K}{\\alpha }}\\right)}\n   is defined for L a finite extension of the local field K, \u03b1 an element of K, and takes values in the abelianization of the Galois group Gal(L/K). The global Artin symbol \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03c8\n          \n            L\n            \n              /\n            \n            K\n          \n        \n        (\n        \u03b1\n        )\n        =\n        (\n        \u03b1\n        ,\n        L\n        \n          /\n        \n        K\n        )\n        =\n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              \n                L\n                \n                  /\n                \n                K\n              \n              \u03b1\n            \n          \n          )\n        \n        =\n        (\n        (\n        L\n        \n          /\n        \n        K\n        )\n        \n          /\n        \n        \u03b1\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\psi _{L/K}(\\alpha )=(\\alpha ,L/K)=\\left({\\frac {L/K}{\\alpha }}\\right)=((L/K)/\\alpha )}\n   is defined for \u03b1 in a ray class group or idele (class) group of a global field K, and takes values in the abelianization of Gal(L/K) for L an abelian extension of K. When \u03b1 is in the idele group the symbol is sometimes called a Chevalley symbol or Artin\u2013Chevalley symbol. The local Hilbert symbol of K can be written in terms of the Artin symbol for Kummer extensions L/K, where the roots of unity can be identified with elements of the Galois group.\nThe Frobenius symbol \n  \n    \n      \n        [\n        (\n        L\n        \n          /\n        \n        K\n        )\n        \n          /\n        \n        P\n        ]\n        =\n        \n          [\n          \n            \n              \n                L\n                \n                  /\n                \n                K\n              \n              P\n            \n          \n          ]\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle [(L/K)/P]=\\left[{\\frac {L/K}{P}}\\right]}\n   is the same as the Frobenius element of the prime P of the Galois extension L of K.\n\"Chevalley symbol\" has several slightly different meanings. It is sometimes used for the Artin symbol for ideles. A variation of this is the Chevalley symbol  \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              \n                a\n                ,\n                \u03c7\n              \n              p\n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left({\\frac {a,\\chi }{p}}\\right)}\n   for p a prime ideal of K, a an element of K, and \u03c7 a homomorphism of the Galois group of K to R/Z. The value of the symbol is then the value of the character \u03c7 on the usual Artin symbol.\nNorm residue symbol This name is for several different closely related symbols, such as the Artin symbol or the Hilbert symbol or Hasse's norm residue symbol. The Hasse norm residue symbol \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        (\n        \u03b1\n        ,\n        L\n        \n          /\n        \n        K\n        )\n        \n          /\n        \n        p\n        )\n        =\n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              \n                \u03b1\n                ,\n                L\n                \n                  /\n                \n                K\n              \n              p\n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle ((\\alpha ,L/K)/p)=\\left({\\frac {\\alpha ,L/K}{p}}\\right)}\n   is defined if p is a place of K and \u03b1 an element of K. It is essentially the same as the local Artin symbol for the localization of K at p. The Hilbert symbol is a special case of it in the case of Kummer extensions.\nSteinberg symbol (a,b). This is a generalization of the local Hilbert symbol to arbitrary fields F. The numbers a and b are elements of F, and the symbol (a,b) takes values in the second K-group of F.\nGalois symbol A sort of generalization of the Steinberg symbol to higher algebraic K-theory. It takes a Milnor K-group to an \u00e9tale cohomology group.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a uniqueness theorem, also called a unicity theorem, is a theorem asserting the uniqueness of an object satisfying certain conditions, or the equivalence of all objects satisfying the said conditions. Examples of uniqueness theorems include:\n\nAlexandrov's uniqueness theorem of three-dimensional polyhedra\nBlack hole uniqueness theorem\nCauchy\u2013Kowalevski theorem is the main local existence and uniqueness theorem for analytic partial differential equations associated with Cauchy initial value problems.\nCauchy\u2013Kowalevski\u2013Kashiwara theorem is a wide generalization of the Cauchy\u2013Kowalevski theorem for systems of linear partial differential equations with analytic coefficients.\nDivision theorem, the uniqueness of quotient and remainder under Euclidean division.\nFundamental theorem of arithmetic, the uniqueness of prime factorization.\nHolmgren's uniqueness theorem for linear partial differential equations with real analytic coefficients.\nPicard\u2013Lindel\u00f6f theorem, the uniqueness of solutions to first-order differential equations.\nThompson uniqueness theorem in finite group theory\nUniqueness theorem for Poisson's equation\nElectromagnetism uniqueness theorem for the solution of Maxwell's equation\nUniqueness case in finite group theoryThe word unique is sometimes replaced by essentially unique, whenever one wants to stress that the uniqueness is only referred to the underlying structure, whereas the form may vary in all ways that do not affect the mathematical content.A uniqueness theorem (or its proof) is, at least within the mathematics of differential equations, often combined with an existence theorem (or its proof) to a combined existence and uniqueness theorem (e.g., existence and uniqueness of solution to first-order differential equations with boundary condition).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Vorlesungen \u00fcber Zahlentheorie (German for Lectures on Number Theory) is the name of several different textbooks of number theory. The best known was written by Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet and Richard Dedekind, and published in 1863. Others were written by Leopold Kronecker, Edmund Landau, and Helmut Hasse. They all cover elementary number theory, Dirichlet's theorem, quadratic fields and forms, and sometimes more advanced topics.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In probability theory, a zero\u2013one law is a result that states that an event must have probability 0 or 1 and no intermediate value. Sometimes, the statement is that the limit of certain probabilities must be 0 or 1.\nIt may refer to: \n\nBorel\u2013Cantelli lemma\nBlumenthal's zero\u2013one law for Markov processes,\nEngelbert\u2013Schmidt zero\u2013one law for continuous, nondecreasing additive functionals of Brownian motion,\nHewitt\u2013Savage zero\u2013one law for exchangeable sequences,\nKolmogorov's zero\u2013one law for the tail \u03c3-algebra,\nL\u00e9vy's zero\u2013one law, related to martingale convergence.\nTopological zero\u2013one law, related to meager sets,\nGaussian process \u00a7 Driscoll's zero-one law\nZero-one law (logic) for sentences valid in finite structures.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "An \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon }\n  -net or epsilon net in mathematics may refer to:\n\nE-net (probability theory) for uses in probability theory\n\u03b5-net (computational geometry) for uses in computational geometry\n\u03b5-net (metric spaces) for uses in metric spaces", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the \u039e function (named for the Greek letter \u039e or Xi) may refer to:\n\nRiemann Xi function, a variant of the Riemann zeta function with a simpler functional equation\nHarish-Chandra's \u039e function, a special spherical function on a semisimple Lie group", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The language of mathematics has a vast vocabulary of specialist and technical terms. It also has a certain amount of jargon: commonly used phrases which are part of the culture of mathematics, rather than of the subject. Jargon often appears in lectures, and sometimes in print, as informal shorthand for rigorous arguments or precise ideas. Much of this is common English, but with a specific non-obvious meaning when used in a mathematical sense.\nSome phrases, like \"in general\",  appear below in more than one section.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The character \u2202 (Unicode: U+2202) is a stylized cursive d mainly used as a mathematical symbol, usually to denote a partial derivative such as \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u2202\n          z\n        \n        \n          /\n        \n        \n          \u2202\n          x\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\partial z}/{\\partial x}}\n   (read as \"the partial derivative of z with respect to x\"). It is also used for the boundary operator in a chain complex, and the conjugate of the Dolbeault operator on smooth differential forms over a complex manifold. It should be distinguished from other similar-looking symbols such as lowercase Greek letter delta (\ud835\udeff) or the lowercase Latin letter eth (\u00f0).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, abstract nonsense, general abstract nonsense, generalized abstract nonsense, and general nonsense are terms used by mathematicians to describe abstract methods related to category theory and homological algebra. More generally, \"abstract nonsense\" may refer to a proof that relies on category-theoretic methods, or even to the study of category theory itself.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "An abstract structure is a hypostatic abstraction that is defined by a set of laws, properties and relationships in a way that is logically if not always historically independent of the structure of contingent experiences, for example, those involving physical objects.  Abstract structures are studied not only in logic and mathematics but in the fields that apply them, as computer science, and in the studies that reflect on them, such as philosophy (especially the philosophy of mathematics).  Indeed, modern mathematics has been defined in a very general sense as the study of abstract structures (by the Bourbaki group: see discussion there, at algebraic structure and also structure).\nAn abstract structure may be represented (perhaps with some degree of approximation) by one or more physical objects \u2013  this is called an implementation or instantiation of the abstract structure. But the abstract structure itself is defined in a way that is not dependent on the properties of any particular implementation.\nAn abstract structure has a richer structure than a concept or an idea. An abstract structure must include precise rules of behaviour which can be used to determine whether a candidate implementation actually matches the abstract structure in question, and it must be free from contradictions. Thus we may debate how well a particular government fits the concept of democracy, but there is no room for debate over whether a given sequence of moves is or is not a valid game of chess.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying structures, patterns or properties of a mathematical concept, removing any dependence on real world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena. Two of the most highly abstract areas of modern mathematics are category theory and model theory.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In analytic geometry, spatial transformations in the 3-dimensional Euclidean space \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            3\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{3}}\n   are distinguished into active or alibi transformations, and passive or alias transformations. An active transformation is a transformation which actually changes the physical position (alibi, elsewhere) of a point, or rigid body, which can be defined in the absence of a coordinate system; whereas a passive transformation is merely a change in the coordinate system in which the object is described (alias, other name) (change of coordinate map, or change of basis). By transformation, mathematicians usually refer to active transformations, while physicists and engineers could mean either. Both types of transformation can be represented by a combination of a translation and a linear transformation.\nPut differently, a passive transformation refers to description of the same object in two different coordinate systems.\nOn the other hand, an active transformation is a transformation of one or more objects with respect to the same coordinate system. For instance, active transformations are useful to describe successive positions of a rigid body. On the other hand, passive transformations may be useful in human motion analysis to observe the motion of the tibia relative to the femur, that is, its motion relative to a (local) coordinate system which moves together with the femur, rather than a (global) coordinate system which is fixed to the floor.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Adequality is a technique developed by Pierre de Fermat in his treatise Methodus ad disquirendam maximam et minimam (a Latin treatise circulated in France c. 1636) to calculate maxima and minima of functions, tangents to curves, area, center of mass, least action, and other problems in calculus. According to Andr\u00e9 Weil, Fermat \"introduces the technical term adaequalitas, adaequare, etc., which he says he has borrowed from Diophantus. As Diophantus V.11 shows, it means an approximate equality, and this is indeed how Fermat explains the word in one of his later writings.\" (Weil 1973). Diophantus coined the word \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 (parisot\u0113s) to refer to an approximate equality. Claude Gaspard Bachet de M\u00e9ziriac translated Diophantus's Greek word into Latin as adaequalitas. Paul Tannery's French translation of Fermat\u2019s Latin treatises on maxima and minima used the words ad\u00e9quation and ad\u00e9galer.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In set theory, when dealing with sets of infinite size, the term almost or nearly is used to refer to all but a  negligible amount of elements in the set. The notion of \"negligible\" depends on the context, and may mean \"of measure zero\" (in a measure space), \"finite\" (when infinite sets are involved), or \"countable\" (when uncountably infinite sets are involved).\nFor example:\n\nThe set \n  \n    \n      \n        S\n        =\n        {\n        n\n        \u2208\n        \n          N\n        \n        \n        \n          |\n        \n        \n        n\n        \u2265\n        k\n        }\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle S=\\{n\\in \\mathbb {N} \\,|\\,n\\geq k\\}}\n   is almost \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          N\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {N} }\n   for any \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k}\n   in \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          N\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {N} }\n  , because only finitely many natural numbers are less than \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k}\n  .\nThe set of prime numbers is not almost \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          N\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {N} }\n  , because there are infinitely many natural numbers that are not prime numbers.\nThe set of transcendental numbers are almost \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          R\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} }\n  , because the algebraic real numbers form a countable subset of the set of real numbers (which is uncountable).\nThe Cantor set is uncountably infinite, but has Lebesgue measure zero. So almost all real numbers in (0,\u20091) are members of the complement of the Cantor set.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the term \"almost all\" means \"all but a negligible amount\". More precisely, if \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   is a set, \"almost all elements of \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n  \" means \"all elements of \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   but those in a negligible subset of \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n  \". The meaning of \"negligible\" depends on the mathematical context; for instance, it can mean finite, countable, or null.\nIn contrast, \"almost no\" means \"a negligible amount\"; that is, \"almost no elements of \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n  \" means \"a negligible amount of elements of \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n  \".", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In measure theory (a branch of mathematical analysis), a property holds almost everywhere if, in a technical sense, the set for which the property holds takes up nearly all possibilities. The notion of \"almost everywhere\" is a companion notion to the concept of measure zero, and is analogous to the notion of almost surely in probability theory.\nMore specifically, a property holds almost everywhere if it holds for all elements in a set except a subset of measure zero, or equivalently, if the set of elements for which the property holds is conull. In cases where the measure is not complete, it is sufficient that the set be contained within a set of measure zero. When discussing sets of real numbers, the Lebesgue measure is usually assumed unless otherwise stated.\nThe term almost everywhere is abbreviated a.e.; in older literature p.p. is used, to stand for the equivalent French language phrase presque partout.A set with full measure is one whose complement is of measure zero. In probability theory, the terms almost surely, almost certain and almost always refer to events with probability 1 not necessarily including all of the outcomes. These are exactly the sets of full measure in a probability space.\nOccasionally, instead of saying that a property holds almost everywhere, it is said that the property holds for almost all elements (though the term almost all can also have other meanings).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In probability theory, an event is said to happen almost surely (sometimes abbreviated as a.s.) if it happens with probability 1 (or Lebesgue measure 1). In other words, the set of possible exceptions may be non-empty, but it has probability 0. The concept is analogous to the concept of \"almost everywhere\" in measure theory.\nIn probability experiments on a finite sample space, there is often no difference between almost surely and surely (since having a probability of 1 often entails including all the sample points). However, this distinction becomes important when the sample space is an infinite set, because an infinite set can have non-empty subsets of probability 0.\nSome examples of the use of this concept include the strong and uniform versions of the law of large numbers, and the continuity of the paths of Brownian motion.\nThe terms almost certainly (a.c.) and almost always (a.a.) are also used. Almost never describes the opposite of almost surely: an event that happens with probability zero happens almost never.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In physics and mathematics, an ansatz (; German: [\u02c8\u0294anzats], meaning: \"initial placement of a tool at a work piece\", plural Ans\u00e4tze ; German: [\u02c8\u0294anz\u025bts\u0259]) is an educated guess or an additional assumption made to help solve a problem, and which may later be verified to be part of the solution by its results.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In constructive mathematics, an apartness relation is a constructive form of inequality, and is often taken to be more basic than equality. It is often written as # (\u29e3 in unicode) to distinguish from the negation of equality (the denial inequality) \u2260, which is weaker.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In the historical study of mathematics, an apotome is a line segment formed from a longer line segment by breaking it into two parts, one of which is commensurable only in power to the whole; the other part is the apotome. In this definition, two line segments are said to be \"commensurable only in power\" when the ratio of their lengths is an irrational number but the ratio of their squared lengths is rational.Translated into modern algebraic language, an apotome can be interpreted as a quadratic irrational number formed by subtracting one square root of a rational number from another.\nThis concept of the apotome appears in Euclid's Elements beginning in book X, where Euclid defines two special kinds of apotomes. In an apotome of the first kind, the whole is rational, while in an apotome of the second kind, the part subtracted from it is rational; both kinds of apotomes also satisfy an additional condition.  Euclid Proposition XIII.6 states that, if a rational line segment is split into two pieces in the golden ratio, then both pieces may be represented as apotomes.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the phrases arbitrarily large, arbitrarily small and arbitrarily long are used in statements to make clear of the fact that an object is large, small and long with little limitation or restraint, respectively. The use of \"arbitrarily\" often occurs in the context of real numbers (and its subsets thereof), though its meaning can differ from that of \"sufficiently\" and \"infinitely\".", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Frobenius endomorphism is defined in any commutative ring R that has characteristic p, where p is a prime number. Namely, the mapping \u03c6 that takes r in R to rp is a ring endomorphism of R.\nThe image of \u03c6 is then Rp, the subring of R consisting of p-th powers. In some important cases, for example finite fields, \u03c6 is surjective. Otherwise \u03c6 is an endomorphism but not a ring automorphism.\nThe terminology of geometric Frobenius arises by applying the spectrum of a ring construction to \u03c6. This gives a mapping\n\n\u03c6*: Spec(Rp) \u2192 Spec(R)of affine schemes. Even in cases where Rp = R this is not the identity, unless R is the prime field. \nMappings created by fibre product with \u03c6*, i.e. base changes, tend in scheme theory to be called geometric Frobenius. The reason for a careful terminology is that the Frobenius automorphism in Galois groups, or defined by transport of structure, is often the inverse mapping of the geometric Frobenius. As in the case of a cyclic group in which a generator is also the inverse of a generator, there are in many situations two possible definitions of Frobenius, and without a consistent convention some problem of a minus sign may appear.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In exponentiation, the base is the number b in an expression of the form bn.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Brown measure of an operator in a finite factor is a probability measure on the complex plane which may be viewed as an analog of the spectral counting measure (based on algebraic multiplicity) of matrices.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The language of mathematics has a vast vocabulary of specialist and technical terms. It also has a certain amount of jargon: commonly used phrases which are part of the culture of mathematics, rather than of the subject. Jargon often appears in lectures, and sometimes in print, as informal shorthand for rigorous arguments or precise ideas. Much of this is common English, but with a specific non-obvious meaning when used in a mathematical sense.\nSome phrases, like \"in general\",  appear below in more than one section.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics and computer science, a canonical, normal, or standard form of a mathematical object is a standard way of presenting that object as a mathematical expression. Often, it is one which provides the simplest representation of an object and which allows it to be identified in a unique way. The distinction between \"canonical\" and \"normal\" forms varies from subfield to subfield. In most fields, a canonical form specifies a unique representation for every object, while a normal form simply specifies its form, without the requirement of uniqueness.The canonical form of a positive integer in decimal representation is a finite sequence of digits that does not begin with zero. More generally, for a class of objects on which an equivalence relation is defined, a canonical form consists in the choice of a specific object in each class. For example:\n\nJordan normal form is a canonical form for matrix similarity.\nThe row echelon form is a canonical form, when one considers as equivalent a matrix and its left product by an invertible matrix.In computer science, and more specifically in computer algebra, when representing mathematical objects in a computer, there are usually many different ways to represent the same object. In this context, a canonical form is a representation such that every object has a unique representation (with canonicalization being the process through which a representation is put into its canonical form). Thus, the equality of two objects can easily be tested by testing the equality of their canonical forms. \nDespite this advantage, canonical forms frequently depend on arbitrary choices (like ordering the variables), which introduce difficulties for testing the equality of two objects resulting on independent computations. Therefore, in computer algebra, normal form is a weaker notion: A normal form is a representation such that zero is uniquely represented. This allows testing for equality by putting the difference of two objects in normal form.\nCanonical form can also mean a differential form that is defined in a natural (canonical) way.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a canonical map, also called a natural map, is a map or morphism between objects that arises naturally from the definition or the construction of the objects. In general, it is the map which preserves the widest amount of structure, and it tends to be unique. In the rare cases where latitude in choices remains, the map is either conventionally agreed upon to be the most useful for further analysis, or sometimes the most elegant map known to date.\nA standard form of canonical map involves some function mapping a set \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   to the set \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n        \n          /\n        \n        R\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X/R}\n   (\n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   modulo \n  \n    \n      \n        R\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle R}\n  ), where \n  \n    \n      \n        R\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle R}\n   is an equivalence relation on \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n  . A closely related notion is a structure map or structure morphism; the map or morphism that comes with the given structure on the object. These are also sometimes called canonical maps.\nA canonical isomorphism is a canonical map that is also an isomorphism (i.e., invertible). In some contexts, it might be necessary to address an issue of choices of canonical maps or canonical isomorphisms; for a typical example, see prestack.\nFor a very clear explanation of the problem, where the above definition originates, a critique of it from the point of view of writing proofs in a proof assistant, see Kevin Buzzard's talk at the 2022 Grothendieck conference, where he references this page.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a characterization of an object is a set of conditions that, while different from the definition of the object, is logically equivalent to it. To say that \"Property P characterizes object X\" is to say that not only does X have property P, but that X is the only thing that has property P (i.e., P is a defining property of X). Similarly, a set of properties P is said to characterize X, when these properties distinguish X from all other objects. Even though a characterization identifies an object in a unique way, several characterizations can exist for a single object. Common mathematical expressions for a characterization of X in terms of P include \"P is necessary and sufficient for X\", and \"X holds if and only if P\".\nIt is also common to find statements such as \"Property Q characterizes Y up to isomorphism\". The first type of statement says in different words that the extension of P is a singleton set, while the second says that the extension of Q is a single equivalence class (for isomorphism, in the given example \u2014 depending on how up to is being used, some other equivalence relation might be involved).\n\nA reference on mathematical terminology notes that characteristic originates from the Greek term kharax, \"a pointed stake\":\"From Greek kharax came kharakhter, an instrument used to mark or engrave an object. Once an object was marked, it became distinctive, so the character of something came to mean its distinctive nature. The Late Greek suffix -istikos converted the noun character into the adjective characteristic, which, in addition to maintaining its adjectival meaning, later became a noun as well.\"Just as in chemistry, the characteristic property of a material will serve to identify a sample, or in the study of materials, structures and properties will determine characterization, in mathematics there is a continual effort to express properties that will distinguish a desired feature in a theory or system. Characterization is not unique to mathematics, but since the science is abstract, much of the activity can be described as \"characterization\". For instance, in Mathematical Reviews, as of 2018, more than 24,000 articles contain the word in the article title, and 93,600 somewhere in the review.\nIn an arbitrary context of objects and features, characterizations have been expressed via the heterogeneous relation aRb, meaning that object a has feature b. For example, b may mean abstract or concrete. The objects can be considered the extensions of the world, while the features are expression of the intensions. A continuing program of characterization of various objects leads to their categorization.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a coefficient is a multiplicative factor in some term of a polynomial, a series, or an expression; it is usually a number, but may be any expression (including variables such as a, b and c). When the coefficients are themselves variables, they may also be called parameters.  \nFor example, the polynomial \n  \n    \n      \n        2\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \u2212\n        x\n        +\n        3\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 2x^{2}-x+3}\n   has coefficients 2, \u22121, and 3, and the powers of the variable \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x}\n   in the polynomial \n  \n    \n      \n        a\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        b\n        x\n        +\n        c\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle ax^{2}+bx+c}\n   have coefficient parameters \n  \n    \n      \n        a\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle a}\n  , \n  \n    \n      \n        b\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle b}\n  , and \n  \n    \n      \n        c\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c}\n  .\nThe constant coefficient is the coefficient not attached to variables in an expression. For example, the constant coefficients of the expressions above are the number 3 and the parameter c, respectively. \nThe coefficient attached to the highest degree of the variable in a polynomial is referred to as the leading coefficient. For example, in the expressions above, the leading coefficients are 2 and a, respectively.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a complete set of invariants for a classification problem is a collection of maps\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          f\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n        :\n        X\n        \u2192\n        \n          Y\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f_{i}:X\\to Y_{i}}\n  (where \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   is the collection of objects being classified, up to some equivalence relation \n  \n    \n      \n        \u223c\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sim }\n  , and the \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          Y\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Y_{i}}\n   are some sets), such that \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        \u223c\n        \n          x\n          \u2032\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x\\sim x'}\n   if and only if \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          f\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n        (\n        x\n        )\n        =\n        \n          f\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          x\n          \u2032\n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f_{i}(x)=f_{i}(x')}\n   for all \n  \n    \n      \n        i\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle i}\n  . In words, such that two objects are equivalent if and only if all invariants are equal.Symbolically, a complete set of invariants is a collection of maps such that\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \u220f\n            \n              f\n              \n                i\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n        :\n        (\n        X\n        \n          /\n        \n        \u223c\n        )\n        \u2192\n        \n          (\n          \n            \u220f\n            \n              Y\n              \n                i\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(\\prod f_{i}\\right):(X/\\sim )\\to \\left(\\prod Y_{i}\\right)}\n  is injective.\nAs invariants are, by definition, equal on equivalent objects, equality of invariants is a necessary condition for equivalence; a complete set of invariants is a set such that equality of these is also sufficient for equivalence. In the context of a group action, this may be stated as: invariants are functions of coinvariants (equivalence classes, orbits), and a complete set of invariants characterizes the coinvariants (is a set of defining equations for the coinvariants).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a conjecture is a conclusion or a proposition that is proffered on a tentative basis without proof. Some conjectures, such as the Riemann hypothesis (still a conjecture) or Fermat's Last Theorem (a conjecture until proven in 1995 by Andrew Wiles), have shaped much of mathematical history as new areas of mathematics are developed in order to prove them.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, connectedness is used to refer to various properties meaning, in some sense, \"all one piece\". When a mathematical object has such a property, we say it is connected; otherwise it is disconnected. When a disconnected object can be split naturally into connected pieces, each piece is usually called a component (or connected component).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics and statistics, a quantitative variable may be continuous or discrete if they are typically obtained by measuring or counting, respectively. If it can take on two particular real values such that it can also take on all real values between them (even values that are arbitrarily close together), the variable is continuous in that interval. If it can take on a value such that there is a non-infinitesimal gap on each side of it containing no values that the variable can take on, then it is discrete around that value.   In some contexts a variable can be discrete in some ranges of the number line and continuous in others.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In computer programming, a control variable is a program variable that is used to regulate the flow of control of the program.\nIn definite iteration, control variables are variables which are successively assigned (or bound to) values from a predetermined sequence.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics and logic, a corollary ( KORR-\u0259-lerr-ee, UK:  korr-OL-\u0259r-ee) is a theorem of less importance which can be readily deduced from a previous, more notable statement. A corollary could, for instance, be a proposition which is incidentally proved while proving another proposition; it might also be used more casually to refer to something which naturally or incidentally accompanies something else (e.g., violence as a corollary of revolutionary social changes).\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A correlation coefficient is a numerical measure of some type of correlation, meaning a statistical relationship between two variables. The variables may be two columns of a given data set of observations, often called a sample, or two components of a multivariate random variable with a known distribution.Several types of correlation coefficient exist, each with their own definition and own range of usability and characteristics. They all assume values in the range from \u22121 to +1, where \u00b11 indicates the strongest possible agreement and 0 the strongest possible disagreement. As tools of analysis, correlation coefficients present certain problems, including the propensity of some types to be distorted by outliers and the possibility of incorrectly being used to infer a causal relationship between the variables (for more, see Correlation does not imply causation).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A counterexample is any exception to a generalization.  In logic a counterexample disproves the generalization, and does so rigorously in the fields of mathematics and philosophy. For example, the fact that \"John Smith is not a lazy student\" is a counterexample to the generalization \u201cstudents are lazy\u201d, and both a counterexample to, and disproof of, the universal quantification \u201call students are lazy.\u201dIn mathematics, the term \"counterexample\" is also used (by a slight abuse) to refer to examples which illustrate the necessity of the full hypothesis of a theorem. This is most often done by considering a case where a part of the hypothesis is not satisfied and the conclusion of the theorem does not hold.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, two objects, especially systems of axioms or semantics for them, are called cryptomorphic if they are equivalent but not obviously equivalent.  In particular, two definitions or axiomatizations of the same object are \"cryptomorphic\" if it is not obvious that they define the same object.  Examples of cryptomorphic definitions abound in matroid theory and others can be found elsewhere, e.g., in group theory the definition of a group by a single operation of division, which is not obviously equivalent to the usual three \"operations\" of identity element, inverse, and multiplication.\nThis word is a play on the many morphisms in mathematics, but \"cryptomorphism\" is only very distantly related to \"isomorphism\", \"homomorphism\", or \"morphisms\". The equivalence may in a cryptomorphism, if it is not actual identity, be informal, or may be formalized in terms of a bijection or equivalence of categories between the mathematical objects defined by the two cryptomorphic axiom systems.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Definitions can be classified into two large categories, intensional definitions (which try to give the sense of a term) and extensional definitions (which try to list the objects that a term describes). Another important category of definitions is the class of ostensive definitions, which convey the meaning of a term by pointing out examples. A term may have many different senses and multiple meanings, and thus require multiple definitions.In mathematics, a definition is used to give a precise meaning to a new term, by describing a condition which unambiguously qualifies what a mathematical term is and is not. Definitions and axioms form the basis on which all of modern mathematics is to be constructed.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Dependent and Independent variables are variables in mathematical modeling, statistical modeling and experimental sciences. Dependent variables receive this name because, in an experiment, their values are studied under the supposition or demand that they depend, by some law or rule (e.g., by a mathematical function), on the values of other variables. Independent variables, in turn, are not seen as depending on any other variable in the scope of the experiment in question. In this sense, some common independent variables are time, space, density, mass, fluid flow rate, and previous values of some observed value of interest (e.g. human population size) to predict future values (the dependent variable).Of the two, it is always the dependent variable whose variation is being studied, by altering inputs, also known as regressors in a statistical context. In an experiment, any variable that can be attributed a value without attributing a value to any other variable is called an independent variable.  Models and experiments test the effects that the independent variables have on the dependent variables. Sometimes, even if their influence is not of direct interest, independent variables may be included for other reasons, such as to account for their potential confounding effect.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, especially in topology, equidimensionality is a property of a space that the local dimension is the same everywhere.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the term essentially unique is used to describe a weaker form of uniqueness, where an object satisfying a property is \"unique\" only in the sense that all objects satisfying the property are equivalent to each other. The notion of essential uniqueness presupposes some form of \"sameness\", which is often formalized using an equivalence relation.\nA related notion is a universal property, where an object is not only essentially unique, but unique up to a unique isomorphism (meaning that it has trivial automorphism group). In general there can be more than one isomorphism between examples of an essentially unique object.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In the mathematical areas of number theory and analysis, an infinite sequence or a function is said to eventually have a certain property, if it doesn't have the said property across all its ordered instances, but will after some instances have passed. The use of the term \"eventually\" can be often rephrased as \"for sufficiently large numbers\", and can be also extended to the class of properties that apply to elements of any ordered set (such as sequences and subsets of \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          R\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} }\n  ).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Many branches of mathematics study objects of a given type and prove a classification theorem. A common theme is that the classification results in a number of series of objects and a finite number of exceptions \u2014 often with desirable properties \u2014 that do not fit into any series. These are known as exceptional objects. In many cases, these exceptional objects play a further and important role in the subject. Furthermore, the exceptional objects in one branch of mathematics often relate to the exceptional objects in others.A related phenomenon is exceptional isomorphism, when two series are in general different, but agree for some small values. For example, spin groups in low dimensions are isomorphic to other classical Lie groups.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Formulario Mathematico (Latino sine flexione: Formulation of mathematics) is a book by Giuseppe Peano which expresses fundamental theorems of mathematics in a symbolic language developed by Peano. The author was assisted by Giovanni Vailati, Mario Pieri, Alessandro Padoa, Giovanni Vacca, Vincenzo Vivanti, Gino Fano and Cesare Burali-Forti.\nThe Formulario was first published in 1894. The fifth and last edition was published in 1908. \nKennedy wrote \"the development and use of mathematical logic is the guiding motif of the project\". He also explains the variety of Peano's publication under the title:\n\nthe five editions of the Formulario [are not] editions in the usual sense of the word. Each is essentially a new elaboration, although much material is repeated. Moreover, the title and language varied: the first three, titled Formulaire de Math\u00e9matiques, and the fourth, titled, Formulaire Math\u00e9matique, were written in French, while Latino sine flexione, Peano's own invention, was used for the fifth edition, titled Formulario Mathematico. ... Ugo Cassina lists no less than twenty separately published items as being parts of the 'complete' Formulario!:\u200a45\u200aPeano believed that students needed only precise statement of their lessons. He wrote:\n\nEach professor will be able to adopt this Formulario as a textbook, for it ought to contain all theorems and all methods. His teaching will be reduced to showing how to read the formulas, and to indicating to the students the theorems that he wishes to explain in his course.:\u200a66\u200aSuch a dismissal of the oral tradition in lectures at universities was the undoing of Peano's own teaching career.:\u200achapter 14\u200a", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, and in particular, algebra, a generalized inverse (or, g-inverse) of an element x is an element y that has some properties of an inverse element but not necessarily all of them.  Generalized inverses can be defined in any mathematical structure that involves associative multiplication, that is, in a semigroup.  This article describes generalized inverses of a matrix \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n  .\nA matrix \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          A\n          \n            \n              g\n            \n          \n        \n        \u2208\n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            n\n            \u00d7\n            m\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A^{\\mathrm {g} }\\in \\mathbb {R} ^{n\\times m}}\n   is a generalized inverse of a matrix \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        \u2208\n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            m\n            \u00d7\n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A\\in \\mathbb {R} ^{m\\times n}}\n   if \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        \n          A\n          \n            \n              g\n            \n          \n        \n        A\n        =\n        A\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle AA^{\\mathrm {g} }A=A.}\n  The purpose of constructing a generalized inverse of a matrix is to obtain a matrix that can serve as an inverse in some sense for a wider class of matrices than invertible matrices.  A generalized inverse exists for an arbitrary matrix, and when a matrix has a regular inverse, this inverse is its unique generalized inverse.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Hand-waving (with various spellings) is a pejorative label for attempting to be seen as effective \u2013 in word, reasoning, or deed \u2013 while actually doing nothing effective or substantial.  It is most often applied to debate techniques that involve fallacies, misdirection and the glossing over of details. It is also used academically to indicate unproven claims and skipped steps in proofs (sometimes intentionally, as in lectures and instructional materials), with some specific meanings in particular fields, including literary criticism, speculative fiction, mathematics, logic, science and engineering. \nThe term can additionally be used in work situations, when attempts are made to display productivity or assure accountability without actually resulting in them. The term can also be used as a self-admission of, and suggestion to defer discussion about, an allegedly unimportant weakness in one's own argument's evidence, to forestall an opponent dwelling on it. In debate competition, certain cases of this form of hand-waving may be explicitly permitted.\nHand-waving is an idiomatic metaphor, derived in part from the use of excessive gesticulation, perceived as unproductive, distracting or nervous, in communication or other effort. The term also evokes the sleight-of-hand distraction techniques of stage magic, and suggests that the speaker or writer seems to believe that if they, figuratively speaking, simply wave their hands, no one will notice or speak up about the holes in the reasoning. This implication of misleading intent has been reinforced by the pop-culture influence of the Star Wars franchise, in which mystically powerful hand-waving is fictionally used for mind control, and some uses of the term in public discourse are explicit Star Wars references.Actual hand-waving motions may be used either by a speaker to indicate a desire to avoid going into details, or by critics to indicate that they believe the proponent of an argument is engaging in a verbal hand-wave inappropriately.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a number of concepts employ the word harmonic.  The similarity of this terminology to that of music is not accidental: the equations of motion of vibrating strings, drums and columns of air are given by formulas involving Laplacians; the solutions to which are given by eigenvalues corresponding to their modes of vibration.  Thus, the term \"harmonic\" is applied when one is considering functions with sinusoidal variations, or solutions of Laplace's equation and related concepts.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In logic and related fields such as mathematics and philosophy, \"if and only if\" (shortened as \"iff\") is a biconditional logical connective between statements, where either both statements are true or both are false.\nThe connective is biconditional (a statement of material equivalence), and can be likened to the standard material conditional (\"only if\", equal to \"if ... then\") combined with its reverse (\"if\"); hence the name. The result is that the truth of either one of the connected statements requires the truth of the other (i.e. either both statements are true, or both are false), though it is controversial whether the connective thus defined is properly rendered by the English \"if and only if\"\u2014with its pre-existing meaning. For example, P if and only if Q means that P is true whenever Q is true, and the only case in which P is true is if Q is also true, whereas in the case of P if Q, there could be other scenarios where P is true and Q is false.\nIn writing, phrases commonly used as alternatives to P \"if and only if\" Q include: Q is necessary and sufficient for P, for P it is necessary and sufficient that Q, P is equivalent (or materially equivalent) to Q (compare with material implication), P precisely if Q, P precisely (or exactly) when Q, P exactly in case Q, and P just in case Q. Some authors regard \"iff\" as unsuitable in formal writing; others consider it a \"borderline case\" and tolerate its use.In logical formulae, logical symbols, such as \n  \n    \n      \n        \u2194\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\leftrightarrow }\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \u21d4\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Leftrightarrow }\n  , are used instead of these phrases; see \u00a7 Notation below.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, an inequality is a relation which makes a non-equal comparison between two numbers or other mathematical expressions. It is used most often to compare two numbers on the number line by their size. There are several different notations used to represent different kinds of inequalities:\n\nThe notation a < b means that a is less than b.\nThe notation a > b means that a is greater than b.In either case, a is not equal to b. These relations are known as strict inequalities, meaning that a is strictly less than or strictly greater than b. Equivalence is excluded.\nIn contrast to strict inequalities, there are two types of inequality relations that are not strict:\n\nThe notation a \u2264 b or a \u2a7d b means that a is less than or equal to b (or, equivalently, at most b, or not greater than b).\nThe notation a \u2265 b or a \u2a7e b means that a is greater than or equal to b (or, equivalently, at least b, or not less than b).The relation not greater than can also be represented by a \u226f b, the symbol for \"greater than\" bisected by a slash, \"not\". The same is true for not less than and a \u226e b.\nThe notation a \u2260 b means that a is not equal to b; this inequation sometimes is considered a form of strict inequality. It does not say that one is greater than the other; it does not even require a and b to be member of an ordered set.\nIn engineering sciences, less formal use of the notation is to state that one quantity is \"much greater\" than another, normally by several orders of magnitude.  \n\nThe notation a \u226a b means that a is much less than b.\nThe notation a \u226b b means that a is much greater than b.This implies that the lesser value can be neglected with little effect on the accuracy of an approximation (such as the case of ultrarelativistic limit in physics).\nIn all of the cases above, any two symbols mirroring each other are symmetrical; a < b and b > a are equivalent, etc.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, an inequation is a statement that an inequality holds between two values. It is usually written in the form of a pair of expressions denoting the values in question, with a relational sign between them indicating the specific inequality relation. Some examples of inequations are:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        a\n        <\n        b\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle a<b}\n  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        +\n        y\n        +\n        z\n        \u2264\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x+y+z\\leq 1}\n  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        >\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n>1}\n  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        \u2260\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x\\neq 0}\n  In some cases, the term \"inequation\" can be considered synonymous to the term \"inequality\", while in other cases, an inequation is reserved only for statements whose inequality relation is \"not equal to\" (\u2260).\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, an invariant is a property of a mathematical object (or a class of mathematical objects) which remains unchanged after operations or transformations of a certain type are applied to the objects. The particular class of objects and type of transformations are usually indicated by the context in which the term is used. For example, the area of a triangle is an invariant with respect to isometries of the Euclidean plane. The phrases \"invariant under\" and \"invariant to\" a transformation are both used. More generally, an invariant with respect to an equivalence relation is a property that is constant on each equivalence class.Invariants are used in diverse areas of mathematics such as geometry, topology, algebra and discrete mathematics. Some important classes of transformations are defined by an invariant they leave unchanged. For example, conformal maps are defined as transformations of the plane that preserve angles. The discovery of invariants is an important step in the process of classifying mathematical objects.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a Jacobian, named for Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, may refer to:\n\nJacobian matrix and determinant\nJacobian elliptic functions\nJacobian variety\nIntermediate Jacobian", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In algebra, the terms left and right denote the order of a binary operation (usually, but not always called \"multiplication\") in non-commutative algebraic structures.\nA binary operation \u2217 is usually written in the infix form:\n\ns \u2217 tThe argument s is placed on the left side, and the argument t is on the right side. Even if the symbol of the operation is omitted, the order of s and t does matter (unless \u2217 is commutative).\nA two-sided property is fulfilled on both sides. A one-sided property is related to one (unspecified) of two sides.\nAlthough the terms are similar, left\u2013right distinction in algebraic parlance is not related either to left and right limits in calculus, or to left and right in geometry.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, informal logic and argument mapping, a lemma (plural lemmas or lemmata) is a generally minor, proven proposition which is used as a stepping stone to a larger result. For that reason, it is also known as a \"helping theorem\" or an \"auxiliary theorem\". In many cases, a lemma derives its importance from the theorem it aims to prove; however, a lemma can also turn out to be more important than originally thought. The word \"lemma\" derives from the Ancient Greek \u03bb\u1fc6\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1 (\"anything which is received\", such as a gift, profit, or a bribe).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In algebraic geometry, a lemniscate is any of several figure-eight or \u221e-shaped curves. The word comes from the Latin \"l\u0113mnisc\u0101tus\" meaning \"decorated with ribbons\", from the Greek \u03bb\u03b7\u03bc\u03bd\u03af\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 meaning \"ribbons\", or which alternatively may refer to the wool from which the ribbons were made.Curves that have been called a lemniscate include three quartic plane curves: the hippopede or lemniscate of Booth, the lemniscate of Bernoulli, and the lemniscate of Gerono. The study of lemniscates (and in particular the hippopede) dates to ancient Greek mathematics, but the term \"lemniscate\" for curves of this type comes from the work of Jacob Bernoulli in the late 17th century.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In science and engineering, a power level and a field level (also called a root-power level) are logarithmic measures of certain quantities referenced to a standard reference value of the same type.\n\nA power level is a logarithmic quantity used to measure power, power density or sometimes energy, with commonly used unit decibel (dB).\nA field level (or root-power level) is a logarithmic quantity used to measure quantities of which the square is typically proportional to power (for instance, the square of Voltage is proportional to Power by the inverse of the conductor's Resistance), etc., with commonly used units neper (Np) or decibel (dB).The type of level and choice of units indicate the scaling of the logarithm of the ratio between the quantity and its reference value, though a logarithm may be considered to be a dimensionless quantity. The reference values for each type of quantity are often specified by international standards.\nPower and field levels are used in electronic engineering, telecommunications, acoustics and related disciplines.  Power levels are used for signal power, noise power, sound power, sound exposure, etc.  Field levels are used for voltage, current, sound pressure.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A mathematical coincidence is said to occur when two expressions with no direct relationship  show a near-equality which has no apparent theoretical explanation.\nFor example, there is a near-equality close to the round number 1000 between powers of 2 and powers of 10:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          2\n          \n            10\n          \n        \n        =\n        1024\n        \u2248\n        1000\n        =\n        \n          10\n          \n            3\n          \n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 2^{10}=1024\\approx 1000=10^{3}.}\n  Some mathematical coincidences are used in engineering when one expression is taken as an approximation of another.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A mathematical model is a description of a  system using mathematical concepts and language. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical modeling. Mathematical models are used in the natural sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, chemistry) and engineering disciplines (such as computer science, electrical engineering), as well as in non-physical systems such as the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology, political science). The use of mathematical models to solve problems in business or military operations is a large part of the field of operations research.  Mathematical models are also used in music, linguistics, and \nphilosophy (for example, intensively in analytic philosophy).\nA model may help to explain a system and to study the effects of different components, and to make predictions about behavior.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A mathematical theory is a mathematical model of a branch of mathematics that is based on a set of axioms. It can also simultaneously be a body of knowledge (e.g., based on known axioms and definitions), and so in this sense can refer to an area of mathematical research within the established framework.Explanatory depth is one of the most significant theoretical virtues in mathematics. For example, set theory has the ability to systematize and explain number theory and geometry/analysis. Despite the widely logical necessity (and self-evidence) of arithmetic truths such as 1<3, 2+2=4, 6-1=5, and so on, a theory that just postulates an infinite blizzard of such truths would be inadequate. Rather an adequate theory is one in which such truths are derived from explanatorily prior axioms, such as the Peano Axioms or set theoretic axioms, which lie at the foundation of ZFC axiomatic set theory.\nThe singular accomplishment of axiomatic set theory is its ability to give a foundation for the derivation of the entirety of classical mathematics from a handful of axioms. The reason set theory is so prized is because of its explanatory depth. So a mathematical theory which just postulates an infinity of arithmetic truths without explanatory depth would not be a serious competitor to Peano arithmetic or Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In logic, a metatheorem is a statement about a formal system proven in a metalanguage. Unlike theorems proved within a given formal system, a metatheorem is proved within a metatheory, and may reference concepts that are present in the metatheory but not the object theory.A formal system is determined by a formal language and a deductive system (axioms and rules of inference). The formal system can be used to prove particular sentences of the formal language with that system. Metatheorems, however, are proved externally to the system in question, in its metatheory. Common metatheories used in logic are set theory (especially in model theory) and primitive recursive arithmetic (especially in proof theory). Rather than demonstrating particular sentences to be provable, metatheorems may show that each of a broad class of sentences can be proved, or show that certain sentences cannot be proved.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the term modulo (\"with respect to a modulus of\", the Latin ablative of modulus which itself means \"a small measure\") is often used to assert that two distinct mathematical objects can be regarded as equivalent\u2014if their difference is accounted for by an additional factor. It was initially introduced into mathematics in the context of modular arithmetic by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801. Since then, the term has gained many meanings\u2014some exact and some imprecise (such as equating \"modulo\" with \"except for\"). For the most part, the term often occurs in statements of the form:\n\nA is the same as B modulo Cwhich means\n\nA and B are the same\u2014except for differences accounted for or explained by C.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, an N-topological space is a set equipped with N arbitrary topologies. If \u03c41, \u03c42, ..., \u03c4N are N topologies defined on a nonempty set X, then the N-topological space is denoted by (X,\u03c41,\u03c42,...,\u03c4N).\nFor N = 1, the structure is simply a topological space.\nFor N = 2, the structure becomes a bitopological space introduced by J. C. Kelly.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In logic and mathematics, necessity and sufficiency are terms used to describe a conditional or implicational relationship between two statements. For example, in the conditional statement: \"If P then Q\", Q is necessary for P, because the truth of Q is guaranteed by the truth of P (equivalently, it is impossible to have P without Q). Similarly, P is sufficient for Q, because P being true always implies that Q is true, but P not being true does not always imply that Q is not true.In general, a necessary condition is one that must be present in order for another condition to occur, while a sufficient condition is one that produces the said condition. The assertion that a statement is a \"necessary and sufficient\" condition of another means that the former statement is true if and only if the latter is true. That is, the two statements must be either simultaneously true, or simultaneously false.In ordinary English (also natural language) \"necessary\" and \"sufficient\" indicate relations between conditions or states of affairs, not statements. For example, being a male is a necessary condition for being a brother, but it is not sufficient\u2014while being a male sibling is a necessary and sufficient condition for being a brother.\nAny conditional statement consists of at least one sufficient condition and at least one necessary condition.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the word null (from German: null meaning \"zero\", which is from Latin: nullus meaning \"none\") is often associated with the concept of zero or the concept of nothing. It is used in varying context from \"having zero members in a set\" (e.g., null set) to \"having a value of zero\" (e.g., null vector).In a vector space, the null vector is the neutral element of vector addition; depending on the context, a null vector may also be a vector mapped to some null by a function under consideration (such as a quadratic form coming with the vector space, see null vector, a linear mapping given as matrix product or dot product, a seminorm in a Minkowski space, etc.). In set theory, the empty set, that is, the set with zero elements, denoted \"{}\" or \"\u2205\", may also be called null set. In measure theory, a null set is a (possibly nonempty) set with zero measure.\nA null space of a mapping is the part of the domain that is mapped into the null element of the image (the inverse image of the null element). For example, in linear algebra, the null space of a linear mapping, also known as kernel, is the set of vectors which map to the null vector under that mapping.\nIn statistics, a null hypothesis is a proposition that no effect or relationship exists between populations and phenomena. It is the hypothesis which is presumed true\u2014unless statistical evidence indicates otherwise.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In abstract algebra, an orthomorphism is a certain kind of mapping from a group into itself.  Let G be a group, and let \u03b8 be a permutation of G.  Then \u03b8 is an orthomorphism of G if the mapping f defined by f(x) = x\u22121 \u03b8(x) is also a permutation of G.  A permutation \u03c6 of G is a complete mapping if the mapping g defined by g(x) = x\u03c6(x) is also a permutation of G. Orthomorphisms and complete mappings are closely related.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A parameter (from Ancient Greek  \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac (par\u00e1) 'beside, subsidiary', and  \u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd (m\u00e9tron) 'measure'), generally, is any characteristic that can help in defining or classifying a particular system (meaning an event, project, object, situation, etc.). That is, a parameter is an element of a system that is useful, or critical, when identifying the system, or when evaluating its performance, status, condition, etc.\nParameter has more specific meanings within various disciplines, including mathematics, computer programming, engineering, statistics, logic, linguistics, and electronic musical composition.\nIn addition to its technical uses, there are also extended uses, especially in non-scientific contexts, where it is used to mean defining characteristics or boundaries, as in the phrases 'test parameters' or 'game play parameters'.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The parameter space is the space of possible parameter values that define a particular mathematical model, often a subset of finite-dimensional Euclidean space. Often the parameters are inputs of a function, in which case the technical term for the parameter space is domain of a function. The ranges of values of the parameters may form the axes of a plot, and particular outcomes of the model may be plotted against these axes to illustrate how different regions of the parameter space produce different types of behavior in the model.\nIn statistics, parameter spaces are particularly useful for describing parametric families of probability distributions. They also form the background for parameter estimation. In the case of extremum estimators for parametric models, a certain objective function is maximized or minimized over the parameter space. Theorems of existence and consistency of such estimators require some assumptions about the topology of the parameter space. For instance, compactness of the parameter space, together with continuity of the objective function, suffices for the existence of an extremum estimator.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics and its applications, a parametric family or a parameterized family is a family of objects (a set of related objects) whose differences depend only on the chosen values for a set of parameters.Common examples are parametrized (families of) functions, probability  distributions, curves, shapes, etc.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In science and engineering, the parts-per notation is a set of pseudo-units to describe small values of miscellaneous dimensionless quantities, e.g. mole fraction or mass fraction. Since these fractions are quantity-per-quantity measures, they are pure numbers with no associated units of measurement. Commonly used are parts-per-million (ppm, 10\u22126), parts-per-billion (ppb, 10\u22129), parts-per-trillion (ppt, 10\u221212) and parts-per-quadrillion (ppq, 10\u221215). This notation is not part of the International System of Units (SI) system and its meaning is ambiguous.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a pathological object is one which possesses deviant, irregular, or counterintuitive property, in such a way that distinguishes it from what is conceived as a typical object in the same category. The opposite of pathological is well-behaved.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A percentage point or percent point is the unit for the arithmetic difference of two percentages. For example, moving up from 40 percent to 44 percent is an increase of 4 percentage points, but a 10-percent increase in the quantity being measured. In literature, the unit is usually either written out, or abbreviated as pp or p.p. to avoid ambiguity. After the first occurrence, some writers abbreviate by using just \"point\" or \"points\".", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the qualifier pointwise is used to indicate that a certain property is defined by considering each value \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x)}\n   of some function \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f.}\n   An important class of pointwise concepts are the pointwise operations, that is, operations defined on functions by applying the operations to function values separately for each point in the domain of definition. Important relations can also be defined pointwise.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A porism is a mathematical proposition or corollary. It has been used to refer to a direct consequence of a proof, analogous to how a corollary refers to a direct consequence of a theorem. In modern usage, it is a relationship that holds for an infinite range of values but only if a certain condition is assumed, such as Steiner's porism. The term originates from three books of Euclid that have been lost. A proposition may not have been proven, so a porism may not be a theorem or true.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A power quantity is a power or a quantity directly proportional to power, e.g., energy density, acoustic intensity, and luminous intensity.  Energy quantities may also be labelled as power quantities in this context.A root-power quantity is a quantity such as voltage, current, sound pressure, electric field strength, speed, or charge density, the square of which, in linear systems, is proportional to power.  The term root-power quantity refers to the square root that relates these quantities to power. The term was introduced in ISO 80000-1 \u00a7 Annex C; it replaces and deprecates the term field quantity.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a projection is a mapping of a set (or other mathematical structure) into  a subset (or sub-structure), which is equal to its square for mapping composition, i.e., which is idempotent. The restriction to a subspace of a projection is also called a projection, even if the idempotence property is lost.\nAn everyday example of a projection is the casting of shadows onto a plane (sheet of paper): the projection of a point is its shadow on the sheet of paper, and the projection (shadow) of a point on the sheet of paper is that point itself (idempotency). The shadow of a three-dimensional sphere is a closed disk.  Originally, the notion of projection was introduced in Euclidean geometry to denote the projection of the three-dimensional Euclidean space onto a plane in it, like the shadow example. The two main projections of this kind are: \n\nThe projection from a point onto a plane or central projection: If C is a point, called the center of projection, then the projection of a point P different from C onto a plane that does not contain C is the intersection of the line CP with the plane. The points P such that the line CP is parallel to the plane does not have any image by the projection, but one often says that they project to a point at infinity of the plane (see Projective geometry for a formalization of this terminology). The projection of the point C itself is not defined.\nThe projection parallel to a direction D, onto a plane or parallel projection: The image of a point P is the intersection with the plane of the line parallel to D passing through P. See Affine space \u00a7 Projection for an accurate definition, generalized to any dimension.The concept of projection in mathematics is a very old one, and most likely has its roots in the phenomenon of the shadows cast by real-world objects on the ground. This rudimentary idea was refined and abstracted, first in a geometric context and later in other branches of mathematics. Over time different versions of the concept developed, but today, in a sufficiently abstract setting, we can unify these variations.In cartography, a map projection is a map of a part of the surface of the Earth onto a plane, which, in some cases, but not always, is the restriction of a projection in the above meaning. The 3D projections are also at the basis of the theory of perspective.The need for unifying the two kinds of projections and of defining the image by a central projection of any point different of the center of projection are at the origin of projective geometry. However, a projective transformation is a bijection of a projective space, a property not shared with the projections of this article.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, more specifically in category theory, a universal property is a  property that characterizes up to an isomorphism the result of some constructions. Thus, universal properties can be used for defining some objects independently from the method chosen for constructing them. For example, the definitions of the integers from the natural numbers, of the rational numbers from the integers, of the real numbers from the rational numbers, and of polynomial rings from the field of their coefficients can all be done in terms of universal properties. In particular, the concept of universal property allows a simple proof that all constructions of real numbers are equivalent: it suffices to prove that they satisfy the same universal property. \nTechnically, an universal property is defined in terms of categories and functors by mean of a universal morphism (see \u00a7 Formal definition, below). Universal morphisms can also be thought more abstractly as initial or terminal objects of a comma category (see \u00a7 Connection with comma categories, below). \nUniversal properties occur almost everywhere in mathematics, and the use of the concept allows the use of general properties of universal properties for easily proving some properties that would need boring verifications otherwise. For example, given a commutative ring R, the field of fractions of the quotient ring of R by a prime ideal p can be identified with the residue field of the localization of R at p; that is \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          R\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n        \n          /\n        \n        p\n        \n          R\n          \n            p\n          \n        \n        \u2245\n        Frac\n        \u2061\n        (\n        R\n        \n          /\n        \n        p\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle R_{p}/pR_{p}\\cong \\operatorname {Frac} (R/p)}\n   (all these constructions can be defined by universal properties).\nOther objects  that can be defined by universals properties include: all free objects, direct products and direct sums, free groups, free lattices, Grothendieck group, completion of a metric space, completion of a ring, Dedekind\u2013MacNeille completion, product topologies, Stone\u2013\u010cech compactification, tensor products, inverse limit and direct limit, kernels and cokernels, quotient groups, quotient vector spaces, and other quotient spaces.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a property is any characteristic that applies to a given set. Rigorously, a property p defined for all elements of a set X is usually defined as a function p: X \u2192  {true, false}, that is true whenever the property holds; or equivalently, as the subset of X for which p holds; i.e. the set {x | p(x) = true}; p is its indicator function. However, it may be objected that the rigorous definition defines merely the extension of a property, and says nothing about what causes the property to hold for exactly those values.\nExamples of properties include: is Even number, is Odd number, the commutative property of real and complex numbers and the distributive property.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, two sequences of numbers, often experimental data, are proportional or directly proportional if their corresponding elements have a constant ratio, which is called the coefficient of proportionality or proportionality constant. Two sequences are inversely proportional if corresponding elements have a constant product, also called the coefficient of proportionality.\nThis definition is commonly extended to related varying quantities, which are often called variables. This meaning of variable is not the common meaning of the term in mathematics (see variable (mathematics)); these two different concepts share the same name for historical reasons. \nTwo functions \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x)}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        g\n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g(x)}\n   are proportional if their ratio \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              f\n              (\n              x\n              )\n            \n            \n              g\n              (\n              x\n              )\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle {\\frac {f(x)}{g(x)}}}\n   is a constant function.\nIf several pairs of variables share the same direct proportionality constant, the equation expressing the equality of these ratios is called a proportion, e.g., a/b = x/y = \u22ef = k (for details see Ratio).\nProportionality is closely related to linearity.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Qualitative properties are properties that are observed and can generally not be measured with a numerical result. They are contrasted to quantitative properties which have numerical characteristics.\nSome engineering and scientific properties are qualitative. A test method can result in qualitative data about something. This can be a categorical result or a binary classification (e.g., pass/fail, go/no go, conform/non-conform). It can sometimes be an engineering judgement.\nThe data that all share a qualitative property form a nominal category. A variable which codes for the presence or absence of such a property is called a binary categorical variable, or equivalently a dummy variable.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, reduction refers to the rewriting of an expression into a simpler form. For example, the process of rewriting a fraction into one with the smallest whole-number denominator possible (while keeping the numerator a whole number) is called \"reducing a fraction\". Rewriting a radical (or \"root\") expression with the smallest possible whole number under the radical symbol is called \"reducing a radical\". Minimizing the number of radicals that appear underneath other radicals in an expression is called denesting radicals.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a rigid collection C of mathematical objects (for instance sets or functions) is one in which every c \u2208 C is uniquely determined by less information about c than one would expect.\nThe above statement does not define a mathematical property.  Instead, it describes in what sense the adjective rigid is typically used in mathematics, by mathematicians.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In logic, the scope of a quantifier or a quantification is the range in the formula where the quantifier \"engages in\". It is put right after the quantifier, often in parentheses. Some authors describe this as including the variable put right after the forall or exists symbol. In the formula \u2200xP, for example, P (or xP) is the scope of the quantifier \u2200x (or \u2200).\nA variable in the formula is free, if and only if it does not occur in the scope of any quantifier for that variable. A term is free for a variable in the formula (i.e. free to substitute that variable that occurs free), if and only if that variable does not occur free in the scope of any quantifier for any variable in the term.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, LHS is informal shorthand for the left-hand side of an equation.  Similarly, RHS is the right-hand side. The two sides have the same value, expressed differently, since equality is symmetric.More generally, these terms may apply to an inequation or inequality; the right-hand side is everything on the right side of a test operator in an expression, with LHS defined similarly.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the sign of a real number is its property of being either positive, negative, or zero. Depending on local conventions, zero may be considered as being neither positive nor negative (having no sign or a unique third sign), or it may be considered both positive and negative (having both signs). Whenever not specifically mentioned, this article adheres to the first convention.\nIn some contexts, it makes sense to consider a signed zero (such as floating-point representations of real numbers within computers). In mathematics and physics, the phrase \"change of sign\" is associated with the generation of the additive inverse (negation, or multiplication by \u22121) of any object that allows for this construction, and is not restricted to real numbers. It applies among other objects to vectors, matrices, and complex numbers, which are not prescribed to be only either positive, negative, or zero. The word \"sign\" is also often used to indicate other binary aspects of mathematical objects that resemble positivity and negativity, such as odd and even (sign of a permutation), sense of orientation or rotation (cw/ccw), one sided limits, and other concepts described in \u00a7 Other meanings below.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a space is a set (sometimes called a universe) with some added structure.\nWhile modern mathematics uses many types of spaces, such as Euclidean spaces, linear spaces, topological spaces, Hilbert spaces, or probability spaces, it does not define the notion of \"space\" itself.A space consists of selected mathematical objects that are treated as points, and selected relationships between these points. \nThe nature of the points can vary widely: for example, the points can be elements of a set, functions on another space, or subspaces of another space. It is the relationships that define the nature of the space. More precisely, isomorphic spaces are considered identical, where an isomorphism between two spaces is a one-to-one correspondence between their points that preserves the relationships. For example, the relationships between the points of a three-dimensional Euclidean space are uniquely determined by Euclid's axioms, and all three-dimensional Euclidean spaces are considered identical.\nTopological notions such as continuity have natural definitions in every Euclidean space. \nHowever, topology does not distinguish straight lines from curved lines, and the relation between Euclidean and topological spaces is thus \"forgetful\". Relations of this kind are  treated in more detail in the Section \"Types of spaces\". \nIt is not always clear whether a given mathematical object should be considered as a geometric \"space\", or an  algebraic \"structure\". A general definition of \"structure\", proposed by Bourbaki, embraces all common types of spaces, provides a general definition of isomorphism, and justifies the transfer of properties between isomorphic structures.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Stochastic (from Greek  \u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 (st\u00f3khos) 'aim, guess') refers to the property of being well described by a random probability distribution. Although stochasticity and randomness are distinct in that the former refers to a modeling approach and the latter refers to phenomena themselves, these two terms are often used synonymously. Furthermore, in probability theory, the formal concept of a stochastic process is also referred to as a random process.Stochasticity is used in many different fields, including the natural sciences such as biology, chemistry, ecology,  neuroscience, and physics, as well as technology and engineering fields such as image processing, signal processing, information theory, computer science, cryptography, and telecommunications. It is also used in finance, due to seemingly random changes in financial markets as well as in medicine, linguistics,  music, media, colour theory,  botany, manufacturing, and geomorphology. Stochastic modeling is also used in social science.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematical writing, the term strict refers to the property of excluding equality and equivalence and often occurs in the context of inequality and monotonic functions. It is often attached to a technical term to indicate that the exclusive meaning of the term is to be understood. The opposite is non-strict, which is often understood to be the case but can be put explicitly for clarity. In some contexts, the word \"proper\" can also be used as a mathematical synonym for \"strict\".", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "T.C. Mits (acronym for \"the celebrated man in the street\"), is a term coined by Lillian Rosanoff Lieber to refer to an everyman. In Lieber's works, T.C. Mits was a character who made scientific topics more approachable to the public audience.\nThe phrase has enjoyed sparse use by authors in fields such as molecular biology, secondary education, and general semantics.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A tetradic number, also known as a four-way number, is a number that remains the same when flipped back to front, flipped front to back, mirrored up-down, or flipped up-down. The only numbers that remain the same which turned up-side-down or mirrored are 0, 1, and 8, so a tetradic number is a palindromic number containing only 0, 1, and 8 as digits. (This is dependent on the use of a handwriting style or font in which these digits are symmetrical, as well on the use of Arabic numerals in the first place.) The first few tetradic numbers are 1, 8, 11, 88, 101, 111, 181, 808, 818, ... (OEIS A006072).Tetradic numbers are also known as four-way numbers due to the fact that they have four-way symmetry and can flipped back to front, flipped front to back, mirrored up-down, or flipped up-down and always stay the same. The four-way symmetry explains the name, due to tetra- being the Greek prefix for four. Tetradic numbers are both strobogrammatic and palindromic.A larger tetradic number can always be generated by adding another tetradic number to each end, retaining the symmetry.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In the modeling of physics, a toy model is a deliberately simplistic model with many details removed so that it can be used to explain a mechanism concisely. It is also useful in a description of the fuller model.\n\nIn \"toy\" mathematical models, this is usually done by reducing or extending the number of dimensions or reducing the number of fields/variables or restricting them to a particular symmetric form.\nIn Macroeconomics modelling, are a class of models, some may be only loosely based on theory, others more explicitly so. But they have the same purpose. They allow for a quick first pass at some question, and present the essence of the answer from a more complicated model or from a class of models. For the researcher, they may come before writing a more elaborate model, or after, once the elaborate model has been worked out. Blanchard list of examples includes IS\u2013LM model, the Mundell\u2013Fleming model, the RBC model, and the New Keynesian model.\nIn \"toy\" physical descriptions, an analogous example of an everyday mechanism is often used for illustration.The phrase \"tinker-toy model\" is also used, in reference to the popular Tinkertoys used for children's constructivist learning.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a toy theorem is a simplified instance (special case) of a more general theorem, which can be useful in providing a handy representation of the general theorem, or a framework for proving the general theorem. One way of obtaining a toy theorem is by introducing some simplifying assumptions in a theorem.In many cases, a toy theorem is used to illustrate the claim of a theorem, while in other cases, studying the proofs of a toy theorem (derived from a non-trivial theorem) can provide insight that would be hard to obtain otherwise. \nToy theorems can also have educational value as well. For example, after presenting a theorem (with, say, a highly non-trivial proof), one can sometimes give some assurance that the theorem really holds, by proving a toy version of the theorem.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, particularly in universal algebra and category theory, transport of structure refers to the process whereby a mathematical object acquires a new structure and its canonical definitions, as a result of being isomorphic to (or otherwise identified with) another object with a pre-existing structure. Definitions by transport of structure are regarded as canonical.\nSince mathematical structures are often defined in reference to an underlying space, many examples of transport of structure involve spaces and mappings between them.  For example, if \n  \n    \n      \n        V\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle V}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        W\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle W}\n   are vector spaces with \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        \u22c5\n        ,\n        \u22c5\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (\\cdot ,\\cdot )}\n   being an inner product on \n  \n    \n      \n        W\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle W}\n  , such that there is an isomorphism \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03d5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi }\n   from \n  \n    \n      \n        V\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle V}\n   to \n  \n    \n      \n        W\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle W}\n  , then one can define an inner product \n  \n    \n      \n        [\n        \u22c5\n        ,\n        \u22c5\n        ]\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle [\\cdot ,\\cdot ]}\n   on \n  \n    \n      \n        V\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle V}\n   by the following rule:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        [\n        \n          v\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \n          v\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        ]\n        =\n        (\n        \u03d5\n        (\n        \n          v\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        )\n        ,\n        \u03d5\n        (\n        \n          v\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        )\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle [v_{1},v_{2}]=(\\phi (v_{1}),\\phi (v_{2}))}\n  Although the equation makes sense even when \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03d5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi }\n   is not an isomorphism, it only defines an inner product on \n  \n    \n      \n        V\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle V}\n   when \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03d5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi }\n   is, since otherwise it will cause \n  \n    \n      \n        [\n        \u22c5\n        ,\n        \u22c5\n        ]\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle [\\cdot ,\\cdot ]}\n   to be degenerate.  The idea is that \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03d5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi }\n   allows one to consider \n  \n    \n      \n        V\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle V}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        W\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle W}\n   as \"the same\" vector space, and by following this analogy, then one can transport an inner product from one space to the other.\nA more elaborated example comes from differential topology, in which the notion of smooth manifold is involved: if \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n   is such a manifold, and if \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   is any topological space which is homeomorphic to \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n  , then one can consider \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   as a smooth manifold as well. That is, given a homeomorphism \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03d5\n        :\n        X\n        \u2192\n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi \\colon X\\to M}\n  , one can define coordinate charts on \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   by \"pulling back\" coordinate charts on \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n   through \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03d5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi }\n  .  Recall that a coordinate chart on \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n   is an open set \n  \n    \n      \n        U\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle U}\n   together with an injective map\n\n  \n    \n      \n        c\n        :\n        U\n        \u2192\n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c\\colon U\\to \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n  for some natural number \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n  ; to get such a chart on \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n  , one uses the following rules:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          U\n          \u2032\n        \n        =\n        \n          \u03d5\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        (\n        U\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle U'=\\phi ^{-1}(U)}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          c\n          \u2032\n        \n        =\n        c\n        \u2218\n        \u03d5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c'=c\\circ \\phi }\n  .Furthermore, it is required that the charts cover \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n   (the fact that the transported charts cover \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   follows immediately from the fact that \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03d5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi }\n   is a bijection). Since \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n   is a smooth manifold, if U and V, with their maps \n  \n    \n      \n        c\n        :\n        U\n        \u2192\n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c\\colon U\\to \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        d\n        :\n        V\n        \u2192\n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d\\colon V\\to \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n  , are two charts on \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n  , then the composition, the \"transition map\"\n\n  \n    \n      \n        d\n        \u2218\n        \n          c\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        :\n        c\n        (\n        U\n        \u2229\n        V\n        )\n        \u2192\n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d\\circ c^{-1}\\colon c(U\\cap V)\\to \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n   (a self-map of \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n  )is smooth. To verify this for the transported charts on \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n  , notice that\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03d5\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        (\n        U\n        )\n        \u2229\n        \n          \u03d5\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        (\n        V\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \u03d5\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        (\n        U\n        \u2229\n        V\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi ^{-1}(U)\\cap \\phi ^{-1}(V)=\\phi ^{-1}(U\\cap V)}\n  ,and therefore\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          c\n          \u2032\n        \n        (\n        \n          U\n          \u2032\n        \n        \u2229\n        \n          V\n          \u2032\n        \n        )\n        =\n        (\n        c\n        \u2218\n        \u03d5\n        )\n        (\n        \n          \u03d5\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        (\n        U\n        \u2229\n        V\n        )\n        )\n        =\n        c\n        (\n        U\n        \u2229\n        V\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c'(U'\\cap V')=(c\\circ \\phi )(\\phi ^{-1}(U\\cap V))=c(U\\cap V)}\n  , and\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          d\n          \u2032\n        \n        \u2218\n        (\n        \n          c\n          \u2032\n        \n        \n          )\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        =\n        (\n        d\n        \u2218\n        \u03d5\n        )\n        \u2218\n        (\n        c\n        \u2218\n        \u03d5\n        \n          )\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        =\n        d\n        \u2218\n        (\n        \u03d5\n        \u2218\n        \n          \u03d5\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        )\n        \u2218\n        \n          c\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        =\n        d\n        \u2218\n        \n          c\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d'\\circ (c')^{-1}=(d\\circ \\phi )\\circ (c\\circ \\phi )^{-1}=d\\circ (\\phi \\circ \\phi ^{-1})\\circ c^{-1}=d\\circ c^{-1}}\n  .Thus the transition map for \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          U\n          \u2032\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle U'}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          V\n          \u2032\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle V'}\n   is the same as that for \n  \n    \n      \n        U\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle U}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        V\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle V}\n  , hence smooth.  That is, \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   is a smooth manifold via transport of structure. This is a special case of transport of structures in general.The second example also illustrates why \"transport of structure\" is not always desirable. Namely, one can take \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n   to be the plane, and \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   to be an infinite one-sided cone.  By \"flattening\" the cone, a homeomorphism of \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n   can be obtained, and therefore the structure of a smooth manifold on \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n  , but the cone is not \"naturally\" a smooth manifold. That is, one can consider \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   as a subspace of 3-space, in which context it is not smooth at the cone point.  \nA more surprising example is that of exotic spheres, discovered by Milnor, which states that there are exactly 28 smooth manifolds which are homeomorphic (but by definition not diffeomorphic) to \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          S\n          \n            7\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle S^{7}}\n  , the 7-dimensional sphere in 8-space. Thus, transport of structure is most productive when there exists a canonical isomorphism between the two objects.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the adjective trivial is often used to refer to a claim or a case which can be readily obtained from context, or an object which possesses a simple structure (e.g., groups, topological spaces). The noun triviality usually refers to a simple technical aspect of some proof or definition. The origin of the term in mathematical language comes from the medieval trivium curriculum, which distinguishes from the more difficult quadrivium curriculum. The opposite of trivial is nontrivial, which is commonly used to indicate that an example or a solution is not simple, or that a statement or a theorem is not easy to prove.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the term undefined is often used to refer to an expression which is not assigned an interpretation or a value (such as an indeterminate form, which has the propensity of assuming different values). The term can take on several different meanings depending on the context. For example:\n\nIn various branches of mathematics, certain concepts are introduced as primitive notions (e.g., the terms \"point\", \"line\" and \"angle\" in geometry). As these terms are not defined in terms of other concepts, they may be referred to as \"undefined terms\".\nA function is said to be \"undefined\" at points outside of its domain \u2013 for example, the real-valued function \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \n            x\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x)={\\sqrt {x}}}\n   is undefined for negative \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x}\n   (i.e., it assigns no value to negative arguments).\nIn algebra, some arithmetic operations may not assign a meaning to certain values of its operands (e.g., division by zero). In which case, the expressions involving such operands are termed \"undefined\".", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics and logic, the term \"uniqueness\" refers to the property of being the one and only object satisfying a certain condition. This sort of quantification is known as uniqueness quantification or unique existential quantification, and is often denoted with the symbols \"\u2203!\" or \"\u2203=1\". For example, the formal statement\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \u2203\n        !\n        n\n        \u2208\n        \n          N\n        \n        \n        (\n        n\n        \u2212\n        2\n        =\n        4\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\exists !n\\in \\mathbb {N} \\,(n-2=4)}\n  may be read as \"there is exactly one natural number \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n   such that \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        \u2212\n        2\n        =\n        4\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n-2=4}\n  \".", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a univariate object is an expression, equation, function or polynomial involving only one variable. Objects involving more than one variable are multivariate. In some cases the distinction between the univariate and multivariate cases is fundamental; for example, the fundamental theorem of algebra and Euclid's algorithm for polynomials are fundamental properties of univariate polynomials that cannot be generalized to multivariate polynomials.\nIn statistics, a univariate distribution characterizes one variable, although it can be applied in other ways as well. For example, univariate data are composed of a single scalar component. In time series analysis, the whole time series is the \"variable\": a univariate time series is the series of values over time of a single quantity. Correspondingly, a \"multivariate time series\" characterizes the changing values over time of several quantities. In some cases, the terminology is ambiguous, since the values within a univariate time series may be treated using certain types of multivariate statistical analyses and may be represented using multivariate distributions.\nIn addition to the question of scaling, a criterion (variable) in univariate statistics can be described by two important measures (also key figures or parameters): Location & Variation.\nMeasures of Location Scales (e.g. mode, median, arithmetic mean) describe in which area the data is arranged centrally.\nMeasures of Variation (e.g. span, interquartile distance, standard deviation) describe how similar or different the data are scattered.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Univariate is a term commonly used in statistics to describe a type of data which consists of observations on only a single characteristic or attribute. A simple example of univariate data would be the salaries of workers in industry. Like all the other data, univariate data can be visualized using graphs, images or other analysis tools after the data is measured, collected, reported, and analyzed.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a universal space is a certain metric space that contains all metric spaces whose dimension is bounded by some fixed constant. A similar definition exists in topological dynamics.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Two mathematical objects a and b are called equal up to an equivalence relation R \nif a and b are related by R, that is,\nif aRb holds, that is,\nif the equivalence classes of a and b with respect to R are equal.This figure of speech is mostly used in connection with expressions derived from equality, such as uniqueness or count.\nFor example, x is unique up to R means that all objects x under consideration are in the same equivalence class with respect to the relation R.\nMoreover, the equivalence relation R is often designated rather implicitly by a generating condition or transformation.\nFor example, the statement \"an integer's prime factorization is unique up to ordering\" is a concise way to say that any two lists of prime factors of a given integer are equivalent with respect to the relation R that relates two lists if one can be obtained by reordering (permutation) from the other. As another example, the statement \"the solution to an indefinite integral is sin(x), up to addition by a constant\" tacitly employs the equivalence relation R between functions, defined by fRg if f\u2212g is a constant function, and means that the solution and the function sin(x) are equal up to this R.\nIn the picture, \"there are 4 partitions up to rotation\" means that the set P has 4 equivalence classes with respect to R defined by aRb if b can be obtained from a by rotation; one representative from each class is shown in the bottom left picture part.\nEquivalence relations are often used to disregard possible differences of objects, so \"up to R\" can be understood informally as \"ignoring the same subtleties as R does\".\nIn the factorization example, \"up to ordering\" means \"ignoring the particular ordering\".\nFurther examples include \"up to isomorphism\", \"up to permutations\", and \"up to rotations\", which are described in the Examples section.\nIn informal contexts, mathematicians often use the word modulo (or simply \"mod\") for similar purposes, as in \"modulo isomorphism\".", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, particularly in order theory, an upper bound or majorant of a subset S of some preordered set (K, \u2264) is an element of K that is greater than or equal to every element of S.Dually, a lower bound or minorant of S is defined to be an element of K that is less than or equal to every element of S. \nA set with an upper (respectively, lower) bound is said to be bounded from above or majorized (respectively bounded from below or minorized) by that bound. \nThe terms bounded above (bounded below) are also used in the mathematical literature for sets that have upper (respectively lower) bounds.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a well-defined expression or unambiguous expression is an expression whose definition assigns it a unique interpretation or value. Otherwise, the expression is said to be not well defined, ill defined or ambiguous. A function is well defined if it gives the same result when the representation of the input is changed without changing the value of the input. For instance, if f takes real numbers as input, and if f(0.5) does not equal f(1/2) then f is not well defined (and thus not a function). The term well defined can also be used to indicate that a logical expression is unambiguous or uncontradictory.\nA function that is not well defined is not the same as a function that is undefined. For example, if f(x) = 1/x, then the fact that f(0) is undefined does not mean that the f is not well defined \u2013 but that 0 is simply not in the domain of f.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Without loss of generality (often abbreviated to WOLOG, WLOG or w.l.o.g.; less commonly stated as without any loss of generality or with no loss of generality) is a frequently used expression in mathematics. The term is used to indicate the assumption that follows is chosen arbitrarily, narrowing the premise to a particular case, but does not affect the validity of the proof in general. The other cases are sufficiently similar to the one presented that proving them follows by essentially the same logic. As a result, once a proof is given for the particular case, it is trivial to adapt it to prove the conclusion in all other cases.\nIn many scenarios, the use of \"without loss of generality\" is made possible by the presence of symmetry. For example, if some property P(x,y) of real numbers is known to be symmetric in x and y, namely that P(x,y) is equivalent to P(y,x), then in proving that P(x,y) holds for every x and y, one may assume, \"without loss of generality\", that x \u2264 y. There is no loss of generality in this assumption, since once the case x \u2264 y \u21d2 P(x,y) has been proved, the other case follows by interchanging x and y: y \u2264 x \u21d2 P(y,x), and by symmetry of P, this implies P(x,y), thereby showing that P(x,y) holds for all cases.\nOn the other hand, if such a symmetry (or other form of equivalence) cannot be established, then the use of \"without loss of generality\" is incorrect and can amount to an instance of proof by example \u2013 a logical fallacy of proving a claim by proving a non-representative example.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Additive combinatorics is an area of combinatorics in mathematics. One major area of study in additive combinatorics are inverse problems: given the size of the sumset A + B is small, what can we say about the structures of \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        B\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle B}\n  ? In the case of the integers, the classical Freiman's theorem provides a partial answer to this question in terms of multi-dimensional arithmetic progressions.\nAnother typical problem is to find a lower bound for \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          |\n        \n        A\n        +\n        B\n        \n          |\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle |A+B|}\n   in terms of  \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          |\n        \n        A\n        \n          |\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle |A|}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          |\n        \n        B\n        \n          |\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle |B|}\n  . This can be viewed as an inverse problem with the given information that \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          |\n        \n        A\n        +\n        B\n        \n          |\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle |A+B|}\n   is sufficiently small and the structural conclusion is then of the form that either \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n   or \n  \n    \n      \n        B\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle B}\n   is the empty set; however, in literature, such problems are sometimes considered to be direct problems as well. Examples of this type include the Erd\u0151s\u2013Heilbronn Conjecture (for a restricted sumset) and the Cauchy\u2013Davenport Theorem. The methods used for tackling such questions often come from many different fields of mathematics, including combinatorics, ergodic theory, analysis, graph theory, group theory, and linear algebraic and polynomial methods.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Alexander\u2013Hirschowitz theorem shows that a specific collection of k double points in the P^r will impose independent types of conditions on homogenous polynomials and the hypersurface of d with many known lists of exceptions. In which case, the classic polynomial interpolation that is located in several variables can be generalized to points that have larger multiplicities.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Approximate max-flow min-cut theorems are mathematical propositions in network flow theory. They deal with the relationship between maximum flow rate (\"max-flow\") and minimum cut (\"min-cut\") in a multi-commodity flow problem. The theorems have enabled the development of approximation algorithms for use in graph partition and related problems.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Bauer's maximum principle is the following theorem in mathematical optimization:\n\nAny function that is convex and continuous, and defined on a set that is convex and compact, attains its maximum at some extreme point of that set.It is attributed to the German mathematician Heinz Bauer.Bauer's maximum principle immediately implies the analogue minimum principle:\n\nAny function that is concave and continuous, and defined on a set that is convex and compact, attains its minimum at some extreme point of that set.Since a linear function is simultaneously convex and concave, it satisfies both principles, i.e., it attains both its maximum and its minimum at extreme points.\nBauer's maximization principle has applications in various fields, for example, differential equations and economics.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In number theory, Bertrand's postulate is a theorem stating that for any integer \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        >\n        3\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n>3}\n  , there always exists at least one prime number \n  \n    \n      \n        p\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle p}\n   with \n\n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        <\n        p\n        <\n        2\n        n\n        \u2212\n        2.\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n<p<2n-2.}\n  A less restrictive formulation is: for every \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        >\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n>1}\n   there is always at least one prime \n  \n    \n      \n        p\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle p}\n   such that \n\n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        <\n        p\n        <\n        2\n        n\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n<p<2n.}\n  Another formulation, where \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          p\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle p_{n}}\n   is the \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n  -th prime, is for \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        \u2265\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n\\geq 1}\n  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          p\n          \n            n\n            +\n            1\n          \n        \n        <\n        2\n        \n          p\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle p_{n+1}<2p_{n}.}\n  This statement was first conjectured in 1845 by Joseph Bertrand (1822\u20131900). Bertrand himself verified his statement for all integers \n  \n    \n      \n        2\n        \u2264\n        n\n        \u2264\n        3\n        \n        000\n        \n        000\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 2\\leq n\\leq 3\\,000\\,000}\n  .\nHis conjecture was completely proved by Chebyshev (1821\u20131894) in 1852 and so the postulate is also called the Bertrand\u2013Chebyshev theorem or Chebyshev's theorem.  Chebyshev's theorem can also be stated as a relationship with \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c0\n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\pi (x)}\n  , where \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c0\n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\pi (x)}\n   is the prime-counting function (number of primes less than or equal to \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x\\,}\n  ):\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c0\n        (\n        x\n        )\n        \u2212\n        \u03c0\n        \n          \n            (\n          \n        \n        \n          \n            \n              x\n              2\n            \n          \n        \n        \n          \n            )\n          \n        \n        \u2265\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\pi (x)-\\pi {\\bigl (}{\\tfrac {x}{2}}{\\bigr )}\\geq 1}\n  , for all \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        \u2265\n        2\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x\\geq 2}\n  .\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In general relativity, Buchdahl's theorem, named after Hans Adolf Buchdahl, makes more precise the notion that there is a maximal sustainable density for ordinary gravitating matter. It gives an inequality between the mass and radius that must be satisfied for static, spherically symmetric matter configurations under certain conditions. In particular, for areal radius \n  \n    \n      \n        R\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle R}\n  , the mass \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n   must satisfy\n\nwhere  \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G}\n   is the gravitational constant and  \n  \n    \n      \n        c\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c}\n   is the speed of light. This inequality is often referred to as Buchdahl's bound. The bound has historically also been called Schwarzschild's limit as it was first noted by Karl Schwarzschild to exist in the special case of a constant density fluid. However, this terminology should not be confused with the Schwarzschild radius which is notably smaller than the radius at the Buchdahl bound.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, Budan's theorem is a theorem for bounding the number of real roots of a polynomial in an interval, and computing the parity of this number. It was published in 1807 by Fran\u00e7ois Budan de Boislaurent.\nA similar theorem was published independently by Joseph Fourier in 1820. Each of these theorems are a corollary of the other. Fourier's statement appears more often in the literature of 19th century and has been referred to as Fourier's, Budan\u2013Fourier, Fourier\u2013Budan, and even Budan's theorem\nBudan's original formulation is used in fast modern algorithms for real-root isolation of polynomials.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In kinematics, Chasles' theorem, or Mozzi\u2013Chasles' theorem, says that the most general rigid body displacement can be produced by a translation along a line (called its screw axis or Mozzi axis) followed (or preceded) by a rotation about an axis parallel to that line.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Darmois\u2013Skitovich theorem  is one of the most famous characterization theorems of mathematical statistics. It characterizes the normal distribution (the Gaussian distribution) by the independence of two linear forms from independent random variables. This theorem was proved independently by G. Darmois and V. P. Skitovich in 1953.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, an existence theorem is a theorem which asserts the existence of a certain object. It might be a statement which begins with the phrase \"there exist(s)\", or it might be a universal statement whose last quantifier is existential (e.g., \"for all x, y, ... there exist(s) ...\"). In the formal terms of symbolic logic, an existence theorem is a theorem with a prenex normal form involving the existential quantifier, even though in practice, such theorems are usually stated in standard mathematical language. For example, the statement that the sine function is continuous everywhere, or any theorem written in big O notation, can be considered as theorems which are existential by nature\u2014since the quantification can be found in the definitions of the concepts used.\nA controversy that goes back to the early twentieth century concerns the issue of purely theoretic existence theorems, that is, theorems which depend on non-constructive foundational material such as the axiom of infinity, the axiom of choice or the law of excluded middle. Such theorems provide no indication as to how to construct (or exhibit) the object whose existence is being claimed. From a constructivist viewpoint, such approaches are not viable as it lends to mathematics losing its concrete applicability, while the opposing viewpoint is that abstract methods are far-reaching, in a way that numerical analysis cannot be.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Fueter\u2013P\u00f3lya theorem, first proved by Rudolf Fueter and George P\u00f3lya, states that the only quadratic polynomial pairing functions are the Cantor polynomials.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In computer science and mathematics, a full employment theorem is a term used, often humorously, to refer to a theorem which states that no algorithm can optimally perform a particular task done by some class of professionals. The name arises because such a theorem ensures that there is endless scope to keep discovering new techniques to improve the way at least some specific task is done.\nFor example, the full employment theorem for compiler writers states that there is no such thing as a provably perfect size-optimizing compiler, as such a proof for the compiler would have to detect non-terminating computations and reduce them to a one-instruction infinite loop. Thus, the existence of a provably perfect size-optimizing compiler would imply a solution to the halting problem, which cannot exist. This also implies that there may always be a better compiler since the proof that one has the best compiler cannot exist. Therefore, compiler writers will always be able to speculate that they have something to improve. A similar example in practical computer science is the idea of no free lunch in search and optimization, which states that no efficient general-purpose solver can exist, and hence there will always be some particular problem whose best known solution might be improved.\nSimilarly, G\u00f6del's incompleteness theorems have been called full employment theorems for mathematicians. Tasks such as virus writing and detection, and spam filtering and filter-breaking are also subject to Rice's theorem.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In probability theory, the Girsanov theorem tells how stochastic processes change under changes in measure. The theorem is especially important in the theory of financial mathematics as it tells how to convert from the physical measure which describes the probability that an underlying instrument (such as a share price or interest rate) will take a particular value or values to the risk-neutral measure which is a very useful tool for evaluating the value of derivatives on the underlying.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, statistics, and computational modelling, a grey box model combines a partial theoretical structure with data to complete the model. The theoretical structure may vary from information on the smoothness of results, to models that need only parameter values from data or existing literature. Thus, almost all models are grey box models as opposed to black box where no model form is assumed or white box models that are purely theoretical. Some models assume a special form such as a linear regression or neural network. These have special analysis methods. In particular linear regression techniques are much more efficient than most non-linear techniques. The model can be deterministic or stochastic (i.e. containing random components) depending on its planned use.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In algebraic geometry, Jouanolou's trick is a theorem that asserts, for an algebraic variety X, the existence of a surjection with affine fibers from an affine variety W to X.  The variety W is therefore homotopy-equivalent to X, but it has the technically advantageous property of being affine.  Jouanolou's original statement of the theorem required that X be quasi-projective over an affine scheme, but this has since been considerably weakened.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Kawasaki's theorem or Kawasaki\u2013Justin theorem is a theorem in the mathematics of paper folding that describes the crease patterns with a single vertex that may be folded to form a flat figure. It states that the pattern is flat-foldable if and only if alternatingly adding and subtracting the angles of consecutive folds around the vertex gives an alternating sum of zero.\nCrease patterns with more than one vertex do not obey such a simple criterion, and are NP-hard to fold.\nThe theorem is named after one of its discoverers, Toshikazu Kawasaki. However, several others also contributed to its discovery, and it is sometimes called the Kawasaki\u2013Justin theorem or Husimi's theorem after other contributors, Jacques Justin and K\u00f4di Husimi.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, Kostant's convexity theorem, introduced by Bertram Kostant (1973),  states that the projection of every coadjoint orbit of a connected compact Lie group into the dual of a Cartan subalgebra is a convex set. It is a special case of a more general result for symmetric spaces. Kostant's theorem is a generalization of a result of Schur (1923), Horn (1954) and Thompson (1972) for hermitian matrices. They proved that the projection onto the diagonal matrices of the space of all n by n complex self-adjoint matrices with given eigenvalues \u039b = (\u03bb1, ..., \u03bbn) is the convex polytope with vertices all permutations of the coordinates of \u039b.\nKostant used this to generalize the Golden\u2013Thompson inequality to all compact groups.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Maekawa's theorem is a theorem in the mathematics of paper folding named after Jun Maekawa. It relates to flat-foldable origami crease patterns and states that at every vertex, the numbers of valley and mountain folds always differ by two in either direction. The same result was also discovered by Jacques Justin and, even earlier, by S. Murata.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Mathematics of apportionment describes mathematical principles and algorithms for fair allocation of identical items among parties with different entitlements. Such principles are used to apportion seats in parliaments among federal states or political parties. See apportionment (politics) for the more concrete principles and issues related to apportionment, and apportionment by country for practical methods used around the world.\nMathematically, an apportionment method is just a method of rounding fractions to integers. As simple as it may sound, each and every method for rounding suffers from one or more paradoxes. The mathematical theory of apportionment aims to decide what paradoxes can be avoided, or in other words, what properties can be expected from an apportionment method.\nThe mathematical theory of apportionment was studied as early as 1907 by the mathematician Agner Krarup Erlang. It was later developed to a great detail by the mathematician Michel Balinsky and the economist Peyton Young. Besides its application to political parties, it is also applicable to fair item allocation when agents have different entitlements. It is also relevant in manpower planning - where jobs should be allocated in proportion to characteristics of the labor pool, to statistics - where the reported rounded numbers of percentages should sum up to 100%, and to bankruptcy problems.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The maximum theorem provides conditions for the continuity of an optimized function and the set of its maximizers with respect to its parameters. The statement was first proven by Claude Berge in 1959. The theorem is primarily used in mathematical economics and optimal control.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In the mathematical area of game theory, a minimax theorem is a theorem providing conditions that guarantee that the max\u2013min inequality is also an equality. \nThe first theorem in this sense is von Neumann's minimax theorem from 1928, which was considered the starting point of game theory. \nSince then, several generalizations and alternative versions of von Neumann's original theorem have appeared in the literature.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the multiplication theorem is a certain type of identity obeyed by many special functions related to the gamma function. For the explicit case of the gamma function, the identity is a product of values; thus the name. The various relations all stem from the same underlying principle; that is, the relation for one special function can be derived from that for the others, and is simply a manifestation of the same identity in different guises.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In several complex variables, the Ohsawa\u2013Takegoshi L2 extension theorem is a fundamental result concerning the holomorphic extension of an \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          L\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle L^{2}}\n  -holomorphic function defined on a bounded Stein manifold (such as a pseudoconvex compact set in \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            C\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} ^{n}}\n   of dimension less than \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n  ) to a domain of higher dimension, with a bound on the growth. It was discovered by Takeo Ohsawa and Kensho Takegoshi in 1987, using what have been described as ad hoc methods involving twisted Laplace\u2013Beltrami operators, but simpler proofs have since been discovered. Many generalizations and similar results exist, and are known as theorems of Ohsawa\u2013Takegoshi type.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematical logic, an omega-categorical theory is a theory that has exactly one countably infinite model up to isomorphism.  Omega-categoricity is the special case \u03ba = \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u2135\n          \n            0\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\aleph _{0}}\n   = \u03c9 of \u03ba-categoricity, and omega-categorical theories are also referred to as \u03c9-categorical.  The notion is most important for countable first-order theories.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In geometry, the Petersen\u2013Morley theorem states that, if\na,\nb,\nc\nare three general skew lines in space, if\na\u2032,\nb\u2032,\nc\u2032 are the lines of shortest distance\nrespectively for the pairs (b,c), (c,a) and (a,b),\nand if p, q and r\nare the lines of shortest distance respectively\nfor the pairs (a,a\u2032), (b,b\u2032) and (c,c\u2032), then there\nis a single line meeting at right angles all of\np,\nq,\nand\nr.\nThe theorem is named after Johannes Hjelmslev (who published his work on this result under his original name Johannes Trolle Petersen) and Frank Morley.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "P\u00f3sa's theorem, in graph theory, is a sufficient condition for the existence of a Hamiltonian cycle based on the degrees of the vertices in an undirected graph. It implies two other degree-based sufficient conditions, Dirac's theorem on Hamiltonian cycles and Ore's theorem. Unlike those conditions, it can be applied to graphs with a small number of low-degree vertices. It is named after Lajos P\u00f3sa, a prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of Paul Erd\u0151s born in 1947, who discovered this theorem in 1962.\nThe P\u00f3sa condition for a finite undirected graph \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G}\n   having \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n   vertices requires that, if the degrees of the \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n   vertices in increasing order as\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          d\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        \u2264\n        \n          d\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \u2264\n        .\n        .\n        .\n        \u2264\n        \n          d\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d_{1}\\leq d_{2}\\leq ...\\leq d_{n},}\n  then for each index \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n        <\n        n\n        \n          /\n        \n        2\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k<n/2}\n   the inequality \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n        <\n        \n          d\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k<d_{k}}\n   is satisfied.\nP\u00f3sa's theorem states that if a finite undirected graph satisfies the P\u00f3sa condition, then that graph has a Hamiltonian cycle in it.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a representation theorem is a theorem that states that every abstract structure with certain properties is isomorphic to another (abstract or concrete) structure.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In classical mechanics, the shell theorem gives gravitational simplifications that can be applied to objects inside or outside a spherically symmetrical body. This theorem has particular application to astronomy.\nIsaac Newton proved the shell theorem and stated that:\n\nA spherically symmetric body affects external objects gravitationally as though all of its mass were concentrated at a point at its center.\nIf the body is a spherically symmetric shell (i.e., a hollow ball), no net gravitational force is exerted by the shell on any object inside, regardless of the object's location within the shell.A corollary is that inside a solid sphere of constant density, the gravitational force within the object varies linearly with distance from the center, becoming zero by symmetry at the center of mass. This can be seen as follows: take a point within such a sphere, at a distance \n  \n    \n      \n        r\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle r}\n   from the center of the sphere. Then you can ignore all of the shells of greater radius, according to the shell theorem (1). But the point can be considered to be external to the remaining sphere of radius r, and according to (2) all of the mass of this sphere can be considered to be concentrated at its centre. The remaining mass \n  \n    \n      \n        m\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle m}\n   is proportional to \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          r\n          \n            3\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle r^{3}}\n   (because it is based on volume). The gravitational force exerted on a body at radius r will be proportional to \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            m\n            \n              r\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle {\\frac {m}{r^{2}}}}\n   (the inverse square law), so the overall gravitational effect is proportional to \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              r\n              \n                3\n              \n            \n            \n              r\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        r\n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle {\\frac {r^{3}}{r^{2}}}=r}\n  , so is linear in \n  \n    \n      \n        r\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle r}\n  .\nThese results were important to Newton's analysis of planetary motion; they are not immediately obvious, but they can be proven with calculus. (Gauss's law for gravity offers an alternative way to state the theorem.)\nIn addition to gravity, the shell theorem can also be used to describe the electric field generated by a static spherically symmetric charge density, or similarly for any other phenomenon that follows an inverse square law. The derivations below focus on gravity, but the results can easily be generalized to the electrostatic force.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, and in particular game theory, Sion's minimax theorem is a generalization of John von Neumann's minimax theorem, named after Maurice Sion.\nIt states:\nLet \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   be a compact convex subset of a linear topological space and \n  \n    \n      \n        Y\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Y}\n   a convex subset of a linear topological space.  If \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f}\n   is a real-valued function on \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n        \u00d7\n        Y\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X\\times Y}\n   with\n\n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        ,\n        \u22c5\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x,\\cdot )}\n   upper semicontinuous  and quasi-concave on \n  \n    \n      \n        Y\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Y}\n  , \n  \n    \n      \n        \u2200\n        x\n        \u2208\n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\forall x\\in X}\n  , and\n\n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        \u22c5\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(\\cdot ,y)}\n   lower semicontinuous and quasi-convex on \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n  , \n  \n    \n      \n        \u2200\n        y\n        \u2208\n        Y\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\forall y\\in Y}\n  then,\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          min\n          \n            x\n            \u2208\n            X\n          \n        \n        \n          sup\n          \n            y\n            \u2208\n            Y\n          \n        \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n        =\n        \n          sup\n          \n            y\n            \u2208\n            Y\n          \n        \n        \n          min\n          \n            x\n            \u2208\n            X\n          \n        \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\min _{x\\in X}\\sup _{y\\in Y}f(x,y)=\\sup _{y\\in Y}\\min _{x\\in X}f(x,y).}", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In quantum information and computation, the Solovay\u2013Kitaev theorem says, roughly, that if a set of single-qubit quantum gates generates a dense subset of SU(2) then that set is guaranteed to fill SU(2) quickly, which means any desired gate can be approximated by a fairly short sequence of gates from the generating set. Robert M. Solovay initially announced the result on an email list in 1995, and Alexei Kitaev independently gave an outline of its proof in 1997. Solovay also gave a talk on his result at MSRI in 2000 but it was interrupted by a fire alarm. Christopher M. Dawson and Michael Nielsen call the theorem one of the most important fundamental results in the field of quantum computation.A consequence of this theorem is that a quantum circuit of \n  \n    \n      \n        m\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle m}\n   constant-qubit gates can be approximated to \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon }\n   error (in operator norm) by a quantum circuit of \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n        (\n        m\n        \n          log\n          \n            c\n          \n        \n        \u2061\n        (\n        m\n        \n          /\n        \n        \u03b5\n        )\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle O(m\\log ^{c}(m/\\varepsilon ))}\n   gates from a desired finite universal gate set. By comparison, just knowing that a gate set is universal only implies that constant-qubit gates can be approximated by a finite circuit from the gate set, with no bound on its length. So, the Solovay\u2013Kitaev theorem shows that this approximation can be made surprisingly efficient, thereby justifying that quantum computers need only implement a finite number of gates to gain the full power of quantum computation.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Stochastic portfolio theory (SPT) is a mathematical theory for analyzing stock market structure and portfolio behavior introduced by E. Robert Fernholz in 2002.  It is descriptive as opposed to normative, and is consistent with the observed behavior of actual markets.  Normative assumptions, which serve as a basis for earlier theories like modern portfolio theory (MPT) and the capital asset pricing model (CAPM), are absent from SPT.\nSPT uses continuous-time random processes (in particular, continuous semi-martingales) to represent the prices of individual securities.  Processes with discontinuities, such as jumps, have also been incorporated into the theory.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The transport theorem (or transport equation, rate of change transport theorem or basic kinematic equation) is a vector equation that relates the time derivative of a Euclidean vector as evaluated in a non-rotating coordinate system to its time derivative in a rotating reference frame. It has important applications in classical mechanics and analytical dynamics and diverse fields of engineering. A Euclidean vector represents a certain magnitude and direction in space that is independent of the coordinate system in which it is measured. However, when taking a time derivative of such a vector one actually takes the difference between two vectors measured at two different times t and t+dt. In a rotating coordinate system, the coordinate axes can have different directions at these two times, such that even a constant vector can have a non-zero time derivative. As a consequence, the time derivative of a vector measured in a rotating coordinate system can be different from the time derivative of the same vector in a non-rotating reference system. For example, the velocity vector of an airplane as evaluated using a coordinate system that is fixed to the earth (a rotating reference system) is different from its velocity as evaluated using a coordinate system that is fixed in space. The transport theorem provides a way to relate time derivatives of vectors between a rotating and non-rotating coordinate system, it is derived and explained in more detail in rotating reference frame and can be written as:\nHere f is the vector of which the time derivative is evaluated in both the non-rotating, and rotating coordinate system. The subscript r designates its time derivative in the rotating coordinate system and the vector \u03a9 is the angular velocity of the rotating coordinate system. \nThe Transport Theorem is particularly useful for relating velocities and acceleration vectors between rotating and non-rotating coordinate systems.Reference states: \"Despite of its importance in classical mechanics and its ubiquitous application in engineering, there is no universally-accepted name for the Euler derivative transformation formula [...] Several terminology are used: kinematic theorem, transport theorem, and transport equation. These terms, although terminologically correct, are more prevalent in the subject of fluid mechanics to refer to entirely different physics concepts.\" An example of such a different physics concept is Reynolds transport theorem.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Triangulation sensing is a mathematical theory describing the computational steps to recover the location of a source from the fluxes estimated on small windows located on a test surface. The source emits random particles in a medium.  The reconstruction steps of the gradient source from the fluxes of diffusing particles arriving to small absorbing receptors  are decomposed in several steps:\n\nEstimating the arrival of Brownian particles to the small windows located on the test surface.\nInverting the Laplace's equation to estimate the position from the fluxes based on a triplet of windows.\nReduce the uncertainty by averaging the noise on several triplets.This theory provides a framework to study neural navigation in the brain.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Trombi\u2013Varadarajan theorem, introduced by Trombi and  Varadarjan (1971), gives an isomorphism between a certain space of spherical functions on a semisimple Lie group, and a certain space of holomorphic functions defined on a tubular neighborhood of the dual of a Cartan subalgebra.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematical analysis, the universal chord theorem states that if a function f is continuous on [a,b] and satisfies \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        a\n        )\n        =\n        f\n        (\n        b\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(a)=f(b)}\n  , then for every natural number \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n  , there exists some \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        \u2208\n        [\n        a\n        ,\n        b\n        ]\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x\\in [a,b]}\n   such that \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        )\n        =\n        f\n        \n          (\n          \n            x\n            +\n            \n              \n                \n                  b\n                  \u2212\n                  a\n                \n                n\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x)=f\\left(x+{\\frac {b-a}{n}}\\right)}\n  .", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, Vincent's theorem\u2014named after Alexandre Joseph Hidulphe Vincent\u2014is a theorem that isolates the real roots of polynomials with rational coefficients.\nEven though Vincent's theorem is the basis of the fastest method for the isolation of the real roots of polynomials, it was almost totally forgotten, having been overshadowed by Sturm's theorem; consequently, it does not appear in any of the classical books on the theory of equations (of the 20th century), except for Uspensky's book. Two variants of this theorem are presented, along with several (continued fractions and bisection) real root isolation methods derived from them.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The abacus (plural abaci or abacuses), also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool which has been used since ancient times. It was used in the ancient Near East, Europe, China, and Russia, centuries before the adoption of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. The exact origin of the abacus has not yet emerged. It consists of rows of movable beads, or similar objects, strung on a wire. They represent digits. One of the two numbers is set up, and the beads are manipulated to perform an operation such as addition, or even a square or cubic root.\nIn their earliest designs, the rows of beads could be loose on a flat surface or sliding in grooves. Later the beads were made to slide on rods and built into a frame, allowing faster manipulation. Abacuses are still made, often as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires. In the ancient world, particularly before the introduction of positional notation, abacuses were a practical calculating tool. The abacus is still used to teach the fundamentals of mathematics to some children, for example, in Russia.\nDesigns such as the Japanese soroban have been used for practical calculations of up to multi-digit numbers. Any particular abacus design supports multiple methods to perform calculations, including the four basic operations and square and cube roots. Some of these methods work with non-natural numbers (numbers such as 1.5 and 3\u20444).\nAlthough calculators and computers are commonly used today instead of abacuses, abacuses remain in everyday use in some countries. Merchants, traders, and clerks in some parts of Eastern Europe, Russia, China, and Africa use abacuses. The abacus remains in common use \nas a scoring system in non-electronic table games. Others may use an abacus due to visual impairment that prevents the use of a calculator.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The arithmetic rope, or knotted rope, was a widely used arithmetic tool in the Middle Ages that could be used to solve many mathematical and geometrical problems.\nAn arithmetic rope generally has at least 13 knots\u2014therefore, it is often called thirteen-knot-rope\u2014placed at equal intervals. More knots were beneficial, especially for multiplication and division.\nIn medieval architecture, the knotted rope was indispensable for architects, because it allowed the construction of equilateral and right-angled triangles, as well as circles.\nIn the depiction of the liberal arts in Hortus deliciarum, the allegory of arithmetics is a female figure with a knotted rope.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Augmented Reality Sandtable (ARES) is an interactive, digital sand table that uses augmented reality (AR) technology to create a 3D battlespace map. It was developed by the Human Research and Engineering Directorate (HRED) at the Army Research Laboratory (ARL) to combine the positive aspects of traditional military sand tables with the latest digital technologies to better support soldier training and offer new possibilities of learning. It uses a projector to display a topographical map on top of the sand in a regular sandbox as well as a motion sensor that keeps track of changes in the layout of the sand to appropriately adjust the computer-generated terrain display.An ARL study conducted in 2017 with 52 active duty military personnel (36 males and 16 females) found that the participants who used ARES spent less time setting up the table compared to participants who used a traditional sand table. In addition, ARES demonstrated a lower perceived workload score, as measured using the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) ratings, compared to the traditional sand table. However, there was no significant difference in post-knowledge test scores in recreating the visual map.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Beevers\u2013Lipson strips were a computational aid for early crystallographers in calculating Fourier transforms to determine the structure of crystals from crystallographic data, enabling the creation of models for complex molecules. They were used from the 1930s until computers with enough power became generally available in the 1960s.\nThe technique was developed by C. Arnold Beevers (1908\u20132001), reader in crystallography at the University of Edinburgh, and Henry Lipson CBE FRS (1910\u20131991), Professor of Physics at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology. The approach converted the sizable calculations of multi-dimensional Fourier summations needed in crystallography analysis into sums of more manageable one-dimensional values. The folded card strips with numbers were typically stored in two wooden boxes, one for sines and one for cosines. Previously it was necessary to consult sine/cosine tables, a time-consuming process. The approach was used by the Nobel Prize winner Dorothy Hodgkin OM FRS (1910\u20131994). The technique is still used in modern computer programs.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A blockchain is a type of  Digital Ledger Technology (DLT) that consists of growing list of records, called blocks, that are securely linked together using cryptography. Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data (generally represented as a Merkle tree, where data nodes are represented by leafs). The timestamp proves that the transaction data existed when the block was created. Since each block contains information about the block previous to it, they effectively form a chain (compare linked list data structure), with each additional block linking to the ones before it. Consequently, blockchain transactions are irreversible in that, once they are recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without altering all subsequent blocks.\nBlockchains are typically managed by a peer-to-peer (P2) computer network for use as a public distributed ledger, where nodes collectively adhere to a consensus algorithm protocol to add and validate new transaction blocks. Although blockchain records are not unalterable, since blockchain forks are possible, blockchains may be considered secure by design and exemplify a distributed computing system with high Byzantine fault tolerance.The blockchain was created by a person (or group of people) using the name (or pseudonym) Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 to serve as the public distributed ledger for bitcoin cryptocurrency transactions, based on previous work by Stuart Haber, W. Scott Stornetta, and Dave Bayer. The identity of Satoshi Nakamoto remains unknown to date. The implementation of the blockchain within bitcoin made it the first digital currency to solve the double-spending problem without the need of a trusted authority or central server. The bitcoin design has inspired other applications and blockchains that are readable by the public and are widely used by cryptocurrencies. The blockchain may be considered a type of payment rail.Private blockchains have been proposed for business use. Computerworld called the marketing of such privatized blockchains without a proper security model \"snake oil\"; however, others have argued that permissioned blockchains, if carefully designed, may be more decentralized and therefore more secure in practice than permissionless ones.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The C-Thru Ruler Company is an American maker of measuring devices and specialized products for drafting, designing and drawing. The company was formed in 1939 in Bloomfield, Connecticut, by Jennie R. Zachs, a schoolteacher, who saw the need for transparent measuring tools such as rulers, triangles, curves and protractors.\nDuring the 1990s, the company expanded into the paper crafting and scrapbooking fields under the Little Yellow Bicycle and D\u00e9j\u00e0 Views brands.\nIn June 2012, Acme United Corporation bought the ruler, lettering and drafting portions of C-Thru Ruler. The scrap booking part of the business, continues to be managed by the Zachs family under the Little Yellow Bicycle Inc. name.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "An electronic calculator is typically a portable electronic device used to perform calculations, ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics.\nThe first solid-state electronic calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the Intel 4004, the first microprocessor, was developed by Intel for the Japanese calculator company Busicom. \nModern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of integrated circuits reduced their size and cost. By the end of that decade, prices had dropped to the point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools.\nComputer operating systems as far back as early Unix have included interactive calculator programs such as dc and hoc, and calculator functions are included in almost all personal digital assistant (PDA) type devices, the exceptions being a few dedicated address book and dictionary devices.\nIn addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets. For example, there are scientific calculators which include trigonometric and statistical calculations. Some calculators even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, or higher-dimensional Euclidean space. As of 2016, basic calculators cost little, but scientific and graphing models tend to cost more.\nWith the very wide availability of smartphones, tablet computers and personal computers, dedicated hardware calculators, while still widely used, are less common than they once were.  In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information. By 2007, this had diminished to less than 0.05%.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A compass, more accurately known as a pair of compasses, is a technical drawing instrument that can be used for inscribing circles or arcs. As dividers, it can also be used as a tool to step out distances, in particular, on maps. Compasses can be used for mathematics, drafting, navigation and other purposes.\nPrior to computerization, compasses and other tools for manual drafting were often packaged as a set with interchangeable parts. By the mid-twentieth century, circle templates supplemented the use of compasses. Today those facilities are more often provided by computer-aided design programs, so the physical tools serve mainly a didactic purpose in teaching geometry, technical drawing, etc.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The counting board is the precursor of the abacus, and the earliest known form of a counting device (excluding fingers and other very simple methods). Counting boards were made of stone or wood, and the counting was done on the board with beads, or pebbles etc. Not many boards survive because of the perishable materials used in their construction.\nThe oldest known counting board, the Salamis Tablet (c. 300 BC) was discovered on the Greek island of Salamis in 1899.  It is thought to have been used by the Babylonians in about 300 BC and is more of a gaming board than a calculating device. It is marble, about 150 x 75 x 4.5 cm, and is in the Epigraphical Museum in Athens.  It has carved Greek letters and parallel grooves.\nThe German mathematician Adam Ries described the use of counting boards in Rechenbuch auf Linien und Ziphren in allerlei Handthierung / gesch\u00e4fften und Kaufmanschafft. In the novel Wolf Hall, Hilary Mantel refers to Thomas Cromwell using a counting board in 16th-century England.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Counting rods (traditional Chinese: \u7c4c; simplified Chinese: \u7b79; pinyin: ch\u00f3u; Japanese: \u7b97\u6728; r\u014dmaji: sangi; Korean: sangaji) are small bars, typically 3\u201314 cm long, that were used by mathematicians for calculation in ancient East Asia.  They are placed either horizontally or vertically to represent any integer or rational number.\nThe written forms based on them are called rod numerals.  They are a true positional numeral system with digits for 1\u20139 and a blank for 0, from the Warring states period (circa 475 BCE) to the 16th century.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The differential analyser is a mechanical analogue computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. It was one of the first advanced computing devices to be used operationally.\nThe original machines could not add, but then it was noticed that if the two wheels of a rear differential are turned, the drive shaft will compute the average of the left and right wheels. A simple gear ratio of 1:2 then enables multiplication by two, so addition (and subtraction) are achieved. Multiplication is just a special case of integration, namely integrating a constant function.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A dot planimeter is a device used in planimetrics for estimating the area of a shape, consisting of a transparent sheet containing a square grid of dots. To estimate the area of a shape, the sheet is overlaid on the shape and the dots within the shape are counted. The estimate of area is the number of dots counted multiplied by the area of a single grid square. In some variations, dots that land on or near the boundary of the shape are counted as half of a unit. The dots may also be grouped into larger square groups by lines drawn onto the transparency, allowing groups that are entirely within the shape to be added to the count rather than requiring their dots to be counted one by one.The estimation of area by means of a dot grid has also been called the dot grid method or (particularly when the alignment of the grid with the shape is random) systematic sampling. Perhaps because of its simplicity, it has been repeatedly reinvented.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A French curve is a template usually made from metal, wood or plastic composed of many different segments of the Euler spiral (aka the clothoid curve). It is used in manual drafting and in fashion design to draw smooth curves of varying radii.  The curve is placed on the drawing material, and a pencil, knife or other implement is traced around its curves to produce the desired result. They were invented by the German mathematician Ludwig Burmester and are also known as Burmester (curve) set.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A geometry template is a piece of clear plastic with cut-out shapes for use in mathematics and other subjects in primary school through secondary school.  It also has various measurements on its sides to be used like a ruler. In Australia, popular brands include Mathomat and MathAid.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Graph paper, coordinate paper, grid paper, or squared paper is writing paper that is printed with fine lines making up a regular grid. The lines are often used as guides for plotting graphs of functions or experimental data and drawing curves. It is commonly found in mathematics and engineering education settings and in laboratory notebooks. Graph paper is available either as loose leaf paper or bound in notebooks.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "An Integraph is a mechanical analog computing device for plotting the integral of a graphically defined function.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "An integrator in measurement and control applications is an element whose output signal is the time integral of its input signal. It accumulates the input quantity over a defined time to produce a representative output.\nIntegration is an important part of many engineering and scientific applications. Mechanical integrators are the oldest application, and are still used in such  as metering of water flow or electric power. Electronic analogue integrators are the basis of analog computers and charge amplifiers. Integration is also performed by digital computing algorithms.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Location arithmetic (Latin arithmeticae localis) is the additive (non-positional) binary numeral systems, which John Napier explored as a computation technique in his treatise Rabdology (1617), both symbolically and on a chessboard-like grid.\nNapier's terminology, derived from using the positions of counters on the board to represent numbers, is potentially misleading because the numbering system is, in facts, non-positional in current vocabulary.\nDuring Napier's time, most of the computations were made on boards with tally-marks or jetons. So, unlike how it may be seen by the modern reader, his goal was not to use moves of counters on a board to multiply, divide and find square roots, but rather to find a way to compute symbolically with pen and paper.\nHowever, when reproduced on the board, this new technique did not require mental trial-and-error computations nor complex carry memorization (unlike base 10 computations). He was so pleased by his discovery that he said in his preface:\n\nit might be well described as more of a lark than a labor, for it carries out addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and the extraction of square roots purely by moving counters from place to place.[1]", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Marquois scales (also known as Marquois parallel scales or Marquois scale and triangle or military scales) are a mathematical instrument that found widespread use in Britain, particularly in military surveying, from the late 18th century to World War II.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "MatheAss (former Math-Assist) is a computer program for numerical solutions in school mathematics and functions in some points similar to Microsoft Mathematics. \"MatheAss is widely spread in math classes\" in Germany. For schools in the federal state of Hessen (Germany) exists a state license, which allows all secondary schools to use MatheAssIts functionality is limited compared to other numerical programs, for example, MatheAss has no script language and does no symbolic computation. On the other side it is easy to use and offers the user fully worked out solutions, in which only the necessary quantities need to be entered. MatheAss covers the topics algebra, geometry, analysis, stochastics, and linear algebra.After a precursor for the home computers, usual around 1980, MatheAss appeared in 1983 as a shareware version for the PC, so it was one of the first shareware programs on the German market. MatheAss is available on the manufacturer's website for download for various versions of the Windows operating system.Since version 8.2 (released in February 2011) MatheAss again offers a context-sensitive help, which was supplemented in many places by showing mathematical examples and background information. The MatheAss help file can also be viewed online.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A mathematical instrument is a tool or device used in the study or practice of mathematics. In geometry, construction of various proofs was done using only a compass and straightedge; arguments in these proofs relied only on idealized properties of these instruments and literal construction was regarded as only an approximation. In applied mathematics, mathematical instruments were used for measuring angles and distances, in astronomy, navigation, surveying and in the measurement of time.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Mathematical Models is a book on the construction of physical models of mathematical objects for educational purposes. It was written by Martyn Cundy and A. P. Rollett, and published by the Clarendon Press in 1951, with a second edition in 1961. Tarquin Publications published a third edition in 1981.The vertex configuration of a uniform polyhedron, a generalization of the Schl\u00e4fli symbol that describes the pattern of polygons surrounding each vertex, was devised in this book as a way to name the Archimedean solids, and has sometimes been called the Cundy\u2013Rollett symbol as a nod to this origin.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Mathematical Models: From the Collections of Universities and Museums \u2013 Photograph Volume and Commentary is a book on the physical models of concepts in mathematics that were constructed in the 19th century and early 20th century and kept as instructional aids at universities. It credits Gerd Fischer as editor, but its photographs of models are also by Fischer. It was originally published by Vieweg+Teubner Verlag for their bicentennial in 1986, both in German (titled Mathematische Modelle. Aus den Sammlungen von Universit\u00e4ten und Museen. Mit 132 Fotografien. Bildband und Kommentarband)  and (separately) in English translation, in each case as a two-volume set with one volume of photographs and a second volume of mathematical commentary. Springer Spektrum reprinted it in a second edition in 2017, as a single dual-language volume.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A mechanical calculator, or calculating machine, is a mechanical device used to perform the basic operations of arithmetic automatically, or (historically) a simulation such as an analog computer or a slide rule. Most mechanical calculators were comparable in size to small desktop computers and have been rendered obsolete by the advent of the electronic calculator and the digital computer.\nSurviving notes from Wilhelm Schickard in 1623 reveal that he designed and had built the earliest of the modern attempts at mechanizing calculation. His machine was composed of two sets of technologies: first an abacus made of Napier's bones, to simplify multiplications and divisions first described six years earlier in 1617, and for the mechanical part, it had a dialed pedometer to perform additions and subtractions.  A study of the surviving notes shows a machine that would have jammed after a few entries on the same dial, and that it could be damaged if a carry had to be propagated over a few digits (like adding 1 to 999). Schickard abandoned his project in 1624 and never mentioned it again until his death 11 years later in 1635.\nTwo decades after Schickard's supposedly failed attempt, in 1642, Blaise Pascal decisively solved these particular problems with his invention of the mechanical calculator. Co-opted into his father's labour as tax collector in Rouen, Pascal designed the calculator to help in the large amount of tedious arithmetic required; it was called Pascal's Calculator or Pascaline.Thomas' arithmometer, the first commercially successful machine, was manufactured two hundred years later in 1851; it was the first mechanical calculator strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. For forty years the arithmometer was the only type of mechanical calculator available for sale until the industrial production of the more successful Odhner Arithmometer in 1890.The comptometer, introduced in 1887, was the first machine to use a keyboard that consisted of columns of nine keys (from 1 to 9) for each digit. The Dalton adding machine, manufactured in 1902, was the first to have a 10 key keyboard. Electric motors were used on some mechanical calculators from 1901. In 1961, a comptometer type machine, the Anita mk7 from Sumlock comptometer Ltd., became the first desktop mechanical calculator to receive an all-electronic calculator engine, creating the link in between these two industries and marking the beginning of its decline. The production of mechanical calculators came to a stop in the middle of the 1970s closing an industry that had lasted for 120 years.\nCharles Babbage designed two new kinds of mechanical calculators, which were so big that they required the power of a steam engine to operate, and that were too sophisticated to be built in his lifetime.  The first one was an automatic mechanical calculator, his difference engine, which could automatically compute and print mathematical tables. In 1855, Georg Scheutz became the first of a handful of designers to succeed at building a smaller and simpler model of his difference engine. The second one was a programmable mechanical calculator, his analytical engine, which Babbage started to design in 1834; \"in less than two years he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom\" making it infinitely programmable. In 1937, Howard Aiken convinced IBM to design and build the ASCC/Mark I, the first machine of its kind, based on the architecture of the analytical engine; when the machine was finished some hailed it as \"Babbage's dream come true\".", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A nomogram (from Greek nomos \u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, \"law\" and gramm\u0113 \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03ae, \"line\"), also called a nomograph, alignment chart, or abac, is a graphical calculating device, a two-dimensional diagram designed to allow the approximate graphical computation of a mathematical function. The field of nomography was invented in 1884 by the French engineer Philbert Maurice d'Ocagne (1862\u20131938) and used extensively for many years to provide engineers with fast graphical calculations of complicated formulas to a practical precision. Nomograms use a parallel coordinate system invented by d'Ocagne rather than standard Cartesian coordinates.\nA nomogram consists of a set of n scales, one for each variable in an equation. Knowing the values of n-1 variables, the value of the unknown variable can be found, or by fixing the values of some variables, the relationship between the unfixed ones can be studied. The result is obtained by laying a straightedge across the known values on the scales and reading the unknown value from where it crosses the scale for that variable. The virtual or drawn line created by the straightedge is called an index line or isopleth.\nNomograms flourished in many different contexts for roughly 75 years because they allowed quick and accurate computations before the age of pocket calculators. Results from a nomogram are obtained very quickly and reliably by simply drawing one or more lines. The user does not have to know how to solve algebraic equations, look up data in tables, use a slide rule, or substitute numbers into equations to obtain results. The user does not even need to know the underlying equation the nomogram represents. In addition, nomograms naturally incorporate implicit or explicit domain knowledge into their design. For example, to create larger nomograms for greater accuracy the nomographer usually includes only scale ranges that are reasonable and of interest to the problem. Many nomograms include other useful markings such as reference labels and colored regions. All of these provide useful guideposts to the user.\n\nLike a slide rule, a nomogram is a graphical analog computation device. Also like a slide rule, its accuracy is limited by the precision with which physical markings can be drawn, reproduced, viewed, and aligned. Unlike the slide rule, which is a general-purpose computation device, a nomogram is designed to perform a specific calculation with tables of values built into the device's  scales. Nomograms are typically used in applications for which the level of accuracy they provide is sufficient and useful. Alternatively, a nomogram can be used to check an answer obtained by a more exact but error-prone calculation.\nOther types of graphical calculators\u2014such as intercept charts, trilinear diagrams, and hexagonal charts\u2014are sometimes called nomograms. These devices do not meet the definition of a nomogram as a graphical calculator whose solution is found by the use of one or more linear isopleths.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Helix (also known as Helix Oxford or Maped Helix) is a United Kingdom-based manufacturer of stationery. It exports to over 65 countries, with offices in Hong Kong and and US, and has its UK headquarters in Kingswinford in the West Midlands.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A planimeter, also known as a platometer, is a measuring instrument used to determine the area of an arbitrary two-dimensional shape.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A protractor is a measuring instrument, typically made of transparent plastic or glass, for measuring angles.\nSome protractors are simple half-discs or full circles.  More advanced protractors, such as the bevel protractor, have one or two swinging arms, which can be used to help measure the angle.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Rod calculus or rod calculation was the mechanical method of algorithmic computation with counting rods in China from the Warring States to Ming dynasty before the counting rods were increasingly replaced by the more convenient and faster abacus. Rod calculus played a key role in the development of Chinese mathematics to its height in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, culminating in the invention\nof polynomial equations of up to four unknowns in the work of Zhu Shijie.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The shadow square, also known as an altitude scale, was an instrument used to determine the linear height of an object, in conjunction with the alidade, for angular observations. An early example was described in an Arabic treatise likely dating to 9th or 10th-century Baghdad. Shadow squares are often found on the backs of astrolabes.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Steinhaus longimeter, patented by the professor Hugo Steinhaus, is an instrument used to measure the lengths of curves on maps.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A straightedge or straight edge is a tool used for drawing straight lines, or checking their straightness. If it has equally spaced markings along its length, it is usually called a ruler.\nStraightedges are used in the automotive service and machining industry to check the flatness of machined mating surfaces.\nTrue straightness can in some cases be checked by using a laser line level as an optical straightedge: it can illuminate an accurately straight line on a flat surface such as the edge of a plank or shelf.\nA pair of straightedges called winding sticks are used in woodworking to make warping easier to perceive in pieces of wood.\nThree straight edges can be used to test and calibrate themselves to a certain extent, however this procedure does not control twist.  For accurate calibration of a straight edge, a surface plate must be used.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A tally stick (or simply tally) was an ancient memory aid device used to record and document numbers, quantities and messages. Tally sticks first appear as animal bones carved with notches during the Upper Palaeolithic; a notable example is the Ishango Bone. Historical reference is made by Pliny the Elder (AD 23\u201379) about the best wood to use for tallies, and by Marco Polo (1254\u20131324) who mentions the use of the tally in China. Tallies have been used for numerous purposes such as messaging and scheduling, and especially in financial and legal transactions, to the point of being currency.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The tomahawk is a tool in geometry for angle trisection, the problem of splitting an angle into three equal parts. The boundaries of its shape include a semicircle and two line segments, arranged in a way that resembles a tomahawk, a Native American axe. The same tool has also been called the shoemaker's knife, but that name is more commonly used in geometry to refer to a different shape, the arbelos (a curvilinear triangle bounded by three mutually tangent semicircles).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A yupana (from Quechua: yupay 'count') is an abacus used to perform arithmetic operations, dating back to the time of the Incas.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            A\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {A}}}\n  -equivalence, sometimes called right-left equivalence, is an equivalence relation between map germs.\nLet \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n    and \n  \n    \n      \n        N\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle N}\n   be two manifolds, and let \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        ,\n        g\n        :\n        (\n        M\n        ,\n        x\n        )\n        \u2192\n        (\n        N\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f,g:(M,x)\\to (N,y)}\n   be two smooth map germs. We say that \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        g\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g}\n   are \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            A\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {A}}}\n  -equivalent if there exist diffeomorphism germs \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03d5\n        :\n        (\n        M\n        ,\n        x\n        )\n        \u2192\n        (\n        M\n        ,\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi :(M,x)\\to (M,x)}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c8\n        :\n        (\n        N\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n        \u2192\n        (\n        N\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\psi :(N,y)\\to (N,y)}\n   such that \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c8\n        \u2218\n        f\n        =\n        g\n        \u2218\n        \u03d5\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\psi \\circ f=g\\circ \\phi .}\n  \nIn other words, two map germs are \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            A\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {A}}}\n  -equivalent if one can be taken onto the other by a diffeomorphic change of co-ordinates in the source (i.e. \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M}\n  ) and the target (i.e. \n  \n    \n      \n        N\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle N}\n  ).\nLet \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03a9\n        (\n        \n          M\n          \n            x\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \n          N\n          \n            y\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Omega (M_{x},N_{y})}\n   denote the space of smooth map germs \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        M\n        ,\n        x\n        )\n        \u2192\n        (\n        N\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (M,x)\\to (N,y).}\n   Let \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            diff\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          M\n          \n            x\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mbox{diff}}(M_{x})}\n   be the group of diffeomorphism germs \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        M\n        ,\n        x\n        )\n        \u2192\n        (\n        M\n        ,\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (M,x)\\to (M,x)}\n   and \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            diff\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          N\n          \n            y\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mbox{diff}}(N_{y})}\n   be the group of diffeomorphism germs \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        N\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n        \u2192\n        (\n        N\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (N,y)\\to (N,y).}\n   The group \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n        :=\n        \n          \n            diff\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          M\n          \n            x\n          \n        \n        )\n        \u00d7\n        \n          \n            diff\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          N\n          \n            y\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G:={\\mbox{diff}}(M_{x})\\times {\\mbox{diff}}(N_{y})}\n   acts on \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03a9\n        (\n        \n          M\n          \n            x\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \n          N\n          \n            y\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Omega (M_{x},N_{y})}\n   in the natural way: \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        \u03d5\n        ,\n        \u03c8\n        )\n        \u22c5\n        f\n        =\n        \n          \u03c8\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n        \u2218\n        f\n        \u2218\n        \u03d5\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (\\phi ,\\psi )\\cdot f=\\psi ^{-1}\\circ f\\circ \\phi .}\n   Under this action we see that the map germs \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        ,\n        g\n        :\n        (\n        M\n        ,\n        x\n        )\n        \u2192\n        (\n        N\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f,g:(M,x)\\to (N,y)}\n   are \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            A\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {A}}}\n  -equivalent if, and only if, \n  \n    \n      \n        g\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g}\n   lies in the orbit of \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f}\n  , i.e. \n  \n    \n      \n        g\n        \u2208\n        \n          \n            \n              orb\n            \n          \n          \n            G\n          \n        \n        (\n        f\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g\\in {\\mbox{orb}}_{G}(f)}\n   (or vice versa).\nA map germ is called stable if its orbit under the action of \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n        :=\n        \n          \n            diff\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          M\n          \n            x\n          \n        \n        )\n        \u00d7\n        \n          \n            diff\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          N\n          \n            y\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G:={\\mbox{diff}}(M_{x})\\times {\\mbox{diff}}(N_{y})}\n   is open relative to the Whitney topology. Since \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03a9\n        (\n        \n          M\n          \n            x\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \n          N\n          \n            y\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Omega (M_{x},N_{y})}\n   is an infinite dimensional space metric topology is no longer trivial. Whitney topology compares the differences in successive derivatives and gives a notion of proximity within the infinite dimensional space. A base for the open sets of the topology in question is given by taking \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k}\n  -jets for every \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k}\n   and taking open neighbourhoods in the ordinary Euclidean sense. Open sets in the topology are then unions of\nthese base sets.\nConsider the orbit of some map germ \n  \n    \n      \n        o\n        r\n        \n          b\n          \n            G\n          \n        \n        (\n        f\n        )\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle orb_{G}(f).}\n   The map germ \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f}\n   is called simple if there are only finitely many other orbits in a neighbourhood of each of its points. Vladimir Arnold has shown that the only simple singular map germs \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        ,\n        0\n        )\n        \u2192\n        (\n        \n          R\n        \n        ,\n        0\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (\\mathbb {R} ^{n},0)\\to (\\mathbb {R} ,0)}\n   for \n  \n    \n      \n        1\n        \u2264\n        n\n        \u2264\n        3\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 1\\leq n\\leq 3}\n   are the infinite sequence \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          A\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A_{k}}\n   (\n  \n    \n      \n        k\n        \u2208\n        \n          N\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k\\in \\mathbb {N} }\n  ), the infinite sequence \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          D\n          \n            4\n            +\n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D_{4+k}}\n   (\n  \n    \n      \n        k\n        \u2208\n        \n          N\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k\\in \\mathbb {N} }\n  ), \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          E\n          \n            6\n          \n        \n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle E_{6},}\n   \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          E\n          \n            7\n          \n        \n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle E_{7},}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          E\n          \n            8\n          \n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle E_{8}.}", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, an absorbing set for a random dynamical system is a subset of the phase space. A dynamical system is a system in which a function describes the time dependence of a point in a geometrical space.\nThe absorbing set eventually contains the image of any bounded set under the cocycle (\"flow\") of the random dynamical system. As with many concepts related to random dynamical systems, it is defined in the pullback sense.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the actuarial polynomials a(\u03b2)n(x) are polynomials studied by Toscano (1950) given by the generating function\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \u2211\n            \n              n\n            \n          \n          \n            \n              \n                \n                  a\n                  \n                    n\n                  \n                  \n                    (\n                    \u03b2\n                    )\n                  \n                \n                (\n                x\n                )\n              \n              \n                n\n                !\n              \n            \n          \n          \n            t\n            \n              n\n            \n          \n          =\n          exp\n          \u2061\n          (\n          \u03b2\n          t\n          +\n          x\n          (\n          1\n          \u2212\n          \n            e\n            \n              t\n            \n          \n          )\n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\displaystyle \\sum _{n}{\\frac {a_{n}^{(\\beta )}(x)}{n!}}t^{n}=\\exp(\\beta t+x(1-e^{t}))}\n  (Roman 1984, 4.3.4), Boas & Buck (1958).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Advisory Committee on Mathematics Education (ACME) is a British policy council for the Royal Society based in London, England. Founded in 2002 by the Royal Society and the Joint Mathematical Council, ACME analyzes mathematics education practices and provides advice on education policy. ACME is funded by the Gatsby Charitable Foundation (2002-2015) and the Department for Education.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The age of the captain is a mathematical word problem which cannot be answered even though there seems to be plenty of information supplied. It was given for the first time by Gustave Flaubert in a letter to his sister Caroline in 1841:\n\nPuisque tu fais de la g\u00e9om\u00e9trie et de la trigonom\u00e9trie, je vais te donner un probl\u00e8me : Un navire est en mer, il est parti de Boston charg\u00e9 de coton, il jauge 200 tonneaux. Il fait voile vers le Havre, le grand m\u00e2t est cass\u00e9, il y a un mousse sur le gaillard d\u2019avant, les passagers sont au nombre de douze, le vent souffle N.-E.-E., l\u2019horloge marque 3 heures un quart d\u2019apr\u00e8s-midi, on est au mois de mai\u2026. On demande l\u2019\u00e2ge du capitaine?\n\nSince you are now studying geometry and trigonometry, I will give you a problem. A ship sails the ocean. It left Boston with a cargo of wool. It grosses 200 tons. It is bound for Le Havre. The mainmast is broken, the cabin boy is on deck, there are 12 passengers aboard, the wind is blowing East-North-East, the clock points to a quarter past three in the afternoon. It is the month of May. How old is the captain?\n\nMore recently, a simpler version has been used to study how students react to word problems:\n\nA captain owns 26 sheep and 10 goats. How old is the captain?\n\nMany children in elementary school, from different parts of the world, attempt to  \"solve\" this nonsensical problem by giving the answer 36, obtained by adding the numbers 26 and 10. It has been suggested that this indicates schooling and education fail to instill critical thinking in children, and do not teach them that a question may be unsolvable. However, others have countered that in education students are taught that all questions have a solution and that giving any answer is better than leaving it blank, hence the attempt to \"solve\" it.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In the mathematical theory of Kleinian groups, the Ahlfors finiteness theorem describes the quotient of the domain of discontinuity by a finitely generated Kleinian group. The theorem was proved by Lars Ahlfors (1964, 1965), apart from a gap that was filled by Greenberg (1967).\nThe Ahlfors finiteness theorem  states that if \u0393 is a finitely-generated Kleinian group  with region of discontinuity \u03a9, then\n\u03a9/\u0393 has a finite number of components, each of which is a compact Riemann surface with a finite number of points removed.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Ahlfors conjecture, now a theorem, states that the limit set of a finitely-generated Kleinian group is either the whole Riemann sphere, or has measure 0. \nThe conjecture was introduced by Ahlfors (1966), who proved it in the case that the Kleinian group has a fundamental domain with a finite number of sides. Canary (1993) proved the Ahlfors conjecture for topologically tame groups, by showing that a topologically tame Kleinian group is geometrically tame,  so the Ahlfors conjecture follows from Marden's tameness conjecture that hyperbolic 3-manifolds with finitely generated fundamental groups are topologically tame (homeomorphic to the interior of compact 3-manifolds). This latter conjecture was proved, independently, by Agol (2004) and by Calegari & Gabai (2006).\nCanary (1993) also showed that in the case when the limit set is the whole sphere, the action of the Kleinian group on the limit set is ergodic.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In applied mathematics, an Akima spline is a type of non-smoothing spline that gives good fits to curves where the second derivative is rapidly varying. The Akima spline was published by Hiroshi Akima in 1970.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the AKNS system is an integrable system of partial differential equations, introduced by and named after Mark J. Ablowitz, David J. Kaup, Alan C. Newell, and Harvey Segur from their publication in Studies in Applied Mathematics:  Ablowitz, Kaup, and Newell et al. (1974).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Al-Salam\u2013Ismail polynomials are a family of orthogonal polynomials introduced by Al-Salam and  Ismail (1983).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "ALEKS (Assessment and Learning in Knowledge Spaces) is an online tutoring and assessment program that includes course material in mathematics, chemistry,  introductory statistics, and business.Rather than being based on numerical test scores, ALEKS uses the theory of knowledge spaces to develop a combinatorial understanding of the set of topics a student does or doesn't understand from the answers to its test questions. Based on this assessment, it determines the topics that the student is ready to learn and allows the student to choose from interactive learning modules for these topics.ALEKS was initially developed at UC Irvine starting in 1994 with support from a large National Science Foundation grant. The software was granted by UC Irvine's Office of Technology Alliances to ALEKS Corporation under an exclusive, worldwide, perpetual license. In 2013, the ALEKS Corporation was acquired by McGraw-Hill Education.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Algorismus is a short treatise on mathematics, written in Old Icelandic. It is the oldest text on mathematics in a Scandinavian language and survives in the early fourteenth-century manuscript Hauksb\u00f3k, a large book written and compiled by Icelanders and taken to Norway during the later part of the 13th century by Haukur Erlendsson. It is probably a translation from Latin into Old Norse of some pages included in more ancient books such as Carmen de Algorismo by De Villa Dei of 1200, Liber Abaci by Fibonacci of 1202, and Algorismus Vulgaris by De Sacrobosco of 1230.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Almgren\u2013Pitts min-max theory (named after Frederick J. Almgren, Jr. and his student Jon T. Pitts) is an analogue of Morse theory for hypersurfaces.\nThe theory started with the efforts for generalizing George David Birkhoff's method for the construction of simple closed geodesics on the sphere, to allow the construction of embedded minimal surfaces in arbitrary 3-manifolds.It has played roles in the solutions to a number of conjectures in geometry and topology found by Almgren and Pitts themselves and also by other mathematicians, such as Mikhail Gromov, Richard Schoen, Shing-Tung Yau, Fernando Cod\u00e1 Marques, Andr\u00e9 Neves, Ian Agol, among others.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, an nth-order Argand system (named after French mathematician Jean-Robert Argand) is a coordinate system constructed around the nth roots of unity. From the origin, n axes extend such that the angle between each axis and the axes immediately before and after it is 360/n degrees. For example, the number line is the 2nd-order Argand system because the two axes extending from the origin represent 1 and \u22121, the 2nd roots of unity. The complex plane (sometimes called the Argand plane, also named after Argand) is the 4th-order Argand system because the 4 axes extending from the origin represent 1, i, \u22121, and \u2212i, the 4th roots of unity.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, an argument of a function is a value provided to obtain the function's result. It is also called an independent variable.For example, the binary function \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n        =\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        \n          y\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x,y)=x^{2}+y^{2}}\n   has two arguments, \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        y\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y}\n  , in an ordered pair \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        x\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (x,y)}\n  . The hypergeometric function is an example of a four-argument function. The number of arguments that a function takes is called the arity of the function. A function that takes a single argument as input, such as \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        )\n        =\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x)=x^{2}}\n  , is called a unary function. A function of two or more variables is considered to have a domain consisting of ordered pairs or tuples of argument values. The argument of a circular function is an angle. The argument of a hyperbolic function is a hyperbolic angle.\nA mathematical function has one or more arguments in the form of independent variables designated in the definition, which can also contain parameters. The independent variables are mentioned in the list of arguments that the function takes, whereas the parameters are not. For example, in the logarithmic function \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        )\n        =\n        \n          log\n          \n            b\n          \n        \n        \u2061\n        (\n        x\n        )\n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x)=\\log _{b}(x),}\n   the base \n  \n    \n      \n        b\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle b}\n   is considered a parameter. \nSometimes, subscripts can be used to denote arguments. For example, we can use subscripts to denote the arguments with respect to which partial derivatives are taken.The use of the term \"argument\" in this sense developed from astronomy, which historically used tables to determine the spatial positions of planets from their positions in the sky (ephemerides). These tables were organized according to measured angles called arguments, literally \"that which elucidates something else.\"", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The arithmetic progression game is a positional game where two players alternately pick numbers, trying to occupy a complete arithmetic progression of a given size.\nThe game is parameterized by two integers n > k. The game-board is the set {1,...,n}. The winning-sets are all the arithmetic progressions of length k.   In a Maker-Breaker game variant, the first player (Maker) wins by occupying a k-length arithmetic progression, otherwise the second player (Breaker) wins.\nThe game is also called the van der Waerden game,  named after Van der Waerden's theorem. It says that, for any k, there exists some integer W(2,k) such that, if the integers {1, ..., W(2,k)} are partitioned arbitrarily into two sets, then at least one set contains an arithmetic progression of length k.  This means that,  if \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        \u2265\n        W\n        (\n        2\n        ,\n        k\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n\\geq W(2,k)}\n  , then Maker has a winning strategy.\nUnfortunately, this claim is not constructive - it does not show a specific strategy for Maker. Moreover, the current upper bound for W(2,k) is extremely large (the currently known bounds are: \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          2\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n        \n          /\n        \n        \n          k\n          \n            \u03b5\n          \n        \n        <\n        W\n        (\n        2\n        ,\n        k\n        )\n        <\n        \n          2\n          \n            \n              2\n              \n                \n                  2\n                  \n                    \n                      2\n                      \n                        k\n                        +\n                        9\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 2^{k}/k^{\\varepsilon }<W(2,k)<2^{2^{2^{2^{k+9}}}}}\n  ).\nLet W*(2,k) be the smallest integer such that Maker has a winning strategy.  Beck proves that \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          2\n          \n            k\n            \u2212\n            7\n            \n              k\n              \n                7\n                \n                  /\n                \n                8\n              \n            \n          \n        \n        <\n        \n          W\n          \n            \u2217\n          \n        \n        (\n        2\n        ,\n        k\n        )\n        <\n        \n          k\n          \n            3\n          \n        \n        \n          2\n          \n            k\n            \u2212\n            4\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 2^{k-7k^{7/8}}<W^{*}(2,k)<k^{3}2^{k-4}}\n  . In particular, if  \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          k\n          \n            3\n          \n        \n        \n          2\n          \n            k\n            \u2212\n            4\n          \n        \n        <\n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k^{3}2^{k-4}<n}\n  , then the game is Maker's win (even though it is much smaller than the number that guarantees no-draw).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Askey\u2013Wilson polynomials (or q-Wilson polynomials) are a family of orthogonal polynomials introduced by Askey and  Wilson (1985) as q-analogs of the Wilson polynomials. They include many of the other orthogonal polynomials in 1 variable as special or limiting cases, described in the Askey scheme. Askey\u2013Wilson polynomials are the special case of Macdonald polynomials (or Koornwinder polynomials) for the non-reduced affine root system of type (C\u22281, C1), and their 4 parameters a, b, c, d correspond to the 4 orbits of roots of this root system.\nThey are defined by \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          p\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        (\n        x\n        )\n        =\n        \n          p\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        (\n        x\n        ;\n        a\n        ,\n        b\n        ,\n        c\n        ,\n        d\n        \u2223\n        q\n        )\n        :=\n        \n          a\n          \n            \u2212\n            n\n          \n        \n        (\n        a\n        b\n        ,\n        a\n        c\n        ,\n        a\n        d\n        ;\n        q\n        \n          )\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        \n          \n          \n            4\n          \n        \n        \n          \u03d5\n          \n            3\n          \n        \n        \n          [\n          \n            \n              \n                \n                  \n                    \n                      q\n                      \n                        \u2212\n                        n\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                  \n                    a\n                    b\n                    c\n                    d\n                    \n                      q\n                      \n                        n\n                        \u2212\n                        1\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                  \n                    a\n                    \n                      e\n                      \n                        i\n                        \u03b8\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                  \n                    a\n                    \n                      e\n                      \n                        \u2212\n                        i\n                        \u03b8\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                \n                \n                  \n                    a\n                    b\n                  \n                  \n                    a\n                    c\n                  \n                  \n                    a\n                    d\n                  \n                \n              \n            \n            ;\n            q\n            ,\n            q\n          \n          ]\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle p_{n}(x)=p_{n}(x;a,b,c,d\\mid q):=a^{-n}(ab,ac,ad;q)_{n}\\;_{4}\\phi _{3}\\left[{\\begin{matrix}q^{-n}&abcdq^{n-1}&ae^{i\\theta }&ae^{-i\\theta }\\\\ab&ac&ad\\end{matrix}};q,q\\right]}\n  where \u03c6 is a basic hypergeometric function, x = cos \u03b8, and (,,,)n is the q-Pochhammer symbol. Askey\u2013Wilson functions are a generalization to non-integral values of n.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Association of Christians in the Mathematical Sciences (ACMS) is an organization of professional mathematicians and computer scientists that share Christian beliefs. The organization's goal is to foster community among Christian mathematicians and to explore the interplay between faith and mathematics. The organization has an online journal and hosts a worship service and banquet at the Joint Mathematics Meeting. It also sponsors a biennial conference.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Bar recursion is a generalized form of recursion developed by C. Spector in his 1962 paper. It is related to bar induction in the same fashion that primitive recursion is related to ordinary induction, or transfinite recursion is related to transfinite induction.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Barnes\u2013Wall lattice \u039b16, discovered by Eric Stephen Barnes and G. E. (Tim) Wall (Barnes & Wall (1959)), is the 16-dimensional positive-definite even integral lattice of discriminant 28 with no norm-2 vectors. It is the sublattice of the Leech lattice fixed by a certain automorphism of order 2, and is analogous to the Coxeter\u2013Todd lattice.\nThe automorphism group of the Barnes\u2013Wall lattice has order 89181388800 = 221 35 52 7 and has structure 21+8 PSO8+(F2).  There are 4320 vectors of norm 4 in the Barnes\u2013Wall lattice (the shortest nonzero vectors in this lattice).\nThe genus of the Barnes\u2013Wall lattice was described by Scharlau & Venkov (1994) and contains 24 lattices; all the elements other than the Barnes\u2013Wall lattice have root system of maximal rank 16. \nThe Barnes\u2013Wall lattice is described in detail in (Conway & Sloane 1999, section 4.10).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Bellard's formula is used to calculate the nth digit of \u03c0 in base 16.\nBellard's formula was discovered by Fabrice Bellard in 1997. It is about 43% faster than the Bailey\u2013Borwein\u2013Plouffe formula (discovered in 1995). It has been used in PiHex, the now-completed distributed computing project.\nOne important application is verifying computations of all digits of pi performed by other means.  Rather than having to compute all of the digits twice by two separate algorithms to ensure that a computation is correct, the final digits of a very long all-digits computation can be verified by the much faster Bellard's formula.Formula:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \n                \u03c0\n                =\n                \n                  \n                    1\n                    \n                      2\n                      \n                        6\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                \n                \n                  \u2211\n                  \n                    n\n                    =\n                    0\n                  \n                  \n                    \u221e\n                  \n                \n                \n                  \n                    \n                      (\n                      \u2212\n                      1\n                      \n                        )\n                        \n                          n\n                        \n                      \n                    \n                    \n                      2\n                      \n                        10\n                        n\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                \n                \n                \n                  (\n                  \n                    \u2212\n                    \n                      \n                        \n                          2\n                          \n                            5\n                          \n                        \n                        \n                          4\n                          n\n                          +\n                          1\n                        \n                      \n                    \n                  \n                  \n                \n              \n              \n                \n                \n\n                \n                \u2212\n                \n                  \n                    1\n                    \n                      4\n                      n\n                      +\n                      3\n                    \n                  \n                \n                +\n                \n                  \n                    \n                      2\n                      \n                        8\n                      \n                    \n                    \n                      10\n                      n\n                      +\n                      1\n                    \n                  \n                \n                \u2212\n                \n                  \n                    \n                      2\n                      \n                        6\n                      \n                    \n                    \n                      10\n                      n\n                      +\n                      3\n                    \n                  \n                \n                \n                  \n                  \n                    \n\n                    \n                    \u2212\n                    \n                      \n                        \n                          2\n                          \n                            2\n                          \n                        \n                        \n                          10\n                          n\n                          +\n                          5\n                        \n                      \n                    \n                    \u2212\n                    \n                      \n                        \n                          2\n                          \n                            2\n                          \n                        \n                        \n                          10\n                          n\n                          +\n                          7\n                        \n                      \n                    \n                    +\n                    \n                      \n                        1\n                        \n                          10\n                          n\n                          +\n                          9\n                        \n                      \n                    \n                  \n                  )\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\pi ={\\frac {1}{2^{6}}}\\sum _{n=0}^{\\infty }{\\frac {(-1)^{n}}{2^{10n}}}\\,\\left(-{\\frac {2^{5}}{4n+1}}\\right.&{}-{\\frac {1}{4n+3}}+{\\frac {2^{8}}{10n+1}}-{\\frac {2^{6}}{10n+3}}\\left.{}-{\\frac {2^{2}}{10n+5}}-{\\frac {2^{2}}{10n+7}}+{\\frac {1}{10n+9}}\\right)\\end{aligned}}}", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Bhaskaracharya Pratishthana is a research and education institute for mathematics in Pune, India, founded by noted Indian-American mathematician professor Shreeram Abhyankar.\nThe institute is named after the great ancient Indian Mathematician Bhaskaracharya (Born in 1114 A.D.). Bhaskaracharya Pratishthana is a Pune, India, based institute founded in 1976. It has researchers working in many areas of mathematics, particularly in algebra and number theory.Since 1992, the Pratishthan has also been a recognized center for conducting Regional Mathematics Olympiad (RMO) under the National Board for Higher Mathematics (NBHM) for Maharashtra and Goa Region. This has enabled the Pratishthan to train lots of students from std. V to XII for this examination. Many students who received training at BP have won medals in the International Mathematical Olympiad.Pratishthana publishes the mathematics periodical Bona Mathematica and has published texts in higher and olympiad mathematics. Besides this the Pratishthan holds annual / biennial conferences/Workshops in some research areas in higher mathematics attended by Indian/Foreign scholars and Professors. The Pratishthan has organized a number of workshops for research students and college teachers under the aegis of NBHM/NCM. The National Board for Higher Mathematics has greatly helped Pratishthan to enrich its library and the Department of Atomic Energy and the Mathematics Department of S. P. Pune University have rendered active co-operation in holding conferences/workshops.\nIt also conducts the BMTSC exam which is a school-level mathematics competition for students studying in the 5th and the 6th grade. The objectives of the competition are listed below:\n1. Identify good students of mathematics at an early age.\n2. A pre Olympiad type competition.\n3. To enhance Mathematical ability and logical thinking.\n4. Nurture programs for successful students to improve their ability.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the big q-Jacobi polynomials  Pn(x;a,b,c;q), introduced by Andrews & Askey (1985), are a family of basic hypergeometric orthogonal polynomials in the basic Askey scheme. Roelof Koekoek, Peter A. Lesky, and Ren\u00e9 F. Swarttouw (2010,\u200214) give a detailed list of their properties.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the big q-Legendre polynomials are an orthogonal family of polynomials defined in terms of Heine's basic hypergeometric series as\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            P\n            \n              n\n            \n          \n          (\n          x\n          ;\n          c\n          ;\n          q\n          )\n          =\n          \n            \n\n            \n            \n              3\n            \n          \n          \n            \u03d5\n            \n              2\n            \n          \n          (\n          \n            q\n            \n              \u2212\n              n\n            \n          \n          ,\n          \n            q\n            \n              n\n              +\n              1\n            \n          \n          ,\n          x\n          ;\n          q\n          ,\n          c\n          q\n          ;\n          q\n          ,\n          q\n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\displaystyle P_{n}(x;c;q)={}_{3}\\phi _{2}(q^{-n},q^{n+1},x;q,cq;q,q)}\n  .They obey the orthogonality relation\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u222b\n          \n            c\n            q\n          \n          \n            q\n          \n        \n        \n          P\n          \n            m\n          \n        \n        (\n        x\n        ;\n        c\n        ;\n        q\n        )\n        \n          P\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        (\n        x\n        ;\n        c\n        ;\n        q\n        )\n        \n        d\n        x\n        =\n        q\n        (\n        1\n        \u2212\n        c\n        )\n        \n          \n            \n              1\n              \u2212\n              q\n            \n            \n              1\n              \u2212\n              \n                q\n                \n                  2\n                  n\n                  +\n                  1\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n        \n          \n            \n              (\n              \n                c\n                \n                  \u2212\n                  1\n                \n              \n              q\n              ;\n              q\n              \n                )\n                \n                  n\n                \n              \n            \n            \n              (\n              c\n              q\n              ;\n              q\n              \n                )\n                \n                  n\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n        (\n        \u2212\n        c\n        \n          q\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \n          )\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        \n          q\n          \n            \n              \n                (\n              \n              \n                n\n                2\n              \n              \n                )\n              \n            \n          \n        \n        \n          \u03b4\n          \n            m\n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\int _{cq}^{q}P_{m}(x;c;q)P_{n}(x;c;q)\\,dx=q(1-c){\\frac {1-q}{1-q^{2n+1}}}{\\frac {(c^{-1}q;q)_{n}}{(cq;q)_{n}}}(-cq^{2})^{n}q^{n \\choose 2}\\delta _{mn}}\n  and have the limiting behavior\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            lim\n            \n              q\n              \u2192\n              1\n            \n          \n          \n            P\n            \n              n\n            \n          \n          (\n          x\n          ;\n          0\n          ;\n          q\n          )\n          =\n          \n            P\n            \n              n\n            \n          \n          (\n          2\n          x\n          \u2212\n          1\n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\displaystyle \\lim _{q\\to 1}P_{n}(x;0;q)=P_{n}(2x-1)}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          P\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle P_{n}}\n   is the \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n}\n  th Legendre polynomial.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, Birkhoff factorization or Birkhoff decomposition, introduced by George David Birkhoff (1909), is the factorization of an invertible matrix M with coefficients that are Laurent polynomials in z into a product M = M+M0M\u2212, where M+ has entries that are polynomials in z, M0 is diagonal, and M\u2212 has entries that are polynomials in z\u22121. There are several variations where the general linear group is replaced by some other reductive algebraic group, due to Alexander Grothendieck (1957).\nBirkhoff factorization implies the Birkhoff\u2013Grothendieck theorem of Grothendieck (1957) that vector bundles over the projective line are sums of line bundles.\nBirkhoff factorization follows from the Bruhat decomposition for affine Kac\u2013Moody groups (or loop groups), and conversely the Bruhat decomposition for the affine general linear group follows from Birkhoff factorization together with the Bruhat decomposition for the ordinary general linear group.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Blackwell\u2013Tapia Prize is a mathematics award that recognizes someone who has made significant research contributions in their field and has worked to address the problem of under-representation of minority groups in mathematics. It is presented every other year at the Blackwell-Tapia Conference, which promotes mathematical excellence by minority researchers and is sponsored by the National Science Foundation. The prize is named for David Blackwell and Richard Tapia.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The International J\u00e1nos Bolyai Prize of Mathematics is an international prize founded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The prize is named after J\u00e1nos Bolyai and is awarded every five years to mathematicians for monographs with important new results in the preceding 10 years.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Bott cannibalistic class, introduced by Raoul Bott (1962), is an  element \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03b8\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n        (\n        V\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta _{k}(V)}\n   of the representation ring of a compact Lie group that describes the action of the Adams operation \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03c8\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\psi ^{k}}\n   on the Thom class \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03bb\n          \n            V\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\lambda _{V}}\n   of a complex representation \n  \n    \n      \n        V\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle V}\n  . The term \"cannibalistic\" for these classes was introduced by Frank Adams (1965,\u2002p.151).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Bounded growth occurs when the growth rate of a mathematical function is constantly increasing at a decreasing rate. Asymptotically, bounded growth approaches a fixed value. This contrasts with exponential growth, which is constantly increasing at an accelerating rate, and therefore approaches infinity in the limit.\nAn example of bounded growth is the logistic function.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, Brenke polynomials are special cases of generalized Appell polynomials, and Brenke\u2013Chihara polynomials are the Brenke polynomials that are also orthogonal polynomials.\nBrenke (1945) introduced  sequences of Brenke polynomials Pn, which are special cases of generalized Appell polynomials with generating function of the form\n\n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        (\n        w\n        )\n        B\n        (\n        x\n        w\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \u2211\n          \n            n\n            =\n            0\n          \n          \n            \u221e\n          \n        \n        \n          P\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        (\n        x\n        )\n        \n          w\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A(w)B(xw)=\\sum _{n=0}^{\\infty }P_{n}(x)w^{n}.}\n  Brenke observed that Hermite polynomials and Laguerre polynomials are examples of Brenke polynomials, and asked if there are any other sequences of orthogonal polynomials of this form. Geronimus (1947) found some further examples of orthogonal Brenke polynomials. Chihara (1968, 1971) completely classified all Brenke polynomials that form orthogonal sequences, which are now called Brenke\u2013Chihara polynomials, and found their orthogonality relations.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Buckmaster equation is a second-order nonlinear partial differential equation, named after John D. Buckmaster, who derived the equation in 1977. The equation models the surface of a thin sheet of viscous liquid. The equation was derived earlier by S. H. Smith and by P Smith, but these earlier derivations focused on the steady version of the equation.\nThe Buckmaster equation is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          u\n          \n            t\n          \n        \n        =\n        (\n        \n          u\n          \n            4\n          \n        \n        \n          )\n          \n            x\n            x\n          \n        \n        +\n        \u03bb\n        (\n        \n          u\n          \n            3\n          \n        \n        \n          )\n          \n            x\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle u_{t}=(u^{4})_{xx}+\\lambda (u^{3})_{x}}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03bb\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\lambda }\n   is a known parameter.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Canon Palmtronic LE-80M is an early hand-held calculator. It was manufactured by Canon inc. Unlike other models which used a processing chip manufactured by Texas Instruments the LE-80M used a Hitachi HD3553 chip.    When first released in 1973, it retailed for $138.45.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematical invariant theory, the canonizant or canonisant is a covariant of forms related to a canonical form for them.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The carry operator, symbolized by the \u00a2 sign,  is an abstraction of the operation of determining whether a portion of an adder network generates or propagates a carry. It is defined as follows:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        \n          G\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \n          P\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        )\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (G_{1},P_{1})\\ }\n   \u00a2 \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        \n          G\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \n          P\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        )\n        =\n        (\n        \n          G\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        \u2228\n        \n          G\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \n          P\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \n          P\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        \n          P\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (G_{2},P_{2})=(G_{1}\\lor G_{2}P_{1},P_{2}P_{1})}", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Chihara\u2013Ismail polynomials are a family of orthogonal polynomials introduced by Chihara and  Ismail (1982), generalizing the van Doorn polynomials introduced by van Doorn (1981) and the Karlin\u2013McGregor polynomials. They have a rather unusual measure, which is discrete except for a single limit point at 0 with jump 0, and is non-symmetric, but whose support has an infinite number of both positive and negative points.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a function f of n variables \n\nx1, ..., xnleads to a Chisini mean M if for every vector <x1, ..., xn>, there exists a unique M such that \n\nf(M,M, ..., M) = f(x1,x2, ..., xn).The arithmetic, harmonic, geometric, generalised, Heronian and quadratic means are all Chisini means, as are their weighted variants.\nThey were introduced by Oscar Chisini in 1929.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a coherent topos is a topos generated by a collection of quasi-compact quasi-separated objects closed under finite products.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics education, concept image and concept definition are two ways of understanding a mathematical concept.\nThe terms were introduced by Tall & Vinner (1981). They define a concept image as such:\n\n\"We shall use the term concept image to describe the total cognitive structure that is associated with the concept, which includes all the mental pictures and associated properties and processes. It is built up over the years through experiences of all kinds, changing as the individual meets new stimuli and matures.\"A concept definition is similar to the usual notion of a definition in mathematics, with the distinction that it is personal to an individual:\n\n\"a personal concept definition can differ from a formal concept definition, the latter being a concept definition which is accepted by the mathematical community at large.\"", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Conflict-free coloring is a generalization of the notion of graph coloring to hypergraphs.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the continuous q-Legendre polynomials  are a family of basic hypergeometric orthogonal polynomials in the basic Askey scheme.Koekoek, Lesky & Swarttouw (2010) give a detailed list of their properties.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In general relativity and tensor calculus, the contracted Bianchi identities are:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u2207\n          \n            \u03c1\n          \n        \n        \n          \n            \n              R\n              \n                \u03c1\n              \n            \n          \n          \n            \u03bc\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            1\n            2\n          \n        \n        \n          \u2207\n          \n            \u03bc\n          \n        \n        R\n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\nabla _{\\rho }{R^{\\rho }}_{\\mu }={1 \\over 2}\\nabla _{\\mu }R,}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              R\n              \n                \u03c1\n              \n            \n          \n          \n            \u03bc\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {R^{\\rho }}_{\\mu }}\n   is the Ricci tensor, \n  \n    \n      \n        R\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle R}\n   the scalar curvature, and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u2207\n          \n            \u03c1\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\nabla _{\\rho }}\n   indicates covariant differentiation.\nThese identities are named after Luigi Bianchi, although they had been already derived by Aurel Voss in 1880. In the Einstein field equations, the contracted Bianchi identity ensures consistency with the vanishing divergence of the matter stress\u2013energy tensor.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a convolution quotient is to the operation of convolution as a quotient of integers is to multiplication. Convolution quotients were introduced by Mikusi\u0144ski (1949), and their theory is sometimes called Mikusi\u0144ski's operational calculus.\nThe kind of convolution \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        f\n        ,\n        g\n        )\n        \u21a6\n        f\n        \u2217\n        g\n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle (f,g)\\mapsto f*g}\n   with which this theory is concerned is defined by\n\n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        f\n        \u2217\n        g\n        )\n        (\n        x\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \u222b\n          \n            0\n          \n          \n            x\n          \n        \n        f\n        (\n        u\n        )\n        g\n        (\n        x\n        \u2212\n        u\n        )\n        \n        d\n        u\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (f*g)(x)=\\int _{0}^{x}f(u)g(x-u)\\,du.}\n  It follows from the Titchmarsh convolution theorem that if the convolution \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        \u2217\n        g\n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle f*g}\n   of two functions \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        ,\n        g\n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle f,g}\n   that are continuous on \n  \n    \n      \n        [\n        0\n        ,\n        +\n        \u221e\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle [0,+\\infty )}\n   is equal to 0 everywhere on that interval, then at least one of \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        ,\n        g\n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle f,g}\n   is 0 everywhere on that interval. A consequence is that if \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        ,\n        g\n        ,\n        h\n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle f,g,h}\n   are continuous on \n  \n    \n      \n        [\n        0\n        ,\n        +\n        \u221e\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle [0,+\\infty )}\n   then \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n        \u2217\n        f\n        =\n        h\n        \u2217\n        g\n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle h*f=h*g}\n   only if \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        =\n        g\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\textstyle f=g.}\n   This fact makes it possible to define convolution quotients by saying that for two functions \u0192, g, the pair (\u0192, g) has the same convolution quotient as the pair (h * \u0192,h * g).\nConvolution quotients are used in an approach to making Dirac's delta function and other generalized functions logically rigorous.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Count On is a major mathematics education project in the United Kingdom which was announced by education secretary David Blunkett at the end of 2000. It was the follow-on to Maths Year 2000 which was the UK's contribution to UNICEF's World Mathematical Year.Count On had two main strands:\n\nThe website www.counton.org which won the 2002 BETT prize for best free online learning resource.\n\"MathFests\", which were maths funfairs held around the country, aimed particularly at those who would not normally come into contact with mathematical ideas.The MathFests were run largely by MatheMagic and the University of York.The project has now been handed over to the NCETM.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Let \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        W\n        ,\n        S\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (W,S)}\n   be a finite Coxeter system acting by reflections on an \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          R\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} }\n  -Euclidean space. Let \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          a\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\boldsymbol {a}}}\n   be a point in the complement of the hyperplanes corresponding to the reflections in \n  \n    \n      \n        W\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle W}\n  . The convex hull of the \n  \n    \n      \n        W\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle W}\n  -orbit of \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          a\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\boldsymbol {a}}}\n   is a simple convex polytope: the well-known permutahedron \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          P\n          e\n          r\n          m\n        \n        \n          a\n          \n            a\n          \n        \n        \u2061\n        (\n        W\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {Perm} \\operatorname {a} ^{\\boldsymbol {a}}(W)}\n  . The normal fan of \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          P\n          e\n          r\n          m\n        \n        (\n        W\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {Perm} (W)}\n   is the Coxeter fan \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            F\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {F}}}\n  .More generally, given a Weyl group \n  \n    \n      \n        W\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle W}\n  , the Coxeter arrangement \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            A\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {A}}}\n   for \n  \n    \n      \n        W\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle W}\n   is the collection of all reflecting hyperplanes for \n  \n    \n      \n        W\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle W}\n  . The complement of the arrangement consists of open cones, whose closures are called chambers. The collection of chambers and all of their faces define the Coxeter fan \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            F\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {F}}}\n   associated to \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            A\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {A}}}\n  .", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The David Crighton Medal is an honorific medal awarded to mathematicians.\nThe Institute of Mathematics and its Applications (IMA) and the London Mathematical Society (LMS) instituted the medal in 2002 in honour of the British mathematician David Crighton FRS (1942\u20132000). The award is made biennially, and was first presented in 2003.Holders of the medal include Frank Kelly, Peter Neumann, Keith Moffatt, Christopher Zeeman, John Ball, David Abrahams and Arieh Iserles.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The cut locus is a mathematical structure defined for a closed set \n  \n    \n      \n        S\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle S}\n   in a space \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n  as the closure of the set of all points \n  \n    \n      \n        p\n        \u2208\n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle p\\in X}\n   that have two or more distinct shortest paths in \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   from \n  \n    \n      \n        S\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle S}\n   to \n  \n    \n      \n        p\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle p}\n  .", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics,  Danzer's configuration is a self-dual configuration of 35 lines and 35 points, having 4 points on each line and 4 lines through each point. It is named after the German geometer Ludwig Danzer and was popularised by Branko Gr\u00fcnbaum. The Levi graph of the configuration is the Kronecker cover of the odd graph O4, and is isomorphic to the middle layer graph of the seven-dimensional hypercube graph Q7. The middle layer graph of an odd-dimensional hypercube graph Q2n+1(n,n+1) is a subgraph whose vertex set consists of all binary strings of length 2n + 1 that have exactly n or n + 1 entries equal to 1, with an edge between any two vertices for which the corresponding binary strings differ in exactly one bit. Every middle layer graph is Hamiltonian.Danzer's configuration DCD(4) is the fourth term of an infinite series of \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                \n                  (\n                \n                \n                  \n                    2\n                    n\n                    \u2212\n                    1\n                  \n                  n\n                \n                \n                  )\n                \n              \n            \n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle ({\\tbinom {2n-1}{n}}_{n})}\n   configurations DCD(n), where DCD(1) is the trivial configuration (11), DCD(2) is the trilateral (32) and DCD(3) is the Desargues configuration (103). In  configurations DCD(n) were further generalized to the unbalanced \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                \n                  (\n                \n                \n                  n\n                  d\n                \n                \n                  )\n                \n              \n            \n          \n          \n            d\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                \n                  (\n                \n                \n                  n\n                  \n                    d\n                    \u2212\n                    1\n                  \n                \n                \n                  )\n                \n              \n            \n          \n          \n            n\n            \u2212\n            d\n            +\n            1\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle ({\\tbinom {n}{d}}_{d},{\\tbinom {n}{d-1}}_{n-d+1})}\n   configuration DCD(n,d) by introducing parameter d with connection DCD(n) = DCD(2n-1,n). DCD stands for Desargues-Cayley-Danzer. Each DCD(2n,d) configuration is a subconfiguration of\nthe \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        \n          2\n          \n            2\n            n\n            +\n            1\n          \n          \n            2\n            n\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (2_{2n+1}^{2n})}\n   Clifford configuration. While each DCD(n,d) admits a realisation as a geometric point-line configuration, the Clifford configuration can only be realised as a point-circle configuration\nand depicts the Clifford's circle theorems.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A ring is said to be a Dedekind-finite ring if ab = 1 implies ba = 1 for any two ring elements a and b. In other words, all one-sided inverses in the ring are two-sided.\nThese rings have also been called directly finite rings and von Neumann finite rings.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In algebraic geometry, a derived stack is, roughly, a stack together with a sheaf of commutative ring spectra. It generalizes a derived scheme. Derived stacks are the \"spaces\" studied in derived algebraic geometry.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In the mathematical field of graph theory, a Descartes snark is an undirected graph with 210 vertices and 315 edges. It is a snark, first discovered by William Tutte in 1948 under the pseudonym Blanche Descartes.A Descartes snark is obtained from the Petersen graph by replacing each vertex with a nonagon and each edge with a particular graph closely related to the Petersen graph.  Because there are multiple ways to perform this procedure, there are multiple Descartes snarks.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Deterministic blockmodeling is an approach in blockmodeling that does not assume a probabilistic model, and instead relies on the exact or approximate algorithms, which are used to find blockmodel(s). This approach typically minimizes some inconsistency that can occur with the ideal block structure. Such analysis is focused on clustering (grouping) of the network (or adjacency matrix) that is obtained with minimizing an objective function, which measures discrepancy from the ideal block structure.However, some indirect approaches (or methods between direct and indirect approaches, such as CONCOR) do not explicitly minimize inconsistencies or optimize some criterion function. This approach was popularized in the 1970s, due to the presence of two computer packages (CONCOR and STRUCTURE) that were used to \"find a permutation of the rows and columns in the adjacency matrix leading to an approximate block structure\".The opposite approach to deterministic blockmodeling is a stochastic blockmodeling approach.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In the area of abstract algebra known as group theory, the diameter of a finite group is a measure of its complexity.\nConsider a finite group \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            G\n            ,\n            \u2218\n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(G,\\circ \\right)}\n  , and any set of generators S. Define \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          D\n          \n            S\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D_{S}}\n   to be the graph diameter of the Cayley graph \n  \n    \n      \n        \u039b\n        =\n        \n          (\n          \n            G\n            ,\n            S\n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Lambda =\\left(G,S\\right)}\n  .  Then the diameter of \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            G\n            ,\n            \u2218\n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(G,\\circ \\right)}\n   is the largest value of \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          D\n          \n            S\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D_{S}}\n   taken over all generating sets S.\nFor instance, every finite cyclic group of order s, the Cayley graph for a generating set with one generator is an s-vertex cycle graph. The diameter of this graph, and of the group, is \n  \n    \n      \n        \u230a\n        s\n        \n          /\n        \n        2\n        \u230b\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\lfloor s/2\\rfloor }\n  .It is conjectured, for all non-abelian finite simple groups G, that\n\n  \n    \n      \n        diam\n        \u2061\n        (\n        G\n        )\n        \u2a7d\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              log\n              \u2061\n              \n                |\n              \n              G\n              \n                |\n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            \n              \n                O\n              \n            \n            (\n            1\n            )\n          \n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {diam} (G)\\leqslant \\left(\\log |G|\\right)^{{\\mathcal {O}}(1)}.}\n  Many partial results are known but the full conjecture remains open.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A discontinuous group is a mathematical concept relating to mappings in topological space.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A discovery system is an artificial intelligence system that attempts to discover new scientific concepts or laws. The aim of discovery systems is to automate scientific data analysis and the scientific discovery process. Ideally, an artificial intelligence system should be able to search systematically through the space of all possible hypotheses and yield the hypothesis - or set of equally likely hypotheses - that best describes the complex patterns in data.During the era known as the second AI summer (approximately 1978-1987), various systems akin to the era's dominant expert systems were developed to tackle the problem of extracting scientific hypotheses from data, with or without interacting with a human scientist. These systems included Autoclass, Automated Mathematician, Eurisko, which aimed at general-purpose hypothesis discovery, and more specific systems such as Dalton, which uncovers molecular properties from data.\nThe dream of building systems that discover scientific hypotheses was pushed to the background with the second AI winter and the subsequent resurgence of subsymbolic methods such as neural networks. Subsymbolic methods emphasize prediction over explanation, and yield models which works well but are difficult or impossible to explain which has earned them the name black box AI. A black-box model cannot be considered a scientific hypothesis, and this development has even led some researchers to suggest that the traditional aim of science - to uncover hypotheses and theories about the structure of reality - is obsolete. Other researchers disagree and argue that subsymbolic methods are useful in many cases, just not for generating scientific theories.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a distinguished limit is an appropriately chosen scale factor used in the method of matched asymptotic expansions.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Domain-to-range ratio (DRR) of a logical function (or software component) is the ratio of the cardinality of its set of all possible inputs (domain) to the cardinality of its set of all possible outputs (range). It can be used as a measurement of the risk of missing errors of logical function when testing is done on return values alone.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Early numeracy is a branch of numeracy that aims to enhance numeracy learning for younger learners, particularly those at-risk in the area of mathematics. Usually the mathematical learning begins with simply learning the digits, being 1-10. This is done because it acts as an entry way to the expansion of counting. One can keep track of the digits using any of the phalanges", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, Esenin-Volpin's theorem states that weight of an infinite compact dyadic space is the supremum of the weights of its points.\nIt was introduced by  Alexander Esenin-Volpin (1949). It was generalized by (Efimov 1965) and (Turza\u0144ski 1992).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics and computer science, an event structure represents a set of events, some of which can only be performed after another (there is a dependency between the events) and some of which might not be performed together (there is a conflict between the events).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Fatou conjecture, named after Pierre Fatou, states that a quadratic family of maps from the complex plane to itself is hyperbolic for an open dense set of parameters.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Forder Lectureship is awarded by the London Mathematical Society to a research mathematician from the United Kingdom who has made an eminent contribution to the field of mathematics and who can also speak effectively at a more popular level. The lectureship is named for Professor H.G. Forder, formerly of the University of Auckland, and a benefactor of the London Mathematical Society. The lectureship was established in 1986 by the London Mathematical Society and the New Zealand Mathematical Society, and is normally awarded every two years. Recipients of the lectureship will give a four- to six-week lecturing tour of most New Zealand universities.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Gabon Mathematical Society (in French: Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Math\u00e9matique du Gabon, SMG) is a learned society of the mathematicians from Gabon, recognized by the International Mathematical Union as the national mathematical organization for its country. It was founded in 2013 and its current president is Philibert Nang, from the \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure, Libreville.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In graph theory, the Gallai\u2013Edmonds decomposition is a partition of the vertices of a graph into subsets satisfying certain properties. It is a generalization of Dulmage\u2013Mendelsohn decomposition from bipartite graphs to general graphs.It was proved independently by Tibor Gallai and Jack Edmonds.\nIt can be found using the blossom algorithm.\nAn extension of the Gallai\u2013Edmonds decomposition theorem to multi-edge matchings is given in Katarzyna Paluch's \"Capacitated Rank-Maximal Matchings\".", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "This is a glossary featuring terms used across different areas in mathematics, or terms that do not typically appear in more specialized glossaries. For the terms used only in some specific areas of mathematics, see glossaries in Category:Glossaries of mathematics.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematical morphology, the h-maxima transform is a morphological operation used to filter local maxima of an image based on local contrast information. First all local maxima are defined as connected pixels in a given neighborhood with intensity level greater than pixels outside the neighborhood. Second, all local maxima that have height \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f}\n   lower or equal to a given threshold are suppressed. The height f of the remaining maxima is decreased by \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h}\n  .\nThe h-maxima transform is defined as the reconstruction by dilation of \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f}\n   from \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        \u2212\n        h\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f-h}\n  :\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          HMAX\n          \n            h\n          \n        \n        \u2061\n        (\n        f\n        )\n        =\n        \n          R\n          \n            f\n          \n          \n            \u03b4\n          \n        \n        (\n        f\n        \u2212\n        h\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {HMAX} _{h}(f)=R_{f}^{\\delta }(f-h)}", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a Heilbronn set is an infinite set S of natural numbers for which every real number can be arbitrarily closely approximated by a fraction whose denominator is in S. For any given real number \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b8\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta }\n   and natural number \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h}\n  , it is easy to find the integer \n  \n    \n      \n        g\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g}\n   such that \n  \n    \n      \n        g\n        \n          /\n        \n        h\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g/h}\n   is closest to \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b8\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta }\n  . For example, for the real number \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\pi }\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n        =\n        100\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h=100}\n   we have \n  \n    \n      \n        g\n        =\n        314\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g=314}\n  . If we call the closeness of \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b8\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta }\n   to \n  \n    \n      \n        g\n        \n          /\n        \n        h\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g/h}\n   the difference between \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n        \u03b8\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h\\theta }\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        g\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle g}\n  , the closeness is always less than 1/2 (in our example it is 0.15926...). A collection of numbers is a Heilbronn set if for any \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b8\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta }\n   we can always find a sequence of values for \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h}\n   in the set where the closeness tends to zero.\nMore mathematically let \n  \n    \n      \n        \u2016\n        \u03b1\n        \u2016\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\|\\alpha \\|}\n   denote the distance from \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n   to the nearest integer then \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            H\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {H}}}\n   is a Heilbronn set if and only if for every real number \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b8\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta }\n   and every \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03b5\n        >\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon >0}\n   there exists \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n        \u2208\n        \n          \n            H\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h\\in {\\mathcal {H}}}\n   such that \n  \n    \n      \n        \u2016\n        h\n        \u03b8\n        \u2016\n        <\n        \u03b5\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\|h\\theta \\|<\\varepsilon }\n  .", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "For group decision-making, the hierarchical decision process (HDP) refines the classical analytic hierarchy process (AHP) a step further in eliciting and evaluating subjective judgements.  These improvements, proposed initially by Dr. Jang Ra (a student of Dr. Thomas L. Saaty who developed and refined AHP) include the constant-sum measurement scale (1\u201399 scale) for comparing two elements, the logarithmic least squares method (LLSM) for computing normalized values, the sum of inverse column sums (SICS) for measuring the degree of (in)consistency, and sensitivity analysis of pairwise comparisons matrices.  These subtle modifications address issues concerning normal AHP consistency and applicability in the process of constructing hierarchies: generating criteria, classifying/selecting criteria, and screening/selecting decision alternatives.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In finite group theory, the Higman\u2013Sims asymptotic formula gives an asymptotic estimate on number of groups of prime power order.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Hilbert's twenty-fourth problem is a mathematical problem that was not published as part of the list of 23 problems known as Hilbert's problems but was included in David Hilbert's original notes. The problem asks for a criterion of simplicity in mathematical proofs and the development of a proof theory with the power to prove that a given proof is the simplest possible.The 24th problem was rediscovered by German historian R\u00fcdiger Thiele in 2000, noting that Hilbert did not include the 24th problem in the lecture presenting Hilbert's problems or any published texts. Hilbert's friends and fellow mathematicians Adolf Hurwitz and Hermann Minkowski were closely involved in the project but did not have any knowledge of this problem.\nThis is the full text from Hilbert's notes given in R\u00fcdiger Thiele's paper. The section was translated by R\u00fcdiger Thiele.:\u200a2\u200a\nThe 24th problem in my Paris lecture was to be: Criteria of simplicity, or proof of the greatest simplicity of certain proofs. Develop a theory of the method of proof in mathematics in general. Under a given set of conditions there can be but one simplest proof. Quite generally, if there are two proofs for a theorem, you must keep going until you have derived each from the other, or until it becomes quite evident what variant conditions (and aids) have been used in the two proofs. Given two routes, it is not right to take either of these two or to look for a third; it is necessary to investigate the area lying between the two routes. Attempts at judging the simplicity of a proof are in my examination of syzygies and syzygies [Hilbert misspelled the word syzygies] between syzygies (see Hilbert 42, lectures XXXII\u2013XXXIX). The use or the knowledge of a syzygy simplifies in an essential way a proof that a certain identity is true. Because any process of addition [is] an application of the commutative law of addition etc. [and because] this always corresponds to geometric theorems or logical conclusions, one can count these [processes], and, for instance, in proving certain theorems of elementary geometry (the Pythagoras theorem, [theorems] on remarkable points of triangles), one can very well decide which of the proofs is the simplest. [Author's note: Part of the last sentence is not only barely legible in Hilbert's notebook but also grammatically incorrect. Corrections and insertions that Hilbert made in this entry show that he wrote down the problem in haste.]\nIn 2002, Thiele and Larry Wos published an article on Hilbert's twenty-four problem with a discussion about its relation to various issues in automated reasoning, logic, and mathematics.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics applied to analysis of social structures, homogeneity blockmodeling is an approach in blockmodeling, which is best suited for a preliminary or main approach to valued networks, when a prior knowledge about these networks is not available. This is due to the fact, that homogeneity blockmodeling emphasizes the similarity of link (tie) strengths within the blocks over the pattern of links. In this approach, tie (link) values (or statistical data computed on them) are assumed to be equal (homogenous) within blocks.This approach to the generalized blockmodeling of valued networks was first proposed by Ale\u0161 \u017diberna in 2007 with the basic idea, \"that the inconsistency of an empirical block with its ideal block can be measured by within block variability of appropriate values\". The newly\u2013formed ideal blocks, which are appropriate for blockmodeling of valued networks, are then presented together with the definitions of their block inconsistencies. Similar approach to the homogeneity blockmodeling, dealing with direct approach for structural equivalence, was previously suggested by Stephen P. Borgatti and Martin G. Everett (1992).\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the hyperk\u00e4hler quotient of a hyperk\u00e4hler manifold acted on by a group G is the quotient of a fiber of the hyperk\u00e4hler moment map M\u2192R3\u2297g* over a G-fixed point (or more generally a G-orbit) by the action of G. It was introduced by Nigel Hitchin, Anders Karlhede, Ulf Lindstr\u00f6m, and Martin Ro\u010dek in 1987. It is a hyperk\u00e4hler analogue of the K\u00e4hler quotient.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The icosian game is a mathematical game invented in 1857 by William Rowan Hamilton. The game's object is finding a Hamiltonian cycle along the edges of a dodecahedron such that every vertex is visited a single time, and the ending point is the same as the starting point. The puzzle was distributed commercially as a pegboard with holes at the nodes of the dodecahedral graph and was subsequently marketed in Europe in many forms.\nThe motivation for Hamilton was the problem of symmetries of an icosahedron, for which he invented icosian calculus\u2014an algebraic tool to compute the symmetries. The solution of the puzzle is a cycle containing twenty (in ancient Greek icosa) edges (i.e. a Hamiltonian circuit on the dodecahedron).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Institut de Math\u00e9matiques de Toulouse (Toulouse Mathematics Institute; IMT) is a research laboratory of the mathematics community of the Toulouse area in France. It is partially supported by the French public research agency CNRS as unit UMR 5129. In 2020 the research in IMT is organized into six main teams, with some overlap:\n\nAnalyse,\nDynamique et g\u00e9om\u00e9trie complexe,\n\u00c9quations aux d\u00e9riv\u00e9es partielles,\nG\u00e9om\u00e9trie topologie alg\u00e8bre,\nProbabilit\u00e9s,\nStatistiques et optimisation.IMT is one of the largest French research centres in mathematics, and its scientific activities cover almost all domains of mathematics. It had approximately 200 permanent researchers and 100 PhD students in 2020, belonging to various institutions of the University of Toulouse and CNRS.\nThe main buildings of IMT are located on the Paul Sabatier University campus.\nIMT is in charge of the Fermat Prize and of the publication Annales de la Facult\u00e9 des Sciences de Toulouse.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Institute of Mathematics of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus was founded in 1959. It is headquartered in Minsk, with a division in Gomel.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Institute of Mathematics of the Polish Academy of Sciences is a research institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The International Centre for Mathematical Sciences (ICMS) is a mathematical research centre based in Edinburgh. According to its website, the centre is \"designed to bring together mathematicians and practitioners in science, industry and commerce for research workshops and other meetings.\"\nThe centre was jointly established in 1990 by the University of Edinburgh and Heriot-Watt University, under the supervision of Professor Elmer Rees, with initial support from Edinburgh District Council, the Scottish Development Agency and the International Centre for Theoretical Physics.\nIn April 1994 the Centre moved to 14 India Street, Edinburgh, the birthplace of James Clerk Maxwell and home of the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation. In 2010 it was relocated to 15 South College Street to accommodate larger events. As of 2020, the ICMS is located within the newly established Bayes centre.The current scientific director (appointed in 2016) is Professor Paul Glendinning. The ICMS is a member of the European Mathematical Society.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The International Society for Mathematical Sciences is a mathematics society, primarily based in Japan. It was formerly known as the Japanese Association of Mathematical Sciences, and was founded in 1948 by Tatsujiro Shimizu.The ISMS publishes a bimonthly scientific journal, Scientiae Mathematicae Japonicae (ISSN 1346-0447), which was formed in 2001 from the merger of two journals previously published by the same society, Mathematica Japonica, founded in 1948, and Scientiae Mathematicae, which published nine issues over three volumes in 1998, 1999, and 2000. In addition the ISMS holds an annual meeting and publishes a Japanese language mathematics magazine, Kaiho, and a monthly newsletter, Notices from the ISMS.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Italian Mathematical Union (Italian: Unione Matematica Italiana) is a mathematics society based in Italy. It was founded on December 7, 1922 by Luigi Bianchi, Vito Volterra, and most notably, Salvatore Pincherle, who became the Union's first President. The Union's journal is the Bollettino dell'Unione Matematica Italiana, which contains two sections: one for research papers, and one for expository articles.\nThe Italian mathematical union awards the Bartolozzi Prize, the Caccioppoli Prize and the Stampacchia Medal.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In the study of the arithmetic of elliptic curves, the j-line over a ring R is the coarse moduli scheme attached to the moduli problem sending a ring \n  \n    \n      \n        R\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle R}\n   to the set of isomorphism classes of elliptic curves over \n  \n    \n      \n        R\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle R}\n  . Since elliptic curves over the complex numbers are isomorphic (over an algebraic closure) if and only if their \n  \n    \n      \n        j\n        \u2212\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle j-}\n  invariants agree, the affine space \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            A\n          \n          \n            j\n          \n          \n            1\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {A} _{j}^{1}}\n   parameterizing j-invariants of elliptic curves yields a coarse moduli space. However, this fails to be a fine moduli space due to the presence of elliptic curves with automorphisms, necessitating the construction of the Moduli stack of elliptic curves.\nThis is related to the congruence subgroup \n  \n    \n      \n        \u0393\n        (\n        1\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Gamma (1)}\n   in the following way:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        M\n        (\n        [\n        \u0393\n        (\n        1\n        )\n        ]\n        )\n        =\n        \n          S\n          p\n          e\n          c\n        \n        (\n        R\n        [\n        j\n        ]\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M([\\Gamma (1)])=\\mathrm {Spec} (R[j])}\n  Here the j-invariant is normalized such that \n  \n    \n      \n        j\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle j=0}\n   has complex multiplication by \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          Z\n        \n        [\n        \n          \u03b6\n          \n            3\n          \n        \n        ]\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {Z} [\\zeta _{3}]}\n  , and \n  \n    \n      \n        j\n        =\n        1728\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle j=1728}\n   has complex multiplication by \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          Z\n        \n        [\n        i\n        ]\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {Z} [i]}\n  .\nThe j-line can be seen as giving a coordinatization of the classical modular curve of level 1, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          X\n          \n            0\n          \n        \n        (\n        1\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X_{0}(1)}\n  , which is isomorphic to the complex projective line \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            P\n          \n          \n            \n              /\n            \n            \n              C\n            \n          \n          \n            1\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {P} _{/\\mathbb {C} }^{1}}\n  .", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a jumping line or exceptional line of a vector bundle over projective space is a projective line in projective space where the vector bundle has exceptional behavior, in other words the structure of its restriction to the line \"jumps\". Jumping lines were introduced by R. L. E. Schwarzenberger (1961). The jumping lines of a vector bundle form a proper closed subset of the Grassmannian of all lines of projective space.\nThe Birkhoff\u2013Grothendieck theorem classifies the n-dimensional vector bundles over a projective line as corresponding to unordered n-tuples of integers. This phenomenon cannot be generalized to higher dimensional projective spaces, namely, one cannot decompose an arbitrary bundle in terms of a Whitney sum of powers of the Tautological bundle, or in fact of line bundles in general. Still one can gain information of this type by using the following method. Given a bundle on \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            C\n            P\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {CP} ^{n}}\n  , \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            E\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {E}}}\n  , we may take a line \n  \n    \n      \n        L\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle L}\n   in \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            C\n            P\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {CP} ^{n}}\n  , or equivalently, a 2-dimensional subspace of \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            C\n          \n          \n            n\n            +\n            1\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} ^{n+1}}\n  . This forms a variety equivalent to \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            C\n            P\n          \n          \n            1\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {CP} ^{1}}\n   embedded in \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            C\n            P\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {CP} ^{n}}\n  , so we can the restriction of \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              E\n            \n          \n          \n            L\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {E}}_{L}}\n   to \n  \n    \n      \n        L\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle L}\n  , and it will decompose by the Birkhoff\u2013Grothendieck theorem as a sum of powers of the Tautological bundle. It can be shown that the unique tuple of integers specified by this splitting is the same for a 'generic' choice of line. More technically, there is a non-empty, open sub-variety of the Grassmannian of lines in \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            C\n            P\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {CP} ^{n}}\n  , with decomposition of the same type. Lines such that the decomposition differs from this generic type are called 'Jumping Lines'. If the bundle is generically trivial along lines, then the Jumping lines are precisely the lines such that the restriction is nontrivial.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The largest small octagon is the octagon that has the largest area among all convex octagons with unit diameter.  The diameter of a polygon is the length of the longest segment joining two of its vertices.  The exact value of the area of the largest small octagon lies between 0.72686845 and 0.72686849, and is approximately 2.8% larger than the area of the regular octagon.  This octagon was found in 2002 using global optimization algorithms.  The optimal hexagon was found in 1975 by finding the roots of a degree 10 polynomial.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A latent space, also known as a latent feature space or embedding space, is an embedding of a set of items within a manifold in which items which resemble each other more closely are positioned closer to one another in the latent space. Position within the latent space can be viewed as being defined by a set of latent variables that emerge from the resemblances from the objects.\nIn most cases, the dimensionality of the latent space is chosen to be lower than the dimensionality of the feature space from which the data points are drawn, making the construction of a latent space an example of dimensionality reduction, which can also be viewed as a form of data compression or machine learning.\nA number of algorithms exist to create latent space embeddings given a set of data items and a similarity function.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Latvian Mathematical Society (in Latvian: Latvijas Matem\u0101tikas Biedr\u012bba, LMB) is a learned society of mathematicians from Latvia, recognized by the International Mathematical Union as the national mathematical organization for its country. Its goals are stimulating mathematical activity in Latvia while consolidating the former achievements, and it has the responsibility of representing the Latvian mathematicians at the international level. It was founded in 1993.The current president is Andrejs Reinfelds, from the University of Latvia, Riga.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the limiting amplitude principle is a concept from operator theory and scattering theory used for choosing a particular solution to the Helmholtz equation. The choice is made by considering a particular time-dependent problem of the forced oscillations due to the action of a periodic force.\nThe principle was introduced by Andrey Nikolayevich Tikhonov and Alexander Andreevich Samarskii.\nIt is closely related to the limiting absorption principle (1905) and the Sommerfeld radiation condition (1912).\nThe terminology -- both the limiting absorption principle and the limiting amplitude principle -- was introduced by Aleksei Sveshnikov.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Lyusternik\u2013Fet theorem states that  on every compact Riemannian manifold there exists a closed geodesic. It is named after Lazar Lyusternik and Abram Ilyich Fet.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The MAA Certificate of Merit is awarded at irregular intervals by the Mathematical Association of America for special work or service to mathematics or the broader mathematics community.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Maass\u2013Selberg relations are some relations describing the inner products of truncated real analytic Eisenstein series, that in some sense say that distinct Eisenstein series are orthogonal. Hans Maass introduced the Maass\u2013Selberg relations for the case of real analytic Eisenstein series on the upper half plane. Atle Selberg extended the relations to symmetric spaces of rank 1. Harish-Chandra generalized the Maass\u2013Selberg relations to Eisenstein series of higher rank semisimple group (and named the relations after Maass and Selberg) and found some analogous relations between Eisenstein integrals, that he also called Maass\u2013Selberg relations.\nInformally, the Maass\u2013Selberg relations say that the inner product of two distinct Eisenstein series is zero. However the integral defining the inner product does not converge, so the Eisenstein series first have to be truncated. The Maass\u2013Selberg relations then say that the inner product of two truncated Eisenstein series is given by a finite sum of elementary factors that depend on the truncation chosen, whose finite part tends to zero as the truncation is removed.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Macaulay brackets are a notation used to describe the ramp function\n\n  \n    \n      \n        {\n        x\n        }\n        =\n        \n          \n            {\n            \n              \n                \n                  0\n                  ,\n                \n                \n                  x\n                  <\n                  0\n                \n              \n              \n                \n                  x\n                  ,\n                \n                \n                  x\n                  \u2265\n                  0.\n                \n              \n            \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\{x\\}={\\begin{cases}0,&x<0\\\\x,&x\\geq 0.\\end{cases}}}\n  A popular alternative transcription uses angle brackets, viz. \n  \n    \n      \n        \u27e8\n        x\n        \u27e9\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\langle x\\rangle }\n  . \nAnother commonly used notation is \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x}\n  + or \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (x)}\n  + for the positive part of \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x}\n  , which avoids conflicts with \n  \n    \n      \n        {\n        .\n        .\n        .\n        }\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\{...\\}}\n   for set notation.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A magic polygon is a polygonal magic graph with integers on its vertices.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In operations research, the makespan of a project is the length of time that elapses from the start of work to the end. This type of multi-mode resource constrained project scheduling problem (MRCPSP) seeks to create the shortest logical project schedule, by efficiently using project resources, adding the lowest number of additional resources as possible to achieve the minimum makespan. The term commonly appears in the context of scheduling.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the mandelbox is a fractal with a boxlike shape found by Tom Lowe in 2010. It is defined in a similar way to the famous Mandelbrot set as the values of a parameter such that the origin does not escape to infinity under iteration of certain geometrical transformations. The mandelbox is defined as a map of continuous Julia sets, but, unlike the Mandelbrot set, can be defined in any number of dimensions. It is typically drawn in three dimensions for illustrative purposes.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In topology and graph theory, a map is a subdivision of a surface such as the Euclidean plane into interior-disjoint regions,\nformed by embedding a graph onto the surface and forming connected components (faces) of the complement of the graph.\nThat is, it is a tessellation of the surface. A map graph is a graph derived from a map by creating a vertex for each face and an edge for each pair of faces that meet at a vertex or edge of the embedded graph.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Math Country is an instructional television program produced by Kentucky Educational Television, in the late 1970s.\nThe show taught elementary math concepts and featured actor Ray Walston as a ghost named Lionel Hardway who inhabits the family farm, now lived in and ran by his descendants, helping them with various math problems, and sometimes getting involved in side stories involving the living members of the Hardway family.\nEpisodes were roughly 15 minutes in length (design for use during limited classroom time) and were broadcast on educational and public television channels during the school year.\nEach broadcast was usually followed by a short called \"Math Country Plus\", which usually dealt with how a girl in school figured out how to solve problems on her own, using her own creativity and intellect, played by two actors who interacted with the girl on a fantasy set to represent the inside of the girl's head.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Math-U-See, developed by Steve Demme is a K\u201312 homeschool mathematics curriculum, emphasizing mastery of materials and encouraging instructors to let students learn at their own pace. Because of the tutor style model Math-U-See is being adopted by special education departments Response to intervention programs. Math-U-See curricula includes Primer, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, & Epsilon as well as other books.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The terms \"mathematical elimination\" and \"mathematically eliminated\" mean to be excluded in a decision, based on numerical counts, due to insufficient total numbers, even if all remaining events were 100% in favor. The excluded outcome is considered to be eliminated due to the mathematical probability being zero (0%).\nThe term is used in elections when a candidate lacks sufficient votes to win, even if that candidate could garner all remaining votes. In sports, the term \"mathematically eliminated\"\n\nrefers to situations where there are not enough future games or competitive events remaining to be played to avoid defeat, even if all future events were won.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Mathematical Society of Japan (MSJ, Japanese: \u65e5\u672c\u6570\u5b66\u4f1a) is a learned society for mathematics in Japan.\nIn 1877, the organization was established as the Tokyo Sugaku Kaisha and was the first academic society in Japan. It was re-organized and re-established in its present form in 1946.\nThe MSJ has more than 5,000 members. They have the opportunity to participate in programs at MSJ meetings which take place in spring and autumn each year. They also have the opportunity to announce their own research at these meetings.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Mathematics mastery is an approach to mathematics education which is based on mastery learning in which most students are expected to achieve a high level of competence before progressing.  This technique is used in countries such as China and Singapore where good results have been achieved and so the approach is now being promoted in the UK by people such as schools minister Nick Gibb.  Chinese teachers were brought to the UK to demonstrate the Shanghai mastery approach in 2015.  A trial was made in the UK with about 10,000 students of ages 5\u20136 and 11\u201312.  In one year, test scores indicated that the students were about a month ahead of students in schools using other approaches. This result was considered small but significant.The National Association of Mathematics Advisers has highlighted five issues in understanding this approach.\nVariation in the methods promoted by different organisations\nThe extent of differentiation\nThe content of the curriculum\nThe amount of practise and repetition\nThe choice and use of textbooks", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "MathFest is a mathematics conference hosted annually in late summer by the Mathematical Association of America. It is known for its dual focus on teaching and research in mathematics, as well as for student participation.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics and its applications, the mean square is normally defined as the arithmetic mean of the squares of a set of numbers or of a random variable.It may also be defined as the arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviations between a set of numbers and a reference value (e.g., may be a mean or an assumed mean of the data), in which case it may be known as mean square deviation.\nWhen the reference value is the assumed true value, the result is known as mean squared error.\nA typical estimate for the sample variance from a set of sample values \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          x\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x_{i}}\n   uses a divisor of the number of values minus one, n-1, rather than n as in a simple quadratic mean, and this is still called the \"mean square\" (e.g. in analysis of variance):\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          s\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              1\n              \n                n\n                \u2212\n                1\n              \n            \n          \n          \u2211\n          (\n          \n            x\n            \n              i\n            \n          \n          \u2212\n          \n            \n              \n                x\n                \u00af\n              \n            \n          \n          \n            )\n            \n              2\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle s^{2}=\\textstyle {\\frac {1}{n-1}}\\sum (x_{i}-{\\bar {x}})^{2}}\n  The second moment of a random variable, \n  \n    \n      \n        E\n        (\n        \n          X\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle E(X^{2})}\n   is also called the mean square.\nThe square root of a mean square is known as the root mean square (RMS or rms), and can be used as an estimate of the standard deviation of a random variable.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a minimal K-type is a representation of a maximal compact subgroup K of a semisimple Lie group G that is in some sense the smallest representation of K occurring in a Harish-Chandra module of G. Minimal K-types were introduced by Vogan (1979) as part of an algebraic description of the Langlands classification.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In control theory, given any transfer function, any state-space model that is both controllable and observable and has the same input-output behaviour as the transfer function is said to be a minimal realization of the transfer function.  The realization is called \"minimal\" because it describes the system with the minimum number of states.The minimum number of state variables required to describe a system equals the order of the differential equation; more state variables than the minimum can be defined. For example, a second order system can be defined by two or more state variables, with two being the minimal realization.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a moduli scheme is a moduli space that exists in the category of schemes developed by Alexander Grothendieck. Some important moduli problems of algebraic geometry can be satisfactorily solved by means of scheme theory alone, while others require some extension of the 'geometric object' concept (algebraic spaces, algebraic stacks of Michael Artin).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Moschovakis coding lemma is a lemma from descriptive set theory involving sets of real numbers under the axiom of determinacy (the principle \u2014 incompatible with choice \u2014 that every two-player integer game is determined). The lemma was developed and named after the mathematician Yiannis N. Moschovakis.\nThe lemma may be expressed generally as follows:\n\nLet \u0393 be a non-selfdual pointclass closed under real quantification and \u2227, and \u227a a \u0393-well-founded relation on \u03c9\u03c9 of rank \u03b8 \u2208 ON. Let R \u2286 dom(\u227a) \u00d7 \u03c9\u03c9 be such that (\u2200x\u2208dom(\u227a))(\u2203y)(x R y).  Then there is a \u0393-set A \u2286 dom(\u227a) \u00d7 \u03c9\u03c9 which is a choice set for R , that is:(\u2200\u03b1<\u03b8)(\u2203x\u2208dom(\u227a),y)(|x|\u227a=\u03b1 \u2227 x A y).\n(\u2200x,y)(x A y \u2192 x R y).A proof runs as follows: suppose for contradiction \u03b8 is a minimal counterexample, and fix \u227a, R, and a good universal set U \u2286 (\u03c9\u03c9)3 for the \u0393-subsets of (\u03c9\u03c9)2.  Easily, \u03b8 must be a limit ordinal. For \u03b4 < \u03b8, we say u \u2208 \u03c9\u03c9 codes a \u03b4-choice set provided the property (1) holds for \u03b1 \u2264 \u03b4 using A = U u and property (2) holds for A = U u where we replace x \u2208 dom(\u227a) with x \u2208 dom(\u227a) \u2227 |x| \u227a [\u2264\u03b4].  By minimality of \u03b8, for all \u03b4 < \u03b8, there are \u03b4-choice sets.\nNow, play a game where players I, II select points u,v \u2208 \u03c9\u03c9 and II wins when u coding a \u03b41-choice set for some \u03b41 < \u03b8 implies v codes a \u03b42-choice set for some \u03b42 > \u03b41.  A winning strategy for I defines a \u03a311 set B of reals encoding \u03b4-choice sets for arbitrarily large \u03b4 < \u03b8.  Define then \n\nx A y \u2194 (\u2203w\u2208B)U(w,x,y),which easily works.  On the other hand, suppose \u03c4 is a winning strategy for II.  From the s-m-n theorem, let s:(\u03c9\u03c9)2 \u2192 \u03c9\u03c9 be continuous such that for all \u03f5, x, t, and w, \n\nU(s(\u03f5,x),t,w) \u2194 (\u2203y,z)(y \u227a x \u2227 U(\u03f5,y,z) \u2227 U(z,t,w)).By the recursion theorem, there exists \u03f50 such that U(\u03f50,x,z) \u2194 z = \u03c4(s(\u03f50,x)).  A straightforward induction on |x|\u227a for x \u2208 dom(\u227a) shows that \n\n(\u2200x\u2208dom(\u227a))(\u2203!z)U(\u03f50,x,z),and \n\n(\u2200x\u2208dom(\u227a),z)(U(\u03f50,x,z) \u2192 z encodes a choice set of ordinal \u2265|x|\u227a).So let \n\nx A y \u2194 (\u2203z\u2208dom(\u227a),w)(U(\u03f50,z,w) \u2227 U(w,x,y)).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The National Association of Mathematicians is a professional association for mathematicians in the US, especially African Americans and other minorities.  It was founded in 1969.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In size theory, the natural pseudodistance between two size pairs \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        M\n        ,\n        \u03c6\n        :\n        M\n        \u2192\n        \n          R\n        \n        )\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (M,\\varphi :M\\to \\mathbb {R} )\\ }\n  , \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        N\n        ,\n        \u03c8\n        :\n        N\n        \u2192\n        \n          R\n        \n        )\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (N,\\psi :N\\to \\mathbb {R} )\\ }\n   is the value \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          inf\n          \n            h\n          \n        \n        \u2016\n        \u03c6\n        \u2212\n        \u03c8\n        \u2218\n        h\n        \n          \u2016\n          \n            \u221e\n          \n        \n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\inf _{h}\\|\\varphi -\\psi \\circ h\\|_{\\infty }\\ }\n  , where \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h\\ }\n   varies in the set of all homeomorphisms from the manifold \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M\\ }\n   to the manifold \n  \n    \n      \n        N\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle N\\ }\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \u2016\n        \u22c5\n        \n          \u2016\n          \n            \u221e\n          \n        \n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\|\\cdot \\|_{\\infty }\\ }\n   is the supremum norm. If \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M\\ }\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        N\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle N\\ }\n   are not homeomorphic, then the natural pseudodistance is defined to be \n  \n    \n      \n        \u221e\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\infty \\ }\n  .\nIt is usually assumed that \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M\\ }\n  , \n  \n    \n      \n        N\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle N\\ }\n   are \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          C\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle C^{1}\\ }\n   closed manifolds and the measuring functions \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c6\n        ,\n        \u03c8\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\varphi ,\\psi \\ }\n   are \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          C\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle C^{1}\\ }\n  . Put another way, the natural pseudodistance  measures the infimum of the change of the measuring function induced by the homeomorphisms from \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M\\ }\n   to \n  \n    \n      \n        N\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle N\\ }\n  .\nThe concept of natural pseudodistance can be easily extended to size pairs where the measuring function \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c6\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\varphi \\ }\n   takes values in \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            m\n          \n        \n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{m}\\ }\n  \n. When \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n        =\n        N\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M=N\\ }\n  , the group \n  \n    \n      \n        H\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle H\\ }\n   of all homeomorphisms of \n  \n    \n      \n        M\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle M\\ }\n   can be replaced in the definition of natural pseudodistance by a subgroup \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G\\ }\n   of \n  \n    \n      \n        H\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle H\\ }\n  , so obtaining the concept of natural pseudodistance with respect to the group \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G\\ }\n  . Lower bounds and approximations of the natural pseudodistance with respect to the group \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n         \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G\\ }\n   can be obtained both by means of \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G}\n  -invariant persistent homology and by combining classical persistent homology with the use of G-equivariant non-expansive operators.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A network automaton (plural network automata) is a mathematical system consisting of a network of nodes that evolves over time according to predetermined rules.  It is similar in concept to a cellular automaton, but much less studied.\nStephen Wolfram's book A New Kind of Science, which is primarily concerned with cellular automata, briefly discusses network automata, and suggests (without positive evidence) that the universe might at the very lowest level be a network automaton.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In general relativity, the Newman\u2013Janis algorithm (NJA) is a complexification technique for finding exact solutions to the Einstein field equations.  In 1964, Newman and Janis showed that the Kerr metric could be obtained from the Schwarzschild metric by means of a coordinate transformation and allowing the radial coordinate to take on complex values.  Originally, no clear reason for why the algorithm works was known.In 1998, Drake and Szekeres gave a detailed explanation of the success of the algorithm and proved the uniqueness of certain solutions.  In particular, the only perfect fluid solution generated by NJA is the Kerr metric and the only Petrov type D solution is the Kerr\u2013Newman metric.The algorithm works well on \u0192(R) and Einstein\u2013Maxwell\u2013Dilaton theories, but doesn't return expected results on Braneworld and Born\u2013Infield theories.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics and physics, a non-perturbative function or process is one that cannot be described by perturbation theory. An example is the function\n\n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        )\n        =\n        \n          e\n          \n            \u2212\n            1\n            \n              /\n            \n            \n              x\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n          \n        \n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x)=e^{-1/x^{2}},}\n  which does not have a Taylor series at x = 0. Every coefficient of the Taylor expansion around x = 0 is exactly zero, but the function is non-zero if x \u2260 0.\nIn physics, such functions arise for phenomena which are impossible to understand by perturbation theory, at any finite order. In quantum field theory, 't Hooft\u2013Polyakov monopoles, domain walls, flux tubes, and instantons are examples. A concrete, physical example is given by the Schwinger effect, whereby a strong electric field may spontaneously decay into electron-positron pairs. For not too strong fields, the rate per unit volume of this process is given by,\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \u0393\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              (\n              e\n              E\n              \n                )\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n            \n              4\n              \n                \u03c0\n                \n                  3\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n        \n          \n            e\n          \n          \n            \u2212\n            \n              \n                \n                  \u03c0\n                  \n                    m\n                    \n                      2\n                    \n                  \n                \n                \n                  e\n                  E\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Gamma ={\\frac {(eE)^{2}}{4\\pi ^{3}}}\\mathrm {e} ^{-{\\frac {\\pi m^{2}}{eE}}}}\n  which cannot be expanded in a Taylor series in the electric charge \n  \n    \n      \n        e\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle e}\n  , or the electric field strength \n  \n    \n      \n        E\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle E}\n  . Here \n  \n    \n      \n        m\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle m}\n   is the mass of an electron and we have used units where \n  \n    \n      \n        c\n        =\n        \u210f\n        =\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c=\\hbar =1}\n  .\nIn theoretical physics, a non-perturbative solution is one that cannot be described in terms of perturbations about some simple background, such as empty space. For this reason, non-perturbative solutions and theories yield insights into areas and subjects that perturbative methods cannot reveal.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the normal form of a dynamical system is a simplified form that can be useful in determining the system's behavior.\nNormal forms are often used for determining local bifurcations in a system. All systems exhibiting a certain type of bifurcation are locally (around the equilibrium) topologically equivalent to the normal form of the bifurcation. For example, the normal form of a saddle-node bifurcation is \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \n                d\n              \n              x\n            \n            \n              \n                d\n              \n              t\n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        \u03bc\n        +\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\mathrm {d} x}{\\mathrm {d} t}}=\\mu +x^{2}}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03bc\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n   is the bifurcation parameter. The transcritical bifurcation \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \n                d\n              \n              x\n            \n            \n              \n                d\n              \n              t\n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        r\n        ln\n        \u2061\n        x\n        +\n        x\n        \u2212\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\mathrm {d} x}{\\mathrm {d} t}}=r\\ln x+x-1}\n  near \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        =\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x=1}\n   can be converted to the normal form \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \n                d\n              \n              u\n            \n            \n              \n                d\n              \n              t\n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        \u03bc\n        u\n        \u2212\n        \n          u\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        O\n        (\n        \n          u\n          \n            3\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\mathrm {d} u}{\\mathrm {d} t}}=\\mu u-u^{2}+O(u^{3})}\n  with the transformation \n  \n    \n      \n        u\n        =\n        x\n        \u2212\n        1\n        ,\n        \u03bc\n        =\n        r\n        +\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle u=x-1,\\mu =r+1}\n  .See also canonical form for use of the terms canonical form, normal form, or standard form more generally in mathematics.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Norwegian Mathematical Society (Norwegian: Norsk matematisk forening, NMF) is a professional society for mathematicians. It was formed in 1918, with Carl St\u00f8rmer elected as its first president.\nIt organizes mathematical contests and the annual  Abel symposium and also awards the Viggo Brun Prize to young Norwegian mathematicians for outstanding research in mathematics, including mathematical aspects of information technology, mathematical physics, numerical analysis, and computational science. The 2018 Prize winner was Rune Gj\u00f8ringb\u00f8 Haugseng. \nThe NMF is a member of the International Council for Industrial and Applied Mathematics and provides the Norwegian National Committee in the International Mathematical Union.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, for example in the study of statistical properties of graphs, a null model is a type of random object that matches one specific object in some of its features, or more generally satisfies a collection of constraints, but which is otherwise taken to be an unbiasedly random structure. The null model is used as a term of comparison, to verify whether the object in question displays some non-trivial features (properties that wouldn't be expected on the basis of chance alone or as a consequence of the constraints), such as community structure in graphs. An appropriate null model behaves in accordance with a reasonable null hypothesis for the behavior of the system under investigation.\nOne null model of utility in the study of complex networks is that proposed by Newman and Girvan, consisting of a randomized version of an original graph \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G}\n  , produced through edges being rewired at random, under the constraint that the expected degree of each vertex matches the degree of the vertex in the original graph.The null model is the basic concept behind the definition of modularity, a function which evaluates the goodness of partitions of a graph into clusters. In particular, given a graph \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G}\n   and a specific community partition \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c3\n        :\n        V\n        (\n        G\n        )\n        \u2192\n        {\n        1\n        ,\n        .\n        .\n        .\n        ,\n        b\n        }\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sigma :V(G)\\rightarrow \\{1,...,b\\}}\n   (an assignment of a community-index \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c3\n        (\n        v\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sigma (v)}\n   (here taken as an integer from \n  \n    \n      \n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 1}\n   to \n  \n    \n      \n        b\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle b}\n  ) to each vertex \n  \n    \n      \n        v\n        \u2208\n        V\n        (\n        G\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle v\\in V(G)}\n   in the graph), the modularity measures the difference between the number of links from/to each pair of communities, from that expected in a graph that is completely random in all respects other than the set of degrees of each of the vertices (the degree sequence). In other words, the modularity contrasts the exhibited community structure in \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G}\n   with that of a null model, which in this case is the configuration model (the maximally random graph subject to a constraint on the degree of each vertex).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "On Conoids and Spheroids (Ancient Greek: \u03a0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03ad\u03c9\u03bd) is a surviving work by the Greek mathematician and engineer Archimedes (c.\u2009287 BC \u2013 c.\u2009212 BC). Consisting of 32 propositions, the work explores properties of and theorems related to the solids generated by revolution of conic sections about their axes, including paraboloids, hyperboloids, and spheroids. The principal result of the work is comparing the volume of any segment cut off by a plane with the volume of a cone with equal base and axis.The work is addressed to Dositheus of Pelusium.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics the Padovan cuboid spiral is the spiral created by joining the diagonals of faces of successive cuboids added to a unit cube. The cuboids are added sequentially so that the resulting cuboid has dimensions that are successive Padovan numbers.The first cuboid is 1x1x1. The second is formed by adding to this a 1x1x1 cuboid to form a 1x1x2 cuboid. To this is added a 1x1x2 cuboid to form a 1x2x2 cuboid.\nThis pattern continues, forming in succession a 2x2x3 cuboid, a 2x3x4 cuboid etc.  Joining the diagonals of the exposed end of each new added cuboid creates a spiral (seen as the black line in the figure). The points on this spiral all lie in the same plane.The cuboids are added in a sequence that adds to the face in the positive y direction, then the positive x direction, then the positive z direction.  This is followed by cuboids added in the negative y, negative x and negative z directions.  Each new cuboid added has a length and width that matches the length and width of the face being added to. The height of the nth added cuboid is the nth Padovan number.Connecting alternate points where the spiral bends creates a series of triangles, where each triangle has two sides that are successive Padovan numbers and that has an obtuse angle of 120 degrees between these two sides.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Pan-African Congress of Mathematicians (PACOM)  is an international congress of  mathematics, held under the auspices of the African Mathematical Union.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a parent function is the simplest function of a family of functions that preserves the definition (or shape) of the entire family. For example, for the family of quadratic functions having the general form\n\n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        =\n        a\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        b\n        x\n        +\n        c\n        \n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y=ax^{2}+bx+c\\,,}\n  the simplest function is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        =\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y=x^{2}}\n  .This is therefore the parent function of the family of quadratic equations.\nFor linear and quadratic functions, the graph of any function can be obtained from the graph of the parent function by simple translations and stretches parallel to the axes. For example, the graph of y = x2 \u2212 4x + 7 can be obtained from the graph of y = x2 by translating +2 units along the X axis and +3 units along Y axis. This is because the equation can also be written as y \u2212 3 = (x \u2212 2)2.\nFor many trigonometric functions, the parent function is usually a basic sin(x), cos(x), or tan(x). For example, the graph of y = A sin(x) + B cos(x) can be obtained from the graph of y = sin(x) by translating it through an angle \u03b1 along the positive X axis (where tan(\u03b1) = A\u2044B), then stretching it parallel to the Y axis using a stretch factor R, where R2 = A2 + B2. This is because A sin(x) + B cos(x) can be written as R sin(x\u2212\u03b1) (see List of trigonometric identities).\nThe concept of parent function is less clear for polynomials of higher power because of the extra turning points, but for the family of n-degree polynomial functions for any given n, the parent function is sometimes taken as xn, or, to simplify further, x2 when n is even and x3 for odd n.  Turning points may be established by differentiation to provide more detail of the graph.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Pearcey integral is defined as\n\n  \n    \n      \n        Pe\n        \u2061\n        (\n        x\n        ,\n        y\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \u222b\n          \n            \u2212\n            \u221e\n          \n          \n            \u221e\n          \n        \n        exp\n        \u2061\n        (\n        i\n        (\n        \n          t\n          \n            4\n          \n        \n        +\n        x\n        \n          t\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        +\n        y\n        t\n        )\n        )\n        \n        d\n        t\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {Pe} (x,y)=\\int _{-\\infty }^{\\infty }\\exp(i(t^{4}+xt^{2}+yt))\\,dt.}\n  The Pearcey integral is a class of canonical diffraction integrals, often used in wave propagation and optical diffraction problems The first numerical evaluation of this integral was evaluated using the quadrature formula in Trevor Pearcey.In optics, the Pearcey integral can be used to model diffraction effects at a cusp caustic.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematical invariant theory, a perpetuant is informally an irreducible covariant of a form or infinite degree. More precisely, the dimension of the space of irreducible covariants of given degree and weight for a binary form stabilizes provided the degree of the form is larger than the weight of the covariant, and the elements of this space are called perpetuants. Perpetuants were introduced and named by Sylvester (1882,\u2002p.105). MacMahon (1884, 1885, 1894) and Stroh (1890) classified the perpetuants. Elliott (1907) describes the early history of perpetuants and gives an annotated bibliography.\nMacMahon conjectured and Stroh proved that the dimension of the space of  perpetuants of degree n>2 and weight w is the coefficient of xw of \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              x\n              \n                \n                  2\n                  \n                    n\n                    \u2212\n                    1\n                  \n                \n                \u2212\n                1\n              \n            \n            \n              (\n              1\n              \u2212\n              \n                x\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n              )\n              (\n              1\n              \u2212\n              \n                x\n                \n                  3\n                \n              \n              )\n              \u22ef\n              (\n              1\n              \u2212\n              \n                x\n                \n                  n\n                \n              \n              )\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\frac {x^{2^{n-1}-1}}{(1-x^{2})(1-x^{3})\\cdots (1-x^{n})}}}\n  For n=1 there is just one perpetuant,  of weight 0, and for n=2 the number is given by the coefficient of xw of x2/(1-x2).\nThere are very few papers after about 1910 discussing perpetuants; (Littlewood 1944) is one of the few exceptions. (Kraft & Procesi 2020) exhibited an explicit base of the space of perpetuants.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Poincar\u00e9 Medal (M\u00e9daille Poincar\u00e9) is a mathematics award from the Institut de France, Academie des Sciences, Fondation Henri Poincar\u00e9. The medal recognizes an eminent mathematician and is awarded only on exceptional occasions. It was established in 1914 and was eliminated in 1997 in favor of the Grande M\u00e9daille.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In the theory of partial differential equations, an a priori estimate (also called an apriori estimate or a priori bound) is an estimate for the size of a solution or its derivatives of a partial differential equation. A priori is Latin for \"from before\" and refers to the fact that the estimate for the solution is derived before the solution is known to exist. One reason for their importance is that if one can prove an a priori estimate for solutions of a differential equation, then it is often possible to prove that solutions exist using the continuity method or a fixed point theorem.\nA priori estimates were introduced and named by Sergei Natanovich Bernstein (1906, 1910), who used them to prove existence of solutions to  second order nonlinear elliptic equations in the plane. Some other early influential examples of a priori estimates include the Schauder estimates given by Schauder (1934, 1937), and the estimates given by De Giorgi and Nash for second order elliptic or parabolic equations in many variables in their solution to Hilbert's nineteenth problem.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics education, a procept is an amalgam of three components: a \"process\" which produces a mathematical \"object\" and a \"symbol\" which is used to represent either process or object. It derives from the work of Eddie Gray and David O. Tall.\nThe notion was first published in a paper in the Journal for Research in Mathematics Education in 1994, and is part of the process-object literature. This body of literature suggests that mathematical objects are formed by encapsulating processes, that is to say that the mathematical object 3 is formed by an encapsulation of the process of counting: 1,2,3...\nGray and Tall's notion of procept improved upon the existing literature by noting that mathematical notation is often ambiguous as to whether it refers to process or object. Examples of such notations are:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        3\n        +\n        4\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 3+4}\n   : refers to the process of adding as well as the outcome of the process.\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u2211\n          \n            n\n            =\n            0\n          \n          \n            \u221e\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          a\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\sum _{n=0}^{\\infty }(a_{n})}\n   : refers to the process of summing an infinite sequence, and to the outcome of the process.\n  \n    \n      \n        f\n        (\n        x\n        )\n        =\n        3\n        x\n        +\n        2\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f(x)=3x+2}\n   : refers to the process of mapping x to 3x+2 as well as the outcome of that process, the function \n  \n    \n      \n        f\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle f}\n  .", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, given two preordered sets \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        B\n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle B,}\n   the product order (also called the coordinatewise order or componentwise order) is a partial ordering on the Cartesian product \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        \u00d7\n        B\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A\\times B.}\n   Given two pairs \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              a\n              \n                1\n              \n            \n            ,\n            \n              b\n              \n                1\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(a_{1},b_{1}\\right)}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              a\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n            ,\n            \n              b\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(a_{2},b_{2}\\right)}\n   in \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        \u00d7\n        B\n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A\\times B,}\n   declare that \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              a\n              \n                1\n              \n            \n            ,\n            \n              b\n              \n                1\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n        \u2264\n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              a\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n            ,\n            \n              b\n              \n                2\n              \n            \n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(a_{1},b_{1}\\right)\\leq \\left(a_{2},b_{2}\\right)}\n   if and only if \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          a\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        \u2264\n        \n          a\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle a_{1}\\leq a_{2}}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          b\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        \u2264\n        \n          b\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle b_{1}\\leq b_{2}.}\n   \nAnother possible ordering on \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        \u00d7\n        B\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A\\times B}\n   is the lexicographical order, which is a total ordering. However the product order of two totally ordered sets is not in general total; for example, the pairs \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        0\n        ,\n        1\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (0,1)}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        (\n        1\n        ,\n        0\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle (1,0)}\n   are incomparable in the product order of the ordering \n  \n    \n      \n        0\n        <\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 0<1}\n   with itself. The lexicographic order of totally ordered sets is a linear extension of their product order, and thus the product order is a subrelation of the lexicographic order.The Cartesian product with the product order is the categorical product in the category of partially ordered sets with monotone functions.The product order generalizes to arbitrary (possibly infinitary) Cartesian products. \nSuppose \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        \u2260\n        \u2205\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A\\neq \\varnothing }\n   is a set and for every \n  \n    \n      \n        a\n        \u2208\n        A\n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle a\\in A,}\n   \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              I\n              \n                a\n              \n            \n            ,\n            \u2264\n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(I_{a},\\leq \\right)}\n   is a preordered set. \nThen the product preorder on \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u220f\n          \n            a\n            \u2208\n            A\n          \n        \n        \n          I\n          \n            a\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\prod _{a\\in A}I_{a}}\n   is defined by declaring for any \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          i\n          \n            \u2219\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              i\n              \n                a\n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            a\n            \u2208\n            A\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle i_{\\bullet }=\\left(i_{a}\\right)_{a\\in A}}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          j\n          \n            \u2219\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            (\n            \n              j\n              \n                a\n              \n            \n            )\n          \n          \n            a\n            \u2208\n            A\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle j_{\\bullet }=\\left(j_{a}\\right)_{a\\in A}}\n   in \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u220f\n          \n            a\n            \u2208\n            A\n          \n        \n        \n          I\n          \n            a\n          \n        \n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\prod _{a\\in A}I_{a},}\n   that \n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          i\n          \n            \u2219\n          \n        \n        \u2264\n        \n          j\n          \n            \u2219\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle i_{\\bullet }\\leq j_{\\bullet }}\n   if and only if \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          i\n          \n            a\n          \n        \n        \u2264\n        \n          j\n          \n            a\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle i_{a}\\leq j_{a}}\n   for every \n  \n    \n      \n        a\n        \u2208\n        A\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle a\\in A.}\n  If every \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              I\n              \n                a\n              \n            \n            ,\n            \u2264\n          \n          )\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\left(I_{a},\\leq \\right)}\n   is a partial order then so is the product preorder. \nFurthermore, given a set \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A,}\n   the product order over the Cartesian product \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u220f\n          \n            a\n            \u2208\n            A\n          \n        \n        {\n        0\n        ,\n        1\n        }\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\prod _{a\\in A}\\{0,1\\}}\n   can be identified with the inclusion ordering of subsets of \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A.}\n  The notion applies equally well to preorders. The product order is also the categorical product in a number of richer categories, including lattices and Boolean algebras.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the q-Konhauser polynomials are a q-analog of the Konhauser polynomials, introduced by Al-Salam & Verma (1983).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Rank-width is a graph width parameter used in graph theory and parameterized complexity. This parameter indicates the minimum integer k for a given graph G so that the tree can be decomposed into tree-like structures by splitting its vertices such that each cut induces a matrix of rank at most k. Even though there are various other width parameters that have been shown to be very useful, but some of them like treewidth (or clique-width) are bounded for only for sparse (or dense) graphs. For the dense graphs, where clique-width can be used, there is no efficient algorithm deciding this parameter. This is where rank-width comes to the picture. There exists an algorithm running in polynomial time that decides if the rank-width of an input graph is at most k.\nThe best known relationship between rank-width and clique-width is as follows: \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n        \u2264\n        c\n        \u2264\n        \n          2\n          \n            k\n            +\n            1\n          \n        \n        \u2212\n        1\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k\\leq c\\leq 2^{k+1}-1}\n  , where c is the clique-width.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Read's conjecture is a conjecture, first made by Ronald Read, about the unimodality of the coefficients of chromatic polynomials in the context of graph theory. In 1974, S. G. Hoggar tightened this to the conjecture that the coefficients must be strongly log-concave. Hoggar's version of the conjecture is called the Read\u2013Hoggar conjecture.The Read\u2013Hoggar conjecture had been unresolved for more than 40 years before June Huh proved it in 2009, during his PhD studies, using methods from algebraic geometry.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The reciprocals of prime numbers have been of interest to mathematicians for various reasons.  They do not have a finite sum, as Leonhard Euler proved in 1737.  \nLike all rational numbers, the reciprocals of primes have repeating decimal representations.  In his later years, George Salmon (1819\u20131904) concerned himself with the repeating periods of these decimal representations of reciprocals of primes.Contemporaneously, William Shanks (1812\u20131882) calculated numerous reciprocals of primes and their repeating periods, and published two papers \"On Periods in the Reciprocals of Primes\" in 1873 and 1874. In 1874 he also published a table of primes, and the periods of their reciprocals, up to 20,000 (with help from and \"communicated by the Rev. George Salmon\"), and pointed out the errors in previous tables by three other authors.\n\nRules for calculating the periods of repeating decimals from rational fractions were given by James Whitbread Lee Glaisher in 1878.  For a prime p, the period of its reciprocal will be equal to or will divide p \u2212 1.The sequence of recurrence periods of the reciprocal primes (sequence A002371 in the OEIS) appears in the 1973 Handbook of Integer Sequences.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In the study of ancient Egyptian mathematics, red auxiliary numbers are numbers written in red ink in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, apparently used as aids for arithmetic computations involving fractions.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, restricted root systems, sometimes called relative root systems, are the root systems associated with a symmetric space. The associated finite reflection group is called the restricted Weyl group. The restricted root system of a symmetric space and its dual can be identified. For symmetric spaces of noncompact type arising as homogeneous spaces of a semisimple Lie group, the restricted root system and its Weyl group are related to the Iwasawa decomposition of the Lie group.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) was an American academic think tank focused on the subject of reform in mathematics education.  Directed by Edward G. Begle and financed by the National Science Foundation, the group was created in the wake of the Sputnik crisis in 1958 and tasked with creating and implementing mathematics curricula for primary and secondary education, which it did until its termination in 1977.  \nThe efforts of the SMSG yielded a reform in mathematics education known as New Math which was promulgated in a series of reports, culminating in a series published by Random House called the New Mathematical Library (Vol. 1 is Ivan Niven's Numbers: Rational and Irrational).  In the early years, SMSG also produced a set of draft textbooks in typewritten paperback format for elementary, middle and high school students. \nPerhaps the most authoritative collection of materials from the School Mathematics Study Group is now housed in the Archives of American Mathematics in the University of Texas at Austin's Center for American History.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Schwarz function of a curve in the complex plane is an analytic function which maps the points of the curve to their complex conjugates. It can be used to generalize the Schwarz reflection principle to reflection across arbitrary analytic curves, not just across the real axis.\nThe Schwarz function exists for analytic curves. More precisely, for every non-singular, analytic Jordan arc \n  \n    \n      \n        \u0393\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Gamma }\n   in the complex plane, there is an open neighborhood \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03a9\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Omega }\n   of \n  \n    \n      \n        \u0393\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Gamma }\n   and a unique analytic function \n  \n    \n      \n        S\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle S}\n   on \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03a9\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Omega }\n   such that \n  \n    \n      \n        S\n        (\n        z\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \n            z\n            \u00af\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle S(z)={\\overline {z}}}\n   for every \n  \n    \n      \n        z\n        \u2208\n        \u0393\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle z\\in \\Gamma }\n  .The \"Schwarz function\" was named by Philip J. Davis and Henry O. Pollak (1958) in honor of Hermann Schwarz, who introduced the Schwarz reflection principle for analytic curves in 1870. However, the Schwarz function does not explicitly appear in Schwarz's works.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Self-dissimilarity is a measure of complexity defined in a series of papers by David Wolpert and William G. Macready.\nThe degrees of self-dissimilarity between the patterns of a system observed at various scales (e.g. the average matter density of a physical body for volumes at different orders of magnitude) constitute a complexity \"signature\" of that system.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, semi-infinite objects are objects which are infinite or unbounded in some but not all possible ways.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In artificial intelligence, sequential decision making refers to algorithms that take the dynamics of the world into consideration, thus delaying parts of the problem until it must be solved. It can be described as a procedural approach to decision-making, or as a step by step decision theory. Sequential decision making has as a consequence the intertemporal choice problem, where earlier decisions influences the later available choices.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The Shephard Prize is awarded by the London Mathematical Society to a mathematician or mathematicians for making a contribution to mathematics with a strong intuitive component which can be explained to those with little or no knowledge of university mathematics, though the work itself may involve more advanced ideas. The prize will be awarded in even-numbered years and is the result of a donation made to the Society by Geoffrey Shephard. The Shephard Prize may not be awarded to any person who has received the De Morgan Medal or the P\u00f3lya Prize.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Shimizu L-function, introduced by Hideo Shimizu (1963), is a Dirichlet series associated to a totally real algebraic number field.\nMichael Francis Atiyah, H. Donnelly, and I. M. Singer (1983)\ndefined the signature defect of the boundary of a manifold as the eta invariant, the value as s=0 of their eta function, and used this to show that Hirzebruch's signature defect of a cusp of a Hilbert modular surface can be expressed in terms of the value at s=0 or 1 of a Shimizu L-function.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Siegel parabolic subgroup, named after Carl Ludwig Siegel,  is the parabolic subgroup of the symplectic group with abelian radical, given by the matrices of the symplectic group whose lower left quadrant is 0 (for the standard symplectic form).", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, more precisely, in the theory of simplicial sets, a simplicial group is a simplicial object in the category of groups. Similarly, a simplicial abelian group is a simplicial object in the category of abelian groups. A simplicial group is a Kan complex (in particular, its homotopy groups make sense). The Dold\u2013Kan correspondence says that a simplicial abelian group may be identified with a chain complex. In fact it can be shown that\nany simplicial abelian group \n  \n    \n      \n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A}\n   is non-canonically homotopy equivalent to a product of Eilenberg\u2013MacLane spaces, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u220f\n          \n            i\n            \u2265\n            0\n          \n        \n        K\n        (\n        \n          \u03c0\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n        A\n        ,\n        i\n        )\n        .\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\prod _{i\\geq 0}K(\\pi _{i}A,i).}\n  A commutative monoid in the category of simplicial abelian groups is a simplicial commutative ring.\nEckmann (1945) discusses a simplicial analogue of the fact that a cohomology class on a K\u00e4hler manifold has a unique harmonic representative and deduces Kirchhoff's circuit laws from these observations.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a simplicial space is a simplicial object in the category of topological spaces. In other words, it is a contravariant functor from the simplex category \u0394 to the category of topological spaces.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics graph theory, a single-entry single-exit (SESE) region in a given graph is an ordered edge pair.\nFor example, with the ordered edge pair, (a, b) of distinct control-flow edges a and b where:\n\na dominates b\nb postdominates a\nEvery cycle containing a also contains b and vice versa.where a node x is said to dominate node y in a directed graph if every path from start to y includes x. A node x is said to postdominate a node y if every path from y to end includes x.                                     \nSo, a and b refer to the entry and exit edge, respectively.\n\nThe first condition ensures that every path from start into the region passes through the region\u2019s entry edge, a.\nThe second condition ensures that every path from inside the region to end passes through the region\u2019s exit edge, b.\nThe first two conditions are necessary but not enough to characterize SESE regions: since backedges do not alter the dominance or postdominance relationships, the first two conditions alone do not prohibit backedges entering or exiting the region.\nThe third condition encodes two constraints: every path from inside the region to a point 'above' a passed through b, and every path from a point 'below' b to a point inside the region passes through a.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, Sister Celine's polynomials are a family of hypergeometric polynomials introduced by Mary Celine Fasenmyer (1947). They include Legendre polynomials, Jacobi polynomials, and Bateman polynomials as special cases.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The space cardioid is a 3-dimensional curve derived from the cardioid. It has a parametric representation using trigonometric functions.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In telecommunications, spectral component is any of the waves that range outside the interval of frequencies assigned to a signal. Any waveform can be disassembled into its spectral components by Fourier analysis or Fourier transformation. The length of a pulse thereby is detesitions (spectral phase) of these spectral components.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics and supersymmetric gauge theory, spectral networks are \"networks of trajectories on Riemann surfaces obeying certain local rules. Spectral networks arise naturally in four-dimensional N = 2 theories coupled to surface defects, particularly the theories of class S.\"", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The spider and the fly problem is a recreational geodesics problem with an unintuitive solution.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Steklov Institute of Mathematics or Steklov Mathematical Institute (Russian: \u041c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0412.\u0410.\u0421\u0442\u0435\u043a\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430) is a premier research institute based in Moscow, specialized in mathematics, and a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The institute is named after Vladimir Andreevich Steklov, who in 1919 founded the Institute of Physics and Mathematics in  Leningrad. In 1934, this institute was split into separate parts for physics and mathematics, and the mathematical part became the Steklov Institute. At the same time, it was moved to Moscow. The first director of the Steklov Institute was Ivan Matveyevich Vinogradov. From 1961\u20131964, the institute's director was the notable mathematician Sergei Chernikov.The old building of the Institute in Leningrad became its Department in Leningrad. Today, that department has become a separate institute, called the St. Petersburg Department of Steklov Institute of Mathematics of Russian Academy of Sciences or PDMI RAS, located in Saint Petersburg, Russia. The name St. Petersburg Department is misleading, however, because the St. Petersburg Department is now an independent institute. In 1966, the Moscow-based Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics (Russian: \u0418\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0438\u043c. \u041c.\u0412.\u041a\u0435\u043b\u0434\u044b\u0448\u0430) split off from the Steklov Institute.\n\n", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In homogenization theory, a branch of mathematics, stochastic homogenization is a technique for understanding solutions to partial differential equations with oscillatory random coefficients.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In theoretical physics, stochastic quantization is a method for modelling quantum mechanics, introduced by Edward Nelson in 1966, and streamlined by  Parisi and Wu.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a strange nonchaotic attractor (SNA) is a form of attractor which, while converging to a limit, is strange, because it is not piecewise differentiable, and also non-chaotic, in that its Lyapunov exponents are non-positive. SNAs were introduced as a topic of study by Grebogi et al. in 1984. SNAs can be distinguished from periodic, quasiperiodic and chaotic attractors using the 0-1 test for chaos.Periodically driven damped nonlinear systems can exhibit complex dynamics characterized by strange chaotic attractors, where strange refers  to  the  fractal  geometry of the attractor and chaotic refers to the exponential sensitivity of orbits on the attractor. Quasiperiodically driven systems forced by incommensurate frequencies are natural extensions of periodically driven ones and are phenomenologically richer. In addition to periodic or quasiperiodic motion, they can exhibit chaotic or nonchaotic motion on strange  attractors. Although quasiperiodic forcing is not necessary for strange nonchaotic  dynamics (e.g., the period doubling accumulation point of a period doubling cascade), if quasiperiodic driving is not present, strange nonchaotic attractors are typically not robust and not expected to occur naturally because they exist only when the system is carefully tuned to a precise critical parameter value.  On the other hand, it was shown in the paper of Grebogi et al. that SNAs can be robust when the system is quasiperiodically driven. The  first  experiment  to  demonstrate a robust strange nonchaotic attractor involved  the  buckling of a magnetoelastic ribbon driven quasiperiodically by two incommensurate frequencies in the golden ratio. Strange nonchaotic attractors have been robustly observed in laboratory experiments involving magnetoelastic ribbons, electrochemical cells, electronic circuits, a neon glow discharge and most recently detected in the dynamics of the pulsating RR Lyrae variables KIC 5520878 (as obtained from the Kepler Space Telescope) which may be the first strange nonchaotic dynamical system observed in the wild.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the n-th symmetric power of an object X is the quotient of the n-fold product \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          X\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        :=\n        X\n        \u00d7\n        \u22ef\n        \u00d7\n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X^{n}:=X\\times \\cdots \\times X}\n   by the permutation action of the symmetric group \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              S\n            \n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\mathfrak {S}}_{n}}\n  .\nMore precisely, the notion exists at least in the following three areas:\n\nIn linear algebra, the n-th symmetric power of a vector space V is the vector subspace of the symmetric algebra of V consisting of degree-n elements (here the product is a tensor product).\nIn algebraic topology, the n-th symmetric power of a topological space X is the quotient space \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          X\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        \n          /\n        \n        \n          \n            \n              S\n            \n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X^{n}/{\\mathfrak {S}}_{n}}\n  , as in the beginning of this article.\nIn algebraic geometry, a symmetric power is defined in a way similar to that in algebraic topology. For example, if \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n        =\n        Spec\n        \u2061\n        (\n        A\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X=\\operatorname {Spec} (A)}\n   is an affine variety, then the GIT quotient \n  \n    \n      \n        Spec\n        \u2061\n        (\n        (\n        A\n        \n          \u2297\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n        \u22ef\n        \n          \u2297\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n        A\n        \n          )\n          \n            \n              \n                \n                  S\n                \n              \n              \n                n\n              \n            \n          \n        \n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {Spec} ((A\\otimes _{k}\\dots \\otimes _{k}A)^{{\\mathfrak {S}}_{n}})}\n   is the n-th symmetric power of X.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a system of differential equations is a finite set of differential equations. Such a system can be either linear or non-linear. Also, such a system can be either a system of ordinary differential equations or a system of partial differential equations.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a Szeg\u0151 polynomial is one of a family of orthogonal polynomials for the Hermitian inner product\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \u27e8\n        f\n        \n          |\n        \n        g\n        \u27e9\n        =\n        \n          \u222b\n          \n            \u2212\n            \u03c0\n          \n          \n            \u03c0\n          \n        \n        f\n        (\n        \n          e\n          \n            i\n            \u03b8\n          \n        \n        )\n        \n          \n            \n              g\n              (\n              \n                e\n                \n                  i\n                  \u03b8\n                \n              \n              )\n            \n            \u00af\n          \n        \n        \n        d\n        \u03bc\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\langle f|g\\rangle =\\int _{-\\pi }^{\\pi }f(e^{i\\theta }){\\overline {g(e^{i\\theta })}}\\,d\\mu }\n  where d\u03bc is a given positive measure on [\u2212\u03c0, \u03c0]. Writing \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03d5\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        (\n        z\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi _{n}(z)}\n   for the polynomials, they obey a recurrence relation\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03d5\n          \n            n\n            +\n            1\n          \n        \n        (\n        z\n        )\n        =\n        z\n        \u03d5\n        (\n        z\n        )\n        +\n        \n          \u03c1\n          \n            n\n            +\n            1\n          \n        \n        \n          \u03d5\n          \n            \u2217\n          \n        \n        (\n        z\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\phi _{n+1}(z)=z\\phi (z)+\\rho _{n+1}\\phi ^{*}(z)}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03c1\n          \n            n\n            +\n            1\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\rho _{n+1}}\n   is a parameter, called the reflection coefficient or the Szeg\u0151 parameter.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Taniyama group is a group that is an extension of the absolute Galois group of the rationals by the Serre group. It was introduced by Langlands (1977) using an observation by Deligne, and named after Yutaka Taniyama. It was intended to be the group scheme whose representations correspond to the (hypothetical) CM motives over the field Q of rational numbers.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The tee (\u22a4, \\top in LaTeX) also called down tack (as opposed to the up tack) or verum is a symbol used to represent:\n\nThe top element in lattice theory.\nThe truth value of being true in logic, or a sentence (e.g., formula in propositional calculus) which is unconditionally true. By definition, every tautology is logically equivalent to the verum.\nThe top type in type theory.\nMixed radix encoding in the APL programming language.A similar-looking superscript T may be used to mean the transpose of a matrix.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a tolerance relation is a relation that is reflexive and symmetric, but not necessarily transitive; a set X that possesses a tolerance relation can be described as a tolerance space. Tolerance relations provide a convenient general tool for studying indiscernibility/indistinguishability phenomena. The importance of those for mathematics had been first recognized by Poincar\u00e9.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In number theory, the totient summatory function \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03a6\n        (\n        n\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Phi (n)}\n    is a summatory function of Euler's totient function defined by:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \u03a6\n        (\n        n\n        )\n        :=\n        \n          \u2211\n          \n            k\n            =\n            1\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        \u03c6\n        (\n        k\n        )\n        ,\n        \n        n\n        \u2208\n        \n          N\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Phi (n):=\\sum _{k=1}^{n}\\varphi (k),\\quad n\\in \\mathbf {N} }\n  It is the number of coprime integer pairs {p, q}, 1 \u2264 p \u2264 q \u2264 n.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In scientific disciplines, a toy problem or a puzzlelike problem is a problem that is not of immediate scientific interest, yet is used as an expository device to illustrate a trait that may be shared by other, more complicated, instances of the problem, or as a way to explain a particular, more general, problem solving technique. A toy problem is useful to test and demonstrate methodologies. Researchers can use toy problems to compare the performance of different algorithms. They are also good for game designing.\nFor instance, while engineering a large system, the large problem is often broken down into many smaller toy problems which have been well understood in detail. Often these problems distill a few important aspects of complicated problems so that they can be studied in isolation. Toy problems are thus often very useful in providing intuition about specific phenomena in more complicated problems.\nAs an example, in the field of artificial intelligence, classical puzzles, games and problems are often used as toy problems. These include sliding-block puzzles, N-Queens problem, missionaries and cannibals problem, tic-tac-toe, chess, Tower of Hanoi and others.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics and physics, a traveling plane wave is a special case of plane wave, namely a field whose evolution in time can be described as simple translation of its values at a constant wave speed \n  \n    \n      \n        c\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c}\n  , along a fixed direction of propagation \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              n\n              \u2192\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\vec {n}}}\n  .\n\nSuch a field can be written as  \n\n  \n    \n      \n        F\n        (\n        \n          \n            \n              x\n              \u2192\n            \n          \n        \n        ,\n        t\n        )\n        =\n        G\n        \n          (\n          \n            \n              \n                \n                  x\n                  \u2192\n                \n              \n            \n            \u22c5\n            \n              \n                \n                  n\n                  \u2192\n                \n              \n            \n            \u2212\n            c\n            t\n          \n          )\n        \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle F({\\vec {x}},t)=G\\left({\\vec {x}}\\cdot {\\vec {n}}-ct\\right)\\,}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n        (\n        u\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G(u)}\n   is a function of a single real parameter \n  \n    \n      \n        u\n        =\n        d\n        \u2212\n        c\n        t\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle u=d-ct}\n  .  The function \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G}\n   describes the profile of the wave, namely the value of the field at time \n  \n    \n      \n        t\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle t=0}\n  , for each displacement \n  \n    \n      \n        d\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              x\n              \u2192\n            \n          \n        \n        \u22c5\n        \n          \n            \n              n\n              \u2192\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d={\\vec {x}}\\cdot {\\vec {n}}}\n  .  For each displacement \n  \n    \n      \n        d\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d}\n  , the moving plane perpendicular to \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              n\n              \u2192\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\vec {n}}}\n   at distance \n  \n    \n      \n        d\n        +\n        c\n        t\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle d+ct}\n   from the origin is called a wavefront.  This plane too travels along the direction of propagation \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              n\n              \u2192\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\vec {n}}}\n   with velocity \n  \n    \n      \n        c\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle c}\n  ; and the value of the field is then the same, and constant in time, at every one of its points.\nThe wave \n  \n    \n      \n        F\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle F}\n   may be a scalar or vector field; its values are the values of \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G}\n  .\nA sinusoidal plane wave is a special case, when \n  \n    \n      \n        G\n        (\n        u\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle G(u)}\n   is a sinusoidal function of \n  \n    \n      \n        u\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle u}\n  .", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "The traveling tournament problem (TTP) is a mathematical optimization problem. The question involves scheduling a series of teams such that:\n\nEach team plays every other team twice, once at home and once in the other's stadium.\nNo team plays the same opponent in two consecutive weeks.\nNo team plays more than three games in a row at home, or three games in a row on the road.A matrix is provided of the travel distances between each team's home city. All teams start and end at their own home city, and the goal is to minimize the total travel distance for every team over the course of the whole season.There have been many papers published on the subject, and a contest exists to find the best solutions for certain specific schedules.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In computational geometry, the Tukey depth is a measure of the depth of a point in a fixed set of points. The concept is named after its inventor, John Tukey. Given a set of points \n  \n    \n      \n        P\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle P}\n   in d-dimensional space, a point p has Tukey depth k where k is the smallest number of points in any closed halfspace that contains p.\nFor example, for any extreme point of the convex hull there is always a (closed) halfspace that contains only that point, and hence its Tukey depth is 1.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Ulam's game, or the R\u00e9nyi\u2013Ulam game, is a mathematical game similar to the popular game of twenty questions. In Ulam's game, a player attempts to guess an unnamed object or number by asking yes\u2013no questions of another, but one of the answers given may be a lie.Alfr\u00e9d R\u00e9nyi (1961) introduced the game in a 1961 paper, based on Hungary's Bar Kokhba game, but the paper was overlooked for many years.\nStanislaw Ulam (1976,\u2002p. 281) rediscovered the game, presenting the idea that there are a million objects and the answer to one question can be wrong, and considered the minimum number of questions required, and the strategy that should be adopted. Pelc (2002) gave a survey of similar games and their relation to information theory.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "A unary function is a function that takes one argument.  A unary operator belongs to a subset of unary functions, in that its range coincides with its domain.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, unscented optimal control combines the notion of the unscented transform with deterministic optimal control to address a class of uncertain optimal control problems. It is a specific application of Riemmann-Stieltjes optimal control theory, a concept introduced by Ross and his coworkers.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematical optimization, neighborhood search is a technique that tries to find good or near-optimal solutions to a combinatorial optimisation problem by repeatedly transforming a current solution into a different solution in the neighborhood of the current solution. The neighborhood of a solution is a set of similar solutions obtained by relatively simple modifications to the original solution. For a very large-scale neighborhood search, the neighborhood is large and possibly exponentially sized.\nThe resulting algorithms can outperform algorithms using small neighborhoods because the local improvements are larger. If neighborhood searched is limited to just one or a very small number of changes from the current solution, then it can be difficult to escape from local minima, even with additional meta-heuristic techniques such as Simulated Annealing or Tabu search. In large neighborhood search techniques, the possible changes from one solution to its neighbor may allow tens or hundreds of values to change, and this means that the size of the neighborhood may itself be sufficient to allow the search process to avoid or escape local minima, though additional meta-heuristic techniques can still improve performance.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, specifically in order theory and functional analysis, an element \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x}\n   of a vector lattice \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   is called a weak order unit in \n  \n    \n      \n        X\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle X}\n   if \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n        \u2265\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x\\geq 0}\n   and also for all \n  \n    \n      \n        y\n        \u2208\n        X\n        ,\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle y\\in X,}\n   \n  \n    \n      \n        inf\n        {\n        x\n        ,\n        \n          |\n        \n        y\n        \n          |\n        \n        }\n        =\n        0\n        \n           implies \n        \n        y\n        =\n        0.\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\inf\\{x,|y|\\}=0{\\text{ implies }}y=0.}", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Wedge (\u2227) is a symbol that looks similar to an in-line caret (^). It is used to represent various operations. In Unicode, the symbol is encoded U+2227 \u2227 LOGICAL AND (&and;, &wedge;) and by \\wedge and \\land in TeX. The opposite symbol (\u2228) is called a vel, or sometimes a (descending) wedge. Some authors who call the descending wedge vel often call the ascending wedge ac (the corresponding Latin word for \"and\", also spelled \"atque\"), keeping their usage parallel", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, Weisner's method is a method for finding generating functions for special functions using representation theory of Lie groups and Lie algebras, introduced by Weisner (1955). It includes Truesdell's method as a special case, and is essentially the same as Rainville's method.\n\n... Weisner's group-theoretic method ... is a technique with uses the differential recurrence relations of a family of special functions to construct a Lie algebra of differential operators (Lie derivatives), under the action of which the family is invariant. The Lie derivatives can be exponentiated to obtain an action of the associated Lie group and this group action yields the generating functions. Miller Jr. (1974)", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, a Weyl sequence is a sequence from the equidistribution theorem proven by Hermann Weyl:The sequence of all multiples of an irrational \u03b1,\n\n0, \u03b1, 2\u03b1, 3\u03b1, 4\u03b1, ...\nis equidistributed modulo 1.In other words, the sequence of the fractional parts of each term will be uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 1].", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "WIRIS is a company, legally registered as Maths for More, providing a set of proprietary HTML-based JavaScript tools which can author and edit mathematical formulas, execute mathematical problems and show mathematical graphics on the Cartesian coordinate system. \nWIRIS equation editor is a native browser application, with a light server-side, that supports both MathML and LaTeX. Since 2017, after buying Design Science, a US-based a developer of MathType desktop software, WIRIS rebranded their web equation editor as MathType by WIRIS. WIRIS is based in Barcelona, Spain and was founded by teachers and former students from the Technical University of Catalonia (Barcelona Tech) coordinated by Professor Sebasti\u00e0 Xamb\u00f3.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "In mathematics, the Wirtinger plane sextic curve, studied by Wirtinger,  is a degree 6 genus 4 plane curve with double points at the 6 vertices of a complete quadrilateral.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Zimmer's conjecture is a statement in mathematics \"which has to do with the circumstances under which geometric spaces exhibit certain kinds of symmetries.\" It was named after the mathematician Robert Zimmer.  The conjecture states that there can exist symmetries (specifically higher-rank lattices) in a higher dimension that cannot exist in lower dimensions.\nIn 2017, the conjecture was proven by Aaron Brown and Sebasti\u00e1n Hurtado-Salazar of the University of Chicago and David Fisher of Indiana University.", "label": "Mathematics"}, {"sentence": "Direct fire or line-of-sight fire refers to firing of a ranged weapon whose projectile is launched directly at a target within the line-of-sight of the user.  The firing weapon must have a sighting device and an unobstructed view to the target, which means no obstacles or friendly units can be between it and the target.  A weapon engaged in direct fire conversely exposes itself to direct return fire from the target.This is in contrast to indirect fire, which refers to firing a projectile on a curved ballistic trajectory or delivering self-accelerated munitions capable of long range and various degrees of homing abilities to alter the flight path. Indirect fire does not need a direct line-of-sight to the target because the shots are normally directed by a forward observer.  As such, indirect-fire weapons can shoot over obstacles or friendly units and the weapons can be concealed from counter-battery fire.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Direct voice input (DVI), sometimes called voice input control (VIC), is a style of human\u2013machine interaction \"HMI\" in which the user makes voice commands to issue instructions to the machine through speech recognition. \nIn the field of military aviation, DVI has been introduced into the cockpits of several modern military aircraft, such as the Eurofighter Typhoon, the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, the Dassault Rafale, the KF-21 Boramae and the Saab JAS 39 Gripen. Such systems have been also been used for various other purposes, including industry control systems and speech recognition assistance for impaired individuals.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A dogsbody, dog's body, or less commonly dog robber is someone who does menial or drudge work. Originally, in the British Royal Navy, a dogsbody was a semi-sarcastic colloquialism for a junior officer or midshipman.A rough American equivalent would be a package-handler, gofer, grunt, lackey, or workhorse.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Dynamic terrain is the representation of terrain (e.g. mountains, hills, valleys) together with the capability for modification during a simulation (e.g. a constructive soldier (i.e. battlespace entity) digging a trench).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Economic militarism is the ideology surrounding the use of  military expenditure to prop up an economy, or the use of military power to gain control or access to territory or other economic resources.\nThus a link between output and military expenditure can be made. The scope of this effect depend on : threat faced, productivity of factors, degree of the military utilisation, finance method of military spending, its externalities and effectiveness of this military spending in countering the treaty. As a consequence, a same amount of military spending in different countries can have wide-ranging effects.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The \u00e9corcheurs (French: [ek\u0254\u0281\u0283\u0153\u0281], lit. \"flayers\") were armed bands who desolated France in the reign of Charles VII, stripping their victims of everything, often to their very clothes.They were mercenaries without employment since the Treaty of Arras which ended disputes between the Armagnacs and Burgundians in 1435. Rodrigo de Villandrando was known as the \"Emperor of Pillagers\" (empereur des brigands) and \"L'\u00c9corcheur\" (the flayer).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Enfilade and defilade are concepts in military tactics used to describe a military formation's exposure to enemy fire. A formation or position is \"in enfilade\" if weapon fire can be directed along its longest axis. A unit or position is \"in defilade\" if it uses natural or artificial obstacles to shield or conceal itself from enfilade and hostile fire. The strategies, named by the English during the Hundred Years' War, use the French enfiler (\"to put on a string or sling\") and d\u00e9filer (\"to slip away or off\") spoken by English nobility of the time.Enfilade fire\u2014gunfire directed against an enfiladed formation or position\u2014is also commonly known as \"flanking fire\". Raking fire is the equivalent term in naval warfare. Strafing, firing on targets from a flying platform, is often done with enfilade fire. It is a very advantageous, and much sought for, position for the attacking force.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Fatigue duty (or fatigue labor) is the labor assigned to military  men that does not require the use of armament. Parties sent on fatigue duty were known in English by the French term \"en d\u00e9tachement\" according to an 1805 military dictionary.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A field officer, field-grade officer, or senior officer is an Army, Marine, or Air Force commissioned officer senior in rank to a company officer but junior to a general officer. In most armies this corresponds to the ranks of major, lieutenant colonel and colonel, or their equivalents. Some countries also include brigadier in the definition.\nHistorically, a regiment or battalion's field officers made up its command element.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Fingerspitzengef\u00fchl [\u02c8f\u026a\u014b\u0250\u02cc\u0283p\u026ats\u0259n\u0261\u0259\u02ccfy\u02d0l] is a German term, literally meaning \"finger tips feeling\" and meaning intuitive flair or instinct, which has been adopted by the English language as a loanword. It describes a great situational awareness, and the ability to respond most appropriately and tactfully. It can also be applied to diplomats, bearers of bad news, or to describe a superior ability to respond to an escalated situation. The term is sometimes used to describe the instinctive play of certain football players.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Fire for effect (or FFE) is a military term.\nAccording to NATO doctrine: \n\nFire which is delivered after the mean point of impact or burst is within the desired distance of the target or adjusting/ranging point.\nTerm in a call for fire to indicate the adjustment/ranging is satisfactory and fire for effect is desired.According to United States Department of Defense, it is \"that volume of fires delivered on a target to achieve the desired effect\".\nArtillery firing is often calibrated with spotting rounds and a process of adjustment of fire. Once calibrated upon the desired target or bracketed area, a call for \"fire for effect\" is made \u2013 requesting several batteries or the battalion to fire one or more rounds, with the goal of saturating the target area with shell fragments.\nIn practice, first the Forward Observer (FO) establishes communication with the artillery unit.  Then a spotting round is called for.  Spotting rounds are then \"walked\" on to the target.  When the spotting round is either on the target or the necessary adjustment is small enough to be within allowable limits, the FO calls for a fire mission, often with the phrase, \"Fire for effect.\"  If the first fire mission does not reduce the position or change the tactical situation sufficiently, other fire missions may be called for.\nIdeally the observations of the FO will be accurate enough to dispense with any ranging rounds. This maximizes surprise and also limits the opportunity for the enemy to discover the position of the battery while saving ammunition. When ranging rounds are needed, surprise can be preserved using an \"auxiliary adjusting point\". This point should be an equal range from the battery as the target point but along a different azimuth. Once the chosen auxiliary point is hit, the range is dialed in and the switch can easily be made to the target point (error is usually greater in the range component). Care must be taken that the auxiliary point is far enough from the target to obscure the real purpose.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Fire support is defined by the United States Department of Defense as \"Fires that directly support land, maritime, amphibious, and special operations forces to engage enemy forces, combat formations, and facilities in pursuit of tactical and operational objectives.\" Typically, fire support is provided by artillery or close air support (usually directed by a forward observer), and is used to shape the battlefield or, more optimistically, define the battle. Warships, for example, have long provided naval gunfire support. Artillery observers allow adjusting fire.  Fire support has been used since the advent of cannons in warfare as artillery. Fire support, as an extension, is the marriage of artillery to the forces in contact. It is the direct ability to properly use artillery. It is distinct from direct fire, which is provided by the forces in contact.\nLine companies in standard Heavy Brigade Combat Teams of the US Army often use Fire Support Teams (FSTs) mounted in forward support vehicles to observe and adjust fire.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A firing port, sometimes called a pistol port, is a small opening in armored vehicles, fortified structures, or other armored equipment that allows small arms to be safely fired out of the vehicle at enemy infantry, often to cover vehicle or building blindspots.  Examples of this can be seen in the Crusader tank, Sherman tank, Tiger I, T-34-85, and even modern armored vehicles today such as the Mechanized Infantry Combat Vehicle (MICV) program, its successor the Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV) featuring the M231 Firing Port Weapon, and Russian armored personnel carriers.  Some firing ports are improvised for such use.  For example a late production Tiger I manual shows the Nahverteidigungswaffe being used as a firing port.Some pistol ports, such as on the Sherman, included vision slits such as \"protectoscopes\" increasing visibility around the tank.:\u200a51\u200a", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A flag officer is a commissioned officer in a nation's armed forces senior enough to be entitled to fly a flag to mark the position from which the officer exercises command.\nThe term is used differently in different countries:\n\nIn many countries, a flag officer is a senior officer of the navy, specifically those who hold any of the admiral ranks; the term may or may not include the rank of commodore.\nIn some countries, such as the United States, India, and Bangladesh it may apply to all armed forces, not just the navy. This means generals can also be considered flag officers.\nIn most Arab armies, liwa (Arabic: \u0644\u0648\u0627\u0621), which can be translated as flag officer, is a specific rank, equivalent to a major general. However, \"ensign\" is debatably a more exact translation of the word. In principle, a flag officer commands several units called \"flags\" (or \"ensigns\") (i.e. brigades).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The fog of war (German: Nebel des Krieges) is the uncertainty in situational awareness experienced by participants in  military operations. The term seeks to capture the uncertainty regarding one's own capability, adversary capability, and adversary intent during an engagement, operation, or campaign. Military forces try to reduce the fog of war through military intelligence and friendly force tracking systems. The term has become commonly used to define uncertainty mechanics in wargames.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military usage, fit to receive or fitting \"for but not with\" describes a weapon or system which is called for in a design but not installed or is only partially installed during construction, with the installation completed later as needed. This can be done to reduce the vessel's build cost by not purchasing the system at the time of construction, as a method of future-proofing a design, or for security purposes. The term is usually used in regard to ships but sometimes extends to military vehicles, aircraft and other hardware.Provision is made physically with power supply and data wiring to a hardpoint or through software for the installation of a weapon or system which is marked for purchase at a later date, with installation during the vehicle's modernisation or refit.  Part of the justification for this design concept is the implicit assumption that in the event of the system being required (such as a war), there should be enough warning time to purchase the system, install it in the vehicle, and train operators in its use.Fitting for but not with can range anywhere between leaving sufficient space for any future upgrades, to installing a weapon system during construction but not purchasing ammunition until it is needed.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Forcing a safeguard is a war crime of violating a safeguard, which is an order to protect a property, locations or persons obtained from the enemy or neutral parties, or a guard or guard detachment to enforce this protection. In the United States, forcing a safeguard is punishable by death per Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ).A safeguard is often placed by a commanding officer in order to prevent looting, pillaging or wanton destruction of enemy property, or to prevent unauthorized requisitioning of goods. The commanding officer can often spare only an individual soldier or a small detachment to enforce the safeguard. Overpowering the guards to loot the goods constitutes forcing a safeguard. Another type of safeguard is a written order left with the enemy or his property, with the intent to protect surrendered enemies from further violence. By placing the safeguard, the officer pledges the honor of his military to protect its target. Thus, violation of the safeguard by personnel from the same military jeopardizes the reputation of the entire country and its military.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A free company (sometimes called a great company or grande compagnie) was an army of mercenaries between the 12th and 14th centuries recruited by private employers during wars. They acted independently of any government, and were thus \"free\".  They regularly made a living by plunder when they were not employed; in France they were called routiers and \u00e9corcheurs and operated outside the highly structured law of arms. The term \"free company\" is most often applied to those companies of soldiers which formed after the Peace of Br\u00e9tigny during the Hundred Years' War and were active mainly in France, but it has been applied to other companies, such as the Catalan Company and companies that operated elsewhere, such as in Italy and the Holy Roman Empire.\nThe free companies, or companies of adventure, have been cited as a factor as strong as plague or famine in the reduction of Siena from a glorious rival of Florence to a second-rate power during the later 14th century; Siena spent 291,379 florins between 1342 and 1399 buying off the free companies. The White Company of John Hawkwood, probably the most famous free company, was active in Italy in the latter half of the 14th century.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A  freedom zone to fire in U.S. military parlance is a fire control measure, used for coordination between adjacent combat units. The definition used in the Vietnam War by U.S. troops may be found in field manual FM 6-20:\n\nA specific designated area into which any weapon system may fire without additional coordination with the establishing headquarters.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military terminology, friendly fire or fratricide is an attack by belligerent or neutral forces on friendly troops while attempting to attack enemy/hostile targets. Examples include misidentifying the target as hostile, cross-fire while engaging an enemy, long range ranging errors or inaccuracy. Accidental fire not intended to attack enemy/hostile targets, and deliberate firing on one's own troops for disciplinary reasons, is not called friendly fire, and neither is unintentional harm to civilian or neutral targets, which is sometimes referred to as collateral damage. Training accidents and bloodless incidents also do not qualify as friendly fire in terms of casualty reporting.Use of the term \"friendly\" in a military context for allied personnel started during the First World War, often when shells fell short of the targeted enemy. The term friendly fire was originally adopted by the United States military; S.L.A. Marshall used the term in Men Against Fire in 1947. Many North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) militaries refer to these incidents as blue on blue, which derives from military exercises where NATO forces were identified by blue pennants and units representing Warsaw Pact forces by red pennants. In classical forms of warfare where hand-to-hand combat dominated, death from a \"friendly\" was rare, but in industrialized warfare, deaths from friendly fire are common.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "There have been many thousands of friendly fire incidents in recorded military history, accounting for an estimated 2% to 20% of all casualties in battle.  The examples listed below illustrate their range and diversity, but this does not reflect increasing frequency. The rate of friendly fire, once allowance has been made for the numbers of troops committed to battle, has remained remarkably stable, and unimproved, over the past 200 years.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A furphy is Australian slang for an erroneous or improbable story that is claimed to be factual. Furphies are supposedly heard from reputable sources, sometimes secondhand or thirdhand, and widely believed until discounted. The word is said to derive from water carts designed and made by a company established by John Furphy of J. Furphy & Sons of Shepparton, Victoria. The steel and cast iron tanks were first made in the 1880s and were used on farms and by stock agents. Many Furphy water carts were used to take water to Australian Army personnel during World War I in Australia, Europe and the Middle East.In his book Memories of a Signaller, Harold Hinckfuss wrote of the \"furphies\" or rumours of pending movements of troops, while awaiting transfer to the French lines from Egypt. \"Every day in the tent someone would come up with a 'furphy' that he had heard whilst down at the latrines. That is why the different stories were called furphies ('furphy' was the term used for a fart).\"\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A garret is a habitable attic, a living space at the top of a house or larger residential building, traditionally, small, dismal, and cramped, with sloping ceilings. In the days before elevators this was the least prestigious position in a building, at the very top of the stairs.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Orders to Sentry is the official title of a set of rules governing sentry (guard or watch) duty in the United States Armed Forces. While any guard posting has rules that may go without saying (\"Stay awake,\" for instance), these orders are carefully detailed and particularly stressed in the U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, and U.S. Coast Guard. Also known as the 11 General Orders, the list is meant to cover any possible scenario a sentry might encounter on duty.\nAll recruits learn these orders verbatim while at recruit training and are expected to retain the knowledge to use for the remainder of their military careers. It is very common for a drill instructor or (after boot camp) an inspecting officer to ask a question such as, \"What is your sixth general order?\" and expect an immediate (and correct) reply.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "German Luftwaffe and Navy Kriegsmarine Radar Equipment during World War II, relied on an increasingly diverse array of communications, IFF and RDF equipment for its function.  Most of this equipment received the generic prefix FuG (German: Funkger\u00e4t), meaning \"radio equipment\". During the war,  Germany renumbered their radars. From using the year of introduction as their number they moved to a different numbering scheme.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "During World War II, the German Army relied on an diverse array of communications to maintain contact with its mobile forces and in particular with its armoured forces. Most of this equipment received the generic prefix FuG for Funkger\u00e4t, meaning \"radio device\". Occasionally the shorted Fu designation were used and there were exceptions to both these systems. Number ranges were not unique across the services so sometimes different equipment used by different services had the same FuG prefix. This article is a list and a description of the radio equipment.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "This is a glossary of acronyms and initials used for organisations in the Russian federation and formerly the USSR. The Latin-alphabet names are phonetic representations of the Cyrillic originals, and variations are inevitable.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "This is a glossary of acronyms and initials used for aircraft weapons in the Russian federation and formerly the USSR. The Latin-alphabet names are phonetic representations of the Cyrillic originals, and variations are inevitable.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power influence, which may cause middle or small powers to consider the great powers' opinions before taking actions of their own. International relations theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions.While some nations are widely considered to be great powers, there is considerable debate on the exact criteria of great power status. Historically, the status of great powers has been formally recognized in organizations such as the Congress of Vienna or the United Nations Security Council. The United Nations Security Council, NATO Quint, the G7, the BRICs and the Contact Group have all been described as great power concerts.The term \"great power\" was first used to represent the most important powers in Europe during the post-Napoleonic era. The \"Great Powers\" constituted the \"Concert of Europe\" and claimed the right to joint enforcement of the postwar treaties. The formalization of the division between small powers and great powers came about with the signing of the Treaty of Chaumont in 1814. Since then, the international balance of power has shifted numerous times, most dramatically during World War I and World War II. In literature, alternative terms for great power are often world power or major power.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Gueules cass\u00e9es (broken faces) is a French expression for facially disfigured servicemen that originated in World War I. Colonel Yves Picot is said to have coined the term when he was refused entry to a gathering for the war-disabled.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The term harka (Arabic: \u062d\u0631\u0643\u0629) in Maghrebi history refers to a military campaign with military, political, or financial (tax-collecting) goals, often a punitive expedition against insurgents.Historically, the term refers to military campaigns carried out by the sultans of Morocco or other high-ranking officials, such as qaids, with the goal of collecting taxes or pacifying or suppressing revolting regions or tribes (as in Bled es-Siba).Walter Burton Harris described a harka in the time of Sultan Abdelaziz in Morocco That Was, although he confused it with the word harqa (\u062d\u0631\u0642\u0629) related to burning.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In United States military terminology, a high-value target (HVT) is the term given to a person or resource that an enemy commander requires to complete a mission. The term has been widely used in the news media for Osama Bin Laden and high-ranking officers of Al-Qaeda. Former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was known as High Value Target Number One by the United States military before his capture.\nA high-payoff target, also known as an HPT, is a high-value target whose loss to the enemy will significantly contribute to the success of a friendly course of action.Soldiers are often asked to do all that is possible to capture an HVT alive but, if that is impossible, they are given clearance to fire. Various tasked Joint Special Operations Task Forces (Task Force 145, Task Force 121, Task Force 11) have been established for the main purposes of capturing or killing these high-value targets. Forces assigned to these include units mainly from the Joint Special Operations Command  and SOCOM such as the US Navy SEALs, US Army Delta Force, US Navy SEAL Team Six, US Army 75th Ranger Regiment and elements of the British Army's Special Air Service (SAS). The term has also become associated with secret US Department of Defense programs to capture and subsequently interrogate terrorist leaders.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A hotwash is the immediate \"after-action\" discussions and evaluations of an agency's (or multiple agencies') performance following an exercise, training session, or major event, such as Hurricane Katrina.The main purpose of a hotwash session is to identify strengths and weaknesses of the response to a given event, which then leads to another governmental phase known as \"lessons learned.\" Hotwashes are intended to guide future responses in order to avoid repeating errors made in the past. A hotwash normally includes all the parties that participated in the exercise or response activities. These events are usually used to create the after action review/improvement plan.\nHotwash is a term picked up in recent years by the Emergency Preparedness Community, likely as a result of Homeland Security and other government agencies' involvement in disaster planning. It serves as a form of after-disaster briefing for all parties involved to analyze what worked well, what needs improvement, what person or agency needs to be responsible for said improvements, and the assignments and timelines for the noted corrective and proactive improvements to be in place.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Human-in-the-loop  or HITL is defined as a model that requires human interaction. HITL is associated with modeling and simulation (M&S) in the live, virtual, and constructive taxonomy. HITL models may conform to human factors requirements as in the case of a mockup.  In this type of simulation a human is always part of the simulation and consequently influences the outcome in such a way that is difficult if not impossible to reproduce exactly.  HITL also readily allows for the identification of problems and requirements that may not be easily identified by other means of simulation.\nHITL is often referred to as interactive simulation, which is a special kind of physical simulation in which physical simulations include human operators, such as in a flight or a driving simulator.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A hyperpower is a state that dominates all other states in every domain (i.e. military, culture, economy, etc.); it has no rivals that  can match its capabilities, and is considered to be a step higher than a superpower.\nAlthough the United States of America has exhibited the traits of a hyperpower Post-Cold War, its global influence has begun to decline relative to other potential superpowers. More specifically, the United States, as a global power, no longer dominates in every domain (i.e. military, culture, economy, technology, diplomatic) in every region of the world. For instance, according to the Asia Power Index 2020, in terms of influence and power in Asia, the United States still takes the lead on the military capacity, cultural influence, resilience and defense networks, but falls behind China in four parameters of economic resources, future resources, economic relationships and diplomatic influence across eight measures. The United States still ranks ahead of China in every category in terms of world influence and power. It should be noted, however, that this index ranks power and influence only across the Indo-Pacific, and is therefore arguably not applicable to the global definition of a hyperpower.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "India is considered one of the potential superpowers of the world. This potential is attributed to several indicators, the primary ones being its demographic trends and a rapidly expanding economy and military. In 2015, India became the world's fastest growing economy with a 5% estimated GDP rate (mid year terms).  Before it can be considered a superpower, the country must overcome many economic, social, and political problems and it also needs to be as influential on the international stage when compared to the United States, European Union, China, the former British Empire and the former Soviet Union.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Initial operating capability or initial operational capability (IOC) is the state achieved when a capability is available in its minimum usefully deployable form. The term is often used in government or military procurement.\nThe United States Department of Defense chooses to use the term initial operational capability when referring to IOC. For a U.S. Department of Defense military acquisition, IOC includes operating the training and maintaining parts of the overall system per DOTMLPF, and is defined as:\"In general, attained when some units and/or organizations in the force structure scheduled to receive a system have received it and have the ability to employ and maintain it. The specifics for any particular system IOC are defined in that system\u2019s Capability Development Document (CDD) and Capability Production Document (CPD).\"The date at which IOC is achieved often defines the in-service date (ISD) for an associated system. Declaration of an initial operating capability may imply that the capability will be developed in the future, for example by modifications or adjustments to improve the system's performance, deployment of greater numbers of systems (perhaps of different types), or testing and training that permit wider application of the capability. Once the capability is fully developed, full operational capability may be declared.For example, the capability may be fielded to a limited number of users with plans to roll out to all users incrementally over a period (possibly incorporating changes along the way). The point at which the first users begin using the capability is IOC, with FOC achieved when all intended users (by agreement between the developer and the user) have the capability. This does not preclude additional users from obtaining the capability after FOC.\nAlternatively the specifics of the program may cause a contract and acquisition-defined definition that differs from the concept of available in minimally deployable form, for example IOC on a website, which does not have material production or maintenance, may have been defined as when the training mockup is installed rather than when software or content is ready.\nFinally, IOC may be an informal voiced usage of opinion on how far the development is, or a casual view that some other event constitutes IOC like when it is first turned on. (Both of these are meaningless to formal program state or contractual actions, but the progress or event are meaningful in other senses.)\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Junior officer, company officer or company grade officer refers to  the lowest operational commissioned officer category of ranks in a military or paramilitary organization, ranking above non-commissioned officers and below senior officers.\nThe terms company officer or company-grade officer are used more in the Army, Air Force, or Marine Corps as the ranks of captain, lieutenant grades and other subaltern ranks originated from the officers in command of a company or equivalent (cavalry squadron/troop and artillery battery).In many armed forces, a junior officer is specifically a commissioned officer holding rank equivalent to a naval lieutenant, an army captain or a flight lieutenant or below.In the United States Armed Forces, the term junior officer is used by the Navy, Coast Guard, Public Health Service, and NOAA Corps for officers in the ranks of chief warrant officer (W-2 to W-4), ensign (O-1), lieutenant (junior grade) (O-2), lieutenant (O-3), and lieutenant commander (O-4).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Labour corps or labor corps usually refers to an organisation that provides labour for military-related purposes. It may be a civilian auxiliary or an internal branch (i.e. an administrative corps or mustering) of a particular military service.\nMembers of labour corps often perform unskilled manual labour in fields such as construction, military engineering, or logistics (especially transport).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Land navigation is the discipline of following a route through unfamiliar terrain on foot or by vehicle, using maps with reference to terrain, a compass, and other navigational tools. It is distinguished from travel by traditional groups, such as the Tuareg across the Sahara and the Inuit across the Arctic, who use subtle cues to travel across familiar, yet minimally differentiated terrain.  \nLand navigation is a core military discipline, which uses courses that are an essential part of military training.  Often, these courses are several miles long in rough terrain and are performed under adverse conditions, such as at night or in the rain.In the late 19th century, land navigation developed into the sport of orienteering. The earliest use of the term 'orienteering' appears to be in 1886.  Nordic military garrisons began orienteering competitions in 1895.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Landing area is an official designation of specialized Earth surface region by the international standard publication describing airfields and airports to aviators, the Aeronautical Information Publication.  As such, it is directly translated into dozens of languages, wherever an AIP publication exists, which is one for every aviation-regulating country of the world. It is the most salient description of the logistics real estate which enable planes or helicopters or other aircraft to come and go.  It also has other meanings, which extend beyond aviation concepts and airport terminology, all of them military in kind.\nA landing area may be:\n\nAny wrought, treated or merely selected surface of land, water, or a ship vessel's deck employed in a sustained way for either takeoff or landing of aircraft.\nOperational area segment of an amphibious military unit. This may comprise the beach, the over-water or over-land approaches to the said beach, as well as adjacent transport areas, airspace, or so-called fire support zones, including airspace and terrain subjected to the presence or actions of close-support aircraft. Usually this concept extends to any land included in any consequent military advance made.\n(Airborne forces) The area where landing troops are to be deployed, or supplies, either through air landing or air drop, including drop zones, landing strips, adjacent airspace or body of water.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The term lawful enemy combatant is defined in the Military Commissions Act of 2006; the term is used as an exclusionary term to prevent most of those who qualify under the definition from being an unlawful enemy combatant.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Lethality (also called deadliness or perniciousness) is how capable something is of causing death. Most often it is used when referring to diseases, chemical weapons, biological weapons, or their toxic chemical components.  The use of this term denotes the ability of these weapons to kill, but also the possibility that they may not kill.  Reasons for the lethality of a weapon to be inconsistent, or expressed by percentage, can be as varied as minimized exposure to the weapon, previous exposure to the weapon minimizing susceptibility, degradation of the weapon over time and/or distance, and incorrect deployment of a multi-component weapon.\nThis term can also refer to the after-effects of weapon use, such as nuclear fallout, which has highest lethality nearest the deployment site, and in proportion to the subject's size and nature; e.g. a child or small animal.\nLethality can also refer to the after-effects of a chemical explosion.  A lethality curve can be developed for process safety reasons to protect people and equipment.  The impact is typically greatest closest to the explosion site and lessens to the outskirts of the impact zone.  Pressure, toxicity and location affect the lethality.\nLethality is also a term used by microbiologists and food scientists as a measure of the ability of a process to destroy bacteria. Lethality may be determined by enumeration of survivors after incremental exposures.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Lev\u00e9e en masse (French pronunciation: \u200b[l\u0259ve \u0251\u0303  m\u0251s] or, in English, \"mass levy\") is a French term used for a policy of mass national conscription, often in the face of invasion.\nThe concept originated during the French Revolutionary Wars, particularly for the period following 16 August 1793, when able-bodied men aged 18 to 25 were conscripted. It formed an integral part of the creation of national identity, making it distinct from forms of conscription which had existed before this date. \nThe term is also applied to other historical examples of mass conscription.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Live, Virtual, & Constructive (LVC) Simulation is a broadly used taxonomy for classifying Models and Simulation (M&S). However, categorizing a simulation as a live, virtual, or constructive environment is problematic since there is no clear division between these categories. The degree of human participation in a simulation is infinitely variable, as is the degree of equipment realism. The categorization of simulations also lacks a category for simulated people working real equipment.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Within military operations, a local operational picture (LOP) is a single identical display of relevant (operational) information of the battlespace (e.g. position of own troops and enemy troops, position and status of important infrastructure such as bridges, roads, etc.) constructed for local use.\nA LOP is an emerging military concept.  Although, there are literary examples that suggests that a LOP is for the use of a platoon commander and its coverage range is 250 meter radius.  A LOP assists a platoon commander to achieve situational awareness.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Mad Minute was a pre-World War I bolt-action rifle speed shooting exercise used by British Army riflemen, using the Lee\u2013Enfield service rifle. The exercise formally known as \"Practice number 22, Rapid Fire, The Musketry Regulations, Part I, 1909\", required the rifleman to fire 15 rounds at a \"Second Class Figure\" target at 300 yd (270 m). The practice was described as; \"Lying. Rifle to be loaded and 4 rounds in the magazine before the target appears. Loading to be from the pouch or bandolier by 5 rounds afterwards. One minute allowed\". \nThe practice was only one of the exercises from the annual classification shoot which was used to grade a soldier as a marksman, first-class or second-class shot, depending on the scores he had achieved.\nThe rapid aimed fire of the \u2018Mad Minute\u2019 was accomplished by using a 'palming' method where the rifleman used the palm of his hand to work the bolt, and not his thumb and forefinger, while maintaining his cheek weld and line of sight.The \"Second Class Figure Target\" was 48 inches square (approximately 1.2 x 1.2 meters), with 24 in (61 cm) inner  and 36 in (91 cm) magpie circles. The aiming mark was a 12 in \u00d7 12 in (30 cm \u00d7 30 cm) silhouette figure that represented the outline of the head of a man aiming a rifle from a trench. Points were scored by a hit anywhere on the target.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Manning the rail is a method of saluting (or rendering honors) used by naval vessels. The custom evolved from that of \"manning the yards\", which dates from the days of sail. On sailing ships, crew stood evenly spaced on all the yards (the spars holding the sails) and gave three cheers to honor distinguished persons. Today, the crew are stationed along the rails and superstructure of a ship when honors are rendered.\nThe United States Navy prescribes manning the rail as a possible honor to render to the President of the United States and for the heads of state of foreign nations. A similar but less formal ceremony is to have the crew \"at quarters\" when the ship is entering or leaving port.\nManning the rail is also the traditional way to honor the USS Arizona Memorial when it is passed by all U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Guard and U.S. Merchant Marine vessels. More recently, as foreign military vessels are entering Pearl Harbor for joint military exercises, foreign sailors have participated in the traditional manning the rails. Notable instances occurred on July 24, 1997, when the guided-missile destroyer Ramage and the frigate Halyburton rendered honors to the Constitution during her 200th birthday celebration, and on September 14, 2001, when the crew of the German destroyer L\u00fctjens manned the rails as they approached the destroyer USS Winston Churchill and displayed an American flag and a banner reading \"We Stand By You\".", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In international relations, a middle power is a sovereign state that is not a great power nor a superpower, but still has large or moderate influence and international recognition.\nThe concept of the \"middle power\" dates back to the origins of the European state system. In the late 16th century, Italian political thinker Giovanni Botero divided the world into three types of states: grandissime (empires), mezano (middle powers), and piccioli (small powers). According to Botero, a mezano or middle power \"has sufficient strength and authority to stand on its own without the need of help from others.\"", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A military brat (colloquial or military slang) is a child of serving or retired military personnel. Military brats are associated with a unique subculture and cultural identity. A military brat's childhood or adolescent life may be immersed in military culture to the point where the mainstream culture of their home country may seem foreign or peripheral. In many countries where there are military brat subcultures, the child's family moves great distances from one non-combat assignment to another for much of their youth.  For highly mobile military brats, a mixed cultural identity often results, due to exposure to numerous national or regional cultures.Within military culture, the term military brat is not considered to be a pejorative (as in describing a spoiled child), but rather connotes affection and respect.War-related family stresses, including long-term war-related absence of a parent, as well as war aftermath issues, are common features of military brat life in some countries, although the degree of war-involvement of individual countries with military brat subcultures may vary.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military capability is defined by the Australian Defence Force as \"the ability to achieve a desired effect in a specific operating environment\". It is defined by three interdependent factors: combat readiness, sustainable capability and force structure.\nIn terms of technologies, weapons and equipment use, it represents assets, that exist to perform specific functions in relation to requirements of the statement about present or future military operations as derived from the national defence policy (strategic). A national  Capabilities Development Plan seeks to provide a global understanding of capability needs, capability trends and potential capability shortfalls.\nMilitary capability is often referred to in terms of low, medium and high, although this usually refers to the type, quantity and sophistication of technology being used in combat operations, and the severity of threat to security of the state.\nMaintaining military capability requires modernisation of military technology, particularly prevalent in Europe since the Middle Ages due to the arms race that commenced with the introduction of artillery and later firearms into warfare.\nIn the European Union, capability development is approached by the Capability Directorate focusing on three primary areas:\nIAP: Information Acquisition & Processing - Knowledge\nGEM: Guidance, Energy & Materials - Engagement\nESM: Environment, Systems & Modelling - ManoeuverExisting military capability in armed forces will be employed, and only minor enhancements are possible in a short conflict. The context within which the military capabilities are used such as the geography of the area of operations, the culture and demography of the enemy, and the preparedness of the opposing forces, generally can not be altered at the start of the conflict.\n\nIt is a major part of military science to find methods of defeating the enemy with available capabilities using existing and new concepts. Successful use of military capability by employing these concepts and methods is reflected in the effects on the enemy ability to continue to resist, subject to Rules of Engagement (ROE) range of political, legal and ethical factors. Military capability is often tested in peacetime by using the scenario methodology to analyse performance, often as a war game. It is \nThe military's strategic role is to advise civilian leadership on the capability of military forces to execute specific missions.\n\nFuture military capability is developed based on the analysis of experimentation and testing of existing capability performance, and future capability decisions are made based on the armed forces being able to meet the challenges of a range of possible future scenarios. This is arguably a difficult task to accomplish due to the lack of predictability about future threats, changes in defence policy, and the range of response options and their effects that a government may want as a matter of future national defence policy.\nThe difference between expected and deliverable military capabilities is called the military capability gap, although the same term is also sometimes used to compare capabilities of potential future belligerents.\nThe vast majority of international relations studies and defense analyses assume that military power is a direct product of material resources, often measured in terms of the size of a state's defense budget, military forces, or gross domestic product (GDP). A growing body of research, however, claims that certain non-material factors significantly affect the ability of states to translate their resources into fighting power.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military dependents are the spouse(s), children, and possibly other familial relationship categories of a sponsoring military member for purposes of pay as well as special benefits, privileges and rights. This generic category is enumerated in great detail for U.S. military members.The term \"military brat\" is also commonly used in military culture to mean a military dependent who is either a child or a teenager. The term is not an insult but carries connotations of respect and affection. Currently the U.S. Department of Defense estimates that there are approximately 15 million individuals in the United States who are current or former military brats. It is also used in research studies. It also refers to the subculture of American military brats.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military deployment is the movement of armed forces and their logistical support infrastructure around the world.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The military designation of days and hours within the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), is specified in AAP-6 (STANAG 3680), NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions, and marked (NATO) in what follows. Those entries marked (US) are specific to the U.S., and defined only in Joint Publication JP 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms.\nReferences to days (or hours) preceding or following a designated day (or hour) use a plus or minus sign and an Arabic numeral following the letter. For example, \"D\u22123\" is 3 days prior to D-Day, \"C+7\" is 7 days after C-Day, \"H\u22122\" is 2 hours before H-hour, and so forth. In less formal contexts, the time is usually spelled out, so that \"D\u22123\" becomes \"D minus three\" or \"D minus 3\".\n\nA-Day\n20 October 1944, the day the Leyte Island Operation (the invasion of Leyte) began.\nC-Day\nShort for \"Commencement Day\" which usually means when deployment for an operation commences. It is called \"Commencement Day\" because before deployment candy is usually passed out to G.I.s from charitable organizations.  (US)\nD-Day(redundant acronym of day since the D stands for day, so it means day-day)\n\nThe unnamed day on which an operation commences or is due to commence. This may be the commencement of hostilities or any other operation. The most famous D-Day was June 6, 1944, when \"Operation Overlord\" began. Contrary to popular belief, the \"D\" does not stand for any specific word \u2013 the most popular being disembark. (NATO). According to [1], the \"D\" stands for \"Day\".\nE-Day\nThe unnamed day on which a NATO exercise commences. (NATO)\nF-Hour\nThe effective time of announcement by the U.S. Secretary of Defense to the Military Departments of a decision to mobilize Reserve units. (US)\nG-Day\nThe unnamed day on which an order, normally national, is given to deploy a unit. (NATO)\nH-Hour(redundant acronym of hour since the H stands for hour so it means hour-hour)\n\nThe specific time at which an operation or exercise commences, or is due to commence (this term is used also as a reference for the designation of days/hours before or after the event). (NATO); also known as Zero Hour\nI-Day\nUsed informally within the U.S. military bureaucracy to variously designate the \"Implementation Day\" or the (Delivery Order) \"Issuance Day\".\nJ-Day\nUsed during both world wars  to designate the day an assault occurred.\nK-Day\nThe unnamed day on which a convoy system is introduced or is due to be introduced on any particular convoy lane. (NATO)\nL-Hour\nThe specific time at which deployment for an operation commences. (US)\nL-Day\nFor \"Landing Day\", 1 April 1945, the day Operation Iceberg (the invasion of Okinawa) began.\nM-Day\nThe day on which mobilization commences or is due to commence.  (NATO)\nN-Day\nThe unnamed day an active duty unit is notified for deployment or redeployment. (US)\nO-Day\nA Maritime Prepositioning Force (MPF, the vanguard of a Marine Air-Ground Task Force, MAGTF) term designating the day the Maritime Propositioning Ship Squadron (MPSRON) off-load begins, or the continuous flow of the Fly-In Echelon (FIE) commences, whichever is later.\nP-Day\nThe expected date at which the rate of production of a consumable equals the rate at which the item is required by the Armed Forces. (US)\nQ-Day\n23 June 1945, the day of the dress rehearsal of the first atom bomb test nowadays it is sometimes used informally to mean \"Quality Day\", or the first day of the calendar quarter.\nR-Day\nThe unnamed day on which redeployment of major combat, combat support, and combat service support forces begins in an operation. (US)\nS-Day\nThe unnamed day the President authorizes Selective Reserve callup (not more than 200,000 men). (US)\nT-Day\nThe effective day coincident with Presidential declaration of national emergency and authorization of partial mobilization (not more than 1,000,000 personnel exclusive of the 200,000 callup). (US)\nV-Day\nSometimes used to designate \"Victory Day\", the day an operation successfully concludes.\nV-E Day\n\"Victory in Europe\"; designates 8 May 1945, the date when the Allies formally celebrated the defeat of Nazi Germany.\nV-J Day\n\"Victory over Japan\"; designates 14 August 1945, the date of Japan's unconditional surrender.\nW-Day\nThe effective day the President takes the adversary decision to prepare for war (unambiguous strategic warning). (US)\nX-Day\n1 November 1945, the day Operation Downfall (the invasion of Japan) was to begin. The term also generically means \"attack day\".\nY-Day\n1 March 1946, the day Operation Coronet (the invasion of Tokyo Plains) was to occur.\nZ-Day\n10 June 1945, the day the Australian Imperial Forces landed in Brunei Bay to liberate Brunei, part of Operation Oboe Six.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A military exclusion zone (MEZ) is an area in the immediate vicinity of a military action established by a country to prevent the unauthorized entry of civilian personnel/equipment for their own safety or to protect natural assets already in place in the zone.  It is also established to prevent an enemy from acquiring any material which could help them. The comparable term used by the air forces is that of no-fly zone.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military operations other than war (MOOTW) focus on deterring war, resolving conflict, promoting peace, and supporting civil authorities in response to domestic crises.  The phrase and acronym were coined by the United States military during the 1990s, but it has since fallen out of use. The UK military has crafted an equivalent or alternate term, peace support operations (PSO). Both MOOTW and PSO encompass peacekeeping, peacemaking, peace enforcement and peace building. The People's Liberation Army developed a similar concept based on MOOTW, known as \"Non-War Military Activities,\" which expanded on MOOTW and includes a range of activities characterized as \"Confrontational,\" \"Law Enforcement,\" \"Aid & Rescue,\" or \"Cooperative\" in nature.MOOTW not involving the use or threat of force include humanitarian assistance and disaster response. Special agreements exist which facilitate fire support operations within NATO and the ABCA quadripartite working group, which includes American, British, Canadian and Australian military contingents. Cooperation is organized in advance with NATO standardisation agreements (STANAGs) and quadripartite standardisation agreements (QSTAGs). Many countries which need disaster support relief have no bilateral agreements already in place; and action may be required, based on the situation, to establish such agreements.MOOTW also involves arms control and peacekeeping.\nThe United Nations (UN) recognises the vulnerability of civilians in armed conflict.  Security Council resolution 1674 (2006) on the protection of civilians in armed conflict enhances international focused attention on the protection of civilians in UN and other peace operations.  The implementation of paragraph 16 anticipates that peacekeeping missions are provided with clear guidelines regarding what missions can and should do to achieve protection goals; that the protection of civilians is given priority in decisions about the use of resources; and that protection mandates are implemented.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military parlance is the vernacular used within the military and embraces all aspects of service life; it can be described as both a \"code\" and a \"classification\" of something. Like many close and closed communities, the language used can often be full of jargon and not readily intelligible to outsiders\u2014sometimes this is for military operational or security reasons; other times it is because of the natural evolution of the day-to-day language used in the various units.\nFor example: \"Captain, this situation is 'Scale A'\", \"Scale A\" being an army's parlance for \"This situation requires the closest of attention and resources and all members of relevance should be present.\"\nThe military has developed its own slang, partly as means of self-identification. This slang is also used to reinforce the (usually friendly) interservice rivalries. Some terms are derogatory to varying degrees and many service personnel take some pleasure in the sense of shared hardships which they endure and which is reflected in the slang terms.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military supply-chain management is a cross-functional approach to procuring, producing and delivering products and services for military materiel applications. Military supply chain management includes sub-suppliers, suppliers, internal information and funds flow.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military urbanism is the militarization of urban areas. This can include changes to built environments in military conflict areas or modifications of cityscapes to strengthen or subvert control by authorities. Military urbanism concerns the planning and implementation processes by which areas are fortified and militarized, as well as observations and critiques of these processes.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Mobility in military terms refers to the ability of a weapon system, combat unit or armed force to move toward a military objective. Combat forces with a higher mobility are able to move more quickly, and/or across more hostile terrain, than forces with lower mobility.\nMobility is regarded as a vital component of the modern battlefield, as the ability to deliver weapon systems or combat units to their objective quickly can often mean the difference between victory and defeat. Armies around the world have massively increased their mobility over the last 100 years. In World War I, for example, most combat units could move on the battlefield only as fast as a soldier could walk. In the face of overwhelming firepower presented by machine guns and artillery, that resulted in stalemate and an inability to outmaneuver the enemy. By World War II, battlefield mobility had greatly improved with the development of the tank, and with tracked and other mechanized vehicles, to move forces to, from, along and across the battlefront even under fire.\nSince the end of World War II, armies have continued to develop their mobility. By the 1980s, for example, intercontinental travel shifted from sea to air transport, enabling military forces to move from one part of the world to another within hours or days instead of weeks.\nMobility has also been referred to as a combat multiplier. A highly-mobile unit can use its mobility to engage multiples of its own combat strength of less mobile units. For example, German panzer divisions in World War II were considered the equivalent of two or three infantry divisions, partly by their superior mobility and partly by their inherently greater firepower.\nAs intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance capabilities are rapidly developing, mobility becomes even more important. In 2016, Chief of Staff of the United States Army Gen. Mark A. Milley stated that \"On the future battlefield, if you stay in one place longer than two or three hours, you will be dead... With enemy drones and sensors constantly on the hunt for targets, there won't even be time for four hours' unbroken sleep\".Mobility has also been defined in terms of three generally recognized levels of warfare: tactical, operational, and strategic. Tactical mobility is the ability to move under fire. Operational mobility is the ability to move men and materiel within the area of operations to the decisive point of battle. Strategic mobility is the ability to move an army to the area of operations.\nIn World War I, most armies lacked tactical mobility but enjoyed good strategic mobility through the use of railroads, thus leading to a situation where armies could be deployed to the front with ease and rapidity, but once they reached the front became bogged down by their inability to move under fire.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A mobility kill (or M-kill) in armoured warfare is a weapon or vehicle that is immobilized, or the act of immobilizing such a target. This is often caused by the vehicle triggering an anti-tank mine by driving over it, though it may also result from being hit by a rocket propelled grenade or anti-tank missile.\nTanks and other armoured fighting vehicles can be immobilized by damage to their engines, tracks, or running gear. Because of the mobile nature of modern warfare, such a vehicle is often effectively useless on the battlefield, though it may later be salvaged for spares, or repaired and brought back into action. In rare cases, tanks that have suffered mobility kills have continued to engage enemy targets with their main gun, even though they are immobile. However, in an active battlefield situation any armoured fighting vehicles which have suffered mobility kills are stationary targets for ground-attack planes armed with ordnance such as rockets or cluster bombs. Alternatively they may be subject to artillery bombardment. In any case, enemy ground troops may attack stranded vehicles with additional ATGMs or RPGs.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Model\u2013test\u2013model (MTM) is a process that intends to use high-fidelity/high-resolution combat models to simulate and replicate field operational tests. The MTM Process is divided into 5 phases:\n\nLong-term planning \u2013 Identify the responsibility among interested organizations\nPretest modeling \u2013 Modeler creates a model of a subject under test\nField test \u2013 Modeler performs data gathering of subject under test\nPost-test modeling \u2013 Subject under test model input parameters are matched with subject under test\u2013field\u2013test output values\nModel validation/accreditation \u2013 Modeler provides sufficient evidence to a tester that a simulation adequately replicates field testing", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Modeling and simulation (M&S) is the use of models (e.g., physical, mathematical, or logical representation of a system, entity, phenomenon, or process) as a basis for simulations to develop data utilized for managerial or technical decision making.In the computer application of modeling and simulation a computer is used to build a mathematical model which contains key parameters of the physical model. The mathematical model represents the physical model in virtual form, and conditions are applied that set up the experiment of interest. The simulation starts \u2013 i.e., the computer calculates the results of those conditions on the mathematical model \u2013 and outputs results in a format that is either machine- or human-readable, depending upon the implementation.\nThe use of M&S within engineering is well recognized. Simulation technology belongs to the tool set of engineers of all application domains and has been included in the body of knowledge of engineering management. M&S helps to reduce costs, increase the quality of products and systems, and document and archive lessons learned. Because the results of a simulation are only as good as the underlying model(s), engineers, operators, and analysts must pay particular attention to its construction. To ensure that the results of the simulation are applicable to the real world, the user must understand the assumptions, conceptualizations, and constraints of its implementation. Additionally, models may be updated and improved using results of actual experiments. M&S is a discipline on its own. Its many application domains often lead to the assumption that M&S is a pure application. This is not the case and needs to be recognized by engineering management in the application of M&S.\nThe use of such mathematical models and simulations avoids actual experimentation, which can be costly and time-consuming. Instead, mathematical knowledge and computational power is used to solve real-world problems cheaply and in a time efficient manner.  As such, M&S can facilitate understanding a system's behavior without actually testing the system in the real world. For example, to determine which type of spoiler would improve traction the most while designing a race car, a computer simulation of the car could be used to estimate the effect of different spoiler shapes on the coefficient of friction in a turn. Useful insights about different decisions in the design could be gleaned without actually building the car.  In addition, simulation can support experimentation that occurs totally in software, or in human-in-the-loop environments where simulation represents systems or generates data needed to meet experiment objectives.  Furthermore, simulation can be used to train persons using a virtual environment that would otherwise be difficult or expensive to produce.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Mokusatsu (\u9ed9\u6bba) is a Japanese word meaning \"ignore\", \"take no notice of\" or \"treat with silent contempt\". It is composed of two kanji characters: \u9ed9 (moku \"silence\") and \u6bba (satsu \"killing\"). It is frequently cited to argue that problems encountered by Japanese in the sphere of international politics arise from misunderstandings or mistranslations of their language.In 1945, mokusatsu was used in Japan's initial rejection of the Potsdam Declaration, the Allied demand that Japan surrender unconditionally in World War II. To this day, the argument, or myth, that mokusatsu was misunderstood, and that the misunderstanding interrupted a negotiation for a peaceful end to the war, still resurfaces from time to time. The consensus of modern historians is that the Allies had understood the word correctly.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In telecommunication, the term multiple homing has the following meanings:\ntelephone systems, the connection of a terminal facility so that it can be served by one or several switching centers. Multiple homing may use a single directory number.\nIn telephone systems, the connection of a terminal facility to more than one switching center by separate access lines. Separate directory numbers are applicable to each switching center accessed.In military, such as Missiles and loitering munitions, it is ability of a single weapon system or projectile to select, focus and simultaneously engage multiple targets.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A murder board, also known as a \"scrub-down\", is a committee of questioners set up to critically review a proposal and/or help someone prepare for a difficult oral examination.\nThe term originated in the U.S. military, specifically from the Pentagon, but is also used in academic and government appointment contexts.  NASA contends the murder board was created by Hans Mark, Director of Ames Research Center from 1969 to 1977, derived from the earlier concept of the tiger team.\nIn highly risk-averse, technical endeavors where extreme efforts are taken to prevent mistakes (e.g. satellite operations), murder boards are used to aggressively review, without constraint or pleasantries, a situation's problem, assumptions, constraints, mitigations, and the proposed solution.  The board's goal is to kill the well-prepared proposal on technical merit; holding back even the least suspicion of a problem is not tolerated.  Such argumentative murder boards consist of many subject matter experts of the specific system under review and of all interfacing systems.\nIn project management, a murder board is a process where a committee asks questions from project representatives as part of the project selection process.In U.S. politics, murder boards are used in preparing candidates for debates and presidential appointees for Senate confirmation hearings.\nOn April 20, 2010 representative Mary Jo Kilroy asked former Lehman Brothers CEO Dick Fuld if he had set up a murder board to prepare for his testimony before the House Financial Services Committee concerning the 2008 Lehman Brothers failure. Fuld expressed confusion at the expression, apparently unfamiliar with the term. Fuld indicated that he had not set up a murder board after Barney Frank explained what it meant.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The term muster means the process or event of accounting for members in a military unit. This practice of inspections led to the coining of the English idiom pass muster, meaning being sufficient. When a unit is created, it is \"mustered in\" and when it is disbanded, it is \"mustered out\". If a unit \"musters\" it is generally to take account of who is present and who is not.\nA muster roll is the list of members of a military unit, often including their rank and the dates they joined or left. A roll call is the reading aloud of the names on the muster roll and the responses, to determine who is present.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A naval base, navy base, or military port is a military base, where warships and naval ships are docked when they have no mission at sea or need to restock. Ships may also undergo repairs. Some naval bases are temporary homes to aircraft that usually stay on ships but are undergoing maintenance while the ship is in port.\nIn the United States, the United States Department of the Navy's General Order No. 135 issued in 1911 as a formal guide to naval terminology described a naval station as \"any establishment for building, manufacturing, docking, repair, supply, or training under control of the Navy. It may also include several establishments\". A naval base, by contrast, was \"a point from which naval operations may be conducted\".In most countries, naval bases are expressly named and identified as such.  \nOne peculiarity of the Royal Navy and certain other navies which closely follow British naval traditions is the concept of the stone frigate: a naval base on land that is named like a ship.  Certain facilities were often initially housed on hulks as a cost-saving measure and were later moved to land but kept their traditional names.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In a navy, a rate, rating or bluejacket is a junior enlisted sailor who is not a warrant officer or commissioned officer. Depending on the country and navy that uses it, the exact term and the range of ranks that it refers to may vary.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Naval Station was a geographic command responsible for conducting all naval operations within its defined area. It may consist of flotillas, or squadrons, or individual ships under command.The British Royal Navy for command purposes was separated into a number of stations or fleets, each normally under an admiral.The United States Department of the Navy's General Order No 135 issued in 1911 as a formal guide to Naval Terms described a Naval Station as \"any establishment for building, manufacturing, docking, repair, supply, or training under control of the Navy. It may also include several establishments\". A Naval Base by contrast was \"a point from which naval operations may be conducted\"", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Radar MASINT is a subdiscipline of measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) and refers to intelligence gathering activities that bring together disparate elements that do not fit within the definitions of signals intelligence (SIGINT), imagery intelligence (IMINT), or human intelligence (HUMINT).\nAccording to the United States Department of Defense, MASINT is technically derived intelligence (excluding traditional imagery IMINT and signals intelligence) that \u2013 when collected, processed, and analyzed by dedicated MASINT systems \u2013 results in intelligence that detects, tracks, identifies, or describes the distinctive characteristics target sources.  in the US MASINT was recognized as a formal intelligence discipline in 1986.As with many branches of MASINT, specific techniques may overlap with the six major conceptual disciplines of MASINT defined by the Center for MASINT Studies and Research, which divides MASINT into electro-optical, nuclear, geophysical, radar, materials, and radiofrequency disciplines.Radar MASINT is complementary to SIGINT.  While the ELINT subdiscipline of SIGINT analyzes the structure of radar directed on a target, radar MASINT is concerned with using specialized radar techniques that measure characteristics of targets.\nAnother MASINT subdiscipline, radiofrequency MASINT, considers the unintentional radiation emitted from a radar transmitter (e.g., sidelobes)\nMASINT radar sensors may be on space, sea, air, and fixed or mobile platforms. Specialized MASINT radar techniques include line-of-sight (LOS), over-the-horizon, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) and multistatic. It involves the active or passive collection of energy reflected from a target or object by LOS, bistatic, or over-the-horizon radar systems. RADINT collection provides information on radar cross-sections, tracking, precise spatial measurements of components, motion and radar reflectance, and absorption characteristics for dynamic targets and objectives.\nRadar MASINT can be active, with the MASINT platform both transmitting and receiving. In multistatic applications, there is physical separation among two or more receivers and transmitters. MASINT can also passively receive signals reflected from an enemy beam.\nAs with many intelligence disciplines, it can be a challenge to integrate the technologies into the active services, so they can be used by warfighters. Still, radar has characteristics especially appropriate for MASINT. While there are radars (ISAR) that can produce images, radar pictures are generally not as sharp as those taken by optical sensors, but radar is largely independent of day or night, cloud or sun.  Radar can penetrate many materials, such as wooden buildings. Improving the resolution of an imaging radar requires that the antenna size is many times that of the radar wavelength. Wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency, so increasing the radar frequency can improve resolution. It can be difficult to generate high power at the higher frequencies, or problems such as attenuation by water in the atmosphere limit performance. In general, for a fixed sensor, electro-optical sensors, in UV, visual, or infrared spectra, will outperform imaging radar.SAR and ISAR are means of combining multiple radar samples, taken over time, to create the effect of a much larger antenna, far larger than would physically be possible, for a given radar frequency. As SAR and ISAR develop better resolution, there can be an argument if they still are MASINT sensors, or if they create images sufficiently sharp that they properly are IMINT sensors.  Radar can also merge with other sensors to give even more information, such as moving target indicator.  Radar generally must acquire its images from an angle, which often means that it can look into the sides of buildings, producing a movie-like record over time, and being able to form three-dimensional views over time.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Over ground workers (OGWs) are people who help militants, or terrorists, with logistical support, cash, shelter, and other infrastructure with which armed groups and insurgency movements such as Hizbul Mujaheddin and Jaish-e-Muhammad in Jammu and Kashmir can operate. OGWs play a vital role in militant attacks, providing real-time information and support to the tactical elements. Over ground workers have diversified into other roles such as stone-pelting, mob-rioting, ideological support, radicalisation, and recruitment of militants. In 2020, up until 8 June, around 135 over ground workers were arrested in Jammu and Kashmir by the Jammu and Kashmir police. While the term is used and associated extensively with the Kashmir region, the term has also been used officially in other parts of India where insurgency is still active, such as in the Naxalite\u2013Maoist insurgency and in Meghalaya for the Garo National Liberation Army.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A paramilitary is an organization whose  structure, tactics, training, subculture, and (often) function are similar to those of a professional military, but is not part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. Paramilitary units carry out duties that a country's military or police forces are unable, or sometimes unwilling, to handle.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Plausible deniability is the ability of people, typically senior officials in a formal or informal chain of command, to deny knowledge of or responsibility for any damnable actions committed by members of their organizational hierarchy. They may do so because of a lack or absence of evidence that can confirm their participation, even if they were personally involved in or at least willfully ignorant of the actions. If illegal or otherwise disreputable and unpopular activities become public, high-ranking officials may deny any awareness of such acts to insulate themselves and shift the blame onto the agents who carried out the acts, as they are confident that their doubters will be unable to prove otherwise. The lack of evidence to the contrary ostensibly makes the denial plausible (credible), but sometimes, it makes any accusations only unactionable.\nThe term typically implies forethought, such as intentionally setting up the conditions for the plausible avoidance of responsibility for one's future actions or knowledge. In some organizations, legal doctrines such as command responsibility exist to hold major parties responsible for the actions of subordinates who are involved in heinous acts and nullify any legal protection that their denial of involvement would carry.\nIn politics and espionage, deniability refers to the ability of a powerful player or intelligence agency to pass the buck and to avoid blowback by secretly arranging for an action to be taken on its behalf by a third party that is ostensibly unconnected with the major player. In political campaigns, plausible deniability enables candidates to stay clean and denounce third-party advertisements that use unethical approaches or potentially libelous innuendo.\nAlthough plausible deniability has existed throughout history, the term was coined by the CIA in the early 1960s to describe the withholding of information from senior officials to protect them from repercussions if illegal or unpopular activities became public knowledge.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In naval terminology, a plot is a graphic display that shows all collated data from a ship's on-board sensors, i.e. radar, sonar and EW systems. They also displayed information from external sources - for example, other vessel or aircraft reports. There are four different types of plot, each with varying capabilities, i.e. range, depending on their role;\nAir plot: Used for tracking air contacts, i.e. planes and EW information.\nSurface plot: Used for tracking contacts on the surface of the water, i.e. other ships. It can also perform a variety of roles such as:\nProviding a trace of a ship's own course and speed over time.\nPlotting the position of a man overboard.\nCan be used in naval gunfire support missions to plot unidentified contacts and keep track of friendly forces.\nIt also plays an important part in anti-submarine warfare operations and using torpedoes.\nSub-surface plot: Used for tracking contacts below the surface of the water, i.e. submarines.\nGeneral operations plot: Used for tracking shipping on a large-scale chart.  Was also used to display exercise boundaries, airplanes and other significant features of maritime interest. In the Royal Australian Navy, the scale used was generally 5 or 10 miles (8.0 or 16.1 km) per 1 inch (25 mm).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A point target is:\n\nA target of such small dimension that it requires the accurate placement of ordnance in order to neutralize or destroy it.\nA nuclear target in which the ratio of radius of damage to target radius is equal to or greater than 5.\nA radar target that is small compared with the pulse volume, which is the cross-sectional area of the radar beam multiplied by half the length of the radar pulse. Targets such as city buildings, and targets in the midst of many non-targets are considered to be point targets. When attacking point targets, weapons with only the necessary amount of spread and power are employed. \nPoint targets are often located near other buildings which contain civilians and other innocents, therefore guided munitions are used to take out only the intended target. A strike executing in this manner is often referred to as a surgical strike.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A potential superpower is a state or a political and economic entity that is speculated to be\u2014or to have the potential to soon become\u2014a superpower.\nCurrently, only the United States fulfills the criteria to be considered a superpower. However, the United States is no longer the only uncontested foremost superpower and the world's sole hyperpower to dominate in every domain (i.e. military, culture, economy, technology, diplomatic).Since the 1990s, China, India, the European Union and Russia have been commonly described as potential superpowers. Japan was formerly considered a potential superpower due to its high economic growth. However, its status as a potential superpower has eroded since the 1990s due to an aging population and economic stagnation.Collectively these potential superpowers, and the United States, comprise 68.0% of global nominal GDP, 62.4% of global GDP (PPP), more than one third of the total land area, and approximately half of the world's population.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "psc is a post-nominal for Post Staff College (formally Passed Staff College) in the Commonwealth militaries of Bangladesh, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and the United Kingdom. It indicates that an officer has undertaken the staff officer course at a staff college.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A paramilitary is an organization whose  structure, tactics, training, subculture, and (often) function are similar to those of a professional military, but is not part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. Paramilitary units carry out duties that a country's military or police forces are unable, or sometimes unwilling, to handle.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Reset is an evolving military term currently used to describe the equipment refurbishment process. In current U.S. military terms, \"reset\" refers to \"a series of actions to restore units to a desired level of combat capability commensurate with future mission requirements.\"", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Round-robin is a document signed by multiple parties in a circle to make it more difficult to determine the order in which it was signed, thus preventing a ringleader from being identified.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A roving commission details the duties of a commissioned officer or other official whose responsibilities are neither geographically nor functionally limited.\nWhere an individual in an official position is given more freedom than would regularly be afforded to a person in the same role, they are described as having a roving commission. \nTraditionally, a military officer receives a commission charging them with the duties and responsibilities of a specific office or position. A roving commission applies to military officers who are commissioned by their respective service without the requirement to serve at a specific military base or on a specific naval vessel.Because officers with a roving commission are considered to have more freedom than other officers of a similar rank, they are often commissioned as such so that they can be moved between roles and responsibilities as a stop-gap measure.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A shoulder mark, also called rank slide, or slip-on, is a flat cloth sleeve worn on the shoulder strap of a uniform. It may bear rank or other insignia. A shoulder mark should not be confused with a shoulder board (which is an elaborate shoulder strap), shoulder knot (a braided sort of shoulder board) or epaulette, although these terms are often used interchangeably.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Signal operating instructions (SOI) or Communications-Electronics Operation Instructions (CEOI) are U.S. military terms for a type of combat order issued for the technical control and coordination of communications within a command. They include current and up-to-date information covering radio call signs and frequencies, a telephone directory, code-words (for rudimentary encryption), and visual and sound signals. A designated battalion signal officer prepares the battalion SOI in conformance with the SOI of higher headquarters. During operations, SOI are changed daily. Since the fielding of the SINCGARS system, however, the paper SOI has generally faded from Army use. Electronic SOI are now generated, distributed and loaded along with cryptographic keys.The title SOI was used until the early 1970s and it was changed to CEOI and then changed back to SOI in the 1980s.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In the USA the Director for Test Systems Engineering and Evaluation (DTSE&E) commissioned in 1995 a one-year study to assess the effectiveness of the use of M&S in weapon systems acquisition and support processes.The DTSE&E study developed an approach to acquisition which was named simulation-based acquisition (SBA).\nDTSE&E was disestablished  by the US Secretary of Defense on 7 June 1999; some functions were transferred to the Director, Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Site exploitation (SE), also called tactical site exploitation or sensitive site exploitation (SSE), is a military term used by the United States to describe \"collecting information, material, and \npersons from a designated location and analyzing them to answer information requirements, \nfacilitate subsequent operations, or support criminal prosecution.\"Sensitive site exploitation was conducted during the invasion of Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom when a key part of the Coalition Forces' mission was to discover weapons of mass destruction (WMDs).  The \"sensitive\" of SSE referred to the possibility that sites searched might have contained chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) materials inherent in WMDs.  Later, an effort was made to refer to the practice as \"SE\" (site exploitation) instead of \"SSE\" because sites were still being searched and exploited, but more generally for intelligence gathering and not with the intent of locating WMDs.\nThe main intent of site exploitation is to extract as much potential intelligence as possible from the site of a raid or point of interest in hopes that the data collected will lead to further enemy targets or answer priority intelligence requirements (PIR).  A secondary benefit is that this data can be used to help prosecute criminals, if done correctly in accordance with local law. \nSite exploitation consists of the following phases: securing the site (usually through a raid), documenting the site, searching the site, prioritizing exfiltration, and exploiting materials found.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A \"soft target\" is a person, thing, or location that is easily accessible to the general public and relatively unprotected, making it vulnerable to military or terrorist attack.  By contrast, a \"hard target\" is heavily defended or not accessible to the general public.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A sortie (from the French word meaning exit or from Latin root surgere meaning to \"rise up\") is a deployment or dispatch of one military unit, be it an aircraft, ship, or troops, from a strongpoint. The term originated in siege warfare.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The term Tier One Special Mission Unit or Special Missions Unit (SMU) is a term sometimes used, particularly in the United States, to describe some highly secretive military Special Operations Forces. Special mission units have been involved in high-profile military operations, such as the killing of Osama Bin Laden.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The term staff ride describes three different types of military exercises and examinations, usually conducted on a particular future battlefield and/or area of operation for the purpose of preliminary reconnaissance, terrain study and tactical preparation. As the Classic Staff Ride, the Leavenworth Staff Ride and the Decision-Forcing Staff Ride have been subjected to modern military scholarly work, the idea and practice of battlefield examination and exploitation has been documented throughout history. As early as 500 years BC, the Chinese general Sun Tzu emphasized the rigorous study of the terrain. Notable military commanders, such as Hannibal, Napoleon or Frederick the Great have regularly studied the terrain and exploited to its full advantage.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A standard operating procedure (SOP) is a set of step-by-step instructions compiled by an organization to help workers carry out routine operations. SOPs aim to achieve efficiency, quality output and uniformity of performance, while reducing miscommunication and failure to comply with industry regulations.\nThe military (e.g. in the U.S. and UK) sometimes uses the term standing (rather than standard) operating procedure because a military SOP refers to a unit's unique procedures, which are not necessarily standard to another unit. The word \"standard\" can imply that only one (standard) procedure is to be used across all units.\nThe term can also be used facetiously to refer to practices that are unconstructive, yet the norm. In the Philippines, for instance, \"SOP\" is the term for pervasive corruption within the government and its institutions.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Statary is a term currently applied in fields such as ecology, ethology, psychology. In modern use it contrasts on the one hand with such concepts as migratory, nomadic, or shifting, and on the other with static or immobile. The word also is of historical interest in its change of meaning as its usage changed.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military terminology, a stomach division is a unit created for the purpose of containing combatants of disuse in the front lines. Its name originates from its original conception, in which men suffering from stomach illnesses were moved to a single division to avoid spreading disease further. The German 70th Infantry Division of World War II was an example.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Strategic communication can mean either communicating a concept, a process, or data that satisfies a long-term strategic goal of an organization by allowing facilitation of advanced planning, or communicating over long distances usually using international telecommunications or dedicated global network assets to coordinate actions and activities of operationally significant commercial, non-commercial and military business or combat and logistic subunits. It can also mean the related function within an organization, which handles internal and external communication processes.  Strategic communication can also be used for political warfare.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Taken on Strength is a British and British Commonwealth term referring to a person being added to a military organization, or in some cases becoming an employee of a government department, agency or statutory corporation.For an aircraft or a vessel, it is the date put into operational service.\nTo Strike off Strength is when a person leaves military service or civil service, or when the aircraft or vessel leaves operational service.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A superpower is a state with a dominant position characterized by its extensive ability to exert influence or project power on a global scale. This is done through the combined means of economic, military, technological, political and cultural strength as well as diplomatic and soft power influence. Traditionally, superpowers are preeminent among the great powers. While a great power state is capable of exerting its influence globally, superpowers are states so influential that no significant action can be taken by the global community without first considering the positions of the superpowers on the issue. The term was first applied in 1944 during World War II to the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, the British Empire dissolved, leaving the United States and the Soviet Union to dominate world affairs. At the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States became the world's sole superpower. Today, scholars debate which countries and organizations to include in the list of superpowers, with the  People's Republic of China, the European Union, the  Republic of India, and the  Russian Federation all being debated among scholars as potential superpowers.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A surgical strike is a military attack which is intended to damage only a legitimate military target, with no or minimal collateral damage to surrounding structures, vehicles, buildings, or the general public infrastructure and utilities.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military logistics is the discipline of planning and carrying out the movement, supply, and maintenance of military forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with:\nDesign, development, acquisition, storage, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of materiel.\nTransport of personnel.\nAcquisition or construction, maintenance, operation and disposition of facilities.\nAcquisition or furnishing of services.\nMedical and health service support.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Synthetic Natural Environment (SNE) is the representation in a synthetic environment of the physical world within which all models of military systems exist and interact (i.e. climate, weather, terrain, oceans, space, etc.).  It includes both data and models representing the elements of the environment, their effects on military systems, and models of the impact of military systems on environmental variables (e.g. contrails, dust clouds from moving vehicles, spoil from combat engineering).\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In a synthetic environment, Synthetic Psychological Environment (SPE) (or rules of behavior) refers to the representation (i.e. modeling) of influences to individuals and groups as a result of culture (e.g. demography, law, religion)).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Tactical Air Control Party, commonly abbreviated TACP, is a small team of military personnel who provide coordination between aircraft and ground forces when providing close air support.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Tactical bombing is aerial bombing aimed at targets of immediate military value, such as combatants, military installations, or military equipment. This is in contrast to strategic bombing, or attacking enemy cities and factories to cripple future military production and enemy civilians' will to support the war effort, to debilitate the enemy's long-term capacity to wage war. The term \"tactical bomber\" only refers to a bomber aircraft designed specifically for the primary role of tactical bombing, even though many other types of aircraft ranging from strategic bombers to fighters, interceptors, and helicopters have been used in tactical bombing operations.\nTactical bombing is employed for two primary assignments.  Aircraft providing close air support attack targets in nearby proximity to friendly ground forces, acting in direct support of the ground operations (as a \"flying artillery\"). Air interdiction, by contrast, attacks tactical targets that are distant from or otherwise not in contact with friendly units.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "To take point, walk point, be on point, or be a point man is to assume the first and most exposed position in a combat military formation, that is, the leading soldier or unit advancing through hostile or unsecured territory. The term can be applied to infantry or mechanized columns. The soldier, vehicle, or unit on point is frequently the first to take hostile fire. The inherent risks of taking point create a need for constant and extreme operational alertness. However, ambushes often intend to let the point element past the prime kill zone in order to be maximally effective. Point position is often rotated periodically so as not to overtax the individual soldier/unit.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Taken on Strength is a British and British Commonwealth term referring to a person being added to a military organization, or in some cases becoming an employee of a government department, agency or statutory corporation.For an aircraft or a vessel, it is the date put into operational service.\nTo Strike off Strength is when a person leaves military service or civil service, or when the aircraft or vessel leaves operational service.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Target acquisition is the detection and identification of the location of a target in sufficient detail to permit the effective employment of lethal and non-lethal means. The term is used for a broad area of applications. \nA \"target\" here is an entity or object considered for possible engagement or other action (see Targeting). Targets include a wide array of resources that an enemy commander can use to conduct operations including mobile and stationary units, forces, equipment, capabilities, facilities, persons and functions. It may comprise target acquisition, Joint Targeting or Information Operations.Technically target acquisition may just denote the process of a weapon system to decide which object to lock on to, as opposed to surveillance on one and target tracking on the other side; for example in an anti-aircraft system.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The CARVER matrix was developed by the United States Army Special Forces during the Vietnam War.  CARVER is an acronym that stands for Criticality, Accessibility, Recuperability, Vulnerability, Effect and Recognizability and is a system to identify and rank specific targets so that attack resources can be efficiently used.  CARVER was developed in World War II by the OSS for the French field agents as a simple, uniformly and somewhat quantifiable means of selecting targets for possible interdiction. CARVER can be used from an offensive (what to attack) or defensive (what to protect) perspective.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A target of opportunity is a target \"visible to a surface or air sensor or observer, which is within range of available weapons and against which fire has not been scheduled or requested.\" A target of opportunity comes in two forms; \"unplanned\" and \"unanticipated\". Unplanned targets of opportunity are those that fall within mission parameters as appropriate targets but were not included within a mission brief. Unanticipated targets are those that fall outside of mission parameters because their availability was not expected, such as an otherwise high-value target being identified at a location where another unrelated mission is underway.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Test and Training Enabling Architecture (TENA) is an architecture designed to bring interoperability to United States Department of Defense test and training systems. TENA is designed to promote integrated testing and simulation-based acquisition through the use of a large-scale, distributed, real-time synthetic environment, which integrates testing,\ntraining, simulation, and high-performance computing technologies, distributed across many facilities, using a common architecture.The purpose of TENA is to provide the architecture and the software implementation necessary to\nEnable Interoperability among Range systems, Facilities, Simulations, C4ISR systems in a quick, cost-efficient manner,\nFoster Reuse for Range asset utilization and for future developments\nProvide Composability to rapidly assemble, initialize, test, and execute a system from a pool of reusable, interoperable elements", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Three Block War is a concept described by U.S. Marine General Charles Krulak in the late 1990s to illustrate the complex spectrum of challenges likely to be faced by Marines on the modern battlefield. In Krulak's example, Marines may be required to conduct full-scale military action, peacekeeping operations and humanitarian aid within the space of three contiguous city blocks. The thrust of the concept is that modern militaries must be trained to operate in all three conditions simultaneously, and that to do so, leadership training at the lowest levels needs to be high. The latter condition caused Krulak to invoke what he called \"strategic corporals\"; low-level unit leaders able to take independent action and make major decisions.\nThe term has been referenced by then-CENTCOM commander (later Secretary of Defense) General James Mattis, and has also been adopted by the British, Israeli and Singaporean military, including former Chief of the General Staff, General Sir Mike Jackson and former Defence Secretary Geoff Hoon, and also by former Canadian Chief of Defence Staff Rick Hillier.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Time-late is a term used primarily in naval warfare that refers to the time lag between some datum's generation and actions taken based on it.  In other words, it is something that is not real-time.\nIt is often used in the context of a weapon's time of flight: the time between launch and (intended) contact with a target results in a time-late.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "For military personnel, a tour of duty is usually a period of time spent in combat or in a hostile environment. In an army, for instance, soldiers on active duty serve 24 hours a day, seven days a week for the length of their service commitment. Soldiers in World War II were deployed for the entire war and could be in active service for 4\u20135 years.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Transition to war (TTW) is a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) military term referring to a period of international tension during which government and society move to an open (but not necessarily declared) war footing. The period after this is considered to be war, conventional or otherwise, but the term TTW found its origins in the peak of the Cold War as a key NATO concept within the tripwire escalation of the DEFCON status. This could include the suspension of peacetime services, closing motorways to all but military traffic and the internment of subversives without charge or trial.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A traverse, in military fortification, is a mass of earth or other material employed to protect troops against enfilade. It is constructed at right angles to the parapet manned by the defenders, and is continued sufficiently far to the rear to give the protection required by the circumstances, which, moreover, determine its height. A traverse is sometimes utilized as a casemate. Ordinary field works, not less than those of more solid construction, require traversing, though if the trenches, instead of being continuous, are broken into short lengths, they are traversed by the unbroken earth intervening between each length.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In trench warfare, a traverse is an adaptation to reduce casualties to defenders occupying a trench. One form of traverse is a U-shaped detour in the trench with the trench going around a protrusion formed of earth and sandbags. The fragments or shrapnel, or shockwave from a shell landing and exploding within a trench then cannot spread horizontally past the obstacle the traverse interposes. Also, an enemy that has entered a trench is unable to fire down the length at the defenders, or otherwise enfilade the trench.\nA traverse trench is a trench dug perpendicular to a trench line, but extending away from the enemy. It has two functions. One function is to provide an entry into the main trench. A second function is to provide a place for defenders to shelter and regroup should the enemy have penetrated into the main trench and be able to fire down the main trench's length.\nOn an approach trench, that is, a trench leading from the rear to the frontline or firing trench, defenders may construct an island traverse. With an island traverse, the approach trench splits to go around both sides of a traverse before coming together again. \nLastly, a flying or bridge traverse is a sandbagged covering for a stretch of trench to block shrapnel or shell fragments from entering the trench.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Unmanned aircraft system simulation focuses on training pilots (or operators) to control an unmanned aircraft or its payload from a control station.  Flight simulation involves a device that artificially re-creates aircraft flight and the environment in which it flies for pilot training, design, or other purposes. It includes replicating the equations that govern how aircraft fly, how they react to applications of flight controls, the effects of other aircraft systems, and how the aircraft reacts to external factors such as air density, turbulence, wind shear, cloud, precipitation, etc.\nManned simulation is used for a variety of reasons, including flight training (mainly of pilots), the design and development of the aircraft itself, and research into aircraft characteristics and control handling qualities. Unlike manned simulation, unmanned aircraft system (UAS) simulation does not involve a pilot aboard the training device.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Urban terrain is a military term for the representation of the urban environment within the context of urban warfare. Urban terrain includes buildings, roads, highways, ports, rails, airports, subways, and sewage lines.Mouse-holing is one military technique used to overcome some of the physical barriers within the urban environment.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A wapenshaw or wapinshaw (from the Old English for \"weapon show\") was originally a gathering and review of troops formerly held in every district in Scotland. The object was to satisfy the military chiefs that the arms of their retainers were in good condition and that the men were properly trained in their use.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A war reserve stock (WRS), also known as pre-positioned stocks, is a collection of warfighting material held in reserve in pre-positioned storage to be used if needed in wartime.  They may be located strategically depending on where it is believed they will be needed.  In addition to military equipment, a war reserve stock may include raw materials that might become scarce during wartime.  According to this definition, storage such as the Strategic Petroleum Reserve may be considered a war stock.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The wardroom is the mess cabin or compartment on a warship or other military ship for commissioned naval officers above the rank of midshipman.  Although the term typically applies to officers in a navy, it is also applicable to marine officers and coast guard officers in those nations that have such service branches.  Typically, the mess compartment aboard a naval or coast guard vessel, and on larger vessels, such as aircraft carriers of the United States Navy, there may be more than one wardroom.  It may also be used on stone frigates to refer to similar officer mess facilities at naval, marine, and coast guard installations ashore.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military and police contexts, a warning shot is an intentionally harmless artillery shot or gunshot with intent to enact direct compliance and order to a hostile perpetrator or enemy forces. It is recognized as signalling intended confrontations on land, sea, and air.\nAs an analogy, \"warning shot\" can be said of any action of declaration, especially a demonstration of power, intended or perceived as a last warning before hostile measures.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Wartime reserve modes (abbreviated as WARM) are military procedures held in reserve for wartime or emergency use. They concern the characteristics and operating procedures of sensor, communications, navigation aids, threat recognition, weapons, and countermeasures systems. Since the military effectiveness of these procedures links to them being unknown to or misunderstood by opposing commanders before they are used, stopping their use by making them reserved has the effect of helping to ensure they remain effective by making it difficult for them to be known about in advance by such opposing commanders. This prevents them being exploited or neutralized.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Weapon storage areas (WSA), also known as special ammunition storage (SAS), were extremely well guarded and well defended locations where NATO nuclear weapons were stored during the Cold War era.\nIn most situations, the WSA or SAS areas were located inside the perimeter of an army barracks or an air base in NATO territory, but in a few cases they were located deep inside wooded areas and miles away from a military base.\nDue to changes in the political landscape, the number of special weapons in Europe has been drastically decreased. Moreover, the introduction of the WS3 Weapon Storage and Security System has made WSAs obsolete.\nAt present, few WSAs are still operational as modern day special weapons are stored in the floors of concrete aircraft shelters and placed under 24/7 electronic surveillance.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Weapons Tight is a NATO brevity code \"weapon control order\" used in anti-aircraft warfare, imposing a status whereby weapons systems may only be fired at targets confirmed as hostile.Compare to Weapons Hold, whereby it is ordered that weapons may only be fired at targets (especially aircraft or missiles) when under attack, or in response to a formal order; also compare to Weapons Free, which denotes an order that weapons may be fired at targets not positively identified as friendly. (The latter term should not be confused with the expression denoting areas without weapons in them, particularly Nuclear-weapon-free zones.)", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The World War II Allied names for Japanese aircraft were reporting names, often described as codenames, given by Allied personnel to Imperial Japanese aircraft during the Pacific campaign of World War II. The names were used by Allied personnel to identify aircraft operated by the Japanese for reporting and descriptive purposes. Generally, Western men's names were given to fighter aircraft, women's names to bombers, transports, and reconnaissance aircraft, bird names to gliders, and tree names to trainer aircraft.\nThe use of the names, from their origin in mid-1942, became widespread among Allied forces from early 1943 until the end of the war in 1945.  Many subsequent Western histories of the war have continued to use the names.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Wounded in Action (WIA) describes combatants who have been wounded while fighting in a combat zone during wartime, but have not been killed. Typically, it implies that they are temporarily or permanently incapable of bearing arms or continuing to fight. Generally, the Wounded in Action are far more numerous than those killed. Common combat injuries include second and third degree burns, broken bones, shrapnel wounds, brain injuries, spinal cord injuries, nerve damage, paralysis, loss of sight and hearing, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and limb loss.For the U.S. military, becoming WIA in combat generally results in subsequent conferral of the Purple Heart, because the purpose of the medal itself (one of the highest awards, military or civilian, officially given by the American government) is to recognize those killed, incapacitated, or wounded in battle.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Auxiliaries are support personnel that assist the military or police but are organised differently from regular forces. Auxiliary may be military volunteers undertaking support functions or performing certain duties such as garrison troops, usually on a part-time basis. Unlike a military reserve force, an auxiliary force does not necessarily have the same degree of training or ranking structure as regular soldiers, and it may or may not be integrated into a fighting force. Some auxiliaries, however, are militias composed of former active duty military personnel and actually have better training and combat experience than their regular counterparts.\nHistorically, the designation auxiliary has also been given to foreign or allied troops in the service of a nation at war, most famously the eponymous Auxilia serving the Roman Empire. In the context of colonial troops, locally-recruited irregulars were often described as auxiliaries.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Directorate General of Medical Services (Bengali: \u09b8\u09be\u09ae\u09b0\u09bf\u0995 \u099a\u09bf\u0995\u09bf\u09ce\u09b8\u09be \u09b8\u09be\u09b0\u09cd\u09ad\u09bf\u09b8 \u09ae\u09b9\u09be\u09aa\u09b0\u09bf\u09a6\u09aa\u09cd\u09a4\u09b0) is a Bangladesh government body under the Ministry of Defence responsible for overseeing the medical services of the defence forces. It is one of seven departments under the Ministry of Defence. The Directorate General of Medical Services provides grading and classification of plans and policies for overall health and medical care for the Armed Forces, annual planning, procurement and control of medical stores and equipment, advanced training of AMC, ADC and AFNS officers at home and abroad and expert pool control. DGMS regulate the Inter-military medical units such as the Armed Forces Medical Institute (AFMI), the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP), the Armed Forces Medical Stores Depot (AFMSD) and the Armed Forces Food and Drug Enforcement (ADF). Directorate General of Medical Service (DGMS), is the highest policy making organization of Army Medical Corps, Army Dental Corps and Armed Forces Nursing Services. This Directorate General is also responsible for providing medical service to both serving and retired armed forces personnel, entitled civilian and their families. This office is also responsible for preparing and distributing budget to all armed forces medical units. During any disaster or natural calamity this office plays vital role by providing medical support to the distressed. Major General Mahbubur Rahman is the Director General of Directorate General of Medical Services. Lieutenant Colonel Shafiqul Hasan FCPS is the current Assistant Director General of DGMS.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A hunter-killer team, is a team that separates the tasks of \"hunting\" and \"killing\" to two or more individuals.\nExamples include: \n\nTwo-person sniper teams, one using specialized optical hardware and the other a rifle\nPairs of F-4G Wild Weasel V and F-16Cs, where the F-4G \"hunter\" could detect, identify, and locate an enemy's radar and then direct the F-16C's weapons to the site\nBradley fighting vehicles often \"hand off\" fire missions to M1 Abrams main battle tanks in their hunter-killer team\n\"Pink teams\" of scout and attack helicopters, such as OH-6 \"Loach\" or OH-58 Kiowa scout helicopters and the AH-1 Cobra attack helicopter during the Vietnam War\nIn anti-submarine warfare an ASW aircraft may be employed as \"hunter\", with surface ships such as destroyers as killers.\nTask Forces such as Task Force 88 where one element, the \"hunter,\" (e.g., CIA Operatives) gathers intelligence on the target while the other, the \"killer,\" (e.g., Delta Force or Rangers) acts on the intelligence and eliminates the target.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military districts (also called military regions) are formations of a state's armed forces (often of the Army) which are responsible for a certain area of territory. They are often more responsible for administrative than operational matters, and in countries with conscript forces, often handle parts of the conscription cycle.\nNavies have also used a similar model, with organizations such as the United States Naval Districts. A number of navies in South America used naval districts at various points in time.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Multinational force is a multinational operation which may be defensive, offensive, or for peacekeeping purposes. In multinational operations, many countries form an alliance to carry them out.\nMultinational forces include:\n\n Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (1943-1945)\nMultinational Force and Observers (1981-present)\nMultinational Force in Lebanon (1982-1984)\nOperation Uphold Democracy (1994-1995)\nNATOIFOR (1995-1996)\nSFOR (1996-2004)\nInternational Security Assistance Force (2001-2014)\nNATO Response Force (2003-present)\nEUFOR (2004-present)IraqMulti-National Corps - Iraq (2004-2009)\nMultinational Division Central-South (2003-2008)\nMult-inational Force - Iraq (2004-2009)\nMulti-National Force West (2004-2010)", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Naegeumwi (Korean: \ub0b4\uae08\uc704; Hanja: \u5167\u7981\u885b) was a military unit during the Joseon Dynasty period of Korean history between 1407 and 1910, responsible for protecting the king and the royal family. The number of royal guards varied between 60 and 200, at times may have reached 300.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Pandurs were any of several light infantry military units beginning with Trenck's Pandurs, used by the Kingdom of Hungary from 1741, fighting in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Silesian Wars. Others to follow included Vladimirescu's Pandurs, a militia established by Tudor Vladimirescu in the Wallachian uprising of 1821, Pandurs of the Croatian Military Frontier, a frontier guard infantry unit deployed in the late 18th century, Pandurs of the Kingdom of Dalmatia, a frontier guard infantry unit deployed in the 19th century.\nIn early 19th Century Wallachia, being a Pandur was a fixed, legally recognized social status - whether or not one was a member of a specific military unit. This social condition had a considerable bearing on the central role played by Pandurs in the Wallachian uprising of 1821.\nTwo armoured personnel carriers made by the Austrian company Steyr-Daimler-Puch are named after the historical Austrian units: the Pandur I 6x6, and Pandur II 8x8.\nFour ships have also share a namesake of Pandur units. The first was a ship of the French Navy, Pandour, renamed HMS Pandora after its capture by the Royal Navy in 1795.  The additional British ships were named HMS Pandour.\nIn Serbia, pandur is a slang term for a policeman.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military science nomenclature, a quick reaction force (QRF) is an armed military unit capable of rapidly responding to developing situations, typically to assist allied units in need of such assistance. They are to have equipment ready to respond to any type of emergency, typically within ten minutes or less but that is based on unit standard operating procedures (SOPs). Army cavalry units are frequently postured as quick reaction forces, with a main mission of security and reconnaissance. They are generally platoon-sized in the U.S. military's combat arms.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A military volunteer is a person who enlists in military service by free will, and is not a conscript, mercenary, or a foreign legionnaire. Volunteers sometimes enlist to fight in the armed forces of a foreign country, for example during the Spanish Civil War. Military volunteers are essential for the operation of volunteer militaries. Many armies, including the U.S. Army, formerly distinguished between \"Important Volunteers\" enlisted during a war, and \"regulars\" who served on long-term basis.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Leidangen was an organisation for volunteer military education in Norway. The organisation was started in 1931, and had its background in various 1920s volunteer organisations such as the Society Guard. Leidangen differed from the former, in that Leidangen was integrated fully into Norway's military planning. Its name was derived from the medieval levy Leidang. Leidangen received public support from 1933, including loan of weaponry, and was subordinated to a committee that was in part appointed by the state. The organisation was dissolved in 1936.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "'Double fish hook' strategy is a speculated maritime strategy which India adopts to counter the String of Pearls strategy by China. This 'fish hook' strategy of India is expected to complement the 'fish hook' strategy undertaken by the US along with its allies in the Pacific Ocean.\nThe 'double fish hook' involves a string of port developments and alliances that India has entered into. The eastern 'fish hook' covers the eastern Indian Ocean and begins in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and ends at the US military base (Diego Garcia) in the Chagos Archipelago. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands constitute the endpoint of the US 'fish hook' strategy. The western 'fish hook' begins at the Duqm port through India's Maritime Transport Agreement with Oman and traverses Mauritius, Seychelles, and Madagascar. India also develops maritime linkages with France, which has security interests for its territories in the Indian Ocean region.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "2 Close Support Battalion REME is a battalion of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers of the British Army.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "3 Armoured Close Support Battalion REME is a battalion of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers of the British Army.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "4 Armoured Close Support Battalion REME is a battalion of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers of the British Army.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "5 Force Support Battalion REME is a battalion of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers of the British Army.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "6 Armoured Close Support Battalion REME is a battalion of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers of the British Army.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "7 Aviation Support Battalion REME is a battalion of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers of the British Army.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The November 2020 Afghanistan attacks were multiple attacks launched by insurgents including the Taliban and Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant \u2013 Khorasan Province in November 2020. The attacks left at least 88 people dead and more than 193 injured.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "An alert state or state of alert is an indication of the state of readiness of the armed forces for military action or a state against natural disasters, terrorism or military attack. The term frequently used is on High Alert Examples scales indicating alert state are the DEFCON levels of the US military, South Korea's \"Jindogae\" system, and the UK Threat Levels. High alert states are synonymous with red alert.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The 2007 Amirli bombing was a suicide car bomb attack that occurred on July 7, 2007, in a market in the town of Amirli, Iraq, whose residents are mainly Shia Turkmens. The bombing killed 156 people with 255 injured.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "ANNUALEX or AnnualEx (AE) is a military exercise by the United States Navy and the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force.  It is annually held in the Southern Sea of Japan.  The first ANNUALEX was held between November 5 and 15, 1996. The latest was ANNUALEX 13g (Nov. 4\u201311, 2016) and participation included 750 American military personnel.The official definition reads: [ANNUALEX] \u2026\n\n\u2026 is a bilateral training exercise between the Navy and JMSDF conducted in the waters south of Japan, to practice and evaluate the coordination, procedures, and interoperability elements required to effectively and cohesively respond to the defense of Japan or to a regional contingency in the Indo-Asia-Pacific.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Anomaly Detection at Multiple Scales, or ADAMS, is a $35 million DARPA project designed to identify patterns and anomalies in very large data sets. It is under DARPA's Information Innovation office and began in 2011.The project is intended to detect and prevent insider threats such as \"a soldier in good mental health becoming homicidal or\nsuicidal\", an \"innocent insider becoming malicious\", or \"a government employee [who] abuses access privileges to share classified information\". Specific cases mentioned are Nidal Malik Hasan and WikiLeaks source Chelsea Manning. Commercial applications may include finance. The intended recipients of the system output are operators in the counterintelligence agencies.The Proactive Discovery of Insider Threats Using Graph Analysis and Learning is part of the ADAMS project. The Georgia Tech team includes noted high-performance computing researcher David A. Bader.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Anti-tank trenches, also called anti-tank ditches, are ditches dug into and around fortified positions to hold up the advance of enemy tanks. Anti-tank ditches were first used in World War I by Germany in an effort to protect their trenches against the newly developed British tanks. An anti-tank ditch has to be wide enough and deep enough to prevent a tank from crossing. Armies have been known to disguise anti-tank ditches to enable the ditch to disable an enemy tank. Anti-tank trenches can be defeated by use of a fascine.\nAccording to the United States Army, there are several methods by which combat engineers can dig an anti-tank ditch on the battlefield.  Using only hand tools, a platoon of soldiers can dig a triangular-shaped ditch 100 feet long, 12 feet wide and 6 feet deep in seven and a half hours; a trapezoidal-shaped ditch of similar dimensions would take fourteen hours.  Equipping the platoon with a 3/4 cubic yard power shovel cuts these digging times to four and a half hours and nine hours respectively.  Alternatively, a squad of soldiers with a power auger and sufficient demolition charges can blast a ditch 100 yards long, 30 feet wide and 12 feet deep in twelve hours.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military aviation, area bombardment (or area bombing) is a type of aerial bombardment in which bombs are dropped over the general area of a target. The term \"area bombing\" came into prominence during World War II.Area bombing is a form of strategic bombing. It can serve several intertwined purposes: to disrupt the production of military materiel, to disrupt lines of communications, to divert the enemy's industrial and military resources from the primary battlefield to air defence and infrastructure repair, and to demoralise the enemy's population (See terror bombing).\"Carpet bombing\", also known as \"saturation bombing\", and \"obliteration bombing\", refers to a type of area bombing that aims to effect complete destruction of the target area by exploding bombs in every part of it.\nArea bombing is contrasted with precision bombing. The latter is directed at a selected target \u2013 not necessarily a small, and not necessarily a tactical target, as it could be an airfield or a factory \u2013 and it does not intend to inflict a widespread damage.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In U.S. armed forces parlance, an area of operations (AO) is an operational area defined by the force commander for land, air, and naval forces conduct of combat and non-combat activities. Areas of operations do not typically encompass the entire operational area of the force commander, but should be large enough for subordinate commanders to accomplish their goals, achieve objectives and missions, and to protect their forces. Within an AO there will typically be one main supply route along which vehicles, personnel and supplies will be transported.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Armed Forces' Christian Union (AFCU) \u2014formerly Officers' Christian Union\u2014 is a British military charity (Registered Charity Number 249636) whose beneficiaries are members of the Armed Forces. It is a Christian organization with origins in the mid-19th century Army Prayer Union. As of 2014 the president is Commodore Jamie Hay RN. AFCU is a member of the Association of Military Christian Fellowships and is in contact with military Christian fellowships in 40 other countries. It has a membership of serving military personnel and non-serving people, many of whom are relatives of members of the Armed Forces.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "An Artificer is an appointment held by a member of an armed forces service who is skilled at working on electronic, electrical, electro-mechanical and/or mechanical devices. The specific term \"artificer\" for this function is typical of the armed forces of countries that are or have been in the British Commonwealth and refers to a Senior Non-Commissioned Officer. Artificer is a job title and not a rank.\nQualification to hold the position and title of Artificer requires years of training and service in order to gain the experience and rank required. In the British Forces, soldiers in the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME) or Royal Marines with the rank of Sergeant who have also qualified as Class 1 tradesmen are eligible for consideration for the Artificers course. Upon completion of the 18-month Artificers course, soldiers are promoted to Staff Sergeant (one rank above Sergeant in the British Army) and presented with the Artificers badge. They are also awarded a HND/Degree. Artificers are addressed as Tiff or 'The Tiffy', and may oversee the maintenance and repair of a unit's mechanical equipment, help to develop new equipment, or become further qualified on specific equipment.\nCorps of Artificers served during the American Revolution and American Civil Wars. The rank of Artificer (abbreviated Art.), was also used in the United States army during the American Indian Wars.Examples include:\n\nArtificer Sergeant Major, an appointment held by a Warrant Officer Class 1 in the Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.  A Warrant Officer Artificer may be further trained in additional skills, e.g. from Radio Mechanic to include Radar, Computers and other electronic equipment.A soldier of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers selected for special electro-mechanical training and rapid promotion to the rank of Staff Sergeant\nRoyal Artificers, a corps of the British army which in 1813 became the Royal Sappers and Miners, which in 1856 merged into the Royal Engineers\nArmament Artificer, an Appointment by suitability qualified NCO technicians in the ordnance corps of the Irish Defence Forces who inspect, service and repair heavy ordnance weapons in artillery, air defence, Cavalry and Naval formations\nRoyal Navy Artificer, a highly-skilled naval rating who has successfully undergone a five-year formal apprenticeship in skill-of-hand and specialist knowledge training in Her Majesty's ships and training establishments, a position which ceased in 2010 as a result of engineering branch restructuring.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "\"Assembly\" is a bugle call that signals troops to assemble at a designated place.\"Assembly\" and \"Adjutant's Call\" are the two bugle calls that make up the \"formation\" category of bugle call.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The position of at attention, or standing at attention, is a military posture which involves the following general postures:\nStanding upright with an assertive and correct posture: famously \"chin up, chest out, shoulders back, stomach in\".\nArms fixed at the side, thumb or middle finger parallel to trouser or skirt seam, depending on military drill specifics.\n\"Eyes front\": head and eyes locked in a fixed forward posture. Ideally eyes unmoving fixated on a distant object. Blank facial expression.\nKeeping the heels together, with the toes apart with the feet at a 45 degree angle.\nNo speech, facial or bodily movements except when as required by military drill.\nThe above stance position is common in most military organizations throughout the world. It may also be adopted by paramilitary organizations, law enforcement, and other organizations requiring a loosely military structure such as Scouts, cadet programs, or police units, or even the Salvation Army.\nIt is also used in common in civilian marching bands, fife and drum corps and drum and bugle corps. To stand at attention is also a means of saluting when a junior rank meets an officer or superior but he (the junior) is not wearing a cover.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A backshop or back-shop is a specialized store or workshop found in service industries, such as locomotive and aircraft repair.  Most repairs are carried out in small workshops, except where an industrial service is needed.\nIn the military, backshops repair parts are known as shop-replaceable units (SRUs). These are commonly-stocked subassemblies of a larger system, such as circuit cards components of a line-replaceable unit (LRU), designed to be repaired at the field level. Repair at this level is known as field-level maintenance or intermediate-level (I-level) maintenance. \nCalibration and repair of United States Air Force test equipment is conducted at shops known as precision measurement equipment laboratories.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Barue uprising (also known as the Barue revolt or the Barue rebellion) was an uprising in 1917 during WW1 in Portuguese Mozambique.The colonial authorities in Portuguese Mozambique increased the brutality of their occupation during the war. \"Revolting practices\" criticised by the British, such as forced labour, were increasingly applied despite the abolition of slavery. Press gangs (cipais) used the most brutal coercion to mobilise whole populations, young, old and infirm people not being exempted and women being raped. By the end of 1916, many young men had fled to Southern Rhodesia and Transvaal to escape the Portuguese and to earn living wages. The condition of the populations left behind worsened to the point that when the cipais tried to raise another 5,000 carriers from the kingdom of Barue in March 1917, the population rebelled. Disgust at Portuguese depredations united many peoples but the rivals for the title of Makombe of the Wabarue fought independent campaigns, attracting support from the bandits in the Zambesi valley. At the end of April, the rebels routed a Portuguese force sent to suppress the rising and reached the provincial capital of Tete; by the end of May had overrun most of Zambezia Province. About 100,000 people crossed the border into British Nyasaland and the Rhodesian colonies to escape the violence but the disruption did little to alter British disdain for Portuguese methods and despite having received troops to help put down the Chilembwe rebellion, they refused to send troops, only allowing guns and ammunition over the border. In May the Portuguese began to suppress the rebels by butchering thousands of people, enslaving women and plundering territory. The rebels held out into November and the rivals for the title of Makombe fled to Southern Rhodesia. During June the Portuguese had to divide their forces and send thousands of Portuguese and local troops to attack the Makonde living on the Mvua plateau, who had also rebelled. Another rebellion broke out early in 1918.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Basra War Cemetery was a military cemetery in Basra, Iraq, built for soldiers killed during the Mesopotamian campaign in the First World War. It was maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission until 2007. Those buried at the cemetery include Victoria Cross recipient George Godfrey Massy Wheeler, and Henry Howard, 19th Earl of Suffolk.The Daily Telegraph reported on 10 November 2013 that the cemetery has been completely destroyed, with all 4,000 headstones knocked down and broken by looters and vandals.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In the training of infantry, a battle drill is a kind of standard operating procedure by which platoons and squads apply fire and maneuver in commonly encountered situations. They require leaders to make decisions rapidly and to issue brief oral orders quickly. In 1944, C.P. Stacey defined the practice of battle drill as \"the reduction of military tactics to bare essentials which are taught to a platoon as a team drill, with clear explanations regarding the objects to be achieved, the principles involved and the individual task of each member of the team.\"The Ranger Handbook defines a battle drill as \"A collective action rapidly executed without applying a deliberate decision-making process.\" A US Army publication from 2016 identifies fifteen \"essential battle drills that an Infantry platoon and squad must train on to ensure success\":\n1: React to Direct Fire\n2: Conduct a Platoon Attack\n2A: Conduct a Squad Assault\n3: Break Contact\n4: React to an Ambush\n5: Knock out a Bunker\n6: Enter and Clear a Room\n7: Enter a Trench to Secure a Foothold\n8: Conduct the Initial Breach of a Mined Wire Obstacle\n9: React to Indirect Fire\n10: React to a Chemical Attack\n11: React to an IED\n12: Dismount a BFV and ICV\n13: Mount a BFV and ICV\n14: Execute Action Left or Right While Mounted", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A battlefield management system (BMS) is a system meant to integrate information acquisition and processing to enhance command and control of a military unit.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Behind-armor debris is debris particles eroded from the penetrator of armor as well as spalled material ejected from the target itself.Behind-armor debris characteristics can be described by the number, position, and size range of debris particles.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Bickleigh Barracks is a military installation at Bickleigh, South Hams which is currently used by 42 Commando.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A blanket party (also known as locksocking) is a form of corporal punishment, hazing or retaliation conducted within a peer group, most frequently within the military or military academies. The victim (usually asleep in bed) is restrained by having a blanket flung over him and held down, while other members of the group strike the victim repeatedly with improvised flails, most often a sock or bath towel containing something solid, such as a bar of soap or a padlock.In 2015, a United States Army veteran was diagnosed with PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) after being the victim of a blanket party during basic training in the late 1970s.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Bold (a term derived from kobold) was a German sonar decoy, used by U-boats during the Second World War from 1942 onwards. It consisted of a metal canister about 10 cm (3.9 in) in diameter filled with calcium hydride. It was launched by an ejector system colloquially referred to as Pillenwerfer (English: \"pill thrower\").\nWhen mixed with seawater, the calcium hydride produced large quantities of hydrogen which bubbled out of the container, creating a false sonar target. A valve opened and closed, holding the device at a depth of about 30 m (98 ft). The device lasted 20 to 25 minutes.\nThe Royal Navy called it SBT (Submarine Bubble Target).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Bomb Alarm System (also known as the Bomb Alarm Display System) was a US and UK network of optical bhangmeter sensors intended to confirm the detonation of an enemy nuclear weapon near cities or military installations within the US or at US operated early warning radar sites in the UK or Greenland.The BAS was designed by Western Union in 1959 and was in full operation by 1962.  The BAS was the responsibility of the 9th Space Division.  The BAS operated until 1967.\nThe BAS sensors were designed to report the occurrence of a nuclear flash via telephone or telegraph lines before the sensor was destroyed by the explosion.  They were designed to ignore spurious signals from lightning, sunlight, or electrical surges.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Bread bags or ration bags are small to medium-sized bags issued to soldiers to carry their rations. They are also used for carrying soldiers personal things. Often, such as in the case of Swiss and World War II German designs, they will have straps for attaching to belts and/or bikes.  They can be commonly found in the military surplus market and are often bought by collectors and people finding new uses for them.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A broken square refers to an infantry square collapsing or breaking up in battle.\nSpecific incidents that this expression may refer to are all in the Mahdist War in the Sudan:\n\nAt the Battle of Abu Klea: the breach was small and soon closed itself, leaving the intruders trapped inside the square, whose inner ranks faced-about and quickly defeated the intruders. See Battle of Abu Klea#Battle for the real events at Abu Klea.In an after-battle report, The Times newspaper incorrectly had it that a British square broke.\nAt the Battle of Tamai:\nThe Black Watch formed one side of a big square under attack, and was ordered by top command to leave that post (leaving their side of that square open) and attack another enemy force which was hidden down a desert gully.\nThe restricted rocky irregular ground in that gully made it difficult to form a solid square to resist attack; that square came under intense attack from Sudanese (here, mostly Hadendoa). The square was flooded with a rush of tribesmen and a brutal hand-to-hand fight resulted.  The Black Watch were driven back but rallied and eventually drove the Sudanese out, with the square being reformed.After the Mahdist War, the poet Sir Henry Newbolt got his information very wrong (and may have confused these two battles with each other) and wrote a poem named Vita\u00ef Lampada describing a disastrous collapse. Or he may have intended to write a fictional \"worst case\" scenario, with the message \"even if the worst happens, keep on fighting back\", but many readers thought wrongly that he was describing real events.\nFrank Richards, a soldier in the Royal Welch Fusiliers around 1901, stated in his memoir entitled 'Soldier Sahib': \"If a Welshman went into a pub where a Highland soldier was, of the regiment whose square was once broken by the Mahdi's dervishes in the Sudan, he would sometimes ask for a 'pint of broken-square'. Then he would have his bellyful of scrapping for the rest of the night, because this was an insult the Highlanders could not forgive.\"  Robert Graves, who also served in the Royal Welch, told a similar story. In Spain in the Napoleonic War, at the Battle of Garc\u00eda Hern\u00e1ndez, three French squares were broken in the same day resulting in a very one sided victory for the British and Germans.\nFor more information about infantry squares breaking or not breaking, see Battle of Garc\u00eda Hern\u00e1ndez#Commentary.\nIn the Napoleonic Wars, when cavalry broke an infantry square, it was usually because one of more of:\n\nThe infantry were of poor quality.\nThe infantry were tired or disorganized or discouraged\nIt was raining, with risk of rain wetting the men's gunpowder, as firearms were at the time.\nThe infantry fired a poorly aimed volley.\nThe infantry waited too long to fire.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Buddy Aid is is a term used in the US military to describe first aid delivered by fellow troopers on the battlefield. It is basic first aid only, such as dressing wounds, stemming blood loss, splinting fractures, etc, and possibly responding to nerve agents. The Iranian Military also utilizes the system.\nUrgent medical care can be vital for personnel in conflicts and wars, and many countries have similar practices.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Bulling, Bull polishing, spit polishing or spit shining is a term commonly used by soldiers and refers to a method for polishing leather products in such a way as to give an extremely high shine effect. The term 'Bulling' is a reference to any form of cleaning, shining, polishing or such that has no other practical application other than to present an image of exemplary turn out or cleanliness. The term 'Bulling' is an acknowledgment that this is an undertaking intended to 'Bullshit' the inspector of a cleaned item in regard to its normal state of presentation.\nIt is commonly used in the military as a traditional method of presenting leather accessories (such as a Sam Browne belt) and boots for inspection.  The finished effect should leave the surface of the leather highly reflective, similar to a patent leather finish. It is not unusual for soldiers to maintain a separate and unique pair of boots intended only for use for inspection or very special ceremonial occasions.\nUltimately, the process involves polishing the applied thin layers of polish, not the leather itself.  The process can be lengthy and is best learned and perfected with practice. Soldiers are highly competitive in producing the smoothest, shiniest and most durable finish possible normally to their 'Drill' or 'Parade' boots.\nThe down side to this method is that the slightest touch to the laminated layers of brittle dry polish could end up with them cracking or even shattering like glass or even the leather breaking up as the nourishment supplied by the oils in the polish never actually reach the leather.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In 2000, the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD) defined bullying as: \"...the use of physical strength or the abuse of authority to intimidate or victimise others, or to give unlawful punishments.\" A review of a number of deaths, supposedly by suicide, at Princess Royal Barracks, Deepcut by Nicholas Blake QC indicated that whilst a bullying culture existed during the mid to late 1990s many of the issues were being addressed as a result of the Defence Training Review.Some argue that this behaviour should be allowed because of a general academic consensus that \"soldiering\" is different from other occupations. Soldiers expected to risk their lives should, according to them, develop strength of body and spirit to accept bullying.In some countries, ritual hazing amongst recruits has been tolerated and even lauded as a rite of passage that builds character and toughness; while in others, systematic bullying of lower-ranking, young or physically slight recruits may in fact be encouraged by military policy, either tacitly or overtly (see dedovshchina).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Cantabrian circle (Latin: circulus cantabricus) was a military tactic born in the warfare in the ancient Iberian peninsula. It was employed by ancient and to a lesser extent medieval light cavalry armed with javelins or bows. As Flavius Arrianus and Hadrian relate, this was the most habitual form to appear in combat of the Cantabri tribes, and Rome adopted it after the Cantabrian Wars.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Caribbean Peace Force (CPF), also known as the  Caribbean Peacekeeping Force and the Eastern Caribbean Peace Force (ECPF), was a 350-member peacekeeping force operating in Grenada from October 1983 to June 1985 after the Invasion of Grenada, codenamed Operation Urgent Fury. The military intervention by the United States of America in coalition with six Caribbean nations was in response to the illegal deposition and execution of Grenadan Prime Minister Maurice Bishop on Oct. 19, 1983.  Bishop's revolutionary regime was briefly replaced by a military junta composed entirely of Grenadian military officers. On October 25, 1983, the United States, Barbados, Jamaica and members of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States landed on Grenada, defeated Grenadian and Cuban resistance and overthrew the military government of Hudson Austin.The U.S-led invasion was spearheaded at dawn by Army Rangers, Navy SEALs, Marines and other elite units. The first Caribbean forces arrived on Grenada by U.S. Air Force C-130 aircraft from Barbados about five hours later. The vanguard force, led by Brigadier Rudyard Lewis of Barbados, landed on a Ranger-seized runway without any defined military role being assigned to them by the Pentagon. An ad hoc plan was developed for them to guard Cuban and Grenadan prisoners who were being captured in mounting numbers by U.S. combat troops, Later, the Caribbean troops took over police duties in St. George's, the island's capital, and guard duties at Richmond Hill Prison. The peacekeeper force was mostly composed of 150 soldiers from the Jamaica Defence Force and a 50-man rifle platoon from the Barbados Defence Force.  Antigua and Barbuda also contributed an infantry squad. The remaining members were police or paramilitary constabulary from Barbados, Dominica, St.Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and St. Kitts and Nevis. These five Eastern Caribbean island nations were then participants in a Regional Security System.The Caribbean peacekeepers were not involved in combat, which officially ended on Nov. 2, 1983. U.S. combat troops left the island on Dec. 12, 1983.  The peacekeeping force remained on Grenada until the spring of 1985 to allow the reconstituted domestic police force to be fully trained and equipped.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Carthaginian peace is the imposition of a very brutal \"peace\" intended to permanently cripple the losing side. The term derives from the peace terms imposed on the Carthaginian Empire by the Roman Republic following the Punic Wars. After the Second Punic War, Carthage lost all its colonies, was forced to demilitarize, paid a constant tribute to Rome and was barred from waging war without Rome's permission. At the end of the Third Punic War, the Romans systematically burned Carthage to the ground and enslaved its population.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Caspian Guard Initiative is a United States Department of Defense regional security program. The program is designed to coordinate activities in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan with those of U.S. Central Command and other U.S government agencies to enhance Caspian Sea security. The program is officially described as assisting the two countries in improving their ability to prevent and, if needed, respond to terrorism, nuclear proliferation, drug and human trafficking, and other transnational threats in the Caspian region. United States European Command is responsible for operations in Azerbaijan.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Central Registry of War Criminals and Security Suspects, more commonly known as CROWCASS, was an organisation set up to assist the United Nations War Crimes Commission and Allied governments in tracing ex-enemy nationals suspected of committing war crimes or atrocities in Europe during the Second World War. The organisation was originally set up by the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) in 1945.In 1947, CROWCASS published a four volume list divided into Germans, Non Germans and two supplementary lists of people suspected of committing war crimes between September 1939 and May 1945. To Allied Nazi hunters the CROWCASS lists became known as the 'Nazi Hunter's Bible'. The lists contain over 60,000 people in all. Not all of them are war criminals (some were simply being sought for interrogation or to act as witnesses), however within the pages of CROWCASS are the alleged perpetrators of tens of thousands of war crimes. Among those on the list are Case Registry No 1: Adolf Hitler - wanted for murder by Poland, Czechoslovakia and Belgium.\nIn 2005, the British government sanctioned the publication of the CROWCASS Consolidated Wanted Lists. Originally the lists were not intended to be in the public domain until the year 2023.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "\u00c7etes were Muslim armed irregular brigands who were active in Asia Minor after World War I. They were notorious for their brutal assaults on life, property and honor and were responsible for the atrocities against Christian Orthodox Armenians, Greeks and Assyrians during the 1910s and 1920s. The word was also used as a synonym for members of the Special Organization.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Charles Anthony Special Regiment, was an elite infantry unit and the first conventional fighting formation created by the LTTE. It was founded on 10 April 1991, and was initially trained under the leadership of Brigadier Balraj. It was the oldest and one of the most highly trained infantry units of the Tamil Tigers with its own military academies, research units and defence colleges for its officer corps. The soldiers in the unit all hailed from villages in the Northern Province. The brigade made history during the Second Battle of Elephant Pass when it became the first non-state military regiment to defeat an entire infantry division (54 Division) in a conventional battle. Military analysts say that with the fall of Elephant pass, the Charles Anthony Special Regiment established the LTTE as the only non-state military force in the world capable of such complex manoeuvre war fighting. The Elephant pass base was described as \"impregnable\" by a US army officer who visited the garrison months before its fall in April 2000 By October 2003, the regiment had lost 14 commanding officers and 1056 soldiers. The regiment was named after the LTTE's first military commander and a close associate to LTTE leader Velupillai Prabhakaran, Charles Lucas Anthony(Lt.Seelan). Lt.Seelan led the first ever attack on the Sri Lankan army by any Tamil militant group on 15 October 1981 when the LTTE ambushed an army jeep driving down the KKS Road in Jaffna, killing 2 soldiers.\nThe CASR fought in over 100 battles against the Sri Lankan Army (SLA) including Operation Thavalai (Frog), Battle of Mullaitivu,  Operation Jayasikurui, Operation Unceasing Waves II, Oddusuddan (1999), Second Battle of Elephant Pass, Battle of Jaffna, Battle of Kilinochchi and Battle of Ananthapuram .", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Chesty XII (born about 2002) is the former mascot of the United States Marine Corps from 2002 to 2008. A brindle and white male English Bulldog, he was named after Chesty Puller. Chesty XII was retired in 2008 and sent to live with two married members of the United States Marine Band \"The President's Own\". During his tenure as mascot, he was reported to have had a \"spotty disciplinary record\".", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Chesty XIII (born about 2007) was the mascot of the United States Marine Corps from 2008 to 2013. A male English Bulldog, he was named after Chesty Puller. James N. Mattis once described Chesty XIII as \"a kindred soul\", however, the dog was also disruptive on at least one occasion when he snarled and barked at Bravo, United States Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta's Golden Retriever.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Chesty XIV was the mascot of the United States Marine Corps from 2013 to 2018. A male English Bulldog, he was named after Chesty Puller.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Chesty XV is the mascot of the United States Marine Corps. A male English Bulldog, he is named after Chesty Puller.Chesty XV was acquired by the Marine Corps in March 2018 and trained with his predecessor Chesty XIV until August 31, 2018, when he assumed duties as mascot of the Marine Corps.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Chief of the Defence Forces (Portuguese: Chefe Estado Maior General For\u00e7as Armadas) is the professional head of the Timor Leste Defence Force. He is responsible for the administration and the operational control of the East Timor military. The current chief is Lere Anan Timur who was appointed on 6 October 2011, succeeding Taur Matan Ruak.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Chief sergeant is a rank used in uniformed organizations, principally military and policing forces.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Circular review system is a system on board some armoured combat vehicles or tanks which provides the crew greater situational awareness (such as a 360\u00b0 view) outside of the vehicle.\n\nDiffering systems may provide panoramic or enhanced imagery, Blue Force Tracking, marking of enemy positions, target acquisition, coordination of fire between networked combat vehicles, or enhanced threat recognition.\n\nImagery may be provided by sensors on the vehicle, or from external UAVs or UGVs. Information may be presented on helmet-mounted or other display systems.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Close operations are operations that are within the commander's area of operation (AO) in their battlespace (see: Area of responsibility). Most operations that are projected in close areas are usually against hostile forces in immediate contact and are often the decisive actions. It requires speed and mobility to rapidly concentrate overwhelming combat power at the critical time and place and exploit success. Dominated by fire support, the combined elements of the ground and air elements conduct maneuver warfare to enhance the effects of their fires and their ability to maneuver. As they maneuver to gain positions of advantage over the enemy, combined arms forces deliver fires to disrupt the enemy's ability to interfere with that maneuver.\nCommanders prioritize fires to weight the main effort and to focus combat power to achieve effects that lead to a decision. The effects of fires can be massed to strike the enemy at the decisive point and time, while reducing the risks to the force entailed in massing maneuver forces at a single point or in a single portion of the battlespace.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A clutter fence is a device used with some radar systems to prevent reflections from nearby objects reaching the receiver. They are normally constructed out of conventional metal fencing material. They may serve a secondary role in protecting crews on the ground from the microwave signal of some very high-powered radars.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Grenadian Coast Guard is one of two military branches in Grenada. The Coast Guard's role is search and rescue as well as drug interdiction. The Coast Guard falls under the command of the Commissioner of Police and has a total of 60 personnel in service operating 4 craft. The branches headquarters is located at Fort George.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A coatee was a type of tight fitting uniform coat or jacket, which was waist length at the front and had short tails behind. The coatee began to replace the long tail coat in western armies at the end of the eighteenth century, but was itself superseded by the tunic in the mid nineteenth century.A coatee, worn with a waistcoat or vest, remains part of formal Highland dress.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Combined Joint Task Force Paladin (\"CJTF Paladin\") was the International Security Assistance Force command responsible for counter-IED efforts and Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) during the War in Afghanistan (2001\u20132021). With military and civilian personnel spread across the entire country, CJTF Paladin provided EOD Technicians, counter-IED trainers, intelligence personnel, and forensics labs to the ISAF Regional Commands.\nCJTF Paladin was established in 2005 to focus Counter-IED efforts due to the rising trend of improvised explosive devices during the conflict. During the draw-down of troops and the end of the combat mission for NATO forces, CJTF Paladin was deactivated in December 2013, passing responsibility for all counter-IED operations to the ISAF Joint Command (IJC) Counter IED division.  Tactical operations continued to be tasked to the 242nd Ordnance Battalion (EOD) who were enhanced with additional EOD personnel and placed under the operational control of the IJC C-IED division.\nIts counterpart in the Iraq War was Task Force Troy.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A command in military terminology is an organisational unit for which a military commander is responsible. Commands, sometimes called units or formations, form the building blocks of a military. A commander is normally specifically appointed to the role in order to provide a legal framework for the authority bestowed.  Naval and military officers have legal authority by virtue of their officer's commission, but the specific responsibilities and privileges of command are derived from the publication of appointment. \nThe relevant definition of \"command\" according to the US Department of Defense is as follows:\n(DOD) 3. A unit or units, an organization, or an area under the command of one individual. Also called CMD. See also area command; combatant command; combatant command (command authority).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Commander of Kosovo Security Force (Albanian: Komandanti i Forc\u00ebs s\u00eb Siguris\u00eb s\u00eb Kosov\u00ebs, Serbian: \u041d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043b\u043d\u0438\u043a \u0428\u0442\u0430\u0431\u0430 \u041e\u0434\u0431\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435, romanized: Komandant Kosovskih Snaga Bezbednosti) is the highest-ranking military officer of in the Kosovo Security Force, who is responsible for maintaining the operational command of the military.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Company clerk is a person who keeps files, does secretarial work, etc., at an office or military company, camp or base.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Constantly Computed Impact Point (CCIP) is a calculation provided by a weapon's sighting system. It is a predicted point of impact found from the launch platform's movement, the target's movement, gravity, projectile launch velocity, projectile drag, and other factors that can be entered. It is usually displayed on the Head Up Display (HUD).\nThe HUD crosshairs will move around dependent on where the computer predicts the selected rocket, bullet or bomb will hit.  Normally a radar lock is necessary, but when strafing or bombing a ground target (A/G mode; A/A mode will simply put the hairs in the centre of the HUD), the crosshairs will move along the ground.\nThis system is normally used in aircraft, other large vehicles, or large static weapons, but it is in principle possible for such a system to be miniaturized for a man-portable firearm or Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (UCAV).The Continually Computed Release Point (CCRP) inverts the principle of CCIP. A desired impact point is indicated. The HUD puts a vertical line along the bearing to the impact point, and the pilot points the aircraft onto that line and flies a steady course, whether level bombing, dive bombing, or toss bombing (releasing bombs on a lofted climbing trajectory.) The pilot or Weapon systems officer authorizes weapon release but for maximum precision the exact timing is determined and executed by the computer.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Cooperative 09 or more commonly Cooperative Longbow/Cooperative Lancer 09 is the name of NATO military exercise held in Georgia within the framework of Partnership for Peace, Mediterranean Dialogue and Istanbul Cooperation Initiative programmes from May 6 until June 3, 2009. Exercises were conducted 30 km from Tbilisi at the Vaziani military base. Spanish Lieutenant General Cayetano Miro Valls was the commander of drills. Cooperative exercises are held annually in order to help NATO and its allies to maintain high level of cooperation during crisis response operations.1100 soldiers from 14 countries took part in exercise, including 9 NATO members (Albania, Canada, Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom and the United States) and 5 PfP nations (Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Georgia and Ukraine). Initially 18 countries were supposed to take part, but Armenia, Moldova, Serbia and Kazakhstan canceled their attendance in response to troop mutiny in Georgia.Exercises consist of two parts, Cooperative Longbow 09 and Cooperative Lancer 09.  Longbow is a Command Post exercise (CPX) and is focused on training and exercising NATO staff skills in order to improve interoperability between NATO and partner nations during crisis response operations at the multinational brigade level. Lancer is designed to provide basic training on peace support operations at the battalion level.\nRussia strongly opposed to the drills in Georgia, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev referred to them as \"an open provocation\" and said the exercises were assisting Georgia's rearmament after the conflict with Russia over South Ossetia.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Correaje boliviano de cuero (English: Bolivian leather harness) is the webbing equipment used by the Bolivian Army. The webbing is in black leather and comes with leather magazine pouches.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Council of South American Defense (Spanish: Consejo de Defensa Suramericano, Portuguese: Conselho de Defesa Sul-Americano, Dutch: Zuid-Amerikaanse Defensie Raad) is a mechanism that aims to promote the exchange of safety among the countries that make up the Union of South American Nations, such as military exchanges, experiences in peacekeeping missions, military exercises, confidence-building measures, and mutual and co-ordinated assistance in areas of natural disasters.Its statutes provide for a session once a year, and its resolutions are adopted by consensus.The Presidency has the responsibility to co-ordinate all activities under the umbrella of the Council. The Presidency is exercised by the Pro Tempore President of UNASUR. Also, the Council has an advising body called the Center of Strategic Defencee Studies.The Defence Council is not a conventional military alliance like NATO, but it involves some regional military coordination.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Danish Defence Maintenance Service (Danish: Forsvarets Vedligeholdelsestjeneste, abbr. FVT) is the element of the Danish Defence responsible for maintenance and service for all equipment.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Defence Planning Committee was a former senior decision-making body on matters relating to the integrated military structure of NATO. It was dissolved following a major committee review in June 2010 and its responsibilities absorbed by the North Atlantic Council. and the Defence Policy and Planning Committee (DPPC)", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Defence Research Policy Committee, or DRPC, was a British Cabinet-level standing committee formed in 1947 that advised and directed military research in the United Kingdom. It was the equivalent of the US's National Defense Research Committee or the Canadian Defence Research Board. Among its better known chairmen were Henry Tizard, John Cockcroft and Solly Zuckerman. Its advice was \"typically ignored\" and the committee was reformed in 1963.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The term defense industrial base (or DIB), also known as the defense industrial and technological base, is used in political science to refer to a government's industrial assets that are of direct or indirect importance for the production of equipment for a country's armed forces. It is loosely associated with realism, which views the state as the preponderant guarantor of security, and frequently features as an element of grand strategy and defense policy, as well as diplomacy.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Defense line or fortification line is a geographically-recognizable line of troops and armament, fortified and set up to protect a high-value location or defend territory.\nA defense line may be based on natural difficult terrain features, such as rivers or marshes, mountain ranges, or coastlines; temporary field fortification works such as trenches; and/or more permanent fortifications such as fortresses and bunkers.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A defensive aide suite (DAS) is a military aircraft system which defends it from attack by surface-to-air missiles, air-to-air missiles and guided anti-aircraft artillery. A DAS typically comprises chaff, flares, and electronic countermeasures combined with radar warning receivers to detect threats. On some modern aircraft (Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II), the entire system is integrated and computer-controlled, allowing an aircraft to autonomously detect, classify and act in an optimal manner against a potential threat to its safety.\nA Defensive Aid Suite (DAS) system can be used in conjunction with the NGVA architecture in combat vehicles as well.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A defensive war (German: Verteidigungskrieg) is one of the causes that justify war by the criteria of the Just War tradition. It means a war where at least one nation is mainly trying to defend itself from another, as opposed to a war where both sides are trying to invade and conquer each other.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The First Assault of Dellys in May 1837, during the French conquest of Algeria, opposed the troupes coloniales under Corvette captain F\u00e9lix-Ariel d'Assigny (1794-1846) to the resistance fighters of the town of Dellys in Kabylia of the Igawawen.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Demilitarization Protective Ensemble (DPE) is a heat-sealed, one-time-use positive pressure personnel suit. \nThese airtight suits are used by the U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency to provide the highest level of protection against chemical agent exposure for workers accessing areas of chemical weapon disposal plants where chemical weapons are disassembled and the agent destroyed. Workers at Pine Bluff Chemical Agent Disposal Facility and other disposal sites have successfully completed tens of thousands of entries into these areas wearing DPE suits.With supporting equipment, the suit weighs about 50 pounds. Donning the suit takes between 30 and 45 minutes, with the assistance of a team of dressers.The suit's primary air supply comes through a hose connection to purified air; a self-contained breathing apparatus provides 8 to 10 minutes of escape air in case the primary supply is disrupted. A heart monitor around the wearer's chest checks for signs of distress.The suit's gloves have three layers, with thick butyl rubber gloves as the top layer, and the feet of the one-piece suit slip into butyl rubber boots that are then sealed to the suit.A radio transmitter provides contact with emergency backup personnel, the control room and other support staff.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Demobilization or demobilisation (see spelling differences) is the process of standing down a nation's armed forces from combat-ready status. This may be as a result of victory in war, or because a crisis has been peacefully resolved and military force will not be necessary. The opposite of demobilization is mobilization. Forceful demobilization of a defeated enemy is called demilitarization.\nThe United Nations defined demobilization as \"a multifaceted process that officially certifies an individual's change of status from being a member of a military grouping of some kind to being a civilian.\" Persons undergoing demobilization are removed from the command and control of their armed force and group and the transformation from a military mindset to that of a civilian begins. Although combatants become civilians when they acquire their official discharge documents the mental connection and formal ties to their military command structure still exist. To prevent soldiers from rejoining their armed groups, important preparatory work must be done to ensure that combatants are ready to be reintegrated into society and capable of returning to their civilian lives. Civilians play an important role in supporting combatants to return to civilian life by exposing them to civilian lifestyles and mindsets that combat the rigid military mindset soldiers acquire during their time of service.\nDemobilization can be partial or complete depending on the number of units removed from the command structure. The process is often a symbolic and significant part of the peace process during which the conflicting sides acknowledge their intent to consolidate peace.\nThe United Nations identifies demobilization as part of a three-pronged approach to conflict management. This includes disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration to take combatants out of conflict situations as well as remove weapons and help former members of armed groups rejoin society.\nIn the final days of World War II, for example, the United States Armed Forces developed a demobilization plan which would discharge soldiers on the basis of a point system that favored length and certain types of service. The British armed forces were demobilized according to an \"age-and-service\" scheme.The phrase demob happy refers to demobilization and is broadly applied to the feeling of relief at imminent release from a time-serving burden, such as a career. In the Russian language, it is known as dembel and has become a certain tradition in the Soviet and post-Soviet Armed Forces.  A United States equivalent is \"short-timer's disease\", comparable to \"senioritis\" among United States high school students.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A detachment left in contact (DLIC) is a portion of a military force left in contact position with the enemy as part of a maneuver. The rest of the force then maneuvers to another attacking position. The detachment left in contact maintains the appearance of a full unit in contact until ordered otherwise.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Dhamar Airstrike took place on 1 September 2019 when Saudi led military coalition aircraft targeted a college building in Dhamar, Yemen  that was used as a detention facility by the Houthis. According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in Yemen, the airstrike killed dozens of detainees.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In the United States Armed Forces, a dignified transfer is a procedure honoring the return of the remains of a servicemember from the theater of operations where they have died in the service of the United States. The transfer is conducted upon arrival at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware, from the arriving aircraft to a transfer vehicle, which then proceeds to the Charles C. Carson Center for Mortuary Affairs.US military officials do not designate the dignified transfer as a ceremony so that loved ones of the deceased do not feel obliged to attend. Instead, it is described as \"a solemn movement of the transfer case\".A dignified transfer is conducted for every U.S. military member who dies in a theater of operation while in the service of their country. A senior ranking officer of the fallen member's branch of service presides over each dignified transfer, with a carry team made up of members of the same branch. Per Department of Defense policy, the remains are returned to the deceased's loved ones as quickly as possible, either by direct flight to Dover from the field, or via Ramstein Air Base, Germany. At Dover, each transfer case is moved one by one from the aircraft to the waiting vehicle, usually a truck.\nMedia access to dignified transfers was prohibited from 1991 to 2009.\nSince March 2009, media attendance is subject to the consent the family of the deceased. Coverage is further restricted only to personnel who died in the line of duty supporting certain operations, such as Enduring Freedom, Iraqi Freedom and Inherent Resolve.On August 9, 2011, President Barack Obama, U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Adm. Mike Mullen, among other leaders, attended the dignified transfer for 38 U.S. and Afghan personnel killed aboard a helicopter shot down in Afghanistan three days earlier.On August 29, 2021, President Joe Biden and First Lady Jill Biden attended the dignified transfer of 13 service members killed in the 2021 Kabul airport attack in Kabul, Afghanistan.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Direcci\u00f3n de Contra-Inteligencia Militar (Military Counterintelligence Directorate) is the military intelligence department of the Ministry of the Revolutionary Armed Forces (MINFAR) of Cuba. It only provides military intelligence for the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, unlike its non-military counterpart, the Direcci\u00f3n de Inteligencia.\nIt is closely connected with the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service, based upon a 14 June 1993 agreement on military cooperation between the two countries.\nIt is focused on collecting information on the United States Armed Forces operations at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. It has an attached elite troop unit: the Special Destination Unit (UDE). Its chief for several years was Major General Jes\u00fas Berm\u00fadez Cuti\u00f1o, as well as General Gandarilla Bermejo.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Directorate General of Military Counterintelligence (Spanish: Direcci\u00f3n General de Contrainteligencia Militar, DGCIM) is the military counterintelligence agency of Venezuela, whose function is to prevent intelligence or espionage internally and externally by military and civilians.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Discharge by purchase, colloquially called buying oneself out of service, is the obtaining of a military discharge by payment. The purchase price is in effect a fine for leaving military service earlier than the date contracted for when enlisting.  pertains to voluntary enlistment; \"exemption by purchase\" is a similar privilege pertaining to conscription. In the United States military, discharge by purchase was introduced in 1890 for the Army, 1902 for the Marine Corps and 1906 for the Navy. It was abolished in 1953. In the Irish Defence Forces, it is permitted under the Defence Act 1954. Discharge by purchase was typically suspended during wartime. In the British Armed Forces, it was suspended in 1950 during the Korean War and reintroduced in 1953; accepting an application for such a discharge was at the discretion of the commanding officer.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Dogs for Defense was a World War II US military program in which the military asked pet owners to donate their pet dogs to the war effort.  The dogs were trained and used for guard and patrol duties.  To encourage donations, the dogs were deprogrammed and returned after the war.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A drill hall is a place such as a building or a hangar where soldiers practise and perform military drills.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Drone Dome is a counter unmanned air system (C-UAS) anti-aircraft system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems. The system was first displayed in 2016, and joins similar protection systems developed by Rafael such as the Iron Dome. The Drone Dome hosts different sensors including a RADA Electronic Industries RPS-42 radar, a CONTROP Precision Technologies imaging system, and radio signal detectors.The Drone Dome was thought to have been used during the disruption at Gatwick Airport during December 2018.The system was reported to have been deployed in Argentina during the 2018 G20 Buenos Aires summit and the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics in Buenos Aires.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A duffel bag, duffle bag, or kit bag is a large bag made of either natural or synthetic fabric (typically canvas), historically with a top closure using a drawstring. Generally a duffel bag is used by non-commissioned personnel in the military, and for travel, sports and recreation by civilians.  When used by sailors or marines a duffel is known as a seabag.  A duffel's open structure and lack of rigidity makes it adaptable to carrying sports gear and similar bulky objects.\nA duffel bag is often confused with a hoop-handled hard-bottomed zippered bag, known generically as a gym bag.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Dumb insolence is an offence against military discipline in which a subordinate displays an attitude of defiance towards a superior without open disagreement.  It is also found in settings such as education in which obedience and deference to a teacher is expected but may be refused by unruly pupils.  For example, a pupil may suck their teeth, sigh or walk away while being spoken to.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A dummy round or drill round is a round that is completely inert, i.e., contains no primer, propellant, or explosive charge. It is used to check weapon function, and for crew training.  Dummy ammunition is distinct from \"practice\" ammunition, which may contain smaller than normal amounts of propellant and/or explosive.  For example, the M69 practice hand grenade emits a loud pop and a puff of white smoke.\nA dummy is not to be confused with a blank, a cartridge for a firearm that contains propellant and a primer but no bullet or shot; a dummy does not produce an explosive sound like a blank does.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Dwekh Nawsha (Syriac: \u0715\u0712\u0742\u071d\u071a \u0722\u0726\u032e\u072b\u0710; literally \"one who sacrifices\") was a Christian military organization created in June 2014 in order to defend Iraq's Assyrian population from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), and possibly retake their lands currently controlled by ISIL. The militia defends the Christian cities in the Nineveh province of the historical Assyria region.The Dwekh Nawsha operates in coordination with the regional and international security forces.Despite being led by the Assyrian Patriotic Party, most militiamen are not members of the party. Several Christian foreign fighters have joined the Dwekh Nawsha; they include Americans, French, British and Australians.Sons of Liberty International, who had previously trained the Nineveh Plain Protection Units, announced in fall 2015 that they will begin training Dwekh Nawsha in their fight against ISIL.A report by the Assyrian Policy Institute released in June 2020 claimed that Dwekh Nawsha was eventually disbanded and that all of its social media accounts have been deleted.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Aselsan EIRS (Early Warning RADAR System) is a new generation S-Band radar, developed for long range early warning purposes, with AESA and digital beamforming antenna architecture. The system developed by Turkish company Aselsan. In addition to air-breathing air targets, EIRS also has the ability to detect and track Ballistic Missiles and targets with stealth technology / low RKA from long range.\nThanks to its EIRS, AESA and digital beamforming architecture and its multi-channel receiver structure, it has the ability to create more than one beam at the same time. EIRS has the feature of using meteorological data in order to increase its detection and tracking performance.\nThe radar, communication / command control and power subsystems that make up the EIRS are carried on tactical vehicles. For this reason, E\u0130RS, which has high mobility, does not require any disassembly and assembly for installation and assembly. By connecting to existing radar networks, E\u0130RS can share messages in AWCIES format, 3D aerial image with other systems and Control Notification Centers via radio or radio links.\nEIRS has the ability to fuse data with other EIRSs and transfer trace information to transfer targets, which are critical for ballistic missile defense. The long range Mode 5 IFF interrogator is integrated with a high gain IFF antenna to support the operational modes of the radar. EIRS's AESA architecture and modular design approach support the concepts of low cost maintenance and high availability.\nEIRS has electronic protection features such as wide frequency band frequency and time mobility, side beam dimming, and low side beam levels.\nSystems to be Procured\n\nPortable Early Warning Radar System (TEIRS): 4\nFixed Early Warning Radar System (SEIRS): 18 unitsSome of these radars will replace older radars.\nOthers will be deployed in areas with low altitude vulnerability due to rugged geography, depending on the need for radar coverage.\nIn this context, ASELSAN; It works on two different long-range air surveillance and early warning radars with a rotating and fixed (9o sector angle) antenna using Active Phased Array Antenna technology.\nGeneral Features  \nWeather elements it can detect:\n\nAir-to-air missiles\nAir-ground missiles\nLow altitude cruise missiles\nAnti radiation missiles\nLow face and low cross section UAVs\nHelicopters\nAirplanes\nTactical, short, medium range ballistic missiles\nOther\nMaximum detection range:\nNumber of targets that can be tracked at the same time: 200-300\nBroadcast frequency: S Band\nAntenna: Active phased array\n3-dimensional target search, detection and tracking (coordinates and altitude)\nAutomatic target classification\nIFF (Friend / foe identification) inquiry\nSeparate beams for searching and tracking\nIntegration to control reporting centers\nElectronic warfare resistance\nCompliance with air and missile defense systems\nReducing the reaction time by directly transferring target information to weapon systems\nAbility to work in all weather conditions and day / night\nAbility to eliminate false target echoes that wind power plants can createTEIRS Features\nThe system consists of the following subsystems that can be transported on 10-ton class vehicles:\n\nRadar subsystem tool\nCommand control vehicle\nRadio link subsystem tool\nGenerator tool\nLocal control from the command control vehicle or remotely from the command control center\nTransportable with C130 or A400M\nSetup and assembly time in 30 minutesCommissioning Date. \n\n.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The EL/M-2090 TERRA is an Israeli ground-based very long range early-warning radar system produced by Elta, a subsidiary of Israel Aerospace Industries IAI. It is composed of 2 radars: the UHF Ultra and the S band SPECTRA. TERRA's performance is achieved through automatic handover and redundancy between the ULTRA and SPECTRA radars, combined with improved target load sharing, Electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) and severe-weather resilience. The system can be used for ballistic missiles and space objects detection and tracking at very long ranges.Both Spectra and Ultra are active electronically scanned array (AESA) radars that are made up of thousands of transmit/receive modules and use gallium nitride technology (GaN) to enhance their efficiency.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Massacre of El Ouffia on 6 April 1832, during the French conquest of Algeria, was a war crime committed by the troupes coloniales under Colonel Maximilien Joseph Schauenburg against the tribe of El Ouffia near El Harrach.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military telecommunications, electronic support (ES) or electronic support measures (ESM) gather intelligence through passive \"listening\" to electromagnetic radiations of military interest. They are an aspect of electronic warfare involving actions taken under direct control of an operational commander to detect, intercept, identify, locate, record, and/or analyze sources of radiated electromagnetic energy for the purposes of immediate threat recognition (such as warning that fire control RADAR has locked on a combat vehicle, ship, or aircraft) or longer-term operational planning.  Thus, electronic support provides a source of information required for decisions involving electronic protection (EP), electronic attack (EA), avoidance, targeting, and other tactical employment of forces. Electronic support data can be used to produce signals intelligence (SIGINT), communications intelligence (COMINT) and electronics intelligence (ELINT).Electronic support measures can provide (1) initial detection or knowledge of foreign systems, (2) a library of technical and operational data on foreign systems, and (3) tactical combat information utilizing that library.  ESM collection platforms can remain electronically silent and detect and analyze RADAR transmissions beyond the RADAR detection range because of the greater power of the transmitted electromagnetic pulse with respect to a reflected echo of that pulse.  United States airborne ESM receivers are designated in the AN/ALR series.Desirable characteristics for electromagnetic surveillance and collection equipment include (1) wide-spectrum or bandwidth capability because foreign frequencies are initially unknown, (2) wide dynamic range because signal strength is initially unknown, (3) narrow bandpass to discriminate the signal of interest from other electromagnetic radiation on nearby frequencies, and (4) good angle-of arrival measurement for bearings to locate the transmitter.  The frequency spectrum of interest ranges from 30 MHz to 50 GHz.  Multiple receivers are typically required for surveillance of the entire spectrum, but tactical receivers may be functional within a specific signal strength threshold of a smaller frequency range.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Emergency War Plan refers to a nation's policy for after an emergency such as an outbreak of war or a natural disaster.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "End of Active Service (EAS) is the conclusion of the period of active duty commitment for a member of the U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps or the U.S. Air Force.  The equivalent term used by the U.S Navy, and U.S. Coast Guard is the End of Active Obligated Service (EAOS). \nThis date can be changed by reenlistment, extension, retirement, renewal of active orders, and administrative separation, among other things. This is not to be confused with Expiration of Current Contract (ECC) or Expiration of Obligated Service (EOS).\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "End of day (EOD), end of business (EOB), close of business (COB), close of play (COP) or end of play (EOP)  is the end of the trading day in financial markets, the point when trading ceases. In some markets it is actually defined as the point in time a few minutes prior to the actual cessation of trading, when the regular traders' orders are no longer received. \nDuring this period, the market is performing what is called a \"Run To Cash\", which is when the market is reconciling to its underlying cash market. EOB, COB and COP in the U.S. is usually at 4:00 pm. In the United Kingdom, these terms typically refer to 17:30, while EOD is 23:59.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A military engagement is a combat between two forces, neither larger than a division nor smaller than a company, in which each has an assignor perceived mission. An engagement begins when the attacking force initiates combat in pursuit of its mission, and ends when the attacker has accomplished the mission, or ceases to try to accomplish the mission, or when one or both sides receive sufficient reinforcements, thus initiating a new engagement.As a tactical mission, the engagement is often a part of a battle. An engagement normally lasts one to two days; it may be as brief as a few hours and is rarely longer than five days. It is at this scale of combat that tactical engagement ranges of weapons and support systems become important to the troops and their commanders.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Escuela Superior de Guerra (founded 1909) is a military college under the Military Forces of Colombia. It was founded during the reforms of President Rafael Reyes, himself a former general. Alumni include President Gabriel Par\u00eds Gordillo.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "ETIM training camp is a name that Joint Task Force Guantanamo counter-terrorism analysts applied to a place where two dozen ethnic Uyghurs held in Guantanamo are suspected of having received training.\nJTF-GTMO analysts assert that the camp was run by a group they called the East Turkestan Islamic Movement, although Uyghur activists were not familiar with the groups.The Uyghurs dispute that the compound was military training camp.\nThey state that there was only one weapon at the camp, an AK-47.\nSome of the captives acknowledge that another Uyghur gave them a few hours of training on the rifle.\nOthers said they had never had any training.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Exercise Able Archer was an annual exercise by NATO military forces in Europe that practiced command and control procedures, with emphasis on transition from conventional operations to chemical, nuclear, and conventional operations during a time of war. When it was active, it was seen as the culmination of Exercise Autumn Forge. The exercise is best known for Able Archer 83, which began on November 7, 1983 and is believed to have nearly started a nuclear war with the Soviet Union.The exercises themselves simulated a period of conflict escalation, culminating in a simulated DEFCON 1 coordinated nuclear attack.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military tactics, extraction (also exfiltration or exfil) is the process of removing personnel when it is considered imperative that they be immediately relocated out of a hostile environment and taken to an area either occupied or controlled by friendly personnel. Extraction is not always used during hostile environments, but can be used or referred to during training environments as well.\nThere are primarily two kinds of extraction:\n\nFriendly: The subject involved is willing and is expected to cooperate with the personnel implementing the operation, when referring to enemy prisoners of war or being taken to captivity.\nHostile: The subject involved is unwilling and is being transferred by forceful coercion with the possibility/likelihood of engaging enemy personnel in any area either in and/or around the extraction zone.An example of a hostile extraction was the capture and transportation to Israel for trial of the German Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann by Israel's Mossad agents on May 11, 1960. An example of a friendly extraction was the joint U.S. Central Intelligence Agency-Canadian government operation to smuggle six fugitive American diplomatic personnel out of revolutionary Iran in 1980 in an operation later known as the Canadian Caper. Both of these examples have been used as plots for major motion pictures in the US.\nIn most cases, extraction or exfiltration (exfil) are the most commonly known term used when referring to the leaving of an area. Exfiltration is also used when referring data in a military manner.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Field hygiene and sanitation are two facets of military medicine that seek to ensure reduction of casualties through avoidance of non-combat related health issues among military personnel, particularly in the prevention of disease. As such, it encompasses prevention of communicable diseases; promotes personal hygiene; ensures adequate field water supply; supervises food sanitation; administers waste disposal; and controls, prevents, and combats insect-borne diseases transmitted by mosquitoes, louses, flies, fleas, ticks, mites, and other insects. Field hygiene also includes knowledge, avoidance, and control of venomous animals and rodents, as well as mitigation of health problems related to extreme temperature environments.\nLack of field hygiene and sanitation were major contributors to non-combat casualties and deaths in pre-modern field armies, and these remained serious threats to soldier health in modern warfare during the First World War, on the Eastern Front during the Second World War, in the Korean War, the Vietnam War and the Soviet\u2013Afghan War. Inadequate field hygiene and sanitation are also major medical problems and causes of death among refugee populations around the world.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A field shower is equipment used to provide sanitation and decontamination facilities to military personnel, equipment and vehicles using various liquids, including water in the field of operations. Usually the showering facility is provided by the combat service support elements or decontamination units to combat units deployed away from permanent properties that offer the facilities, or when combat units have been exposed to hazardous chemicals and need to quickly decontaminate themselves.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Flushing (or Flush) is a military tactic whereby grenades, smoke, gunfire, riot control agent, chemical weapons or various other methods can be used to force opponents out from cover.\nFlushing can cause opponents to leave their cover, possibly making them vulnerable to further action, or force them to take up a new position more favorable to the attacker, or disperse enemies completely. This generally makes it easier for the attacking force to deal with its opponents without unduly increasing the risk to themselves. It is mostly used in urban combat through the use of hand grenades, or in situations where defenders are dug in a fortified position, such as a bunker, behind sandbags, or hiding in buildings.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Forward Operating Base Arnhem or more simply FOB Arnhem is a former International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) Forward operating base which was located in Nahri Saraj District, Helmand Province, Afghanistan.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Force protection (FP) refers to the concept of protecting military personnel, family members, civilians, facilities, equipment and operations from threats or hazards in order to preserve operational effectiveness and contribute to mission success. It is used as a doctrine by members of NATO.The concept of force protection was initially created after the Beirut barrack bombings in Lebanon in 1983. With its Cold War focus toward potential adversaries employing large conventional military forces at the time (e.g., the Soviet Union, etc.), the U.S. military had become complacent and predictable with regard to asymmetric attacks by state and non-state actors employing terrorist and guerilla methodologies.  As a result, during what were ostensibly peacekeeping operations by a U.S. Marine Corps landing force ashore in Lebanon in 1983, it allowed two civilian trucks to breach the perimeter of the Marines' containment area and detonate their load of explosives as suicide vehicles adjacent to the Marines' billeting areas. \nForce protection was subsequently implemented throughout the Defense Department (and later adopted by the Coast Guard) to ensure that such a scenario never happened to U.S. forces again. Force protection itself is characterized by changing protective tactics to avoid becoming predictable.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Fort Apache is, metaphorically, a building, complex, or defensive site providing shelter from hostile action in the form of crime (in police and crime drama) or native insurrection or enemy attack (in John Ford movies).The metaphor is now used by military and police to refer to a post which is beset or besieged. Recent examples may be found in Afghanistan and Iraq.\nAnother example is \"Fort Apache, The Bronx\", a name used in the past for the NYPD's 41st Precinct Station House at 1086 Simpson Street in the Bronx and the 1981 movie named for it.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A forward arming and refuelling point (FARP) or forward area refuelling point is a NATO term for an area where aircraft (typically helicopters) can be refuelled and re-armed at a distance closer to their area of operations than their main operating base. This reduced distance allows a faster turnaround time during sustained operations. FARPs are typically temporary, transitory facilities - particularly if the forward edge of the battle area is highly mobile, or if there is a high threat from enemy aircraft or artillery.\nThe US Department of Defense defines a FARP as: A temporary facility, organized, equipped, and deployed to provide fuel and ammunition necessary for the employment of aviation maneuver units in combat . \nThe UK Ministry of Defence defines the FARP as: A temporary facility organised, equipped and deployed by a Joint Helicopter Force commander to provide fuel and ammunition necessary for the employment of helicopter units. Normally located in the main battle area ahead of the Joint Helicopter Force\u2019s normal combat service support area.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Forward Operating Base Arian is a former forward operating base operated by the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). It was originally Combat Post Arian, but in 2011 rapidly expanded to forward operating base size. It was in Ghazni Province, Afghanistan.\nDeployed units2nd Battalion, 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 1st Brigade Combat Team, 82nd Airborne Division (2012-)\n307th Brigade Support Battalion, 82nd Airborne Division (2012-)\nBravo Battery, 3rd Battalion 319 Airborne Field Artillery Regiment, 82 Airborne Division (2012-)\n6th Kandak, 3rd Brigade, 203rd Corps (2012)\nAlpha Battery, 3rd Battalion, 6th Field Artillery Regiment (2013)", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Fugleman (from the German Fl\u00fcgelmann, the man on the Fl\u00fcgel or wing; wingman), properly a military term for a soldier who is selected to act as guide, and posted generally on the flanks with the duty of directing the march in the required line, or of giving the time, etc., to the remainder of the unit, which conforms to his movements, in any military exercise. The word is then applied to a ringleader or one who takes the lead in any movement or concerted movement.\nThese days it is used for a person who is a staunch advocate, a cheerleader, a publicist, or a mouthpiece.\nFugalman is an alternative, archaic and potentially regional spelling variant used in Australia in the early 19th century.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In late October 2021, clashes occurred in Galmudug, Somalia between the Somali Army and Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a, a Sufi militia.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Garras International Antinarcotics Training School (Escuela Garras del Valor) is a military training facility located in Bolivia, which trains military and law enforcement personnel from Bolivia and other Latin American countries in counternarcotics, intelligence, and counterinsurgency techniques.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Gender norming is the practice of adjusting physical tests for men and women to in a way that ensures that they have roughly equal pass-rates for each gender.  In Bauer v. Lynch, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit has found that gender norming is permissible under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which covers employment discrimination.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Goat of the Spanish Legion (Spanish: Cabra de la Legi\u00f3n Espa\u00f1ola) is the traditional mascot of the Spanish Legion military corps. A representative of the species usually accompanies the legionaries in military parades. It is usually dressed in a ceremonial garment, either a cloak bearing a military emblem or, occasionally, a side cap or hat. The goat is usually formally given the name \"Carlos V\", although it is commonly nicknamed \"Manoli\" (a diminutive of \"Manuela\").\n\nAlthough the goat was eventually popularized as the representative of the Spanish Legion, the force has had other animal mascots. First, it had monkeys originating from Ceuta, followed by Barbary apes from Gibraltar, Barbary sheep, bears, and even parrots trained to say profanities. Recent parades have also sometimes featured a ram, whose horns are occasionally painted gold.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Graphic training aids (GTAs) are publications that assist during the conduct of training and the process of learning.\nCurrent Training Aids come in different forms, including models, displays, slides, books, pictures and media presentations.\nDuring World War II, Graphic Training Aids were in high demand. Large quantities of young men were recruited which demanded a higher rate of training. A large replica of an M1 Garand rifle would be presented in front of a class. During his presentation, the trainer would use it as a reference. Printed media was also used in the form of exploded view drawings, which depicted various parts of rifles.\nA curious form of a Graphic Training Aid was used during the Vietnam War, in the form of a comic book. The Graphic Training Aid, called M16A1 Operation and Preventive Maintenance, explained the proper maintenance of an M16 rifle and was highly effective since it was targeted at the young infantry men and illustrated by the popular comic book artist, Will Eisner. \nUnited States Army Graphic Training Aids, Field Manuals and other training media are produced by organizations such as the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), the Army Training Support Center (ATSC), G3 and the Training Aids Service Center (TASC).\nOther forms of Graphic Training Aids exist as well. The vast majority of Training Aids exist for non-military training such as safety training and work training. Such guides are produced by the U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Ground Equipment Facility of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is a radar station or other designated Air Traffic Control site of the United States.  Several of the facilities originated as Cold War SAGE radar stations, including some facilities of the joint-use site system (JUSS) (e.g., San Pedro Hill Air Force Station provided radar tracks for both the Army and USAF).  The USAF declared full operational capability of the 1st 7 Regional Operational Control Centers (ROCCs) on December 23, 1980.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Ground Parachute Extraction System (GPES) refers to a method by which ground forces are resupplied by low altitude air drops. It has also been referred to as Ground Proximity Extraction System.\nThe system, developed jointly by the United States Air Force and Army, is similar to the arrester technique used on aircraft carriers. The cargo aircraft flies low over the delivery area. A hook is attached to the pallet load. Another hook at the other end of the cable line is attached to the rear cargo door. When the plane nears the delivery site, the hook at the cargo door snags an arrester wire that is placed perpendicular to the plane's flight path thereby yanking the pallet load out of the aircraft to the intended delivery site.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Helicopter Rope Suspension Technique (HRST) is a military term for techniques and methods of rappelling, fast roping, Special Patrol Insertion/Extraction (SPIE) and Jacob's Ladder operations.  Helicopter Rope Suspension was developed as a means to insert and/or extract, by helicopter, ground forces (primarily reconnaissance teams) into or from rough terrain, urban areas or water.  HRST is designed to be used in situations wherein aircraft landings are impractical due to terrain or tactical situation.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Helocasting is an airborne technique used by small unit, special operations forces, also practiced extensively by the US Army's light infantry units, to insert into a military area of operations. The small unit is flown, by helicopter, to a maritime insertion point. Once there, the aircraft assumes an altitude just above the water's surface and an airspeed of 10 knots (19 km/h) or less. Team members then exit the aircraft and enter the water.\nIn some cases, depending upon the mission parameters and the aircraft used, personnel may be inserted along with an inflatable boat for over-the-horizon operations. When a fully inflated boat is transported and inserted with personnel, this type of operation is known as a \"hard duck\". In cases where a fully inflated boat cannot be accommodated by the aircraft, it can be partially deflated for transit and inflated at the insertion point by means of a foot pump. This type of operation is known as a \"soft duck\". If inflation to any degree is not feasible, a \"rolled duck\" may be performed.\nOnce team members are in the water, they may swim to the objective or, in the case of a \"hard duck\", \"soft duck\", or \"rolled duck\", conduct an over-the-horizon transit to the objective, via inflatable boat.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "HIgh to Medium Air Defense (HIMAD) is a group of anti-aircraft weapons and tactics that have to do with defense against high to medium altitude air threats, primarily aircraft and missiles.\nHIMAD and its complements, SHORAD (Short Range Air Defense) and THAAD (Terminal High Altitude Area Defense) divide air defense of the battlespace into domes of responsibility based on altitude and defensive weapon ranges.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A holdfast or hold fast is a means by which artillery is fixed firmly to the ground.\nOne type of holdfast is a concrete base or plinth that a gun is bolted to. These were used, for example, to secure coastal battery guns in pillboxes during World War II.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Hors de combat (French: [\u0254\u0281 d\u0259 k\u0254\u0303ba]; lit.\u2009'out of combat') is a French term used in diplomacy and international law to refer to persons who are incapable of performing their combat duties during war. Examples include persons parachuting from their disabled aircraft, as well as the sick, wounded, detained, or otherwise disabled. Persons hors de combat are normally granted special protections according to the laws of war, sometimes including prisoner-of-war status, and therefore officially become non-combatants. \nUnder the 1949 Geneva Conventions, unlawful combatants hors de combat are granted the same privilege and to be treated with humanity while in captivity but unlike lawful combatants, they are subject to civilian trial and punishment (which may include capital punishment if the detaining power has such a punishment for the crimes they have committed).\nProtocol I to the Geneva Conventions defines:\n\nA person is hors de combat if:\n\n(a) he is in the power of an adverse Party;\n(b) he clearly expresses an intention to surrender; or\n(c) he has been rendered unconscious or is otherwise incapacitated by wounds or sickness, and therefore is incapable of defending himself;provided that in any of these cases he abstains from any hostile act and does not attempt to escape.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A humanitarian corridor is a type of temporary demilitarized zone intended to allow the safe transit of humanitarian aid in, and/or refugees out of a crisis region.  Such a corridor can also be associated with a no-fly zone or no-drive zone.Various types of \"humanitarian corridors\" have been proposed in the Post\u2013Cold War era, put forward either by one or more of the warring parties, or by the international community in the case of a humanitarian intervention. Humanitarian corridors were used frequently during the Syrian Civil War.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Hypersonic weapons are missiles and projectiles which travel at between 5 and 25 times the speed of sound \u2013 about 1 to 5 miles per second (1.6 to 8 kilometres per second).Below such speeds, weapons would be characterized as subsonic or supersonic, while above such speeds, the molecules of the atmosphere disassociate into a plasma which makes control and communication difficult.  Directed-energy weapons such as lasers may operate at higher speeds but are considered a different class of weaponry.\nCurrently USA, Russia, China and India have developed fully functional hypersonic weapons in the form  of glide vehicles, ballistic missiles, rail guns and air breathing cruise missiles having their own respective independent programs and have demonstrated\nsustained hypersonic combustions.\nThere are currently three main types of hypersonic weapon:\nboost-glide missiles which descend through the atmosphere at high speeds after an initial launch phase \u2013 a hypersonic glide vehicle\naircraft and missiles which use air-breathing engines such as scramjets to reach high speeds\nguns which fire hypervelocity projectiles.  These may be developments of traditional artillery or novel technologies such as railguns.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Informationised war (informatised war) is a combination of and evolution in warfare from pre-existing ones such as network-centric, cyber, psychological, electronic and information warfare, and integrating all the \"opportunities and technologies provided by the Information Age\" into all domains, systems and aspects of modern warfare. China's Defense White Papers of 2004, 2006, 2015, and 2019 all emphasis and discuss \"informationization\" of its military; the country aims for a fully \"informationised\" force by 2049.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Inland Petroleum Distribution System (IPDS) a rapid deployment, general support, bulk fuel storage and pipeline system designed to move bulk fuel forward in a theater of operations. The system has a design throughput of 720,000 US gallons (2,700,000 L) per day based on 600 US gallons (2,300 L) per minute at 20 hours per operational day.  The IPDS system has three primary subsystems: tactical petroleum terminal, pipeline segments, and pump stations.\nThe IPDS was designed by and for the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps for use with the U.S. Navy Offshore Petroleum Distribution System (OPDS). OPDS tankers are the SS Mount Washington, SS American Osprey, SS Petersburg, and SS Chesapeake.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Inter-American Defense College is the educational entity of the Inter-American Defense Board, an independent entity of the Organization of American States. The IADC is unique in the Western Hemisphere in that the faculty, staff and student body are international. Broad international participation provides an exceptional opportunity for the free exchange of ideas and forms a foundation for better inter-American understanding.  The IADC holds a permanent license from the District of Columbia Higher Education Licensing Commission (DC-HELC) and is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The International Military Staff (IMS) is an advisory body of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation's (NATO) Military Committee (MC), which in turn supports the North Atlantic Council (NAC). Based in NATO's headquarters in Brussels, Belgium, the IMS has five divisions and c. 500 staff seconded from NATO member states and is led by a Director General.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Interposing Tactics is tactical concept, developed under Terrorist Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures, to explain a tactical action where a small-scale action takes place between two combatants, where one manoeuvres into interposition or interjection within a tactical situation, and disrupts the action or activity, of the opponent.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The ISIL insurgency in Deir ez-Zor was a series of armed guerilla and insurgent attacks carried out by ISIL militants, following the defeat in the Deir ez-Zor campaign (2017\u20132019) against the Syrian Democratic Forces.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "iWar is the term used by NATO to describe a form of Internet-based warfare.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Joint Analysis and Lessons Learned Centre (JALLC) is a NATO body located in Monsanto (Lisbon), Portugal.\n\nThe Joint Analysis and Lessons Learned Centre was commissioned on 2 September 2002. Its mission is to serve as NATO's centre for performing joint analysis of operations, training, exercises and experimentation, including establishing and maintaining an interactive managed NATO Lessons Learned Database. The JALLC is also responsible for producing the NATO Joint Analysis Handbook and the NATO Lessons Learned Handbook, for hosting the NATO Lessons Learned Conference and for organizing the NATO Lessons Learned Staff Officers Course at SWEDINT.In 2010, the JALLC established the JALLC Advisory and Training Team to assist NATO, NATO/partner nations/organizations to develop or improve their lesson learning and information sharing capability for the mutual benefit of the Alliance. Also, the NATO Lessons Learned Portal was launched to complement the NATO Lessons Learned Database with an area further enabling sharing of lessons learned information.\nThe JALLC, as a member of Supreme Allied Command Transformation (ACT), feeds the results of joint analysis work and lessons learned back into the transformation network. JALLC is one of three joint organisations in the ACT structure, the others being the Joint Warfare Centre (JWC) (Stavanger) and Joint Force Training Centre.\nThe Joint Analysis and Lessons Learned Centre shares a site with the Portuguese Air Force Operational Command (Comando Operacional da For\u00e7a A\u00e9rea).\n\nThe NATO Military Command Structure consists of two strategic commands, directed by the International Military Staff:The commands under SACEUR - Allied Joint Force Command Brunssum, Allied Joint Force Command Naples and Joint Force Command Norfolk are Operational Level Commands, while Headquarters Allied Air Command, Headquarters Allied Maritime Command and Headquarters Allied Land Command are Tactical Level Commands. SACEUR also has operational command of the Joint Support and Enabling Command.\nLiaison:       Provides advice and support to the NAC", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Joint Battlespace Infosphere is a project funded by the AFRL (Air Force Research Lab) intended to provide management for network-centric warfare systems that utilize the GIG (Global Information Grid).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Joint Enterprise Defense Infrastructure (JEDI) contract was a large United States Department of Defense cloud computing contract which has been reported as being worth $10 billion over ten years. JEDI was meant to be a commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) implementation of existing technology, while providing economies of scale to DoD.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Joint Interface Control Officer (JICO) is the senior multi-tactical data link interface control officer in support of joint task force operations. The JICO is responsible for effecting planning and management of the joint tactical data link network within a theater of operations.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Joint warfare is a military doctrine which places priority on the integration of the various service branches of a state's armed forces into one unified command. Joint warfare is in essence a form of combined arms warfare on a larger, national scale, in which complementary forces from a state's army, navy, air, and special forces are meant to work together in joint operations, rather than planning and executing military operations separate from each other.\nIts origins can be traced to the establishment in 1938 of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, the world's first joint higher command structure, though it should not be seen as the same level of \"jointness\" as Joint Chiefs of Staff.The United States Department of Defense, which endorses joint warfare as an overriding doctrine for its forces, describes it as \"team warfare\", which \"requires the integrated and synchronized application of all appropriate capabilities. The synergy that results maximizes combat capability in unified action.\" This priority on national unity of effort means practitioners of joint warfare must acknowledge the importance of the inter-agency process, including the priorities, capabilities, and resources of other non-uniformed agencies (such as intelligence services) in military planning.\nMilitary operations conducted by armed forces from two or more allied countries are referred to by the United States Department of Defense as combined operations.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Journal of Military History is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering the military history of all times and places. It is the official journal of the Society for Military History. The journal was established in 1937 and the editor-in-chief is Bruce Vandervort (Virginia Military Institute). It is abstracted and indexed in the Arts & Humanities Citation Index and Current Contents/Arts & Humanities.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Journal of Slavic Military Studies is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes articles relating to military affairs of Central and Eastern European Slavic nations, including their history and geopolitics, as well as book reviews. It is published by Routledge and the editor-in-chief is Martijn Lak. It was established in 1988 by David Glantz as  The Journal of Soviet Military Studies, obtaining its current title in 1993. David Glantz was editor-in-chief from the founding of the journal until the end of 2017, with Alexander Hill briefly editing the journal from January 2018-March 2019.\nAs of 2014, it is ranked in the first quartile of the SCImago Journal Rank of scholarly journals in the history category.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "On 22 July 2022, Israel attacked military positions near Damascus, Syria, killing three Syrian soldiers and wounding seven others.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Jump Smocks are combat jackets especially made for paratroopers or any member of the military involved in parachute deployment. They usually have the wraps around the lower half or sometimes crotch flaps that prevent the smock from 'billowing' during a parachute descent. Jump Smocks can be found worn by many militaries around the world with the most noted being the United Kingdom, Australia, Austria, Belgium, France, Mexico, Pakistan, and Iraq.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A junior sergeant is a military rank used in the armed forces of many countries. It is usually placed below sergeant.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The KAB-500S-E (Russian: \u041a\u0410\u0411-500\u0421-\u042d) is a guided bomb designed for the Russian Air Force and is also the first guided bomb of the Russian Federation. It uses the GLONASS satellite navigation system and is the Russian equivalent of the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) weapons family. It was first used during the Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War. The bomb's first trials were in 2000 and it was displayed at airshows in 2003.It is designed to destroy targets in harbors, industrial facilities and depots and uses an impact fuse with three programmable modes. KTRV has fully completed testing of products of the K08B and K029B (UPAB-1500) types, both products are in serial production and are delivered to combat units.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Kearny air pump is an expedient air pump used to ventilate a shelter.  The design is such that a person with normal mechanical skills can construct and operate one.  It is usually human-powered and designed to be employed during a time of crisis.  It was designed to be used in a fallout shelter, but can be used in any situation where emergency ventilation is needed, as after a hurricane.It was developed from research performed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory by Cresson Kearny and published in Nuclear War Survival Skills.The basic principle is to create a flat surface with vanes that close when moving air and open when going back to the starting position. The design was derived from the punkah.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A killing field, in military science, is an area in front of a defensive position that the enemy must cross during an assault and is specifically intended to allow the defending troops to incapacitate a large number of the enemy. Defensive emplacements such as anti-tank obstacles, barbed wire and minefields are often used to funnel the enemy into these killing fields. The fields are generally cleared of most cover so that attackers are exposed when being fired upon. Some methods of destroying the assault capabilities of attacking forces include machine guns, artillery and mortars; often with interlocking fields of fire. Such a term may be used to describe the approaches to an \"ideal\" defensive fortification. An example of a killing field would be the exposed beaches in front of the seawall at Normandy.\nThe term originated in medieval warfare to describe clear areas outside of a castle's walls such as pastures or specifically cleared fields where enemy soldiers could be easily and methodically killed in large numbers by ranged weapons. It also refers to areas within castles specially designed to bunch attackers who had breached the outer defenses into an area where the defenders could kill them easily through arrow loops and murder holes. Often these were small courtyards surrounded by high walls.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Kings Avenue drill hall, often referred to as Melbourne House, was a military establishment in Clapham.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Kyiv Cossack insurrection was a mass peasant movement in the Kyiv Governorate and Chernihiv Governorate in 1855 directed against the national and social policies of the Russian government in Ukraine.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "La Orchila Island is an island and a military base off the coast of Venezuela, north of Caracas. It has numerous beaches, including one where the sand is markedly pink (Arena Rosada).There is a presidential retreat on this island, and the residential complex reserved for the military houses consists mainly of elevated houses made of wooden logs. There is also a court for bolas criollas. All the facilities are connected by pathways, mostly unpaved but smooth and clean.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A landing operation is a military \naction during which a landing force, usually utilizing landing craft, is transferred to land with the purpose of power projection ashore. With the proliferation of aircraft, a landing may refer to amphibious forces, airborne forces, or a combination of both.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A laser warning receiver is a type of warning system used as a passive military defence. It detects, analyzes, and locates directions of laser emissions from laser guidance systems and laser rangefinders. Then it alerts the crew and can start various countermeasures, like smoke screen, aerosol screen (e.g. Shtora), active laser self-defence weapon with laser dazzler (LSDW, used on the Chinese Type 99 main battle tank), laser jammer, etc.\nDetectors used in LWR are usually based on a semiconductor photodetector array, which is typically cryogenically or thermal-electric cooled. Sometimes avalanche photodiodes (APD), photoconductivity, photoelectromagnetic, or photodiffusion devices are used even without cooling. Some devices detect only the main beam of foreign lasers while others detect even scattered rays.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military forces, leave is a permission to be away from one's unit, either for a specified or unspecified period of time.\nThe term AWOL, standing for absent without leave, is a term for desertion used in the armed forces of many English-speaking countries.\nVarious militaries have specific rules that regulate leaves. British troops in World War I received leave for \"Blighty\" every 15 months.\"Block leave\" is the time allotted to be spent with families independently of their units and where they must not report to their units while on rotation from their tours.\nA furlough is an extended period of leave from front line service in order to return home.  For example, during World War II New Zealand soldiers who had served overseas for long periods (usually three or more years) were granted a \"furlough\" for a visit home.  These soldiers on leave were called \"furlough men\"", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Roman Legio II Gallica established in Arausio (modern Orange) can be possibly equated with later Legio II Augusta.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In the military, a Line of Departure or Start Line is the starting position for an attack on enemy positions.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Littoral Airborne Sensor/Hyperspectral (LASH) imaging system developed by the United States Navy combines optical imaging hardware, navigation and stabilization, and advanced image processing and algorithms to provide real-time submarine target detection,\nclassification, and identification in littoral waters. Operating in visible and near infrared spectrum (390 to 710 nm), LASH collects hyperspectral imagery using many spectral channels (colors) to exploit subtle color features associated with targets of interest. Developed as a pod-mounted system, LASH can be operated from a P-3C Orion, SH-60B Seahawk, or other platforms in support of anti-submarine warfare, mine detection, passive bathymetry, near-shore mapping, and land-based detection, discrimination and targeting.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military and naval warfare, littoral warfare is operations in and around the littoral zone, within a certain distance of shore, including surveillance, mine-clearing and support for landing operations and other types of combat shifting from water to ground, and back.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A lodgement is an enclave, taken and defended by force of arms against determined opposition, made by increasing the size of a bridgehead, beachhead, or airhead into a substantial defended area, at least the rear parts of which are out of direct line of fire. \nAn example is Operation Overlord, the establishment of a large-scale lodgement in Normandy during World War II.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Los viejos estandartes (Spanish: [loz \u02c8\u03b2jexos estan\u02c8da\u027etes]; \u00abThe old banners\u00bb in Spanish) is the official hymn and march of the Chilean Army.\nDespite its symbolism associated to Augusto Pinochet's regime, the march also has been sung by socialist politicians like the president Michelle Bachelet or Jos\u00e9 Antonio Viera-Gallo.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Loss of Strength Gradient (LSG) is a military concept devised by Kenneth E. Boulding in his 1962 book Conflict and Defense: A General Theory. He argued that the amount of a nation's military power that could be brought to bear in any part of the world depended on geographic distance. The Loss of Strength Gradient demonstrated graphically that, the farther away the target of aggression, the less strength could be made available. It also showed how this loss of strength could be ameliorated by forward positions.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "On 25 April 2021, a large group of ISWAP insurgents killed 33 soldiers in Mainok, a town 36 miles (58 kilometres) west of Maiduguri in Borno State, Nigeria.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Marine Security Belt, also known with the portmanteau CHIRU, is a trilateral naval exercise involving China, Iran and Russia as partners. First held in 2019, it is set to be taken place annually.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Maritime Exclusion Zone (MEZ) is a military exclusion zone at sea. The concept is not the subject of an explicit treaty, and there has been variation in naming including: \"naval exclusion zone\", \"maritime security zone\", \"blockade zone\", \"maritime operational zone\", \"area subject to long distance blockade\" and \"area dangerous to shipping\".During armed conflicts since the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, belligerents have sometimes established maritime zones to control or prohibit access of foreign ships and aircraft, with varying levels of restriction and risk of attack on merchant vessels. A MEZ is different to a blockade in that enforcing naval forces are not deployed close in to a port but over an extended area, and that offending vessels are generally subject to attack rather than confiscation. The MEZ concept reflects the technological change of detection systems and weapons having longer ranges.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Francis Richard Maunsell (1861\u20131936)  was a diplomat, amateur archaeologist, cartographer, and officer in the British Army, having served in intelligence and concentrated in the Middle East from the late nineteenth century until the early part of the twentieth century.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A memorial square is an intersection dedicated in memory of someone, usually someone who was killed in a war. It is not the same as a town square. While the name of a town square is used to describe where something is located, the name of a memorial square is not used in the same manner.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Mobile Ground-to-Air Radar Jamming System (MGARJS) provides electronic warfare field support capability to protect high-value targets and installations.\nThe MGARJS consists of mobile stations placed strategically about high-value installations. The exact complement of station types and quantities is tailored to the mission requirements. An electronic support measures subsystem provides initial interception and tracking of the target radar systems and commands the electronic countermeasure subsystems to track and jam airborne radar systems. The system is configured to minimize activation time.\nA mobile field maintenance station provides support to other stations and also can act as a communication relay node if the deployment scenario requires.\nThe system provides:\n\nAir surveillance, acquisition, and analysis of airborne radar systems\nDirected electronic countermeasures to deny the effective use of those radar systems\nRadar track integration with air defense networks", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A mid-life update, particularly in the context of defence, is maintenance or renovation designed to extend the usefulness and capability of an item.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Milit\u00e4rgeschichtliche Zeitschrift (English: Military History Journal) is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering military history. It is published by Walter de Gruyter on behalf of the Center for Military History and Social Sciences of the Bundeswehr (formerly Military History Research Office, MGFA]) in Potsdam, Germany. \nIt is a successor to the Milit\u00e4rgeschichtliche Mitteilungen (MGM) that was published from 1967 to 1998. The latter was already considered early on to be an \"important interface between MGFA, university science and interested public\".The editors-in-chief are J\u00f6rg Hillmann and Michael Epkenhans, the commander and chief scientist of the center, respectively.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Militaria, also known as military memorabilia, are military equipment which are collected for their historical significance. Such items include firearms, swords, sabres, knives, bayonets, helmets and other equipment such as uniforms, military orders and decorations and insignia.\n\nThe act of collecting militaria has roots in souvenir hunting, a practice first made popular among soldiers during World War I. During the war, soldiers would walk through battlefields and trenches, taking military equipment and personal items from enemy POW's or, in most cases, dead bodies. Soldiers would send these items home to loved ones through post or in their belongings upon going home.\nMilitaria collecting became nationalized during and at the end of World War I, through the 1917-1918 War Bonds Drive and the 1919 Victory Loan Drive. Captured German Pickelhauben, Stahlhelme, and other military equipment were showcased around the country as war trophies, some later being distributed to purchasers of bonds.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military airspace is any area in which military aircraft are present and participate in a variety of activities. There are many kinds of airspace.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The military brace is a body posture, sometimes known as scapular posterior depression or the costoclavicular maneuver.  It is a modification of standing at attention that is primarily used in military schools.  It is also used in the diagnosis of costoclavicular syndrome and thoracic outlet syndrome.The position is described as first standing in a relaxed posture, with the head looking forward, then depressing and retracting the shoulders as if standing at attention, extending the humerus and abducting it 30 degrees, and hyperextending the neck and head.  A more informal description is to lie down on the floor on one's back and try to touch the floor with the back of one's neck, which will force one's chin down; and then to attempt to imitate that position whilst standing up or sitting.In addition to this, at The Citadel and The Virginia Military Institute, the arms are to be tucked in to the side of one's body, eliminating any space between the arms and the torso, and the shoulders are to be thrust back, with the shoulder blades as close to touching in the center of the back as possible.\nMilitary brace has caused Erb's palsy in some military school cadets.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A military camp or bivouac is a semi-permanent military base, for the lodging of an army. Camps are erected when a military force travels away from a major installation or fort during training or operations, and often have the form of large campsites.In the British Army, Commonwealth armies, the United States Marine Corps, and other military forces, permanent military bases are also called camps, including Tidworth Camp, Blandford Camp, Bulford Camp, and Devil's Tower Camp of the British Army; and Camp Lejeune and Camp Geiger of the United States Marine Corps.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military drums or war drums are all kinds of drums and membranophones that have been used for martial music, including military communications, as well as drill, honors music and military ceremonies.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military humanism is the use of force and violence to further a humanitarian cause.  Although it can easily be disputed whether or not furthering a humanitarian cause is the real intention behind such an action, the theoretical descriptive guideline still applies.  The U.S.-led North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervention in the Balkans is the most well-known case, and brought the term to prominence.\nThe concept is most widely explored in Noam Chomsky's book The New Military Humanism: Lessons from Kosovo (1999) in which he argues that NATO's 1999 bombing of Kosovo was not conducted for humanitarian reasons but to further the military hegemony of western democratic powers such as the United States.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military oath, also known as the oath of enlistment or swearing-in is an oath delivered by a conscript upon the enlistment into the military service of the state military. Various states has different phrasing of the oath, with the common component being the fidelity to the state and obedience to the superior officers. In the ancient times it was a very solemn procedure. In modern times, with many formal laws and regulations to maintain army discipline, it is still a solemn, but rather a formal event.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A military operation plan (also called a war plan before World War II) is a formal plan for military armed forces, their military organizations and units to conduct operations, as drawn up by commanders within the combat operations process in achieving objectives before or during a conflict. Military plans are generally produced in accordance with the military doctrine of the troops involved. Because planning is a valuable exercise for senior military staff, in peacetime nations generally produce plans (of varying detail) even for very unlikely hypothetical scenarios.\nPlan XVII and the Schlieffen Plan are examples of World War I military plans. The United States developed a famous color-coded set of war plans in the early 20th century; see United States color-coded war plans.\nMilitary plans often have code names.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military rites are honors presented at a funeral for a member of a military or police force. These rites, which are performed (usually) at the burial, include the firing of rifles, presenting of a flag and or bugle calls. In Australia and New Zealand a Poppy Service is often held for members of the Armed Forces. This includes a short reading by a member of the Returned Services League of Australia or, in New Zealand, the Returned Services Association, the laying of red poppies on the coffin by all present, the playing of the Last Post (or Taps in the United States), Reveille, and recitation of the Ode of Remembrance.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Military Service Medal (Vietnamese: Qu\u00e2n-V\u1ee5 B\u1ed9i-Tinh) was a military decoration of South Vietnam. Established in 1964, the medal recognized the completion of a prescribed service time, the displayment of good conduct, and the high working spirit in service.The Military Service Medal has five different grades and some of them contains small leaf device, starting from the fourth ranks and up.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In the military of the United States, strikes and raids are a group of military operations that, alongside quite a number of others, come under the formal umbrella of military operations other than war (MOOTW).  What the definition of a military strike is depends on which particular branch of the military is using them.  However, they do have formal, general, definitions in the United States Department of Defense's Joint Publication 1-02:\nstrike\nAn attack to damage or destroy an objective or a capability.\nraid\nAn operation to temporarily seize an area in order to secure information, confuse an adversary, capture personnel or equipment, or to destroy a capability culminating with a planned withdrawal.For the United States Air Force, strikes and raids are the least common types of MOOTW, there only having been eight of them in the period from 1947 to 1997, including Operation Just Cause, Operation Urgent Fury, and Operation El Dorado Canyon.  For the United States Marine Corps, the latter was also a raid, and Operation Praying Mantis was a strike.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military surplus are goods, usually mat\u00e9riel, that are sold or otherwise disposed of when no longer needed by the military. Entrepreneurs often buy these goods and resell them at surplus stores. Usually the goods sold by the military are clothing, equipment, and tools of a nature that is generally useful to the civilian population, as well as embroidered patches, name tags, and other items that can be used for a faux military uniform. Occasionally, vehicles (jeeps, trucks, etc.) will be sold as well. Some military surplus dealers also sell military surplus firearms, spare parts, and ammunition alongside surplus uniforms and equipment.\nDemand for such items comes from various collectors, outdoorsmen, adventurers, hunters, survivalists, and players of airsoft and paintball, as well as others seeking high quality, sturdy, military issue garb. The goods may be used, or not. Some merchants of surplus goods also sell goods that are privately manufactured in military standards.\nMost items that are sold in military surplus stores in the United States are deemed \"military grade\". This designation refers to meeting a relevant United States Military Standard. For example, uniforms meet Army Regulation 670-1.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Military theory is the analysis of normative behavior and trends in military affairs and military history, beyond simply describing events in war. \nTheories and conceptions of warfare have varied in different places throughout human history. The Chinese Sun Tzu is recognized by scholars to be one of the earliest military theorists. His now-iconic Art of War laid the foundations for operational planning, tactics, strategy and logistics.\nMilitary theories, especially since the influence of Clausewitz in the nineteenth century, attempt to encapsulate the complex cultural, political and economic relationships between societies and the conflicts they create. These military theories can encompass tactics like divide and rule, starving out defenders, etc.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A military threat, sometimes expressed as danger of military action, a military challenge, or a military risk, is a concept in military intelligence that identifies an imminent capability for use of military force in resolving diplomatic or economic disputes. It is the ultimate escalation in international relations conflicts, and follows explicit diplomatic threat to use force as a means of coercion. \nIn general a military threat is identified when military personnel are detected conducting operations that can be interpreted as a phase that precedes combat, i.e. occupying positions, preparing weapons for use, and concentrating forces in an offensive manner.\nIt may be more appropriate to think in terms of indicators. The DoD Dictionary defines indicator as: 1. In intelligence usage, an item of information which reflects the intention or capability of an adversary to adopt or reject a course of action. (JP 2-0) 2. In operations security usage, data derived from friendly detectable actions and open-source information that an adversary can interpret and piece together to reach conclusions or estimates of friendly intentions, capabilities, or activities. (JP 3-13.3) 3. In the context of assessment, a specific piece of information that infers the condition, state, or existence of something, and provides a reliable means to ascertain performance or effectiveness. (JP 5-0)", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Milites were the trained regular footsoldiers of ancient Rome, and later a term used to describe \"soldiers\" in Medieval Europe. \n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "There were two armies with the acronym MILPAS in Nicaragua.  The first, Milicias Populares Anti-Somocistas, fought alongside the Sandinista National Liberation Front against the regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle. The second, Milicias Populares Anti-Sandinistas, was one of the earliest rebel groups that would form the contra movement.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of National Defense of the Republic of Ecuador is the ministry responsible for national defense and is responsible for all three branches of the Military of Ecuador. It is Ecuador's ministry of defence. \nIt also administers the various barracks, military zones and monuments to historical battles. The headquarters of the Ministry is in the city of Quito. \nThe ministry is part of the Secretary General of the National Security Council (Cosine).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Oleg Yuryevich Mityaev (Russian: \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0433 \u042e\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u041c\u0438\u0442\u044f\u0435\u0432; born 1974) is a Russian major-general who according to Ukrainian officials was killed during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine on 15 March 2022. His death, however, has not been confirmed.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A moored training ship (MTS) is a United States Navy nuclear powered submarine that has been converted to a training ship for the Naval Nuclear Power Training Command's Nuclear Power Training Unit (NPTU) at Naval Support Activity Charleston in South Carolina. The NPTU is part of the Navy's Nuclear Power School at Goose Creek, S.C. The Navy uses decommissioned nuclear submarines and converts them to MTSs to train personnel in the operation and maintenance of submarines and their nuclear reactors. The first moored training ship was USS Sam Rayburn (SSBN-635) a James Madison-class fleet ballistic missile submarine, redesignated as (MTS-635) in 1989, followed a year later by USS Daniel Webster (SSBN-626), a Lafayette-class ballistic missile submarine, redesignated as (MTS-626). Conversion of these two boats took place at the Charleston Naval Shipyard and modifications included special mooring arrangements with a mechanism to absorb power generated by the main propulsion shaft.The Navy plans to add two more moored training ships to this facility, USS La Jolla (SSN-701) and USS San Francisco (SSN-711), a pair of Los Angeles-class attack submarines. The conversions for these two will take place at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard and they will then be taken to NSA Charleston. La Jolla became inactive in early 2015 and began the 32 month conversion to a training ship. Changes include having the hull cut into three sections, with the center section being recycled and the other two joined with three new sections, manufactured by Electric Boat, extending the overall length by 23 m (76 ft). The project was expected to be completed by the end of 2018. San Francisco arrived at Norfolk to begin her conversion in January 2018.With the addition of La Jolla and San Francisco, the Navy will retire Sam Rayburn and Daniel Webster. Sam Rayburn will be relocate to Norfolk Naval Shipyard in 2021, to remain there until the inactivation process begins, and Daniel Webster will also be inactivated at Norfolk, sometime later.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A movement controller is responsible for assisting in planning, preparation, documentation, coordination and control of military movements in support of operations, exercises and administrative deployments worldwide by road, rail, sea and air.\nThey have good working knowledge of all forms of transport, both military and civilian.\nWorks in conjunction with elements of all services, other government departments, civilian and commercial officials.\nEmployed worldwide, static or mobile, as a team member or individual.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The term Mustering is used by the Royal Australian Air Force to describe the trades performed by airmen (enlisted/Non-Commissioned members).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The National Army of Uruguay (Spanish: Ej\u00e9rcito Nacional del Uruguay) is the land force branch of the Armed Forces of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Nordic (Polish) Support Group (NSG) was a logistics unit under the NATO led IFOR and later SFOR forces (deployed to the former Yugoslavia) to establish and maintain peace, as well as to undertake administrative, supportive and humanitary tasks.\nThe NSG, which was situated in P\u00e9cs in southern Hungary, consisted of separate National Support Elements from the participating countries: Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Norway, Poland.\nClose cooperation was also established with forces from United States, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The NATO Senior Civilian Representative in Afghanistan represents the political leadership of the NATO Alliance in Kabul, Afghanistan.\nThe Senior Civilian Representative carries forward the Alliance's political-military objectives in Afghanistan, liaising with the Afghan Government, civil society, representatives of the international community and neighbouring countries. The position was created in 2003.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "NATO targets are a series of standard armoured targets defined by NATO designed to test the armour penetration of weapons. The purpose of the triple heavy target is to represent the difficulty a projectile would face in penetrating the skirt, roadwheel, and hull of a Soviet tank.They are defined as:", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Navarrese Civil War of 1451\u20131455 pitted John II of the Kingdom of Navarre against his son and heir-apparent, Charles IV.\nWhen the war started, John II had been King of Navarre since 1425 through his first wife, Blanche I of Navarre, who had married him in 1420. By the marriage pact of 1419, John and Blanche's eldest son was to succeed to Navarre on Blanche's death. When Blanche died in 1441, John retained the government of her lands and dispossessed his own eldest son, Charles (born 1421), who had already been made Prince of Viana by his grandfather Charles III of Navarre in 1423. John tried to assuage his son with the lieutenancy of Navarre, but his son's French upbringing and French allies, the Beaumonteses, brought the two into conflict. John was supported by the Agramonteses.\nFrom 1451 to 1455, they were engaged in open warfare in Navarre. Charles was defeated at the Battle of Aybar in 1452, captured, and released; and John tried to disinherit him by illegally naming his daughter Eleanor, who was married to Gaston IV of Foix, his successor. In 1451, John's new wife, Juana Enr\u00edquez, gave birth to a son, Ferdinand. In 1452, Charles fled his father first to France, where he vainly sought allies, and later to the court of his uncle, John's elder brother, Alfonso V of Aragon at Naples. Charles was popular in Spain and John was increasingly unpopular as he refused to recognise Charles as his \"first born\", probably planning to make Ferdinand his heir. The Navarrese Civil War presaged the Catalan Civil War of 1462\u201372, in which John's ill-treatment of Charles was a precipitating event.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation New Horizons is a series of recurring U.S.-led operations in Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands. It has had several names over the years, including New Horizons and Beyond the Horizons (as of 2008).  U.S. Southern Command sponsors these operations and uses active duty, reserve and National Guard forces from throughout the United States to conduct the missions.  The units involved focus on engineering type endeavors to enhance the infrastructure of a region by building schools, medical clinics and roads and similar projects.  The units also conduct medical assistance by providing such support to an area.  Joint Task Force Bravo coordinates a number of these activities.  In addition, these operations often include non-military assistance, such as from the United States Agency for International Development and the United States Department of Agriculture.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Night attack formation refers to the arrangement of soldiers in advancing in attack at night.  With the advances in arms that led to trench warfare, daytime attacks across open ground toward defensive positions became prohibitive and often futile.  Night attacks may have the advantage of maintaining an element of surprise and reducing the ability of defenders to target their fire, but pose difficulties for the attacking forces.  Necessities of maintaining contact from advancing groups with groups to the side and rear, maintaining protection versus the possibility of counter-attacks, maintaining order so that sufficiently many troops are in position to obtain a sustainable breach in defenses, and so on, are all more difficult at night.  It may be necessary to detail more soldiers to scouting and communication roles.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The designation Noncommissioned Officer in Charge, usually abbreviated to NCOIC (or NCO I/C), signifies an individual in the enlisted ranks of a military unit who has limited command authority over others in the unit.\nAn example would be a squad leader who may have 6-12 people under his or her command.  Another might be a platoon sergeant who can have 45-70 people under his or her command.\nGenerally, an NCOIC is both an administrative leader as well as a combat leader.\nOnly NCOs and SNCOs may serve as NCOICs.  In the United States Air Force enlisted members in the grades of E-1 through E-4 cannot hold the position or title of NCOIC until promoted to the grade of E-5 and above.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Nuclear command and control (NC2) is the command and control of nuclear weapons.  The U. S. military's Nuclear Matters Handbook 2015 defined it as the \"activities, processes, and procedures performed by appropriate military commanders and support personnel that, through the chain of command, allow for senior-level decisions on nuclear weapons employment.\" The current Nuclear Matters Handbook 2020 [Revised] defines it as \"the exercise of authority and direction, through established command lines, over nuclear weapon operations by the President as the chief executive and head of state.\"", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "An oil war is a conflict about petroleum resources, or their transportation, consumption, or regulation. The term may also refer generally to any conflict in a region that contains oil reserves or is geographically positioned in a location where an entity has or may wish to develop production or transportation infrastructure for petroleum products. It is also used to refer to any of a number of specific oil wars.\nResearch by Emily Meierding has characterized oil wars as largely a myth. She argues that proponents of oil wars underestimate the ability to seize and exploit foreign oil fields, and thus exaggerate the value of oil wars. She has examined four cases commonly described as oil wars (Japan's attack on the Dutch East Indies in World War II, Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the Iran-Iraq War, and the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay), finding that control of additional oil resources was not the main cause of aggression in the conflicts.On April 5, 2021, United States vice president Kamala Harris mentioned \u201cFor years there were wars fought over oil; in a short time there will be wars fought over water\u201d, in a talk in Oakland to promote the American Jobs Plan.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The First Battle of Oituz was fought between 12 and 27 October 1916 between the Kingdom of Romania on one side and Austria-Hungary and the German Empire on the other. It was part of the Romanian operations for the defense of the passes in the Carpathians. The objectives of the operation were to resist the enemy attack on the Transylvanian front, to obtain and maintain a defensive device in the Carpathian alignment and to create the conditions for an eventual counter-offensive. At the end, the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary) failed to defeat the Romanian forces and the battle was a victory for the latter.The Austro-Hungarian forces were commanded by Charles I of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, while the German army was commanded by General Erich von Falkenhayn. On the other hand, the Romanian commanders were Eremia Grigorescu and Nicolae Sinescu.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Charles Oluka is an officer at the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF). He is the Director General of the Internal Security Organisation, effective 8 October 2020. Before that, he served as the Director of technical services at the spy agency until 2018.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Open terrain, open country or open ground is terrain which is mostly flat and free of obstructions such as trees and buildings. Examples include farmland, grassland and specially cleared areas such as an airport.Such terrain is significant in military manoeuvre and tactics as the lack of obstacles makes movement easy and engagements are possible at long range.  Such terrain is preferred to close terrain for offensive action as rapid movement makes decisive battles possible.Wind loading tends to be high in open country as there are few obstacles providing a windbreak.  This affects the design of tall structures such electricity pylons and windmills.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Black Sea Harmony is a naval operation initiated by Turkey in March 2004 in accordance with UN Security Council Resolutions 1373, 1540 and 1566 aimed at deterring terrorism and asymmetric threats in the Black Sea. It is similar to the NATO-led Operation Active Endeavour in the Mediterranean, and also aims at ensuring the security of the Turkish Straits.Although it was originally a national operation, Black Sea Harmony has become multinational with the participation of other Black Sea littoral states. Turkey extended invitations to each littoral state to join Black Sea Harmony.The operation originally was conducted in Turkey's territorial waters and in open waters in the Black Sea. In order to deter possible risks and threats in the maritime area, the Turkish Navy conducted periodic surveillance and reconnaissance operations across the whole of the Black Sea. Statistics concerning suspect ships were collected and shared with NATO and other littoral nations. In case of hailing of a suspect ship, voluntary boarding (depending on the captain's will) is conducted. \nPermanent headquarters of Operation Black Sea Harmony is located in Eregli, on Turkey's Black Sea coast. Once the Operation became multinational, other littoral States were able to send Liaison Officers to Eregli.In 2006 Russia officially joined the Black Sea Harmony initiative to address new security challenges in region. A protocol on information exchange regarding Ukraine's participation was signed in Ankara on 17 January 2007.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation Commander-in-Chief (Persian: \u0639\u0645\u0644\u06cc\u0627\u062a \u0641\u0631\u0645\u0627\u0646\u062f\u0647 \u06a9\u0644 \u0642\u0648\u0627), (complete name: \"Commander-in-Chief, Khomeini Ruhe-Khoda\"), is the name of a military operation which was launched during Iran\u2013Iraq War on 11 June 1981 by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps against Iraqi Ba'athist army. The operation was carried out with the purpose of opening the siege of Abadan and also as a test for the significant operation of Samen-ol-A'emeh.At this operation which was with a advance of 3 kilometers in the favor of Iranian forces, the powerful and significant positions of the Iraqi Ba'athist army in the area were (re)captured by IRGC and at-least 32 tanks and personnel carriers were annihilated and 1496 Iraqi forces were killed, wounded and captured; on the other hand 120 forces from IRGC were killed.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation Display Deterrence was a 65-day NATO operation to protect the Turkish border region with Iraq, made in response to an Article 4 declaration by the Turkish government in response to the Iraq War.  It was aimed at defending Turkey from a threat from Iraq and deterring aggression.  NATO's military deployment consisted of AWACS surveillance aircraft and crews, TMD units, and biological and chemical defence equipment.  Command was set up in Eskisehir.  NATO assets were sent to the Konya air base in Turkey, along with Patriot missile systems installed in Diyarbakir and Batman to help guard their airspace during military operations of the Iraq War.Similar assets, deployment, and lessons from this operation were carried forward to Operation Active Fence in 2012.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation Lightning Strike was a military training exercise of the Lithuanian Army that took place in May 2015.\nThe operation was designed to test troop readiness for a situation similar to the events leading to the current internal unrest in Ukraine and Crimea; with unidentified armed groups attempting to seize control of vital infrastructure, such as airports, government buildings and military installations. The scenario also assumed that such groups would be led or supported by \"little green men\" - clandestine Russian soldiers.The four-day operation involved primarily about 2,500-3,000 troops of the Lithuanian \"Rapid Response Force\".The training exercise was followed by a larger NATO exercise Operation Saber Strike in June 2015.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation Lion Pounce was a series of operations conducted by the Multi-national force in and around Diwaniyah (Iraq) to disrupt, isolate and neutralize militants, insurgents and criminal organizations.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation Nightingale was the codename of the Singapore Armed Forces' (SAF) humanitarian mission to the 1991 Gulf War.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation Polka Dot was a U.S. Army test of a biological cluster bomb during the early 1950s.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation Sea Guardian is a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) maritime security operation taking place in the Mediterranean Sea. In July 2016, at the Warsaw Summit, NATO announced the transition of the Article 5 counter-terrorism Operation Active Endeavour into a broader mission in the Mediterranean. Operation Sea Guardian was launched in November 2016 and succeeded Operation Active Endeavour.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation Shah Euphrates (Turkish: \u015eah F\u0131rat Operasyonu) was an operation by the Turkish military to relocate the tomb of Suleyman Shah in Syria conducted on 21/22 February 2015. The tomb, which was positioned inside Turkey's only foreign enclave,  had been surrounded by self proclaimed Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) forces for over 4 months. Due to the presence of ISIS, the exclaves garrison was recently raised from eleven Turkish soldiers to thirty eight.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation Snow Flurry was an operation by the United States Air Force that consisted of B-47 Stratojet bombers flying from South Carolina to England to perform mock bomb drops. Data would be received on the ground from the planes, and this would later be used to track the accuracy of the mock drops. Aircraft involved would then fly to Strategic Air Command airfields in North Africa. In 1958, a B-47 en route from Hunter Air Force Base accidentally dropped an  unarmed Mark 6 nuclear bomb over Mars Bluff, South Carolina, although the explosion damaged nearby buildings. Live bombs were carried on board in case the planes had to activate for a wartime situation, but had their fissile nuclear cores removed and could not cause a nuclear detonation.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation SUPPORT is the name given to Canadian Forces activities directly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The CF had two immediate goals: to provide support for stranded aircrew and passengers from diverted commercial flights, and to increase emergency preparedness. Transport Canada called their operation Yellow Ribbon.\nStranded travellers were received at several CF bases and stations, including Goose Bay, Gander and Stephenville, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Halifax Regional Municipality Airport\nin, Shearwater, Nova Scotia and Aldershot, Nova Scotia. Also, CF units in the Atlantic region provided thousands of beds and ration packs; nine CF transport aircraft delivered about 8,800 cots, 8,300 blankets and 55 support personnel to places where commercial flights had been diverted. CF aircraft also transported Canada Customs and Revenue Agency officials to those locations so stranded travellers could clear Customs and enter Canada \u2014 many of them to accept the hospitality of the communities in which they found themselves.\nSeveral steps were taken to increase emergency preparedness. Additional CF-18 fighters were assigned to NORAD. The Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART) was placed on stand-by at 8 Wing Trenton, Ontario. Also, HMC Ships Preserver, Iroquois and Ville de Qu\u00e9bec were put in a higher state of readiness in case they were required to go to a U.S. port to provide humanitarian assistance.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Operations (J3) directorate is the Continental Staff System branch of the U.S. DOD Joint Staff responsible for military operations. \nIt is the third level of the US National Level Command Structure, primarily assists the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) in carrying out responsibilities as the principal  military advisor to the President and Secretary of Defense. Operations develops and provides guidance to the Combatant Commanders; relays communications between the President, Secretary of Defense, Combatant Commanders regarding current operations and plans.It is headed by the Director, Operations, staff code J3, a two-star major general or rear admiral.\nThe National Military Command Center (NMCC) is part of the J3 directorate.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "An organic unit is a military unit that is a permanent part of a larger unit and (usually) provides some specialized capability to that parent unit. For instance, the US Marine Corps incorporates its own aviation units (distinct from the US Air Force and US Navy) that provide it with fire support, electronic warfare, and transport. \n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Papakura Military Camp is a New Zealand Army military camp located in the Auckland suburb of Papakura North, in northern New Zealand. It is the home of the New Zealand Special Air Service.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Papuan Volunteer Corps (PVK, Dutch: Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps) was a corps consisting entirely of Papuans, formed on February 21, 1961.  It was established to contribute to the defense of Dutch New Guinea against the infiltration of the Indonesian Army. The establishment of the corps by the Dutch Cabinet was approved in December 1959, and the corps was to serve as a semi-military police.\nThe PVK was composed of different peoples of Papua, mostly members of Arfak and Biak tribes and was under command of colonel of marines W.A. van Heuven. As an emblem the PVK chose the Cassowary (kasuaris in Dutch): the Corp's motto was Persevero (I persist).  The PVK was armed and was equipped with a khaki uniform and a hat with the left edge upward, which was adorned with the PVK emblem and a plume.\nIn 1961\u20131962, the Indonesian threat greatly expanded. After the administration of the territory was passed to the United Nations (UNTEA) and the subsequent Indonesian government (1962\u20131963), the PVK was dissolved, and the members were dismissed. Some members later joined the Indonesian Army. Others, including Sergeant Awom Ferry, founded a guerrilla army, the Cassowary Battalion (OPM), and began a struggle for independence from Indonesia. Although later this movement would surrender and some of its members would also joined Indonesian Army after they were trained in Siliwangi and Diponegoro and combined with forces of Trikora, to form Kodam XVII/Cenderawasih. Others would join in the two competing factions of Free Papua Movement, primarily in 'Victoria Headquarters' rather than 'Defenders of Truth' as the former were lead by former TNI member, M.L. Prawar and S. Rumkorem.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The PDU-5/B is an aircraft-deployed leaflet dispersal unit. It is derived from the CBU-100 \"Rockeye\" Cluster Bomb, developed by the U.S. Air Force around 1999. It was used successfully in Afghanistan and Iraq to distribute leaflets. In 2015, it was used again to drop 60,000 leaflets near Raqqa, Syria.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A peace feeler is, in diplomacy, a means of determining whether a warring party is prepared to end hostilities. William Safire defines it as \"a diplomatic probe, real or imagined, to end hostilities.\"", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Perfectos was a radio device used by Royal Air Force's night fighters during the Second World War to detect German aircraft. It worked by triggering Luftwaffe's FuG 25a Erstling identification friend or foe (IFF) system and then using the response signal to determine the enemy aircraft's direction and range. This allowed RAF interceptors to track the Germans without the need for a radar system of their own, in contrast to the earlier Serrate radar detector that lacked range information and thus required a radar of their own for the final approach.\nThe resulting rapid ramp-up of night fighter losses in late 1944 alerted the Germans that the RAF was deploying a system to track them, and suspicion immediately fell on the Erstling. Pilots were told to leave their Erstling units turned off until they approached friendly airbases, where it was needed in order for their flak units to avoid firing on them. This resulted in further chaos as crews often forgot to turn them back on, and flak units became increasingly paralyzed as friendly fire incidents mounted.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A picket (archaically, picquet [variant form piquet]) is a soldier, or small unit of soldiers, placed on a defensive line forward of a friendly position to provide timely warning and screening against an enemy advance. It can also refer to any unit (e.g. a scout vehicle, surveillance aircraft or patrol ship) performing a similar function.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Pidulik marss (Presidential March, also translated to Solemn March) is the official honorary march of the President of Estonia which is played as a welcoming/inspection march for the president, who is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Estonian Defence Forces. The march was composed by Estonian musician Eero Liives (1892\u20131978). Today the march is played by the Kaitsev\u00e4e Orkester during military reviews of troops such as the Estonian Honour Guard during state visits and the Eesti Kaitsev\u00e4gi during military parades in Tallinn.On 27 January 1923, it was adopted as the military march by of the Estonian Head of State. Prior to that, Bj\u00f6rneborgarnas marsch (known in Estonian as Porilaste marss) was used as a presidential song. The government chose to abandon the natively Swedish march, to differentiate itself from Finland, which also uses it as an honorary march. The march is still used as official honorary music for high-ranking officials. The march would be performed for the last time in 4 decades on Independence Day in 1940, due to the German and later Soviet occupation of Estonia taking place in the following four years. Both governments tried to cultivate a separate identity and culture from the Estonian people, which included banning traditional ceremonial pieces such as Pidulik marss. The march was reinstated in 1991, after Estonia's declaration of independence became legal, and has been used by the state ever since.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Pillbox affair, also known as the Pillbox incident, was a military and political episode which occurred in Britain between November 1939 and January 1940 during the Second World War. The British War Minister, Leslie Hore-Belisha, visited France and the positions of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in mid-November.Hore-Belisha and the commander of the BEF, General, later Field Marshal, John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort, did not get along well together; Gort disliked Hore-Belisha for his colourful personality and unorthodox manner of conducting matters relating to the British Army, and the Minister rapidly came to recognise that.During his visit, Hore-Belisha oversaw the placement of the troops of the BEF, not the defences being constructed. On his return to Britain, he complained to the War Cabinet and the Army Council that too few pillbox defences were being built for the BEF.Gort and colleagues friendly to him were greatly angered by what they saw as this unjust and ill-founded criticism and began a campaign against Hore-Belisha, which culminated in January 1940 in Hore-Belisha's being dismissed from the post of War Minister. This campaign succeeded in large part due to antisemitism and class prejudice in both the Army and Parliament.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Plan \u00c1vila is a military contingency plan by the Venezuelan Army to maintain public order in the Venezuelan capital, Caracas.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Platine Wars is a term used by Brazilian historiography to refer to a series of diplomatic and military conflicts along the 19th century between the Empire of Brazil and neighbouring countries in the R\u00edo de la Plata Basin. \nThese conflicts began in 1816, due to the intention of Prince Regent John of annexing the Banda Oriental (modern-day Uruguay) and pushing the Brazilian border to the left bank of the River Plate estuary.\nThe most notable wars in this period include:\n\nLuso-Brazilian conquest of the Banda Oriental - 1816\u20131820\nCisplatine War - 1825\u20131828\nUruguayan Civil War - 1839\u20131851\nPlatine War - 1851\u20131852\nUruguayan War - 1864\u20131865\nParaguayan War - 1864\u20131870", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Plug-and-fight is the military equivalent of plug and play as applied to commercial and personal computer systems. Plug-and-fight refers to the capability of certain large military systems such as the Medium Extended Air Defense System (MEADS) to automatically recognize and assemble various system elements, like sensors, weapons, and control nodes, into a single integrated supersystem or system-of-systems. Plug-and-fight systems can be rapidly reconfigured without interrupting operations \u2013 adding, removing, and rearranging system elements in response to evolving threats and changing defense strategies. The architecture of such modular systems is often described as netted-distributed.  Sensors, shooters, and tactical operations centers (TOC) simply act as nodes on the network, and a military commander can dynamically add or subtract these elements as the situation dictates without shutting the system down.\nPlug-and-fight system elements connect to an open wired or wireless communication network through a standardized interface, and have the ability to interact with other system elements on that network to accomplish specific combat objectives. To maximize product applicability, and to ensure the general acceptance of system developers, any plug-and-fight standardized interface should be based on protocols and standards that are widely recognized, well defined, strongly controlled, and non-proprietary. Modern examples include Ethernet, IP, TCP, CORBA, and any specific message structure that can be freely disseminated and used without licensing.\nMEADS was the first system to use standardized integrated Air and Missile Defense protocols. It was designed with plug-and-fight capabilities to support data exchange with external sensors and launchers through standardized open protocols for integrated air and missile defense (IAMD), so that MEADS elements can interoperate with allied forces on the move, attaching to and detaching from the battle management network as necessary. In November 2011, MEADS system elements successfully performed a simulated engagement against real-world air and representative missile threats demonstrating plug-and-fight capabilities.The US Army Integrated Battle Command System (IBCS) is in development since 2004. It is part of the Integrated Air and Missile Defense (IAMD) program, which aims to create an integrated network of air defense sensors  and missile launchers using a suite of open standardized protocols.  IBCS control stations will replace engagement control stations (ECS) in  Patriot missile system, along with seven other forms of ABM defense command systems.  Supported sensors will include AN/MPQ-64 Sentinel and AN/TPS-80 G/ATOR, AN/MPQ-53, AN/MPQ-65/65A and GhostEye (LTAMDS) in Patriot missile system, GhostEye MR in NASAMS, MFCR and SR in MEADS, AN/TPY-2 in Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) and Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD), AN/SPY-1 and AN/SPY-6 in Aegis BMD, and AN/APG-81 in Lockeed Martin F-35 Lightning II. This network of sensors will be controlled by IBCS engagement control stations which will be able to take fine control of army-fielded air-defense systems like Patriot and THAAD, directing radar positioning and suggesting recommended launchers, while naval, aerial and Marine systems will only be able to share either radar tracks or raw radar data with the IBCS network. The Army requires all new missiles and air-defense systems to implement IBCS support.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A point d'appui (French for fulcrum), in military theory, is a location where troops are assembled prior to a battle. Often a monument is erected to commemorate the point d'appui for notable battles. In some battles there may be more than a single point d'appui.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Posting of the Colors is a practice conducted by military color guards of the United States at the beginning of a particular ceremony. The practice is also done by the Boy Scouts of America. Posting the colors requires that a color guard team move the colors (usually the American flag, the state flag, the service flag, and the unit flag) from a carried position and placed into a stand. This formality is normally done at events such as graduation ceremonies and public events. Specifically, it is done prior to the playing of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" or the reciting of the Pledge of Allegiance. In that case, the color guard will present arms once the colors have been posted.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Praetorianism means excessive or abusive political influence of the Armed Forces in a country. The word comes from the Roman Praetorian Guard, who became increasingly influential in the appointment of Roman emperors.Daniel R. Headrick, professor of History and Social Sciences at Roosevelt University, describes praetorianism as a type of militarism oriented to the interior life of a nation, often related to minor countries, that does not aspire to fight or win international wars, but instead to maintain its influence in the domestic political system, controlling decisions that could affect the interests of the military as a corporation, or supporting some particular political faction or party.\nIn his book Political Order in Changing Societies, the political scientist Samuel P. Huntington uses the term praetorian to designate social orders in which political participation is high relative to their political institutionalization. A low ratio of institutionalization to participation, he argued, would then lead to political decay.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The AN/PSN-11 Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR, colloquially \"plugger\") is a ruggedized, hand-held, single-frequency GPS receiver fielded by the United States Armed Forces. It incorporates the Precise Positioning Service \u2014 Security Module (PPS-SM) to access the encrypted P(Y)-code GPS signal.\nIntroduced in January 1990, and extensively fielded until 2004 when it was replaced by its successor, the Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR). In that time period more than 165,000 PLGRs were procured worldwide, and despite being superseded by the DAGR, large numbers remain in unit inventories and it continues to be the most widely used GPS receiver in the United States military. \nThe PLGR measures 9.5 by 4.1 by 2.6 inches (24 cm \u00d7 10 cm \u00d7 7 cm) and weighs 2.75 pounds (1.25 kg) with batteries. It was originally delivered to the United States military with a six-year warranty; however, this was extended to ten years in June 2000.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A principal warfare officer (PWO), is one of a number of warfare branch specialist officers.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A private army (or private military) is a military or paramilitary force consisting of armed combatants who owe their allegiance to a private person, group, or organization, rather than a nation or state.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A psychiatric casualty is a military combatant who is unable to continue fighting due to some sort of mental debilitation. The debilitations a casualty can experience are extensive; they can be anything from affective disorders to somatoform disorders, with many psychiatric casualties developing long term or permanent post-traumatic stress disorder. Treatment generally consists of simply removing a soldier from combat; however, psychotherapy is sometimes used.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Q-Warrior is a wearable computer with a helmet-mounted display technology similar to, 3D HUD, that gives a soldier a picture of the entire battlefield.  The prototype was modelled on the Google Glass and built by BAE Systems in 2014. \n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The quarter guard is a small detachment of troops that can be used as a ceremonial guard which may be mounted at the entrance of a military unit to pay compliments as required. A quarter guard is to consist of one non-commissioned officer and six or eight other ranks formed up in two ranks. It is technically a minuscule guard of honour.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A quartermaster general is the staff officer in charge of supplies for a whole army. He is in charge of quartermaster units and personnel, i.e. those tasked with providing supplies for military forces and units.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A radar gunsight is a type of gunsight for aerial combat that combines a gyro gunsight with a small radar. They were introduced just after World War II and used into the 1960s. After that, more complex sighting systems and heads up displays replaced these designs. The APG-30 gunsight is credited with giving the North American F-86 Sabre the edge over the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 in the Korean War, the two types being similarly matched otherwise but the gunsight allowing longer range accurate fire.The proper calculation of lead requires two values, the distance to the target and the turn that the attacking aircraft is making. The turn can be measured directly using a gyroscope, and such systems had been introduced during WWII. These had no direct way to measure the range to the target, however, requiring the pilot to estimate the range or measure it using simple optical devices.\nRadar gunsights simply add a small radar to the system to directly and automatically measure the range continually during the attack. This automates the calculation and lowers pilot workload. Early use led to stories of almost legendary performance, with hits being recorded at ranges up to 2,000 yards (1.8 km), a range that would formerly be considered impossible.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Radar, Anti-Aircraft Number 4 Mark 7, or AA No.4 Mk.7 for short, was a mobile medium-range tactical control radar used by the British Army. It was intended to rapidly scan the sky and quickly indicate targets that could then be handed off to anti-aircraft artillery batteries who would then aim their own gun laying radars like the AA No. 3 Mk. 7 using the image provided from the No. 4 on a remote Adjacent Display (AD) unit. The Mk.7/1 added support for IFF Mark X, and the Mk.7/2 was modified for use with surface-to-air missiles.\nThe system used a unique antenna system designed to be compact and robust. It consisted of a cheese antenna mounted flat on the roof of the operations trailer, and a semi-parabolic reflector in front of it. The cheese produces a signal that is narrow side-to-side, about 5 degrees in this system, but very wide vertically. This signal was then further shaped by the reflector to lessen the vertical angle. The assembly was mounted on a pole that ran through the roof of the trailer and into a bearing on the floor where it was rotated by a motor. For transport, the reflector was folded down on top of the cheese, the assembly moved to center it over the top of the trailer, and then grate-like covers on the sides of the trailer were raised and folded over the top of the antenna system to protect it.\nThe system was normally operated by a crew of two. Air conditioning was supplied to cool the equipment and the trailer as a whole, with the power and air conditioning systems taking up about half of the trailer and the radar systems the other half. Power was supplied by an external Meadows 27.5 kVA 415/240V three phase 50 Hz generator on a skid that was normally carried in the towing vehicle and then set on the ground during setup. The eight-wheeled trailer massed 10 tons.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Radiation intelligence, or RINT, is military intelligence gathered and produced from unintentional radiation created as induction from electrical wiring, usually of computers, data connections and electricity networks.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Ground Observer Corps (GObC) was a civilian organization within the Royal Canadian Air Force formed in October 1950 to help identify intruder aircraft in the era before the Pinetree Line radar network was fully operational. Members were required to report any sighting of an aircraft with four or more engines via Forces-supplied radios. Its formation prompted the USAF to introduce its own Ground Observer Corps the next year, and the two organizations operated in concert until both were deactivated in the late 1950s.\nThe force's motto was \"The eyes and ears of the RCAF\". While radar systems and computerized control systems were introduced through the 1950s to replace the Corps, on many occasions they demonstrated themselves far superior to the new systems. In one 1955 test, USAF Strategic Air Command bombers conducted a mock attack on North America to test the defensive network. The GObC's reports beat the radar systems by three hours.At its height, the GObC contained 50,000 members.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military parlance, the rear is the part of concentration of military forces that is farthest from the enemy (compare its antonym, the front).  The rear typically contains all logistic and management elements of the force necessary to support the front line forces \u2014 supply depots, ammunition dumps, field hospitals, machine shops, planning/communication facilities and command headquarters, as well as infrastructures such as roads, bridges, airfields, dockyards, and railway depots.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "\"Recall\" is a bugle call used to signal to soldiers that duties or drills are to cease, or to indicate that a period of relaxation should end. Outside of a military context, it is used to signal when a game should end, such as a game of capture the flag among scouts.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Reconnaissance by fire (recon by fire), also known as speculative fire, is a warfare tactic used in which military forces may fire on likely enemy positions to provoke a reaction, which confirms the presence and the position of enemy forces.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Refresher training is a form of updating military knowledge of the reservist troops. Troops who completed the conscription service can be called for refresher training for some number of days.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Raid on Regha\u00efa in May 1837, during the French conquest of Algeria, pitted the French colonizers in Regha\u00efa region against the Kabyle troops of the Igawawen confederacy.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A regimental symbol is a distinguishing emblem used by soldiers during times of war. Usually, it is some easily identifiable icon that can be displayed on uniforms, vehicles, and buildings to alert others of the nationality of the respective military force.\nRegimental symbols are particularly common in colonies, which often lack distinctive icons of their own, such as flags.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A relief army had the task of relieving or freeing a besieged city, town, fortress or castle.\nOften relief had to be sought by sending a messenger out through the siege lines to deliver a request for help from allies or friendly forces. Well-known examples include:\n\nGallic Wars, see Caesar de bello Gallico and Vercingetorix, 52 B. C. or the Battle of Alesia\nSiege of Paris (885\u201386)\nFall of Constantinople \u2013 here the relieving fleet arrived too late.\nSecond Turkish Siege of Vienna (1683)See also: Relief operation", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The render safe procedure (RSP) is the portion of the explosive ordnance disposal procedures involving the application of special explosive ordnance disposal procedures, methods and tools to provide the interruption of functions or separation of essential components of unexploded ordnance (including improvised explosive devices) to prevent an unintended detonation.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Division of Daqing (Chinese: \u5927\u5e86\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was activated in 1983 in Daqing, Heilongjiang. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment\n3rd Regiment\nArtillery RegimentIn 1985 it was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Daqing (Chinese: \u5927\u5e86\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08).\nIn 1987 the division was converted to an air defense unit as the Reserve Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division of Daqing (Chinese: \u5927\u5e86\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u9ad8\u70ae\u5e08). The division was then composed of:\n\n1st AAA Regiment - 1st and 4th Drilling Corporation, Daqing Oil Field\n2nd AAA Regiment - Daqing Petrochemical Corporation\n3rd AAA Regiment\n4th AAA RegimentIn January 1999 the division was merged with the Anti-Aircraft Artillery Brigade, 64th Army and redesignated as the Reserve Antiaircraft Artillery Division of Heilongjiang Provincial Military District(Chinese: \u9ed1\u9f99\u6c5f\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u9ad8\u70ae\u5e08).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Division of Xiangyang (Chinese: \u8944\u9633\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was activated on September 13, 1983, in Xiangyang, Hubei. \nIn November 1983, the division was renamed as the Reserve Division of Xiangfan(Chinese: \u8944\u6a0a\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) following the disestablishment of the prefecture-level city of Xiangyang.\nThe division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Xiangyang\n2nd Regiment - Zaoyang\n3rd Regiment - Suizhou\nArtillery Regiment - YichengIn March 1986, the division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Xiangfan (Chinese: \u8944\u6a0a\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08).\nIn April 1999, the division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Hubei(Chinese: \u6e56\u5317\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08).\nIn April 2005, the division moved to Wuhan, Hubei and was reconstituted as the Reserve Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division of Hubei(Chinese: \u6e56\u5317\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u9ad8\u70ae\u5e08).The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment - Wuhan\n2nd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment - Xiaogan\n3rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment - Huangshi\n4th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment - Jingzhou, activated on July 7, 2005", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Baicheng(Chinese: \u767d\u57ce\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08) was a reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1982 and 1998.\nThe formation of the Reserve Division of Baicheng(Chinese: \u767d\u57ce\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) started from May 1982 in Baicheng, Jilin. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Fuyu\n2nd Regiment - Zhenlai County\n3rd Regiment - Taoan County\nArtillery Regiment - Da'anAs of its activation, the division had 13,464 personnel. Among them, there were 78 cadres (officers) in active service, 1,576 cadres with pre-assigned positions, and 11,810 pre-assigned soldiers.\nThe division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Baicheng(Chinese: \u767d\u57ce\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08) in February 1986.\nIn August 1986, a Reserve Communications Regiment was activated at Ji'an County and attached to the division. In March 1988, the regiment detached from the division.\nIn May 1988, the 3rd Infantry Regiment was reactivated at Taonan. By then the division was composed of:\n\n1st Infantry Regiment - Fuyu\n2nd Infantry Regiment - Zhenlai County\n3rd Infantry Regiment - Taonan\nArtillery Regiment - Da'anIn August 1998, the division merged with the 47th Infantry Division as the 47th Reserve Infantry Division of Jilin Provincial Military District.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Division of Baoji(Chinese: \u5b9d\u9e21\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was a short-lived reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1984 and 1985.\nThe division was activated in September 1984 in Baoji, Shaanxi. By then the division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Fengxiang\n2nd Regiment\n3rd Regiment - Fufeng\nArtillery Regiment - Baoji CountyThe division failed to be acknowledged by the Central Military Commission and was likely dissolved in 1985.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Division of Benxi (Chinese: \u672c\u6eaa\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was activated in October 1983 in Benxi, Liaoning. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Garrison Regiment - Huanren\n2nd Garrison Regiment - Benxi\n3rd Garrison Regiment\nArtillery Regiment - Benxi Steel GroupThe division was composed of 14,567 personnel.In November 1985 it was redesignated as the Reserve Garrison Division of Benxi(Chinese: \u672c\u6eaa\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5b88\u5907\u5e08). \nIn March 1988 the division was further redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Benxi(Chinese: \u672c\u6eaa\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08). The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Infantry Regiment - Huanren\n2nd Infantry Regiment - Benxi\n3rd Infantry Regiment - Fengcheng\nArtillery Regiment - Benxi Steel GroupOn December 1, 1998, the division was merged into the 192nd Infantry Division as the 192nd Reserve Infantry Division of Liaoning Provincial Military District.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Division of Chaoyang (Chinese: \u671d\u9633\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was formally activated in March 1983, in Chaoyang, Liaoning. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment\n3rd Regiment\nArtillery RegimentThe division was located in the city of Chaoyang, along with Beipiao, Kazuo, Jianchang, and Jianping.As of its activation, the division was composed of 13,392 personnel, with 4 122 mm howitzers, 4 85 mm guns, 4 107mm MRLs, 4 twin-14.5 mm AA MGs, and 10 tractor vehicles.The division was disbanded in March 1986.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Hebei(Chinese: \u6cb3\u5317\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was a reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active since 1983.\nThe division was activated in July 1983, in Chengde, Hebei as the 1st Reserve Division of Chengde(Chinese: \u627f\u5fb7\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u7b2c1\u5e08). The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Pingquan\n2nd Regiment - Chengde County\n3rd Regiment - Kuancheng\nArtillery Regiment - Xinglong\nTank Regiment- ChengdeIn January 1986 the division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Chengde(Chinese: \u627f\u5fb7\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08). In March 1986, the Tank Regiment was disbanded.In March 1999 the division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Hebei(Chinese: \u6cb3\u5317\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08). The 2nd Regiment was disbanded and replaced by a new regiment activated in Hengshui. \nSince then the division was composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment - Hengshui\n3rd Regiment - Neiqiu\nArtillery Regiment", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Division of Dezhou (Chinese: \u5fb7\u5dde\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was activated on August 29, 1983, in Dezhou, Shandong. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Yucheng County\n2nd Regiment - Ling County\n3rd Regiment - Wucheng County\nArtillery Regiment - Pingyuan CountyOn February 1, 1986, the division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Dezhou(Chinese: \u5fb7\u5dde\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08).In October 1999, the division was reorganized as the Reserve Logistic Support Brigade of Shandong(Chinese: \u5c71\u4e1c\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u540e\u52e4\u4fdd\u969c\u65c5).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The formation of the 4th Reserve Division of Kunming Military Region(Chinese: \u6606\u660e\u519b\u533a\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u7b2c4\u5e08) started from March 1983 in Duyun, Guizhou. The division was then composed of:\n\n10th Regiment - Fuquan\n11th Regiment - Huishui\n12th Regiment - DushanThe division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Duyun(Chinese: \u90fd\u5300\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08) in July 1984. An artillery regiment was activated in the same month. All regiments under the division were redesignated as follow:\n\n1st Regiment - Fuquan\n2nd Regiment - Huishui\n3rd Regiment - former 12th, at Dushan County\nArtillery Regiment - Guiding CountyThe division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Duyun(Chinese: \u90fd\u5300\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08) in late 1985.\nThe division was likely disbanded in 1998.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Division of Fuxin (Chinese: \u961c\u65b0\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was activated in December 1983 in Fuxin, Liaoning. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Garrison Regiment - Fuxin County\n2nd Garrison Regiment - Xihe district, Fuxin\n3rd Garrison Regiment - Zhangwu\nArtillery Regiment - Taiping district, Fuxin\nTank Regiment - Haihe district, Fuxin\nSpecial Troops Regiment - ChaoyangIn November 1985 it was redesignated as the Reserve Garrison Division of Fuxin(Chinese: \u961c\u65b0\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5b88\u5907\u5e08). \nThe division was composed of 9,026 personnel. Apart from small arms, the division possessed 4 85 mm guns, 4 100 mm mortars, 4 122 mm howitzers, 4 107 mm MRLs, 4 twin-37 mm AAA guns, 4 14.5 mm AAMGs, and 11 tractor vehicles. While organized with a tank regiment, the division virtually had no tanks. In late 1986, the 2nd Garrison Regiment was reconfigured as the Engineer Battalion, Reserve Garrison Division of Fuxin.On March 18, 1988, the division was further redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Fuxin(Chinese: \u961c\u65b0\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08). The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Infantry Regiment\n2nd Infantry Regiment\n3rd Infantry Regiment\nArtillery Regiment\nTank Regiment\nSpecial Troops RegimentOn December 1, 1998, the division was merged into the 192nd Infantry Division as the 192nd Reserve Infantry Division of Liaoning Provincial Military District.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Guangxi(Chinese: \u5e7f\u897f\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08) is a reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army.\nThe Reserve Division of Liuzhou (Chinese: \u67f3\u5dde\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was formally activated in 1984 in Liuzhou, Guangxi. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment\n3rd Regiment\nArtillery RegimentIn 1985 the division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Liuzhou(Chinese: \u67f3\u5dde\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08).The division participated in the Sino-Vietnam War.On November 11, 1999, the division was then redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Guangxi.From 2017 the division was composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Laibin, Guangxi\n2nd Regiment - Yulin, Guangxi\n3rd Regiment - Qingzhou, Guangxi\nArtillery Regiment - Liuzhou, Guangxi\nAnti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment - Nanning, Guangxi\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Guyuan Area(Chinese: \u56fa\u539f\u5730\u533a\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was a short-lived reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1984 and 1985.\nThe division was formally activated on June 8, 1984, in Guyuan, Ningxia. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Longde\n2nd Regiment - Xiji\n3rd Regiment - Haiyuan\nArtillery RegimentIn October 1985 the division was disbanded along with all its subordinates.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Hohhot(Chinese: \u547c\u548c\u6d69\u7279\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08) was a reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1983 and 1999.\nThe Reserve Division of Hohhot (Chinese: \u547c\u548c\u6d69\u7279\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was formally activated on September 17, 1983, in Hohhot, Inner Mongolia. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Saihan District\n2nd Regiment\n3rd Regiment - Togtoh County\nTank Regiment - Huimin District\nArtillery Regiment - HohhotIn 1985 the division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Hohhot(Chinese: \u547c\u548c\u6d69\u7279\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08). In 1986, Tank Regiment was reorganized into the Artillery Regiment, Reserve Infantry Division of Hohhot.In October 1999, the division merged with the 30th Infantry Brigade to form the 30th Reserve Infantry Division of Inner Mongolia(Chinese: \u5185\u8499\u53e4\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u7b2c30\u5e08).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Hunan(Chinese: \u6e56\u5357\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08) is a reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army.\nThe Reserve Division of Zhuzhou (Chinese: \u682a\u6d32\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was formally activated in 1984 in Zhuzhou, Guizhou. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment\n3rd Regiment\nArtillery RegimentIn 1985 the division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Zhuzhou(Chinese: \u682a\u6d32\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08).\nIn 1999 the division was then redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Hunan. \nFrom 2017 the division was composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Xiangtan, Hunan\n2nd Regiment - Changde, Hunan\n3rd Regiment - Yueyang, Hunan\nArtillery Regiment - Zhuzhou, Hunan\nAnti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment - Changsha, Hunan", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The formation of a reserve division in Jinzhou was started in March 1982. The order to reconstitute reserve formations was issued by the Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China in September 1982. The Reserve Division of Jinzhou (Chinese: \u9526\u5dde\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was formally activated on March 25, 1983, in Jinzhou, Liaoning as the first-ever reserve formation of the People's Liberation Army since 1958. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Heishan\n2nd Regiment - Beizhen\n3rd Regiment - Jin County\nArtillery RegimentAs of its activation, the division was composed of 13,595 personnel, with 6 100 mm mortars, 6 122 mm howitzers, 4 85 mm guns, 6 107mm MRLs, 4 twin-37 mm AAAs, 4 twin-14.5 mm AA MGs, and 14 tractor vehicles.On February 1, 1986, the division was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Jinzhou(Chinese: \u9526\u5dde\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08).\nIn October 1999, the division was reorganized as the Reserve Logistic Support Brigade of Liaoning(Chinese: \u8fbd\u5b81\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u540e\u52e4\u4fdd\u969c\u65c5).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Division of Nenjiang (Chinese: \u5ae9\u6c5f\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was a short-lived reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1984 and 1985.\nThe division was activated in March 1983 in Nenjiang, Heilongjiang. By then the division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment - Keshan\n3rd Regiment\nArtillery Regiment - BaiquanThe division was likely disbanded in 1985.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Pingliang(Chinese: \u5e73\u51c9\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was a short-lived reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1984 and 1985.\nThe division was formally activated on May 31, 1984, in Pingliang, Gansu. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment\n3rd Regiment\nArtillery RegimentIn October 1985 the division was disbanded along with all its subordinates.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Division of Siping (Chinese: \u56db\u5e73\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was activated in July 1983 in Siping, Jilin. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Lishu\n2nd Regiment - Yitong\n3rd Regiment - Shuangliao\nArtillery Regiment - Huaide, GongzhulingIn 1985 it was redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Siping(Chinese: \u56db\u5e73\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08). \nIn February 1986, the Tank Regiment, Reserve Infantry Division of Siping was activated. 1st Regiment was reconstituted as the 3rd Infantry Regiment. 2nd Regiment was redesignated as the 1st Infantry Regiment. 3rd Regiment was redesignated as the 2nd Infantry Regiment. Since then the division was composed of:\n\n1st Infantry Regiment - Yitong\n2nd Infantry Regiment - Shuangliao\n3rd Infantry Regiment - Lishu\nArtillery Regiment - Huaide, Gongzhuling\nTank Regiment - Lishu (Military Unit 82118 from 1986 to 1998; Military Unit 82173 from 1998 to 2000)On August 7, 1998, the division was merged into the 47th Infantry Division as the 47th Reserve Infantry Division of Jilin Provincial Military District:\n1st Infantry Regiment and Artillery Regiment, Reserve Infantry Division of Siping merged with the Artillery Regiment, 47th Infantry Division as the new Artillery Regiment, 47th Reserve Infantry Division;\nTank Regiment, Reserve Infantry Division of Siping retained as the Tank Regiment, 47th Reserve Infantry Division.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Weinan (Chinese: \u6e2d\u5357\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was a short-lived reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1983 and 1985.\nThe division was formally activated in December 1983 in Weinan, Shaanxi. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment\n3rd Regiment\nArtillery Regiment - Dali CountyIn October 1985 the division was disbanded along with all its subordinates.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Yan'an(Chinese: \u6b66\u5a01\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was a short-lived reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1984 and 1985.\nThe division was formally activated in April 1984 in Wuwei, Gansu. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment\n3rd Regiment - Yongchang\nArtillery RegimentIn 1985 the division was disbanded along with all its subordinates.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Yan'an(Chinese: \u5ef6\u5b89\u5730\u533a\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was a short-lived reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1984 and 1985.\nThe division was formally activated in August 1984 in Yan'an, Shaanxi. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment - Yanchuan\n3rd Regiment - Zichang\nArtillery RegimentAs of its activation, the division was composed of 13,392 personnel, including 30 active service cadres (officers) and 1595 reserve service cadres.In 1985 the division was disbanded along with all its subordinates.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Infantry Division of Yanbian(Chinese: \u5ef6\u8fb9\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u6b65\u5175\u5e08) was a reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1983 and 1998.\nThe division, then named as the Reserve Division of Yanbian(Chinese: \u5ef6\u8fb9\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was activated in July 1983 in Yanbian, Jilin. The division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment - Tumen\n2nd Regiment - Helong\n3rd Regiment\nArtillery Regiment - LongjingAs of its activation, the division had 13,361 personnel.\nThe division was redesignated as the Reserve Garrison Division of Yanbian(Chinese: \u5ef6\u8fb9\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5b88\u5907\u5e08) in 1985, and was further redesignated as the Reserve Infantry Division of Yanbian in 1991.In August 1998, the division merged with the 47th Infantry Division as the 47th Reserve Infantry Division of Jilin Provincial Military District.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Reserve Division of Yulin(Chinese: \u6986\u6797\u9646\u519b\u9884\u5907\u5f79\u5e08) was a short-lived reserve infantry formation of the People's Liberation Army active between 1984 and 1989.\nThe division was formally activated in July / August / on September 5, 1984 in Yulin, Shaanxi. By then the division was then composed of:\n\n1st Regiment\n2nd Regiment\n3rd Regiment - Hengshan\nArtillery RegimentIn December 1989, the division was disbanded along with all its subordinates. Another source cited it was disbanded in 1985.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Resistance to interrogation, RTI or R2I is a type of military training to British and other NATO soldiers to prepare them, after capture by the enemy, to resist interrogation techniques such as humiliation and torture.\nThe trainees undergo practices such as hooding, sleep deprivation, time disorientation, prolonged nakedness, sexual humiliation and deprivation of warmth, water and food. Many of these techniques are against international law if used in interrogations.\nIn such interrogation sessions, the subjects must maintain dead silence regardless of the practice being inflicted on them. Only three pieces of information can be surrendered: name, rank and serial number. Both the subjects and the practitioner have a right to insist for a return to unit every hour.\nStandard RTI for most special military branches of American and European governments covers both tortures that are condemned by the United Nations and interrogation techniques that are considered legitimate, usually presented along a sliding scale. For instance, a soldier would be subjected to slight discomforts before being subjected to more torturous techniques.\nThe Guardian has reported that according to a former British special forces officer, the acts committed by the soldiers who committed torture and prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib resembled the techniques used in RTI training.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Resolution for Victory Order (Vietnamese: Hu\u00e2n ch\u01b0\u01a1ng Chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng) is a Vietnamese military order. It was given to generals \u0110o\u00e0n Khu\u00ea, V\u00f5 Nguy\u00ean Gi\u00e1p, Tr\u1ea7n V\u0103n Tr\u00e0 among others during the Vietnam War to show resolve for victory by any means necessary. It is similar to other medals and badges awarded by North Vietnam during the era such as the Defeat American Aggression Badge.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A resource war is a type of war caused by conflict over resources. In a resource war, there is typically a nation or group that controls the resource and an aggressor that wishes to seize control over said resource. This power dynamic between nations has been a significant underlying factor in conflicts since the late 19th century. Following the rise of industrialization, the amount of raw materials an industrialized nation uses to sustain its activities is heightened. This creates a perceived source of scarcity, which acts as a primary motivator that many academics believe to be one of the root cause of resource wars. There are many different theories and perspectives raised in academia that aim to rationalize why resource wars happen and what causes them.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Returning soldier effect is a phenomenon which suggests that more boys are born during and immediately after wars. This effect is one of the many factors influencing human sex ratio. \nThe phenomenon was first noticed in 1883 by Carl D\u00fcsing of the University of Jena, who suggested that it was a natural regulation of the status quo. Writing in 1899, an Australian physician, Arthur Davenport, used D\u00fcsing's findings to hypothesize that the cause was the difference between the comparative ill-health of the returning troops compared to the good health of their partners. Research published in 1954 by Brian MacMahon and Thomas F. Pugh showed that the sex ratio of white live-births in the United States had shown a marked increase in favor of boys between 1945 and 1947, with a peak in 1946. In 2007, Satoshi Kanazawa published a paper theorizing that the effect was due to \"the fact that taller soldiers are more likely to survive battle and that taller parents are more likely to have sons\". This was based on his research of British Army records from the First World War, which showed that \"surviving soldiers were on average more than one inch (3.33 cm) taller than fallen soldiers\". Valerie Grant attributed it to changing hormone levels of women during war, as they tended to \"adopt more dominant roles\". William H. James writing in 2008 gave an increase in coital rates by returning soldiers as a possible cause. He also noted that a fall in the ratio of male births had been recorded in Iran following the Iran\u2013Iraq War, \"explained by psychological stress causing pregnant women disproportionately to abort male fetuses\".", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Rish Khor camp is located near Kabul city in Afghanistan.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Rising from the ranks, through the ranks or commissioned from the ranks refers to enlisted soldiers being commissioned as officers. In class-conscious societies of the past, such as Britain during the Napoleonic Wars, for example, this was a relatively rare occurrence.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Rodrigo Franco Command was a paramilitary organization that acted as a death squad in Peru from 1985\u20131990.  The group was closely aligned with the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA), which governed Peru under Alan Garc\u00eda during the years of the Rodrigo Franco Command's existence.  The group took its name from Rodrigo Franco Montes, a member of the APRA who was assassinated by Shining Path militants.\nAccording to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the group committed various human rights violations, including the murder of a human rights lawyer, the murder of a member of the Communist Party of Peru (Red Fatherland), the murder of a member of the T\u00fapac Amaru Revolutionary Movement, and the placement of a car bomb in front of a newspaper's headquarters.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Rotors running refuelling (usually shortened to RRR and pronounced Triple-Romeo) is the act of refuelling a helicopter, while the helicopter keeps rotors (and thus engines) running. Unlike Helicopter in-flight refuelling, RRR can only be performed on ships or helipads, which can support the given helicopter.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Royal Canadian Armoured Corps School (French: \u00c9cole du Corps blind\u00e9 royal canadien) is part of the Combat Training Centre located at CFB Gagetown, New Brunswick, and is responsible for the tactical and technical training for armoured non-commissioned members and officers, in addition to maintaining certain specialized qualifications on behalf of the Canadian Army. Non-commissioned members and officers alike are trained on the Leopard 2, Textron Tactical Armoured Patrol Vehicle, Coyote Reconnaissance Vehicle, and LAV VI armoured fighting vehicles.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Phillip Russell (1932\u20132021) was an American arbovirologist, former commander of United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, and former president American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The site of the Santiago Surrender Tree (also known as the Tree of Peace or Spanish: Arbol de la Paz), located in Santiago, Cuba, marks where Spanish forces surrendered to U.S. forces on July 17, 1898, at the end of the Spanish\u2013American War.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Saulcourt Churchyard Extension is a military cemetery in the French town Guyencourt-Saulcourt (Somme). The graves are maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. There are 76 graves there of service members who died during World War I, of which 70 are graves of Commonwealth service members and 6 from other origins.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The School of Condors (Escuela de Condores) is a Bolivian army special forces school opened in March 1981. The brainchild of Bolivian President/Dictator General Luis Garc\u00eda Meza Tejada, it was formed in response to the temporary exclusion of Bolivia from the United States School of the Americas due to the Garc\u00eda Meza regime's drug trafficking efforts. The school continued to exist after relations with the United States improved after the end of Tejado's reign. The school closely followed the model of the United States School of the Americas. It trained soldiers for operations in counter-terrorism and hostage rescue in the Polivalente special forces unit.\"La Escuela de C\u00f3ndores\" is located in Sanandita, Tarija in southern Bolivia.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Schwedt military prison was the only military prison in the German Democratic Republic which was opened in 1968 and was located in the northeastern city of Schwedt. It was used for the imprisonment of members of the National People's Army and the Volkspolizei-Bereitschaft of Ministerium des Innern (DDR). Around half of those detained were for crimes such as assault, theft, but also \"anti-state agitation\" or defamation of the state, and military crimes such as refusal to obey orders, desertion, or consuming alcohol on duty. Smaller offenses were often used as an excuse to suppress political dissent, the expression of individuality and different thinking and to punish them under the pretext of the rule of law of the GDR.\nThe facility was fully closed on May 31, 1990. The prison barracks were demolished in the 1990s, while the four-story administration building has occasionally been used as a shelter for the homeless.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "SCIFIRE or the Southern Cross Integrated Flight Research Experiment is an American-Australian military technology partnership that is developing a solid-rocket boosted, air-breathing, hypersonic conventional cruise missile that can be launched by existing fighter or bomber aircraft.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Screening is a defensive tactic in which a picket or outposts are used to hide the nature and strength of a military force; provide early warning of enemy approach; impede and harass the enemy main body with indirect fire; and report on the activity of the enemy main body. Screening forces may conduct patrols, establish outposts, and help destroy enemy reconnaissance units.A screening mission seeks to deny enemy reconnaissance units close-in observation of the main body. An effective screen can conceal where an army begins and ends, making it hard to flank. In modern warfare, screening is performed by armoured cars and light tanks.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Seabasing is a naval capability to conduct selected functions and tasks at sea without reliance on infrastructure ashore.  Seabasing can sustain large military forces during operations at large distances from traditional logistics centers.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Seafox is an anti-mine remotely operated vehicle (ROV) manufactured by German company Atlas Elektronik to locate and destroy ground and moored mines. There are two versions and a training version. The orange Seafox-I \"inspection\" variant has sonar and an Inertial navigation system, and the black Seafox-C \"combat\" round has a 1.4 kg shaped charge warhead.  The system is in service with eleven navies across seventy platforms.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Searchlight Experimental Establishment, or SLEE, was a Royal Engineers research group who studied the improvement of searchlights and other anti-aircraft systems like sound locators and predictors.\nThe SLEE initially formed up at Woolwich Common in 1917 during World War I as a small group within the Corps of London Electrical Engineers to research anti-aircraft artillery and searchlights. In 1919, they took over sound locator development and began the acoustic mirror program that stretched into the 1930s before it was replaced by radar.\nIn 1924 the group moved to RAF Biggin Hill and was renamed the Air Defence Experimental Establishment, or ADEE.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Jean-Baptiste Pierre de Semell\u00e9 (16 June 1773 \u2013 25 January 1839) became a French division commander during the Napoleonic Wars. He joined a volunteer regiment in 1791 and fought at Thionville in 1792. He was named commander of an infantry demi-brigade in 1800. He led his regiment at Golymin in 1806 and Eylau in 1807. He was promoted general of brigade in 1807. After being transferred to Spain, he was promoted general of division in 1811. He led his troops at Bornos in 1811. He commanded a division at Leipzig in 1813 and at Mainz in 1814. He was elected a deputy in 1822 and remained in politics until 1837. His surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 35.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Senior sergeant is a rank of non-commissioned officer used in the armed forces of many countries. It is usually placed above sergeant.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Serdyuk (serdenyata, convivial serdyuk's (willing infantry) regiments, Ukrainian: \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0434\u044e\u043a) were mercenary infantry units kept by the Hetman's Zaporizhzhya Army from the second half of the 17th century through the first quarter of the 18th century and formed the Hetman's guard. Serdyuk recruited mainly from the Ukrainian population and the Kozaks of Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich. The average Serdyuk regiment consisted of 400-500 soldiers. They served at the border and inside the country, and guarded the Hetman's residence. By decree of the Russian Tsar on July 14, 1726, the convivial serdyuk's units were disbanded.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A shackle code is a cryptographic system used in radio communications on the battle field by the US military and the Rhodesian Army.\nIt is specialized for the transmission of numerals.\nEach of the letters of the English alphabet were assigned a numeric value.\nA number could have several letters assigned.\nThe assignation was changed frequently and required the distribution of the codes to each party in advance.\nWhen a party wanted to communicate a number, it radioed \"SHACKLE\" and it spelled out each digit (or combination of digits) using a word starting with the letter.\nThe end of the number was marked by the word \"UNSHACKLE\".\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A shadow box is an enclosed glass-front display case containing an object or objects presented in a thematic grouping with artistic or personal significance. The grouping of the objects and the depth effect created by their relative heights from the backing creates a dramatic visual result.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Operation Shahi Tandar, also called Operation Atal, was a series of operations by Coalition troops from the British 42 Commando Royal Marines, Royal Canadian Regiment, 2nd Battalion 2nd Infantry Regiment (United States), and the Afghan national military in central Helmand province and the Western Panjwayi and Western Zhari districts of Kandahar, Afghanistan from January 7\u201331, 2009.\nOne raid targeted a Taliban bomb-making factory in the Khakrez and Shah Wali Khot districts of Kandahar, Afghanistan, January 7\u20139, 2009.  In the raid, conducted by helicopter and armored vehicles, the coalition troops seized six large tubs of explosives along with 38 pressure plates used to detonate hidden mines.  Also seized were 3,000 rounds of ammunition, AK47s, anti-personnel mines and 22 rocket-propelled grenades.\nThe coalition troops reported that they captured eight Taliban bomb-makers and found 20 kg of opium with an estimated street value in Britain of \u00a3130,000.  A Canadian soldier, Trooper Brian Good, 42, was killed by a booby trap during the operation.  Lieutenant Colonel Charlie Strickland, commander of the 42 Commandos, stated that the operation had \"dealt a serious blow\" to the Taliban insurgency.\nIn another operation, approximately 700 troops from the Afghan National Army, and British, Danish, and Canadian forces cleared a Taliban stronghold near Spin Masjid, north of Lashkar Gar.  In the 10-day battle, the coalition claimed to have killed or chased away \"hundreds\" of Taliban insurgents, killed several Taliban leaders, and disarmed 15 improvised explosive devices (IEDs).  One British soldier, Corporal Danny Nield of 1st Battalion The Rifles, was killed by a rocket-propelled grenade (RPG), possibly fired by an Afghan National Army soldier. In addition to the Rifles, British forces included the 24 Commando Royal Engineers.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A shell scrape, also referred to as a \"shallow grave\" or \"ranger grave\", is a type of military earthwork both long and deep enough to lie flat in. While similar to a defensive fighting position in that the purpose is to shield a single soldier from artillery, mortar and direct small arms fire, it is not intended to be used for fighting from.\nShell scrapes are generally hastily excavated manually, with immediately available means such as the entrenching tool, and are temporary constructions. They are shallow, and large enough to accommodate at least a single soldier lying down or kneeling.  In some situations they can be dug to accommodate two soldiers and their equipment.  For protection from the elements a poncho is often tied off or staked out at the edges, or bungeed to a nearby tree.  This way a soldier can sleep in the shell scrape more comfortably with cover overhead.\nShell scrapes offer better concealment than traditional tarp bivouacs because the majority of the soldier's body mass is below ground level. This catches their body heat, making the harder to spot with thermal imagers.\nA properly prepared shell scrape should be deep enough that the soldier's entire body is beneath the level of the surrounding ground, thereby offering protection from both direct- and indirect-fire weapons. However, it provides little protection against indirect fire that bursts in the air or among the trees.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Ship-Shore-Ship Buffer (SSSB) is a real-time data link buffer system supporting data exchange between naval forces, including airborne assets, and their associated air defence ground environment units.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The siege of Freetown was a battle during the Sierra Leone Civil War. It began when Johnny Paul Koroma took over the power from Ahmad Tejan Kabbah and began a dictatorship. In response, ECOMOG troops, led by Nigeria, helped the Sierra Leone Army to attack and remove Koroma from power and Kabbah was elected back in post. In revenge, Koroma's allies, the RUF, assaulted the city but were forced to retreat.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The siege of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah was a siege laid upon Baathist Syrian government-controlled areas of the towns of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah by the Asayish forces of the AANES. The siege was enacted allegedly in response to the restrictions of exclusively SDF-controlled areas of the Shahba region and the restriction of movement and supplies to the YPG-controlled neighborhoods of Sheikh Maqsoud and Ashrafieh in Aleppo by the Syrian government.The siege was mainly centered in the Hasakah Security Box, and the neighborhoods of Halko and al-Tayy in Qamishli, preventing the entry of forces loyal to the Syrian government as well as supplies and fuel to the areas. The siege began on 10 January 2021 after the two sides failed to reach an agreement regarding a wide range of issues, including release of AANES prisoners.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Sieglinde was a sonar decoy used during the Second World War by German U-boats. Sieglinde was installed in chambers on the sides of the U-boat. It could be ejected to a considerable distance from the boat when attempting to hide from a seeker's sonar equipment. The Sieglinde was powered by electric motors, allowing it to move at 6 knots (11 km/h; 6.9 mph), and to periodically ascend or dive, thus imitating the sonar return of an actual submarine. This allowed the real U-boat to slip away quietly from pursuing ships. It was typically used in combination with Pillenwerfer (or Bold) decoys.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "SLDCOM is a satellite communications system operated by the U.S. National Reconnaissance Office and used by the United States Armed Forces. The space-based assets of the system were flown as part of the Satellite Launch Dispenser (SLD) hardware on several Titan IV rocket launches which also launched Naval Ocean Surveillance System (NOSS) satellites. The SLDCOM system provides bent pipe UHF communications.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Slovene Peasant Revolt (Slovene: slovenski kme\u010dki upor, German: Windischer Bauernbund) took place in 1515 and was the largest peasant revolt in the Slovene Lands. It engulfed most of what is now Slovenia as well as a significant portion of the province of Carinthia, which today is a part of Austria. There were about 80,000 rebels who demanded the reintroduction of the original feudal obligations and trade rights (the so-called \"old rights\"; Slovene: stara pravda) and a right to decide about the taxes. The spark which started this uprising was when the ethnic German peasants of the Gottschee region killed their lord Jorg von Thurn. They attacked the castles within the region, except in the territory of the County of G\u00f6rz, where conflicts were solved through negotiations. The revolt was put down by the mercenaries of the Holy Roman Empire, with the deciding battle fought at Celje. The words stara pravda were printed in 1515 in Vienna in a poem of the German mercenaries and were the first printed Slovene words.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Small boat operations in military and naval warfare refers to operations in and around the littoral zone, within a certain distance of shore, carried out by small but fast and highly maneuverable craft. In recent years small unmanned systems have been tested for use in this kind of warfare.\nThe role of these types of operations would be both offensive and defensive. Conventional navies have used small craft for hit-and-run type attacks and raids on enemy ships, shoreline and port facilities as far back as World War II (the German e-boats) and recent as the Iran\u2013Iraq War.\nFollowing suicide attacks on warships by terrorists such as in the Sri Lankan Civil War and the USS Cole bombing, navies have adapted specialized craft to maintain port security, patrol coastal and river line areas.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "SMART-T, short for Secure, Mobile, Anti-Jam, Reliable, Tactical-Terminal, is a communications terminal used by the United States Armed Forces (mainly the U.S. Army).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Red Cross and similar corps of social work organizations shaped military social work. Role of military social workers were important during the World Wars. Over one million soldiers were admitted to American Army hospitals for neuro-psychiatric problems in each wars. Commissioned status for social workers were achieved in 1945 but full status were given in the 1950s.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Somaliland National Army (Somali: Ciidanka Qaranka Somaliland, Arabic: \u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0634 \u0635\u0648\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0644\u0627\u0646\u062f\u064a), is the land force and largest branch of the Somaliland Armed Forces is based in the Somaliland capital of Hargeisa. There are approximately 60,000 active members and additional 4,000 in reserves. The Somaliland National Army is composed entirely of professionals and volunteers due to the army not being mandatory of conscription. Some Somaliland battalions operate near the Puntland border due to a border dispute.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Soviet partisan detachment (1941\u20141944) (Russian: \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f\u0434; Belarusian: \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u044b\u0437\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0456 \u0430\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0434), was the main organisational form of the Soviet partisan units.\nNumerical and structural complement of the partisan detachment varied, with usual number of about 100 to several hundred personnel, organised in the 3\u20144 companies, 3 platoons each, 3 sections each. Detachment was commanded by commander and commissary, who were aided by staff head and staff, and by deputies on recon, diversions and logistics with their respective sub-units. Bigger detachments had heavy weapons sub-units.\nEach detachment maintained primary structures of the Communist Party and Komsomol.\nFrom 9 September 1942 the Belorussian Headquarters of the Partisan Movement classified detachments by their numerical complement: 100\u2013150, 151\u2013350, 351 and more personnel.\nBy their objectives, detachments could be: common (unitary), diversionist-recon, cavalry, artillery, staff, reserve, local defense, marching.\nOn the BSSR territory 1255 distinguishable detachments had operated in 1941\u20131944, majority of them in the structures of the partisan brigades, but 203 separately.\nThe bigger detachment in certain conditions could be expanded into a partisan brigade, or into a partisan regiment.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Space Defense Center (SDC) was a space operation center of the North American Aerospace Defense Command. It was successively housed at two Colorado locations, Ent Air Force Base, followed by Cheyenne Mountain's Group III Space Defense Center  The 1st Aerospace Control Squadron manned the SDC at both locations, which used the Electronic Systems Division's 496L System for processing and displaying data combined from the U.S. \"Air Force's Space Track and the Navy's Spasur\" (NAVSPASUR).The photo is of a console introduced for the 427M system, the 496L inputs were only card readers and paper tape readers, the only output was from two large line printers.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military slang, a spider hole is a type of camouflaged one-man foxhole, used for observation.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The stability\u2013instability paradox is an international relations theory regarding the effect of nuclear weapons and mutually assured destruction. It states that when two countries each have nuclear weapons, the probability of a direct war between them greatly decreases, but the probability of minor or indirect conflicts between them increases. This occurs because rational actors want to avoid nuclear wars, and thus they neither start major conflicts nor allow minor conflicts to escalate into major conflicts\u2014thus making it safe to engage in minor conflicts. For instance, during the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union never engaged each other in warfare, but fought proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Angola, the Middle East, Nicaragua and Afghanistan and spent substantial amounts of money and manpower on gaining relative influence over the third world.A study published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution in 2009 quantitatively evaluated the nuclear peace hypothesis, and found support for the existence of the stability\u2013instability paradox. The study determined that while nuclear weapons promote strategic stability, and prevent large scale wars, they simultaneously allow for more lower intensity conflicts. When one state has nuclear weapons, but their opponent does not, there is a greater chance of war. In contrast, when there is mutual nuclear weapon ownership with both states possessing nuclear weapons, the odds of war drop precipitously.This effect can be seen in the India\u2013Pakistan relationship and to some degree in Russia\u2013NATO relations.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Stabilization is a dynamic to stabilize a region deemed unstable, as part of counter-insurgency in a war.  Stabilization programs can include local development activities, like building roads and bridges, water wells, schools, and clinics in remote areas. However, there needs to be an understanding of the situation at the beginning of the intervention (a \"baseline\") in order to measure stability and any improvements\nHeadquarters Rapid Reaction Corps \u2013 France has used a definition of stabilization which runs \"creating the necessary conditions for the normalisation of the situation, particularly in the field of security, and thereby enabling functioning state institutions.\"", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Stabilization, Security, Transition, and Reconstruction Operations (SSTRO) are a U.S. Department of Defense doctrinal concept. They are military operations designed to establish a safe, secure environment and simultaneously work with the inter-agency, coalition, multinational, and host nation partners to support the establishment of a new domestic social order in countries where a national government is weak, corrupt, incompetent and has no governing authority.\nA triggering shock can seriously exacerbate the already difficult situation, producing widespread suffering, growing popular grievance, and often civil unrest, all of which can be intensified by several interrelated factors: the absence of key government functions, widespread lawlessness, poor economic performance, pronounced economic disparities, and in some cases, a serious external threat.\nOnce such difficult conditions emerge, the drivers of instability and conflict tend to reinforce one another, creating a degenerating cycle in which conditions continue to deteriorate, and the feelings of insecurity and the grievances of the local population intensify.  Without a countervailing force to break this cycle, these developments can eventually destabilize the interlinked political, economic, and social systems that make up the fabric of a society.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Staffel (pronounced [\u02c8\u0283tafl\u0329], ultimately from Proto-Germanic *stapul, \"pillar\") is a military organization in German-speaking militaries. \n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Staggered column is a military formation often used for walking along roads where squad members will walk in a zig-zag pattern.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "STANAG 1236 Glide Slope Indicators for Helicopter Operations from NATO Ships is a NATO Standardization Agreement which establishes minimum standard requirements for the nomenclature; light characteristics; beam spread and elevation; intensity and intensity control; stabilisation; and installation of glideslope indicators used in helicopter operations between ships of NATO nations.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "STANAG 1472 NVD (Night Vision Device) Compatible Flight Deck Status Displays on Single Ships is a NATO Standardization Agreement which provides guidance in the design of NVD compatible Flight Deck status displays to promote maximum commonality between operating nations.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "STANAG 3350 (Analogue Video Standard for Aircraft System Applications) is a NATO analog video Standardization Agreement for military aircraft avionics.\nVideo-capable sensors such as radars, FLIR, or video-guided missiles often provide a STANAG 3350 video output. STANAG3350 video is supplied as a component RGB signal with timing similar to a corresponding civilian composite video standard such as NTSC, PAL, or RS-343. Only the vertical and carrier frequency of the signal are defined by the standard, the horizontal resolution can vary from one implementation to another and still satisfy the STANAG 3350 standard.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "STANAG 4626 is a NATO Standardization Agreement which defines a set of Open Architecture Standards for Avionics Architecture, particularly in the field of Integrated Modular Avionics. The purpose of this standard is to establish uniform requirements for the architecture for Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) systems as defined by the ASAAC program. A reference implementation is on SourceForge under an Apache license.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "STANAG 5066 (Profile for High Frequency (HF) Radio Data Communication) is a NATO Standardization Agreement specification to enable applications to communicate efficiently over HF radio.\nSTANAG 5066 provides peer protocols that operate above an HF modem and below the application level. STANAG 5066 includes the mandatory SIS (Subnet Interface Sublayer, sometimes called Subnet Interface Service) protocol that enables an application to connect to an HF modem through a STANAG 5066 server over TCP/IP. This enables a clean separation between application and modem.\nThe standard also defines two more layers, CAS which is intended to establish connections to other HF nodes and control the status of these connections, and DTS, which controls all the data manipulation for transmission (slicing, directioning, timing...) and the reconstruction in reception.\nThere are two basic modes of transmission defined by this standard. ARQ and NON-ARQ.\n\nARQ uses package confirmation (through ACK response packages), and sliding window technique, which size is 128 elements. The \"sending-services\" can also have delivery confirmation of every package they send. It is necessarily a point-to-point protocol. It can be compared to TCP.\nNON-ARQ is a transmission mode in which the receiver node does not confirm the well-reception of the received packages. Receivers try to compose corrupted parts from future receptions, if it is impossible, the STANAG 5066 defines that the package has to be dispatched, and mark it with the known errored parts. This transmission mode allows to use point-to-point, point-to-group and broadcast. It can be compared to UDP in the IP philosophy.STANAG 5066 defines a SIS-to-SIS package size of 2048 bytes maximum, when using point-to-point transmitting mode (ARQ or NON-ARQ), and 4096 bytes when using broadcast (NON-ARQ only).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The State Defense Council is the military command committee of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (ChRI), established by the separatist government of Dzhokhar Dudayev in 1992.\nThe State Defense Committee was established in a combined emergency session of the ChRI Parliament and Government on September 23, 1999, as a consequence of the Russian attack on Chechnya. Its task was to take over the highest executive power in the country during the period of martial law, while Parliament and Government are temporarily unable to work under normal and regular conditions.\nIt was later reformed and renamed State Defense Council Majlis al-Shura under Aslan Maskhadov in 2002, when Shamil Basayev was chosen as the Council leader.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In a static battle, both sides suffer heavy casualties and battlefronts move so slowly that the result is \"static\" (a lack of change). Movement is limited by the number of casualties.\nExamples from history include:\n\nthe Battle of Moyry Pass (Nine Years' War)\nthe Battle of the Somme (World War I)\nthe Battle of Ypres (World War I)\nthe Battle of Stalingrad (World War II)", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Strategic stability is a concept in the international relations indicating a lack of incentives for any party to initiate the nuclear first strike; the term is also used in a broader sense of the state of the international environment helping to avoid a war. Strategic stability characterizes the degree of the deterrence provided by the mutual assured destruction and depends on the survivability of the strategic forces after the first strike.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Strong Europe Tank Challenge (SETC) was an annual, multinational tank platoon competition held from 2016 to 2018 at Grafenw\u00f6hr Training Area, Germany, and hosted by the U.S. Army Europe and the German Army.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military tactics, a strongpoint is a key point in a defensive fighting position which anchors the overall defense line. This may include redoubts, bunkers, pillboxes, trenches or fortresses, alone or in combination; the primary requirement is that it should not be easily overrun or avoided.  A blocking position in good defensive terrain commanding the lines of communication, such as high ground, is preferred.  Examples from history include Thermopylae, where the ancient Greeks held back a much larger Persian army, and Monte Cassino, which anchored the Winter Line in Italy in World War II.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Stubborn Army (simplified Chinese: \u987d\u519b; traditional Chinese: \u9811\u8ecd; pinyin: w\u00e1nj\u016bn) is the term used by the Chinese Communist Party during the Second Sino-Japanese War, referring to the armies of the Stubborn gang of Kuomintang (being part of the National Revolutionary Army, now the Republic of China Armed Forces), which were against the Communist Party. \nThe Stubborn Army being mentioned by the Communist Party usually refers to the Kuomintang armies which were inhibiting the development of the Communist Party during the Second Sino-Japanese War, part of them took part in fighting the Japanese. Whenever the Chinese Communist army had a conflict with these armies, the Communists called them \"Stubborn Armies\", which means \"stubbornly anti-Communist\".", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Subterranean warfare is warfare carried out under the ground surface.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Sugar Tree is the name of a bistatic radar Over-the-horizon radar built by the US in the 1960s. The key idea in Sugar Tree was a reinvention of Klein Heidelberg Nazi German radar system developed for use in the Second World War. Sugar Tree was a \"covert hitchhiker using Soviet, surface-wave HF radio broadcast signals and a remote sky-wave receiver to detect Soviet ballistic missile launches\". The key idea, in other words, is to receive radar reflexions without oneself transmitting a radar signal by using instead some other signal, typically one that originates from the adversary.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Supply Corps is a branch of a country's military which is in charge of logistics and supply procurement to the armed forces.  The term is also used by private corporations but on a much rarer basis.\nIn the United States armed forces, each branch of service has its own supply corps.  The United States Army refers to the organization as the Quartermaster Corps while the U.S. Navy operates a group known as the Navy Supply Corps.\nIn most militaries, the Supply Corps are considered staff officers meaning that they have no command authority over troops in the field or ships at sea.  In the modern age, however, some logistics commands (such as Commander Naval Logistics Forces Korea) have such a forward deployed manpower base that they are considered equal to front line combat units. The supply corps are responsible for supply logistics for combat and non-combat missions. e.g., securing supplies, materials and equipment required by for combat units.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Supply depots are a type of military installation used by militaries to store battlefield supplies temporarily on or near the front lines until they can be distributed to military units. Supply depots are responsible for nearly all other types of materiel, except ammunition.\nSupply depots are usually run by a logistics officer who is responsible for allocating supplies as necessary to units who request them.\nDue to their vulnerability, supply depots are often the targets of enemy raids. In more modern times, depots have been targeted by long range artillery, long-range missiles, and bomber aircraft, due to the advantage that disrupted logistics can give to a belligerent force.\nTypes of supply depots include base, station, forward, and reserve supply depots.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Surrendered Enemy Personnel (SEP) is a designation for captive enemy soldiers (similar to Disarmed Enemy Forces). It was most commonly used by British forces towards German forces in Europe, and towards Japanese and associated forces in Asia after the end of World War II.\nOn March 1, 1947 the U.S. stated that the SEPs should be regarded as POW's and be treated in accordance with the Geneva conventions.The designation of SEP allowed the Royal Navy to use the German command structure to facilitate the disbandment of the Kriegsmarine.In the Malay Emergency the UK also used the definition SEP, alongside Captured Enemy Personnel (CEP). The distinction made was that SEP were insurgents who  surrendered to the British, while Captured Enemy Personnel were not.  Both designations were treated as Prisoners of War.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Svinfylking, Old Norse for 'Swine Array' or 'Boar Snout', was a version of the wedge formation used in Iron Age Scandinavia and later by the Vikings, and used by the Germanic peoples during the Germanic Iron Age where it was known as the \"Schweinskopf\" or 'Swine's Head'. Its invention was attributed to the god Odin.The apex was composed of a single file. The number of warriors then increases by a constant in each rank back to its base. Families and tribesmen were ranked side by side and this added moral cohesion. The tactic was admirable for an advance against a line or even a column, but it was poor in the event of a retreat.The formation consisted of heavily armed, presumably hand-to-hand warriors and less-armored archers grouped in a triangle formation with the warriors in the front lines protecting the archers in center or rear. Cavalry charging a group in Svinfylking formation were frequently attacked by the outer warriors with spears causing complete chaos among the horses. The swine array could also be used as a wedge to break through enemy lines. Several Svinfylking formations can be grouped side by side, appearing something like a zig-zag, to press or break the opposition's ranks. The weakness of the swine array was that it could not handle flanking. The swine array was based on a monumental shock. If the swine array did not break the enemy lines immediately, then the warriors in the swine array would not hold long.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Swiss Raid Commando was a military competition. It was discontinued after the 18th edition in 2009 due to economic constraints. The competition's motto was \"Vouloir, Croire et Oser\" (\"Want, Believe and Dare\").\nThe raiders competed in teams of 4, in which at least one patrol member was required to be either an officer or an NCO. Strong infantry training, excellent physical condition as well as analytical and above-average judgment skills were vital. During each edition, an average of 650 soldiers competed, most of whom came from elite troops from 15 different countries.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In a synthetic environment, the synthetic human-made environment (SHME) is the representation (i.e. modeling) of buildings, bridges, roads, and other man-made structures.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Tactical Assault Camouflage, also called TACAM, is a 2004 camouflage pattern exclusively used by the National Counterterrorism Center of the United States.The pattern was designed as an experiment to show the ability of fractal patterns, breaking up a soldier's outline and symmetry. The fractal pattern and harsh geometric figures in the pattern meld well in urban and suburban areas, where it is used.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Tactical Control is a term originating in the British Army to refer to a class of medium-range radar systems. They are generally used for controlling the airspace around a set location on the ground, sometimes a dispersed battery of anti-aircraft artillery or surface-to-air missiles, but they also found use as air traffic control systems around airbases. They generally have a high pulse repetition frequency and rotate quickly in order to provide rapid updates at the expense of reduced range.\nIn the Army, these radars were initially grouped into the Radar, AA, No. 4 classification, with several Marks of such systems being used from the early World War II period into the early 1960s. The main purpose of these radars was to provide early warning to weapons crews, as well as \"putting on\" information so they could aim their gun laying radars in the general direction of the target. In the post-war era, this data was handed off electronically.\nWhen the RAF took over many of the Army's air defence duties in 1953, they also took over some of the Army's former radar systems, including their new tactical control system, Orange Yeoman. They assigned these an Air Ministry Experimental Station (AMES) number and generally referred to them by this number, Type 82. The term \"tactical control\" remained in use during this period, and has seen some usage by other forces.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A Tactical Engagement Simulation (TES) is a training system for using weapons. Laser transmitters are typically used instead of bullets, larger rounds, or shorter-range guided weapons such as anti-tank missiles.  A laser transmitter is mounted on the weapon and aligned with the weapon's barrel. However, some engagement simulators are capable of also utilizing live firing in order to increase the fidelity of the training simulation.Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is often used as the stimulated medium and this produces a wavelength of 904 nanometres, in the near infrared band outside the sensitivity of the human eye which is from about 400 to 700 nm (0.4 to 0.7 micrometres).\nIn modern TES systems the laser transmission is coded so that in a field exercise, individual weapons can be identified by exercise control (EXCON) and appropriate calculations made of gravity drop, warhead damage radius and so forth.\nWeapons as small as hand guns can be part of a TES system as can larger weapons including tanks and large calibre guns.  In field exercises, the laser transmitters can trigger cartridge-based Weapon effects simulation (WES) devices mounted on potential targets such as tanks and other vehicles.  WES systems include pyrotechnic flash/bang and smoke devices that add realism to a field exercise.\nAll these events are recorded on the exercise computer.  After-Action Review (AAR) can include comprehensive analysis of weapon firing, accuracy and warhead effects on the targets.  Such techniques have taken much speculation out of the assessment of field exercises and have resulted in more realistic training than used to be available other than by using (dangerous) live firing.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A tactical formation (or order) is the arrangement or deployment of moving military forces such as infantry, cavalry, AFVs, military aircraft, or naval vessels. Formations were found in tribal societies such as the \"pua rere\" of the M\u0101ori, and ancient or medieval formations which include shield walls (skjaldborg in Old Norse), phalanxes (lines of battle in close order), Testudo formation and skirmishers. \nTactical formations include:\n\nColumn\nLine\nSquare\nWedge and inverted wedge\nEchelon\nV formation\nStaggered column\nCoil\nHerringbone\nSkirmish\nVanguard\nBox", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Tactical Ground Intercept Facility (TGIF) is a United States Military Intelligence collection platform. It was a two piece collection platform with digital audio receivers on a high altitude reconnaissance aircraft which use microwaves to redirect the intercepted audio back to linguists and ELINT specialists on the ground to provide near-real-time intelligence for theater commanders.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A tactical operations center (TOC) is a command post for police, paramilitary, or military operations. A TOC usually includes a small group of specially trained officers or military personnel who guide members of an active tactical element during a mission.\nMost permanent tactical operations centers are highly technical and contain a number of advanced computer systems for monitoring operational progress and maintaining communications with operators in the field. One of the best-known TOCs is NORAD which houses the North American Military Aerospace Defense operations.TOC Officers are usually positioned in a way that enables line-of-sight communication between team members, as well as overall communication with the TOC operations officer (or commander). Common configurations include center-facing monitors and against the wall monitors. Larger TOCs have a location where senior leaders are able to sit and observe operations of subordinate units. Smaller TOCs and field TOCs can be created in the back of vans and trucks, as well as in tents and buildings by setting up computers and linking in communication equipment.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Miroslav Talijan (Serbian Cyrillic: \u041c\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432 \u0422\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0458\u0430\u043d; born 10 August 1970 in Smederevska Palanka) is a brigadier general of the Serbian Army. He is the current commander of the 72nd Brigade for Special Operations and a former chief of the Military Academy.He was the commander of the elite anti-terrorist Battalion \"Sokolovi\", then the deputy commander of the Cobras, and then focused on education, so he became one of the youngest doctor of sciences in the Serbian Armed Forces. Having fought in the Kosovo War, he is one of the few special forces members who took part in combat operations and managed to get a doctorate on the same topic.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Tamil Eelam Army is a defunct  Tamil separatist group in Sri Lanka. It was founded by Panagoda Maheswaran. It was implicated in a bomb attack against a Sri Lankan airliner at Madras airport in India. It was disbanded after that incident.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Tank plinking is the military practice of using precision-guided munitions to destroy artillery, armored personnel carriers, tanks, and other targets. The term was coined by pilots during the Gulf War, but discouraged by the military. As the war progressed, the term began to encompass all forms of destroying a target with an excessively capable weapon.General Norman Schwarzkopf was looking for a plan to incapacitate 50% of the Iraqi army before any ground invasion could begin. Planning was performed including high intensity air strikes with General Dynamics F-111, A-6 Intruder, F-15E Strike Eagle, F/A-18 Hornet, AV-8 Harrier, A-10 Thunderbolt II, and F-16 Falcon crews. This culminated in December 1990, with Operation Night Camel in which air crews of the F-111 evaluated the ability of aircraft to use guided munitions with the LANTIRN and Pave Tack target designation systems from medium altitude.\nThis is a deviation from standard military air engagement.  Due to the prevalence of surface-to-air missiles, most aviators would prefer to engage a target from either a very high altitude, or a very low altitude, and certainly with low observability aircraft. However, the Iraqi defenses proved very inadequate. The winning combination for the eventual campaign was either a pair or quartet of F-111F aircraft loaded with four GBU-12 500 lb (230 kg), laser-guided bombs. Bombs were designated for entrenched, hard targets, and for softer targets (e.g. armoured personnel carriers).", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A targeteer is a military or intelligence officer responsible for planning and coordinating bombardment-type attacks.  Duties include identifying critical elements or vulnerable points, estimating collateral damage, selecting munitions required, and submitting targets to commanders. After an attack, the targeteer is responsible for battle damage assessment to establish whether the strike had the desired effect.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Technical performance measures (TPM) is a term used by the US military to refer to key technical goals that needed to be met, where the technical goals were vital for the functioning of a system in its environment.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "TEREM - HOLDING JSC (Cyrillic: \u0422\u0415\u0420\u0415\u041c) is a state-owned company of the Bulgarian Ministry of Defence specialized in repairs, modernization and logistical support of aviation equipment, ships and vessels, armored vehicles, small arms, artillery and missiles weapons, ammunition, radar and communication equipment.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Many attacks occurred in 2020 in Iraq. They left at least 34 people dead and another 24 were injured. An insurgent was also killed.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A thermographic weapon sight, thermal imagery scope or thermal weapon sight is a sighting device combining a compact thermographic camera and an aiming reticle. They can be mounted on a variety of small arms as well as some heavier weapons.As with regular ultraviolet sensors, thermal weapon sights can operate in total darkness. The thermal scope can be quite useful in places with snow as the extreme difference in temperatures between the snow and any source of heat (such as a human) creates a high visual contrast between the two. This makes it easy to locate any source of heat against its low-temperature background.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Time on target (TOT) is the military co-ordination of artillery fire by many weapons so that all the munitions arrive at the target at roughly the same time. The military standard for coordinating a time-on-target strike is plus or minus three seconds from the prescribed time of impact.\nIn terms of target area, the historical standard was for the impact to occur within one circular error probable (CEP) of the designated target. CEP is the area on and around the target where most of the rounds will impact and therefore cause the maximum damage. The CEP depends on the caliber of the weapon, with larger caliber munitions having greater CEPs or greater damage on the target area. With the advent of \"smart\" munitions and more accurate firing technology, CEP is now less of a factor in the target area.\nIn terms of time, Time on target may also refer to the period of time that a radar illuminates a target during a scan. It is closely associated with Dwell time. There may be multiple dwell periods within the Time on Target period.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Tiwintza detachment (also known as the Tiwinza detachment or Falso Tiwinza) was an Ecuadorian military outpost involved in the Cenepa War in Peruvian territory,  between Ecuador and Peru in 1995. The post had been a focal point of the war over disputed border claims; the settlement of the war resulted in the post and remaining Peruvian, but with its \u201cnon-sovereign ownership\u201d transferred to Ecuador, allowing it to fly the Ecuadorian flag.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A ton container is a steel, cylindrical barrel equivalent in length and diameter to two stacked 55-gallon drums. A ton container weighs approximately 1,600 pounds and measures nearly seven feet in length.The United States Army has used ton containers to store and ship bulk chemicals, including chemical agent, since the 1930s.\nTon containers are also used to store chemicals in water treatment plants.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Torpedo defence includes evasive maneuvers, passive defense like torpedo belts, torpedo nets, torpedo bulges and active defenses, like anti-torpedo torpedoes similar in idea to missile defense systems. Surface Ship Torpedo Defense and Countermeasure Anti-Torpedo systems are highly experimental and the US Navy ended trials on them in 2018.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military contexts, a train is the logistical transport elements accompanying a military force. Often called a supply train or baggage train, it has the job of providing materiel for their associated combat forces when in the field. When focused on provision of field artillery and its ammunition, it may be termed an artillery train. For sieges, the addition of siege engines to an artillery train was called a siege train. These military terms predate, and do not imply a railway train, though railways are often employed for modern logistics, and can include armoured trains.  \nFor armies, this historically usually referred to forces employing wagons, horses, mules, oxen, camels, or even elephants. These can still be useful where difficult weather or topography limit use of railways, trucks, sealift, or airlift.\nThe United States Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms defined the term \"train\" as:\n\nA service force or group of service elements that provides logistic support, e.g., an organization of naval auxiliary ships or merchant ships or merchant ships attached to a fleet for this purpose; similarly, the vehicles and operating personnel that furnish supply, evacuation, and maintenance services to a land unit.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A tripflare is a device used by military forces to secure an area and to guard against infiltration. It consists of tripwire around the area, linked to one or more flares. When the tripwire is triggered, as by someone unsuspectingly disturbing it, the flare is activated and begins burning. The light from the flare simultaneously warns that the perimeter may have been breached and also gives light for investigating. In defensive operations, tripflares are usually placed in predetermined kill zones with machine guns sighted on them.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "In military tactics, a turning movement is a form of maneuver in which the attacking force seeks to avoid the enemy's principal defensive positions by seizing objectives behind the enemy's current positions, thereby causing the enemy force to move out of their current positions or divert major forces to meet the threat. One early example is the Battle of Lake Trasimene during the Second Punic War.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "An undeclared war is a military conflict between two or more nations without either side issuing a formal declaration of war. The term is sometimes used to include any disagreement or conflict fought about without an official declaration. Since the United Nations police action in Korea, a number of democratic governments have pursued disciplinary actions and limited warfare by characterizing them as something else such as a military action or armed response.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "An unditching beam is a device that is used to aid in the recovery of armoured fighting vehicles when they become bogged or \"ditched\". The device is a beam that is attached to the continuous tracks that provides additional traction for the vehicle to extricate itself from a ditch or from boggy conditions.\nThe unditching beam was first introduced into service during the First World War with the British Mark IV tank. It is believed the device was designed by Philip Johnson who was serving as an engineering officer at the British Army's depot at \u00c9rin, originally the device weighed one-half long ton (0.51 t) and was constructed of a solid beam of oak with two large steel plates bolted to two sides to provide protection. When not in use it was stowed on two rails mounted on the roof of the tank that ran the entire length of the vehicle, and when employed the beam was chained to the tank's tracks, giving the vehicle something firm to drive over.Unditching beams remain a commonly carried standard ancillary on a number of Russian produced armoured fighting vehicles.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The unditching roller is a device fitted to the front of military vehicles, such as the M3 Scout Car and the M3 half-track, for the purpose of preventing the vehicle from getting stuck in an obstacle, such as a ditch.\nUpon entering a ditch, the roller prevents the front of the vehicle digging in to the opposite face of the ditch, instead the roller acting as a wide wheel enabling the front to climb out of the ditch more easily.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Uni\u00f3n de Industrias Militares (UIM, English: Union of Military Industries) is the state owned military\u2013industrial complex in Cuba. It is responsible for the repair of the weaponry and technology of the ground, air and naval units of the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces as well as the production of light weapons for infantry, ammunition, mines and other equipment. The UIM also devotes part of its production and service capacity to serving other requirements of the Cuban economy.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Virtual war signifies the increased use of and dependence on technology in the course of warfare. It includes the time/space separation between an attacker and the intended target which results in the \"sanitization\" of war. The concept has gained notoriety amongst policy makers and academics who study the Revolution in Military Affairs. James Der Derian, in his book Virtuous War: Mapping the Military-Industrial-Media-Entertainment Network elaborates extensively on the concept of Virtual War and the consequences of increased technological integration within modern militaries.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A voluntary reservist (Spanish: Reservista voluntario) of the Armed Forces of Spain is a Spanish citizen who manages to obtain one of the places that are offered by the Ministry of Defense in order to participate in the different missions carried out by the Armed Forces in the commitments assumed by the Government of Spain.\nA reservist maintains their commitment for three years, with the possibility to re-sign for new commitments, provided that the following ages are not exceeded:\n\nup to 61 years for Officers and NCOs;\nup to 58 years for Enlisted.The Voluntary Reservist remains for the duration of their commitment in a situation of \"availability\", developing their \"civil\" life and profession, and passing annually through periods of \"activation\" that serve to maintain and improve their military qualification and training.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Waller Gunnery Trainer was a simulator for training World War II aerial gunners using multiple film projectors. Its inventor, Fred Waller, later invented the Cinerama film format.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "War & Society is an international scholarly journal focused on warfare and society. It is published quarterly in England by Taylor & Francis since 1984.  It is edited by the School of Humanities and Social Sciences at the University of New South Wales, Canberra  by Associate Professor Eleanor Hancock.  Seven historians from the United States and the United Kingdom make up the editorial board. It is indexed by major services; Print ISSN: 0729-2473 Online ISSN: 2042-4345.  Its \"impact factor\" in 2018 was 0.219.A finding aid to the papers of War & Society\nis available at UNSW Canberra.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A war college is a senior military academy which is normally intended for veteran military officers and whose purpose is to educate and 'train on' senior military tacticians, strategists, and leaders. It is also often the place where advanced tactical and strategic thought is conducted, both for the purpose of developing doctrine and for the purpose of identifying implications and shifts in long-term patterns.\nExamples:\n\nWar College of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces\nArmy War College, Mhow of the Indian Army\nNaval War College, Goa of the Indian Navy\nCollege of Air Warfare of the Indian Air Force\nImperial Japanese Army War College\nImperial Japanese Naval War College\nPAF Air War College (Pakistan)\nPakistan Navy War College\nNational Defence College (Bangladesh)\nUnited States Air War College\nUnited States Army War College\nUnited States Marine Corps War College\nUnited States National War College\nUnited States Naval War College\nRoyal Naval War College (UK)", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "War In History is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers in the field of History. The journal's editors are Simon Ball (University of Leeds), Mary Kathryn Barbier (Mississippi State University), Phillips O\u2019Brien (University of Glasgow) and the late Dennis Showalter (Colorado College).  It has been in publication since 1994 and is published by SAGE Publications.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Brunswick War Merit Cross (German: Braunschweigisches Kriegsverdienstkreuz) also known as the Ernst-Augustkreuz, was a military decoration of the Duchy of Brunswick.  The Cross was established 23 October 1914 by Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick.  The cross was awarded to all ranks for distinction in war.  On 20 March 1918, a first class of the Cross was created in pinback form, with the existing Cross becoming the second class.  This brought the Cross in line with awards of other German States like Prussia with the Iron Cross.  The cross was awarded on a blue ribbon with yellow stripes for combatants and on a yellow ribbon with blue stripes for non-combatants.\nThe Brunswick War Merit Cross is a bronze cross patt\u00e9e.  At the center of the Cross on the obverse are the letters EA for Duke Ernest Augustus.  On the horizontal arms of the cross are sprays of oak leaves.  The top arm of the cross bears the Brunswick crown, with the date 1914 on the lower arm of the cross.  On the reverse is the inscription in three lines F\u00fcr, Verdienst im, Kriege (For Merit in War) on the top, horizontal and lower arms of the cross, respectively.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A war referendum is a proposed type of referendum in which citizens would decide whether a nation should go to war. No such referendum has ever taken place. The earliest idea of a war referendum came from the Marquis de Condorcet in 1793 and Immanuel Kant in 1795.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "War-weariness is the public or political disapproval for the continuation of a prolonged conflict or war. The causes normally involve the intensity of casualties\u2014financial, civilian, and military. It also occurs when a belligerent has the ability to leave the conflict easily but continues to stay. War-weariness normally leads to a distrust in government or military leadership and can spark protest and anti-war movements. It can also be fueled when a belligerent is found guilty of war crimes, which can create domestic and international backlash. Rates of enlistment and the morale of the armed-forces are often affected by war-weariness.\nWar-weariness is less likely to appear in military dictatorships, especially those with heavy propaganda and censorship. According to Immanuel Kant, democratic nations have a better chance of having unpopular news of the war reach the masses, which increases their chance and level of war-weariness.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Warfare systems are tactical systems and tactical mission-support systems, such as weapons, sensors, command and control, navigation, aviation support systems, mission planning, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, interior and exterior communications, topside design, and warfare system networks. Warfare systems may be found on naval vessels, military aircraft and other military hardware.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Wastage was a British term used during the First World War. The term adapted Carl von Clausewitz's concept of 'Verbrauch' which, akin to wastage, also means the consumption of losses in terms of men, materials, and territories. It was used to describe the losses from those killed, injured, or from the loss of resources experienced during the war either when an attack advanced or when men died holding a defensive position. The British military also used the term to describe weapons left on the battlefield by fallen soldiers. On the \"quietest days\" of the war, the British lost an approximate average of 7,000 men killed and wounded per day to wastage.\nFrom 1915, British recruitment officials began to target certain sectors of the public, namely younger unmarried working-class men, for enlistment to fill quotas of the expected wastage losses in battles anticipated later in the war. This practice extended to include conscripts taken to fill the wastage recruitment quotas beginning in 1916.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "WATCHCON (Watch Condition) is an alert state system used by and coordinated between the South Korean armed forces and United States Department of Defense to measure reconnaissance posture, utilized often in matters concerning North Korea.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Weapon Effects Simulation (WES) is the creation of artificial weapons effects such as flashes, bangs and smoke during military training exercises.  It is used in combination with Tactical engagement simulation (TES), which uses laser projection for training purposes instead of bullets and missiles.  Typically, an accurate laser \"shot\" hitting a target such as a tank, will trigger cartridge-based WES equipment fitted to the tank which will give a flash, bang and smoke, signifying a hit in the exercise scenario.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A weapons platform is generally any structure, vehicle or mechanism on which a weapon can be installed (via various mounting mechanisms) for optimal stability and performance. The mounted weapons, the platform and all other associated supporting equipments together form the weapon system.\nIn more general use, a weapons platform could be structured around a gun, such as a gun turret on a ship, or bracing on an aircraft. For example, a jet aircraft is a weapons platform for missiles, bombs or autocannons, and the resultant weapon system is the fighter jet; a motorboat can serve as a weapons platform for automatic weapons, torpedoes and flamethrowers, resulting in weapon systems such as gunboats and fast attack crafts. Land vehicles, either wheeled, tracked or mixed, are also considered weapons platforms for grenade launchers, machine guns, recoilless guns and some missile launchers, which transform the vehicles into weapon systems such as armored cars (such as the Humvee), IFVs and technicals (improvised from civilian pickup trucks). In addition, artificial satellites have been proposed as potential space weapon platforms. These satellites could carry an arsenal of weapons, such as to threaten other countries with the possibility of an orbital nuclear strike (see Rods from God).\nThe earliest weapons platforms were chariots, followed by war wagons. The ancient Greek Helepolis, a massive siege tower which mounted catapults, could also be considered a weapons platform. The next attempt to mount weapons on platforms was made at sea, with catapults and eventually cannon mounted on their final form as ships of the line before the advent of ironclad warships mounting turrets.\nOn land, the attempt to mount weapons on mobile platforms in the modern period was first made with railway guns. These, as forms of artillery, were the last vestiges of development of the super-weapon thinking before the advent of the tanks that changed the use of weapons platforms in warfare, although the largest railway guns were still used during the Second World War on the Eastern Front.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "The Westinghouse AN/GPA-35 Ground Environment (GPA-35 colloq.) was a surface-to-air missile weapons direction system for Cold War launch and steering during CIM-10 Bomarc tests.   The command guidance system manufactured by Westinghouse Electric Corporation used Bendix AN/FPS-20 Radar data to track the missile, and Lincoln Laboratory Division 6 had an \"AN/GPA-35 Study Group\" for integrating the AN/GPA-35 into the SAGE System. Notable launches with GPA-35 guidance included  (e.g., at the Eastern Range):\n\n1956 October\u2014Six launches were used to test the AN/GPA-35 capability to command BOMARC intercept of QB-17 drones.\n1957 October\u2014A BOMARC test with \"live high-explosive warhead\" failed when the GPA-35 commanded \"faulty mid-course guidance\".\n1958 May 1 -- The \"GPA-35 could not control the missile beyond 130 miles.\"\n1958 August 7 -- A GPA-35 took control of an airborne BOMARC from the Experimental SAGE Sector, and the missile malfunctioned and crashed into the Atlantic Ocean.\n1959 March 6 -- A straying BOMARC was self-destructed near the western boundary of the \"Eglin Gulf Test Range\" after a GPA-35 had transmitted the wrong commands.\n1959 April 13\u2014The GPA-35 lost control of the missile 100 seconds after launch.\n1959 April 24\u2014GPA-35 control was used for simultaneous guidance of 2 BOMARCS.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A wet sub is a type of underwater vehicle, either a submarine or a submersible, that does not provide a dry environment for its occupants. It is also described as an underwater vehicle where occupants are exposed to ambient environment during operations. The watercraft is classified as medium-sized or small vessel. This type of submarine differs from other underwater personal transport devices by the fact that it has a hull around it and it is not a \"bare bones\" design.\nUsually, scuba divers ride outside the device as one would ride a motorcycle or in a semi-enclosed opening like a kayak or bobsled, although it can be designed to fully enclose its occupant(s) to reduce drag. An enclosed vehicle may also provide a dry viewing chamber for the occupant(s). The sub is generally propelled by an electric motor and is battery powered. The depth and endurance is typically limited by the requirements of the divers, particularly water temperature and breathable air.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "A white fleet comprises the non-combat vehicles of armed forces.  Such vehicles include vans, minibuses, coach buses, touring recruitment vehicles, and staff cars for high-ranking  officers.\nThe term \"white fleet\" sees use in several countries - including Australia, New Zealand, and the UK - with reference to fleet management of the defence vehicular assets. The concept contrasts with combat vehicles - the so-called green fleet.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Who Dares Wins (Latin: Qui audet adipiscitur; Greek: \u039f \u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03bc\u03ce\u03bd \u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac, O tolm\u00f3n nik\u00e1; French: Qui ose gagne; Italian: Chi osa vince; Portuguese: Quem ousa vence; German: Wer wagt, gewinnt) is a motto made popular in the English-speaking world by the British Special Air Service.The German: Wer wagt, gewinnt is attested from at least the 18th century. Slight variations go back further. The same is likely true of other languages.\nAs motto of the SAS it is normally credited to its founder, Sir David Stirling. Among the SAS themselves, it is sometimes humorously corrupted to \"Who cares [who] wins?\".The expression appears in a medieval Arabic book of fairy tales translated and published in 2014.The catchphrase \"He Who Dares Wins\" was commonly used by Del Boy in British sitcom Only Fools and Horses.  The shortened form \"Qui Audet\" is also heard on the second episode of Pennyworth.\nThe motto has been used by twelve elite special forces units around the world that in some way have historical ties to the British SAS. Of related interest, the Canadian Special Service Force (SSF), which included the Canadian Airborne Regiment, adopted the motto \"Osons\" (Fr - \"We Dare\") - an obvious response to the original motto.\nThe phrase is the motto of Baron Alvingham of Woodfold in the County Palatine of Lancaster, a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.\n\n", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "Wireless Set Number 1, or WS No. 1 for short, was a short-range tactical radio introduced by the British Army in 1933. It was built in three versions, 1A for fixed locations like field headquarters, 1B for light vehicles, and 1C for tanks. Several hundred were also produced in Canada by Canadian Marconi and Northern Electric.\nIt had a number of limitations in terms of limited frequency selections and a relatively short range on the order of 5 miles (8.0 km). A new set was ordered in 1938 as the Wireless Set No. 11, which rapidly replaced the small numbers of No. 1 sets in service. The No. 11 was in turn replaced by the much more capable Wireless Set No. 19 in the mid-war period.", "label": "Military"}, {"sentence": "\"Dead Man's Chest\" (also known as \"Fifteen Men on the Dead Man's Chest\" or \"Yo, Ho, Ho (And a Bottle of Rum)\") is a fictional sea song, originally from Robert Louis Stevenson's novel Treasure Island (1883). It was expanded in a poem, titled \"Derelict\" by Young E. Allison, published in the Louisville Courier-Journal in 1891. It has since been used in many later works of art in various forms.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Keenan Maurice Webb (born November 14, 1990), also known as DJ Suede the Remix God (or simply Remix God Suede), is an American hip hop record producer and songwriter.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Hound Dog\" is a twelve-bar blues song written by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller. Recorded originally by Big Mama Thornton on August 13, 1952, in Los Angeles and released by Peacock Records in late February 1953, \"Hound Dog\" was Thornton's only hit record, selling over 500,000 copies, spending 14 weeks in the R&B charts, including seven weeks at number one. Thornton's recording of \"Hound Dog\" is listed as one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's \"500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll\", and was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in February 2013.\n\"Hound Dog\" has been recorded more than 250 times. The best-known version is the July 1956 recording by Elvis Presley, which ranked number 19 on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time in 2004, but was excluded from the revised list in 2021; it is also one of the best-selling singles of all time. Presley's version, which sold about 10 million copies globally, was his best-selling song and \"an emblem of the rock 'n' roll revolution\". It was simultaneously number one on the US pop, country, and R&B charts in 1956, and it topped the pop chart for 11 weeks \u2014 a record that stood for 36 years. Presley's 1956 RCA recording was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1988, and it is listed as one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's \"500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll\".\n\"Hound Dog\" has been at the center of controversies and several lawsuits, including disputes over authorship, royalties, and copyright infringement by the many answer songs released by such artists as Rufus Thomas and Roy Brown. From the 1970s onward, the song has been featured in numerous films, including Grease, Forrest Gump, Lilo & Stitch, A Few Good Men, Hounddog, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, and Nowhere Boy.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party!)\" (shortened to \"Fight for Your Right\" on album releases) is a song by American hip hop group the Beastie Boys, released as the fourth single released from their debut album Licensed to Ill (1986). One of their best-known songs, it reached No. 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the week of March 7, 1987, and was later named one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. The song was also included on their compilation albums The Sounds of Science in 1999, Solid Gold Hits in 2005 and Beastie Boys Music in 2020.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Working for the Weekend\" is a song by Canadian rock band Loverboy, from their second studio album, Get Lucky (1981). It was written by guitarist Paul Dean, vocalist Mike Reno and drummer Matt Frenette, and produced by Bruce Fairbairn and Dean, and released as the lead single from the album in October 1981. It has more of a power pop feel than the band's other songs, but this new sound proved to generate success; the song reached number 29 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, and number two on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart in January 1982.\"Working for the Weekend\" is ranked number 100 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of the 80s.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Smooth Criminal\" is a song by the American singer Michael Jackson, released on November 14, 1988, as the seventh single from his seventh album, Bad (1987). It was written by Jackson and produced by Jackson and Quincy Jones. The lyrics address a woman who has been attacked in her apartment by a \"smooth criminal\". The refrain \"Annie, are you OK?\" was inspired by Resusci Anne, a dummy used in CPR training.\nThe music video for \"Smooth Criminal\", which premiered on MTV on October 13, 1988, is the centerpiece of the 1988 film Moonwalker. The 1930s setting and Jackson's white suit and fedora pay tribute to the Fred Astaire musical comedy film The Band Wagon. In the video, Jackson and the dancers perform an apparently physically impossible \"anti-gravity lean\".\n\"Smooth Criminal\" reached number seven on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the sixth top-10 single from Bad. It reached number two on the Billboard Hot Black Singles chart. It was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The song reached number one in Belgium, Iceland, the Netherlands, and Spain.\nRetrospective reviews have described it as one of Jackson's best songs. Rolling Stone wrote that it was \"his best blend of R&B groove and rock edginess, and a turning point in his shift toward darker, harder-edged material\". It has appeared on numerous greatest hits albums and was performed on all of Jackson's solo tours. \"Smooth Criminal\" was re-released in 2006 as a single as a part of Jackson's Visionary: The Video Singles boxset.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "0music is the second album produced with Melomics technology. While the first one (Iamus' album) is a compilation of contemporary pieces fully composed by Iamus, 0music compiles pieces of popular genres, composed and interpreted without any human intervention by Melomics109, a computer cluster hosted at the University of Malaga. The pieces in this album, and all the production of Melomics109, is distributed under CC0 licensing, and it is available in audible and editable (MIDI) formats.\nThe album was launched during a one-day symposium held in Malaga on July 21, 2014.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Acousmatic music (from Greek \u1f04\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1 akousma, \"a thing heard\") is a form of electroacoustic music that is specifically composed for presentation using speakers, as opposed to a live performance. It stems from a compositional tradition that dates back to the introduction of musique concr\u00e8te (a form of musique exp\u00e9rimentale)  in the late 1940s. Unlike musical works that are realised using sheet music exclusively, compositions that are purely acousmatic (in listening terms) often exist solely as fixed media audio recordings.\nThe compositional practice of acousmatic music features acousmatic sound as a central musical aspect. Other aspects traditionally thought of as 'musical' such as melody, harmony, rhythm, metre may be present but more often consideration is given to sound-based characteristics such as timbre and spectrum. Compositional materials can include sounds derived from musical instruments, voice, electronically generated sound, audio that has been manipulated using various effect processors, as well as general sound effects and field recordings.\nThe music is produced with the aid of various music technologies, such as digital recorders, digital signal processing tools and digital audio workstations. Using such technology various sound materials can be combined, juxtaposed, and transformed in any conceivable manner. In this context the compositional method can be seen as a process of sound organisation: a term first used by the French composer Edgard Var\u00e8se.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Acousmatic sound is sound that is heard without an originating cause being seen. The word acousmatic, from the French acousmatique, is derived from the Greek word akousmatikoi (\u1f00\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03af), which referred to probationary pupils of the philosopher Pythagoras who were required to sit in absolute silence while they listened to him deliver his lecture from behind a veil or screen to make them better concentrate on his teachings. The term acousmatique was first used by the French composer and pioneer of musique concr\u00e8te Pierre Schaeffer. In acousmatic art one hears sound from behind a \"veil\" of loudspeakers, the source cause remaining unseen. More generally, any sound, whether it is natural or manipulated, may be described as acousmatic if the cause of the sound remains unseen. The term has also been used by the French writer and composer Michel Chion in reference to the use of off-screen sound in film. More recently, in the article Space-form and the acousmatic image (2007), composer and academic Prof. Denis Smalley has expanded on some of Schaeffers' acousmatic concepts.\nSince the 2000s, the term acousmatic has been used, notably in North America to refer to fixed media composition and pieces.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Acoustic transmission is the transmission of sounds through and between materials, including air, wall, and musical instruments.\nThe degree to which sound is transferred between two materials depends on how well their acoustical impedances match.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A music sequencer (or audio sequencer or simply sequencer) is a device or application software that can record, edit, or play back music, by handling note and performance information in several forms, typically CV/Gate, MIDI, or Open Sound Control (OSC), and possibly audio and automation data for DAWs and plug-ins.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Cycling '74 (also known as \"C74\" and stylized as '74) is an American software development company founded in 1997 by David Zicarelli, headquartered in San Francisco, California and owned by Ableton. The company is best known for their work with the digital signal processing software environment, Max.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Dynacord ADD-One (Advanced Digital Drums) is a German-manufactured, American-designed  drum machine that was first released in 1986. It uses recorded samples to produce its sounds through analog voltage controlled envelopes and analog filters with resonance, to self-oscillation per voice. It comes with 1Mbyte of memory and can be upgraded up to 8Mbytes.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "EverTune is an American company that produces the EverTune bridge, designed to keep guitar strings in tune.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "An Exciter is an electroacoustic transducer. Exciters differ from the more common loudspeaker in that they have no cone and rely on being connected to a surface or object that can be used as a resonator via a mechanical connection. They have been used in several projects with novel resonators and are readily available from several supplies.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Fairlight CMI (short for Computer Musical Instrument) is a digital synthesizer, sampler, and digital audio workstation introduced in 1979 by Fairlight. It was based on a commercial licence of the Qasar M8 developed by Tony Furse of Creative Strategies in Sydney, Australia. It was one of the earliest music workstations with an embedded sampler, and is credited for coining the term sampling in music. It rose to prominence in the early 1980s and competed with the Synclavier from New England Digital.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Goji Electronics, Inc. is a producer of computer, smartphone, audio products and equipment headquartered in Hemel Hempstead, United Kingdom. The audio division of the company was founded by grime artist and entrepreneur Rav and DSG International plc president Lord Kalms, and primarily produces products under the brand Goji-Rav.\nSince the inception of Goji, its products have been distributed by Currys plc and its predecessor DSG International plc. The collaboration between Dixons and Kwasi Danquah III lead to an expansion of Goji Electronics into the headphones and audio equipment market.Rav, Lord Kalms and Currys plc all own shares in Goji.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Iamus is a computer cluster (a half-cabinet encased in a custom shell) located at Universidad de M\u00e1laga. Powered by Melomics' technology, the composing module of Iamus takes 8 minutes to create a full composition in different musical formats, although the native representation can be obtained by the whole system in less than a second (on average). Iamus only composes full pieces of contemporary classical music.Iamus' Opus one, created on October 15, 2010 is the first fragment of professional contemporary classical music ever composed by a computer in its own style (rather than attempting to emulate the style of existing composers as was previously done by David Cope). Iamus's first full composition, Hello World!, premiered exactly one year after the creation of Opus one, on October 15, 2011. Four of Iamus's works premiered on July 2, 2012, and were broadcast live from the School of Computer Science at Universidad de M\u00e1laga as part of the events included in the Alan Turing year. The compositions performed at this event were later recorded by the London Symphony Orchestra, creating the album Iamus, which New Scientist reported as the \"first complete album to be composed solely by a computer and recorded by human musicians.\"Commenting on the authenticity of the music, Stephen Smoliar, critic of classical music at The San Francisco Examiner, commented \"What is primary is the act of making the music itself engaged by the performers and how the listener responds to what those performers do... what is most interesting about the documents generated by Iamus is their capacity to challenge the creative talents of performing musicians\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The International Society for Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR) is an international forum for research on the organization of music-related data. It started as an informal group steered by an ad hoc committee in 2000 which established a yearly symposium - whence \"ISMIR\", which meant International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval. It was turned into a conference in 2002 while retaining the acronym. ISMIR was incorporated in Canada on July 4, 2008.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) is a unique identifier for audiovisual works and related versions, similar to ISBN for books. It was developed within an ISO (International Organization for Standardization) TC46/SC9 working group. ISAN is managed and run by ISAN-IA.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) is a unique identifier for musical works, similar to ISBN for books. It is adopted as international standard ISO 15707. The ISO subcommittee with responsibility for the standard is TC 46/SC 9.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Juno Ju-X is a product design engineer for music and sound creation and also a brand name for his solo work.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Korg Collection 3 (Formerly Known as the Korg Legacy Collection and then simply the Korg Collection) is the one of the largest collections of VST instruments from Korg and was released in 2004 with updates and more Synths added over time. The original 2004 release consists of the Korg MS-20, Korg Polysix and Korg Wavestation, and LegacyCell, a VST which layers combinations of any of the past 3 synths mentioned. In 2007, they added the Korg Mono/Poly, Korg M1, and Korg MDE-X Multi FX processor. On December 21, 2017, the ARP Odyssey was made into a VST and added to the collection, and the Korg Triton was added on for Christmas 2019. All of these synths were revamped in the spring of 2020 and renamed, collectively, the Korg Collection 2. With the addition of the Korg Triton Extreme, MiniKORG 700s and Korg Prophecy, it was renamed the Korg Collection 3.\nThey use Korg's proprietary CMT (Component Modeling Technology) to emulate the original hardware. The Legacy collection is compatible with ASIO RTAS VST and stand alone so it can be used without a DAW. It is compatible with both the PC and Mac and the software was originally supplied on CD-ROM but can now be downloaded via Korg's online store.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A loudspeaker (commonly referred to as a speaker or speaker driver) is an electroacoustic transducer, that is, a device that converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound. A speaker system, also often simply referred to as a \"speaker\" or \"loudspeaker\", comprises one or more such speaker drivers, an enclosure, and electrical connections possibly including a crossover network. The speaker driver can be viewed as a linear motor attached to a diaphragm which couples that motor's movement to motion of air, that is, sound. An audio signal, typically from a microphone, recording, or radio broadcast,  is amplified electronically to a power level capable of driving that motor in order to reproduce the sound corresponding to the original unamplified electronic signal. This is thus the opposite function to the microphone, and indeed the dynamic speaker driver, by far the most common type, is a linear motor in the same basic configuration as the dynamic microphone which uses such a motor in reverse, as a generator.\nThe dynamic speaker was invented in 1925 by Edward W. Kellogg and Chester W. Rice issued as US Patent 1,707,570. Apr 2, 1929. When the electrical current from an audio signal passes through its voice coil\u2014a coil of wire capable of moving axially in a cylindrical gap containing a concentrated magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet\u2014the coil is forced to move rapidly back and forth due to Faraday's law of induction; this attaches to a diaphragm or speaker cone (as it is usually conically shaped for sturdiness) in contact with air, thus creating sound waves. In addition to dynamic speakers, several other technologies are possible for creating sound from an electrical signal, a few of which are in commercial use.\nIn order for a speaker to efficiently produce sound, especially at lower frequencies, the speaker driver must be baffled so that the sound emanating from its rear does not cancel out the (intended) sound from the front; this generally takes the form of a speaker enclosure or speaker cabinet, an often rectangular box made of wood, but sometimes metal or plastic. The enclosure's design plays an important acoustic role thus determining the resulting sound quality. Most high fidelity speaker systems (picture at right) include two or more sorts of speaker drivers, each specialized in one part of the audible frequency range . The smaller drivers capable of reproducing the highest audio frequencies are called tweeters, those for middle frequencies are called mid-range drivers and those for low frequencies are called woofers. Sometimes the reproduction of the very lowest frequencies (20Hz-~50Hz) is augmented by a so-called subwoofer often in its own (large) enclosure. In a two-way or three-way speaker system (one with drivers covering two or three different frequency ranges) there is a small amount of passive electronics called a crossover network which helps direct components of the electronic signal to the speaker drivers best capable of reproducing those frequencies. In a so-called powered speaker system, the power amplifier actually feeding the speaker drivers is built into the enclosure itself; these have become more and more common especially as computer speakers. \nSmaller speakers are found in devices such as radios, televisions, portable audio players, personal computers (computer speakers), headphones, and earphones. Larger, louder speaker systems are used for home hi-fi systems (stereos), electronic musical instruments, sound reinforcement in theatres and concert halls, and in public address systems.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Melomics (derived from \"genomics of melodies\") is a computational system for the automatic composition of music (with no human intervention), based on bioinspired algorithms.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Melomics109 is a computer cluster (three cabinets with customized front panels) located at Universidad de M\u00e1laga. It is part of the Spanish Supercomputing Network, and has been designed to increase the computational power provided by Iamus. Powered by Melomics' technology, the composing module of Melomics109 is able to create and synthesize music in a variety of musical styles. This music has been made freely accessible to everyone.0music is the first album composed and interpreted by Melomics109, launched on July 21 under the name of \"0music\". Melomics aims at freely distributing Melomics109's production, in all formats, and this album is the first one being released in audio (MP3) and editable format (MIDI), under CC0 (public domain) licensing. The rest of Melomics109's production can be browsed, listened to, and downloaded for free at Melomics' \"repository\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Meludia is a French-based company that offers an online interactive education platform to master the fundamentals of music.\nThe Meludia Method is based upon progressive interactive listening exercises, using two main frameworks designed by Vincent Chaintrier.\nThe SEMA model represents the 4 levels of music perception: Sensations, Emotions, Memory, Analysis.\nThe 7 dimensions of music represent: rhythm, spatialization, dynamic, form, timbre, melody and harmony.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Mighty Audio (often marketed and stylized as Mighty) is an American company based in Los Angeles, California, known for its product Mighty, a portable audio player that plays Spotify and Amazon Music without a phone. The company was Spotify's first partner in the offline streaming music space when they publicly launched in July 2017.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Music instrument technology refers to the construction of instruments and the way they have changed over time. Such change has produced modern instruments that are considerably different from their historical antecedents.\nAn example is the way in which many instruments commonly associated with a modern symphony orchestra are markedly different from the same instruments for which European composers were composing music centuries ago.\nSuch changes include the addition of piston valves to brass instruments, the design of more complex fingering systems for woodwind instruments such as the flute, and the standardization of the family of orchestral string instruments.\nMany advancements were made in music instrument technology during the Middle Ages and 19th Century. The introduction of copper smelting allowed for trumpets, organ pipes, and slides to be constructed with sheet metal which had a smooth texture and consistency in thickness, allowing for more range of tones and sounds. Improvements in molding and casting during the 19th Century allowed for technological advancement to pianos. While originally constructed with wooden frames, limiting the amount of sound that could be produced, pianos began to be constructed of one-piece iron frames. This provided a more amplified volume from the instrument and allowed musicians to use less force when playing the instrument. Improvements in drum tuning were also established at this time. The \"Dresden\" model of tuning, involving steel technology and employing a foot petal with ratchet in order to attach the device to the timpani, was invented by Carl Pittrich. This technology allowed for timpani to be tuned much faster by the musician. The Dresden tuners could also be added onto existing timpani, allowing symphonies to continue using their existing instruments while still employing this new technology. Lastly, the 19th century also lead to the development of valves, and when added in to the construction of trumpets and horns, they allowed for the instruments to express a broader range to the harmonic series of notes being produced.Some of this technology represents patentable advancements in the musical instrument industry.  See Musical Instrument Patent of Week", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Music software is software used for musical composition, digital recording, the creation of electronic music, and other musical applications. It can be downloaded and installed on to a computer from a CD, or purchased straight from a company's website. Music software has been around for nearly 40 years. It has been seen to have profound impacts on education involving music and creative expression. Musical software has become an outlet for people who do not bond with traditional musical instruments, giving people new and easier ways to compose and perform music in ways that has never been seen before.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A music stand is a pedestal or elevated rack designed to hold a paper score or sheets of music in position for reading. Most music stands for orchestral, chamber music or solo orchestra-family instruments (violin, oboe, trumpet, etc.) can be raised or lowered to accommodate seated or standing performers, or performers of different heights. Many types of keyboard instruments have a built-in or removable music rack or stand where sheet music can be placed. Music stands enable musicians to read sheet music or scores while playing an instrument or conducting, as the stand leaves the hands free. Music stands are sometimes used by singers, however for choirs, singers typically hold their sheet music in a folder, and singers performing solo recitals or opera performances typically memorize the lyrics and melodies. Some singers use stands, such as lounge singers and wedding vocalists who have a repertoire of hundreds of songs, which makes remembering all of the verses difficult.\nThere is evidence of music stands from China as early as 200 BC, but they became more known during the 1300s in Europe. During Shakespeare's time, late 1500s musical scores were still, if used at all, just put laying down on an even surface in front of the musicians.\nIn church pillar stands, with space for music scores or Bible reading or painting, were sometimes set up on all four sides of the pillar.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Music Technology Group (MTG) is a research group of the Department of Information and Communication Technologies of the Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona. It was founded in 1994 by its current director, Xavier Serra, and it specializes in sound and music computing research.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A musical fountain, also known as a fairy fountain, prismatic fountain or dancing fountain, is a type of choreographed fountain that creates aesthetic designs as a form of entertainment. The displays are commonly synchronised to music and also feature lighting effects that are refracted and reflected by the moving water. Contemporary multimedia fountains can include lasers, video projection and three-dimensional imagery.\nInstallations can be large scale, employing hundreds of water jets and lights, and costing into the millions of dollars. Techniques tend to be complex, and require mechanical, hydraulic, electrical, and electronic components that are usually kept out of view.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Roland Cloud is a subscription based collection of VST instruments and 'RVR' sample libraries launched in early 2018 by Roland. Instrument downloads and installation are handled by Roland's Cloud Manager software.There are features to the software versions of hardware synthesizers that were not available in the originals, thanks to the feedback of the users over the years, Roland have been able to develop this.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Sensel is an electronics company based in Sunnyvale, California that builds touch input technologies . It was founded in 2013 by former Amazon engineers Ilya Rosenberg and Aaron Zarraga. Sensel's first product, the Morph, is a pressure sensitive input device for creative applications. In January 2021, it was announced that Sensel's touch technology would be incorporated in the touchpad for Lenovo\u2019s ThinkPad X1 Titanium Yoga laptop.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Sound and music computing (SMC) is a research field that studies the whole sound and music communication chain from a multidisciplinary point of view. By combining scientific, technological and artistic methodologies it aims at understanding, modeling and generating sound and music through computational approaches.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Stereophonic sound or, more commonly, stereo, is a method of sound reproduction that recreates a multi-directional, 3-dimensional audible perspective. This is usually achieved by using two independent audio channels through a configuration of two loudspeakers (or stereo headphones) in such a way as to create the impression of sound heard from various directions, as in natural hearing. \nBecause the multi-dimensional perspective is the crucial aspect, the term stereophonic also applies to systems with more than two channels or speakers such as quadraphonic and surround sound. Binaural sound systems are also stereophonic.\nStereo sound has been in common use since the 1970s in entertainment media such as broadcast radio, TV, recorded music, internet, computer audio, video cameras, and cinema.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "TidalCycles (also known as \"Tidal\") is a live coding environment designed for musical improvisation and composition. In particular, it is a domain-specific language embedded in Haskell, focused on the generation and manipulation of audible or visual patterns. It was originally designed for heavily percussive, polyrhythmic grid-based music, but now uses a flexible, functional reactive representation for patterns, using rational time. Tidal may therefore be applied to a wide range of musical styles, although its cyclic approach to time means that it affords use in repetitive styles such as Algorave.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The timeline of music technology provides the major dates in the history of electric music technologies inventions from the 1800s to the early 1900s and electronic and digital music technologies from 1874 and electric music technologies to the 2010s.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Transaural Stereo is a technology suite of analog circuits and digital signal processing algorithms related to the field of sound playback for audio communication and entertainment. It  is based on the concept of crosstalk cancellation but in some versions can embody other processes such as binaural synthesis and equalization.\nThe technology was developed in the 1970's by Duane H. Cooper and Jerald L. Bauck.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A variety of musical terms are likely to be encountered in printed scores, music reviews, and program notes. Most of the terms are Italian, in accordance with the Italian origins of many European musical conventions. Sometimes, the special musical meanings of these phrases differ from the original or current Italian meanings. Most of the other terms are taken from French and German, indicated by Fr. and Ger., respectively.\nUnless specified, the terms are Italian or English. The list can never be complete: some terms are common, and others are used only occasionally, and new ones are coined from time to time. Some composers prefer terms from their own language rather than the standard terms listed here.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "This is a glossary of Schenkerian analysis, a method of musical analysis of tonal music based on the theories of Heinrich Schenker (1868\u20131935). The method is discussed in the concerned article and no attempt is made here to summarize it. Similarly, the entries below whenever possible link to other articles where the concepts are described with more details (in several cases, the name of the entry links to a specialized article), and the definitions are kept here to a minimum.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of musical genres organized according to the eras of Classical music. The form of a musical composition refers to the general outline of the composition, based on the sections that comprise it or on specific details that are unique to a certain type of composition. For example, a rondo is based on alternation between familiar and novel sections (ABACA); a mazurka is defined by its meter and rhythm; a nocturne is based on the mood it creates, required to be inspired by or evocative of night. This list summarizes these broadly defined forms and genres within the musical periods that they arose or became common.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Here is a list of all makams of Ottoman classical music.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Below is a list of intervals expressible in terms of a prime limit (see Terminology), completed by a choice of intervals in various equal subdivisions of the octave or of other intervals.\nFor commonly encountered harmonic or melodic intervals between pairs of notes in contemporary Western music theory, without consideration of the way in which they are tuned, see Interval (music) \u00a7 Main intervals.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Many musical terms are in Italian, because in Europe, the vast majority of the most important early composers from the Renaissance to the Baroque period were Italian. That period is when numerous musical indications were used extensively for the first time.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A cappella (, also UK: , Italian: [a kkap\u02c8p\u025blla]; Italian for ''in the style of the chapel'') music is a performance by a singer or a singing group without instrumental accompaniment, or a piece intended to be performed in this way. The term a cappella was originally intended to differentiate between Renaissance polyphony and Baroque concertato musical styles. In the 19th century, a renewed interest in Renaissance polyphony, coupled with an ignorance of the fact that vocal parts were often doubled by instrumentalists, led to the term coming to mean unaccompanied vocal music. The term is also used, rarely, as a synonym for alla breve.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Accentus (or Accentus Ecclesiasticus; Ecclesiastical accent) is a style of church music that emphasizes spoken word. It is often contrasted with concentus, an alternative style that emphasizes harmony. The terms accentus and concentus were probably introduced by Andreas Ornithoparchus in his Musicae Activae Micrologus, Leipzig, 1517. \"Concentus might be chief ruler over all things that are sung...and Accentus over all things that are read,\" according to Ornithoparchus. The style is also known as liturgical recitative, though it differs in some important ways from other types of recitative.\nIn the medieval church, all that portion of the liturgical song which was performed by the entire choir, or by sections of it, was called concentus; thus hymns, psalms, mass ordinary, and alleluias were, generally speaking, included under this term, as well as anything with more complex or distinctive melodic contours. On the other hand, such parts of the liturgy which the priest, the deacon, the subdeacon, or the acolyte sang alone were called accentus; such were the collects, the epistle and gospel, the preface, or anything which was recited chiefly on one tone, rather than sung, by the priest or one of his assistants. The accentus should never be accompanied by harmonies, whether of voices or of instruments, although the concentus may receive such accompaniment. The intoning words Gloria in excelsis Deo and Credo in Unum Deum, being assigned to the celebrant alone, should not be repeated by the choir or accompanied by the organ or other musical instrument.\nThere were originally seven types of Accentus Ecclesiasticus, depending on how the voice should be inflected at the punctuation marks ending phrases or sentences. In accentus immutabilis, the voice remains at the same tone; in accentus medus it falls by a third at a colon; in accentus gravis it falls by a fifth at a period; in accentus actus it falls by a third and returns to the original tone at a comma; in accentus moderatus it rises by a second and returns to the original tone at a comma; in accentus interrogata it falls by a second and returns to the original tone at a question mark; and in accentus finalis, it rises by a second and then falls stepwise to a fourth below the original tone at the end.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music and other performing arts, the phrase ad libitum (; from Latin for 'at one's pleasure' or 'as you desire') often shortened to \"ad lib\" (as an adjective or adverb) or \"ad-lib\" (as a verb or noun) refers to various forms of improvisation. \nThe roughly synonymous phrase a bene placito ('in accordance with [one's] good pleasure') is less common but, in its Italian form a piacere, entered the musical lingua franca (see below). \nThe phrase \"at liberty\" is often associated mnemonically (because of the alliteration of the lib- syllable), although it is not the translation (there is no cognation between libitum and liber). Libido is the etymologically closer cognate known in English.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "An all-star team is a group of people all having a high level of performance in their field.  Originating in sports, it has since drifted into vernacular and has been borrowed heavily by the entertainment industry.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "An altered chord is a chord that replaces one or more notes from the diatonic scale with a neighboring pitch from the chromatic scale. By the broadest definition, any chord with a non-diatonic chord tone is an altered chord. The simplest example of altered chords is the use of borrowed chords, chords borrowed from the parallel key, and the most common is the use of secondary dominants. As Alfred Blatter explains, \"An altered chord occurs when one of the standard, functional chords is given another quality by the modification of one or more components of the chord.\"For example, altered notes may be used as leading tones to emphasize their diatonic neighbors. Contrast this with chord extensions:\n\nWhereas chord extension generally involves adding notes that are logically implied, chord alteration involves changing some of the typical notes. This is usually done on dominant chords, and the four alterations that are commonly used are the \u266d5, \u266f5, \u266d9 and \u266f9. Using one (or more) of these notes in a resolving dominant chord greatly increases the bite in the chord and therefore the power of the resolution.\nIn jazz harmony, chromatic alteration is either the addition of notes not in the scale or expansion of a [chord] progression by adding extra non-diatonic chords. For example, \"A C major scale with an added D\u266f note, for instance, is a chromatically altered scale\" while, \"one bar of Cmaj7 moving to Fmaj7 in the next bar can be chromatically altered by adding the ii and V of Fmaj7 on the second two beats of bar\" one. Techniques include the ii\u2013V\u2013I turnaround, as well as movement by half-step or minor third.\nThe five most common types of altered dominants are: V+, V7\u266f5 (both with raised fifths), V\u266d5, V7\u266d5 (both with lowered fifths), and V\u00f87 (with lowered fifth and third, the latter enharmonic to a raised ninth).\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In jazz, the altered scale, altered dominant scale, Palamidian Scale, or Super Locrian scale is a seven-note scale that is a dominant scale where all non-essential tones have been altered. This means that it comprises the three irreducibly essential tones that define a dominant seventh chord, which are root, major third, and minor seventh and that all other chord tones have been altered. These are:\n\nthe fifth is altered to a \u266d5 and a \u266f5\nthe ninth is altered to a \u266d9 and a \u266f9\nthe eleventh is altered to a \u266d11 (equivalent to a 3)\nthe thirteenth is altered to a \u266d13 (equivalent to a \u266f5)The altered forms of some of the non-essential tones coincide (augmented eleventh with diminished fifth and augmented fifth with minor thirteenth) meaning those scale degrees are enharmonically identical and have multiple potential spellings. The natural forms of the non-essential tones are not present in the scale. This means it lacks a major ninth, a perfect eleventh, a perfect fifth, and a major thirteenth. \nThis is written below in musical notation with the essential chord tones coloured black and the non-essential altered chord tones coloured red.\n\nThe altered scale is made by the sequence: \n\nHalf, Whole, Half, Whole, Whole, Whole, WholeThe abbreviation \"alt\" (for \"altered\") used in chord symbols enhances readability by reducing the number of characters otherwise needed to define the chord and avoids the confusion of multiple equivalent complex names. For example, \"C7alt\" supplants \"C7\u266f5\u266d9\u266f9\u266f11\", \"C7\u22125+5\u22129+9\", \"Caug7\u22129+9+11\", etc.\nThis scale has existed for a long time as the 7th mode of melodic minor.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The musical term alto, meaning \"high\" in Italian (Latin: altus), historically refers to the contrapuntal part higher than the tenor and its associated vocal range. In 4-part voice leading alto is the second highest part, sung in choruses by either low women's or high men's voices. In vocal classification these are usually called contralto and male alto or countertenor.\nSuch confusion of \"high\" and \"low\" persists in instrumental terminology. Alto flute and alto trombone are respectively lower and higher than the standard instruments of the family (the standard instrument of the trombone family being the tenor trombone), though both play in ranges within the alto clef. Alto recorder, however, is an octave higher, and is defined by its relationship to tenor and soprano recorders; alto clarinet is a fifth lower than B-flat clarinet, already an 'alto' instrument. There is even a contra-alto clarinet, (an octave lower than the alto clarinet), with a range B\u266d0 \u2013 D4.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Andamento is an Italian musical term used to refer to a fugue subject of above-average length.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "An audio signal is a representation of sound, typically using either a changing level of electrical voltage for analog signals, or a series of binary numbers for digital signals. Audio signals have frequencies in the audio frequency range of roughly 20 to 20,000 Hz, which corresponds to the lower and upper limits of human hearing. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical audio signal back into sound.\nDigital audio systems represent audio signals in a variety of digital formats.An audio channel or audio track is an audio signal communications channel in a storage device or mixing console, used in operations such as multi-track recording and sound reinforcement.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In Western music and music theory, augmentation (from Late Latin augmentare, to increase) is the lengthening of a note or interval.\nAugmentation is a compositional device where a melody, theme or motif is presented in longer note-values than were previously used. Augmentation is also the term for the proportional lengthening of the value of individual note-shapes in older notation by coloration, by use of a sign of proportion, or by a notational symbol such as the modern dot. A major or perfect interval that is widened by a chromatic semitone is an augmented interval, and the process may be called augmentation.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A backing vocalist or backup singer is a singer who provides vocal harmony with the lead vocalist or other backing vocalists. A backing vocalist may also sing alone as a lead-in to the main vocalist's entry or to sing a counter-melody. Backing vocalists are used in a broad range of popular music, traditional music, and world music styles.\nSolo artists may employ professional backing vocalists in studio recording sessions as well as during concerts. In many rock and metal bands (e.g., the power trio), the musicians doing backing vocals also play instruments, such as guitar, electric bass, drums or keyboards. In Latin or Afro-Cuban groups, backing singers may play percussion instruments or shakers while singing. In some pop and hip hop groups and in musical theater, they may be required to perform dance routines while singing through headset microphones.\nStyles of background vocals vary according to the type of song and genre of music. In pop and country songs, backing vocalists may sing harmony to support the lead vocalist. In hardcore punk or rockabilly, other band members who play instruments may sing or shout backing vocals during the chorus (refrain) section of the songs.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Bandboy (also expressed as band boy) is a bygone term for a job similar to for what now is known as a \"roadie.\"  They set up, tear down, and maintain equipment, and music.  They help-out backstage, making sure there are towels, drinks, ice.\nUnlike a roadie, the bandboy was more like a personal assistant, or au pair, or butler/dresser for the leader \u2014 making sure suits were dry cleaned, shoes shined, and the like.  On foreign tours a local \"bandboy\" would translate, find places to eat, change money, buy train tickets, and so on.  Often the \"bandboy\" would disseminate information for the leader, hand out itineraries, room lists, and set lists.  The role of bandboy was different with every band and had different duties than the more senior road manager, who dealt with promoters, booking agents, contracts, payroll, catering, and such.  When times got tough, financially, road managers often performed bandboy duties \u2014 or band members themselves handled the bandboy duties.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A barcarolle (; from French, also barcarole; originally, Italian barcarola or barcaruola, from barca 'boat') is a traditional folk song sung by Venetian gondoliers, or a piece of music composed in that style.  In classical music, two of the most famous barcarolles are Jacques Offenbach's \"Belle nuit, \u00f4 nuit d'amour\", from his opera The Tales of Hoffmann; and Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Chopin's Barcarolle in F-sharp major for solo piano.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A baritone is a type of classical male singing voice whose vocal range lies between the bass and the tenor voice-types. The term originates from the Greek \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (bar\u00fdtonos), meaning \"heavy sounding\". Composers typically write music for this voice in the range from the second F below middle C to the F above middle C (i.e. F2\u2013F4) in choral music, and from the second A below middle C to the A above middle C (A2 to A4) in operatic music, but the range can extend at either end. Subtypes of baritone include the baryton-Martin baritone (light baritone), lyric baritone, Kavalierbariton, Verdi baritone, dramatic baritone, baryton-noble baritone, and the bass-baritone.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A bass is a type of classical male singing voice and has the lowest vocal range of all voice types. According to The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, a bass is typically classified as having a vocal range extending from around the second E below middle C to the E above middle C (i.e., E2\u2013E4). Its tessitura, or comfortable range, is normally defined by the outermost lines of the bass clef. Categories of bass voices vary according to national style and classification system.\nItalians favour subdividing basses into the basso cantante (singing bass), basso buffo (\"funny\" bass), or the dramatic basso profondo (low bass). The American system identifies the bass-baritone, comic bass, lyric bass, and dramatic bass.\nThe German Fach system offers further distinctions: Spielbass (Bassbuffo), Schwerer Spielbass (Schwerer Bassbuffo), Charakterbass (Bassbariton), and Seri\u00f6ser Bass. These classification systems can overlap. Rare is the performer who embodies a single Fach without also touching repertoire from another category.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A bell tone is a musical technique in which a voice or instrument is made to imitate the sound of a bell. It is characterized by a strong opening articulation followed by a rapid decay of sound.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A big band remote (a.k.a. dance band remote) was a remote broadcast, common on radio during the 1930s and 1940s, involving a coast-to-coast live transmission of a big band.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Biomusic is a form of experimental music which deals with sounds created or performed by non-humans. The definition is also sometimes extended to include sounds made by humans in a directly biological way. For instance, music that is created by the brain waves of the composer can also be called biomusic as can music created by the human body without the use of tools or instruments that are not part of the body (singing or vocalizing is usually excluded from this definition).\nBiomusic can be divided into two basic categories: music that is created solely by the animal (or in some cases plant), and music which is based upon animal noises but which is arranged by a human composer.  Some forms of music use recorded sounds of nature as part of the music, for example new-age music uses the nature sounds as backgrounds for various musical soundscapes, and ambient music sometimes uses nature sounds modified with reverbs and delay units to make spacey versions of the nature sounds as part of the ambience.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, a blind octave is the alternate doubling above and below a successive scale or trill notes: \"the passage being played...alternately in the higher and lower octave.\" According to Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, the device is not to be introduced into the works of \"older composers\" (presumably those preceding Liszt).\n\nAlternately, a blind octave may occur \"in a rapid octave passage when one note of each alternate octave is omitted.\" The effect is to simulate octave doubling using a solo instrument.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, especially Western popular music, a bridge is a contrasting section that prepares for the return of the original material section. In a piece in which the original material or melody is referred to as the \"A\" section, the bridge may be the third eight-bar phrase in a thirty-two-bar form (the B in AABA), or may be used more loosely in verse-chorus form, or, in a compound AABA form, used as a contrast to a full AABA section.\nThe bridge is often used to contrast with and prepare for the return of the verse and the chorus. \"The b section of the popular song chorus is often called the bridge or release.\"\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Street performance or busking is the act of performing in public places for gratuities. In many countries, the rewards are generally in the form of money but other gratuities such as food, drink or gifts may be given. Street performance is practiced all over the world and dates back to antiquity. People engaging in this practice are called street performers or buskers in the United Kingdom. Outside of New York, buskers is not a term generally used in American English.Performances are anything that people find entertaining, including acrobatics, animal tricks, balloon twisting, caricatures, clowning, comedy, contortions, escapology, dance, singing, fire skills, flea circus, fortune-telling, juggling, magic, mime, living statue, musical performance, puppeteering, snake charming, storytelling or reciting poetry or prose, street art such as sketching and painting, street theatre, sword swallowing, ventriloquism and washboarding.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In Western musical theory, a cadence (Latin cadentia, \"a falling\") is the end of a phrase in which the melody or harmony creates a sense of resolution. A harmonic cadence is a progression of two or more chords that concludes a phrase, section, or piece of music. A rhythmic cadence is a characteristic rhythmic pattern that indicates the end of a phrase. A cadence is labeled like or less \"weak\" or \"strong\" depending on the impression of finality it gives. While cadences are usually classified by specific chord or melodic progressions, the use of such progressions does not necessarily constitute a cadence\u2014there must be a sense of closure, as at the end of a phrase. Harmonic rhythm plays an important part in determining where a cadence occurs.\nCadences are strong indicators of the tonic or central pitch of a passage or piece. Edward Lowinsky proposed that the cadence was the \"cradle of tonality\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "This article gives an overview of various catalogues of classical compositions that have come into general use.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Chamber music is a form of classical music that is composed for a small group of instruments\u2014traditionally a group that could fit in a palace chamber or a large room. Most broadly, it includes any art music that is performed by a small number of performers, with one performer to a part (in contrast to orchestral music, in which each string part is played by a number of performers). However, by convention, it usually does not include solo instrument performances.\nBecause of its intimate nature, chamber music has been described as \"the music of friends\". For more than 100 years, chamber music was played primarily by amateur musicians in their homes, and even today, when chamber music performance has migrated from the home to the concert hall, many musicians, amateur and professional, still play chamber music for their own pleasure. Playing chamber music requires special skills, both musical and social, that differ from the skills required for playing solo or symphonic works.Johann Wolfgang von Goethe described chamber music (specifically, string quartet music) as \"four rational people conversing\". This conversational paradigm \u2013 which refers to the way one instrument introduces a melody or motif and then other instruments subsequently \"respond\" with a similar motif \u2013 has been a thread woven through the history of chamber music composition from the end of the 18th century to the present. The analogy to conversation recurs in descriptions and analyses of chamber music compositions.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A record chart, in the music industry, also called a music chart, is a ranking of recorded music according to certain criteria during a given period. Many different criteria are used in worldwide charts, often in combination. These include record sales, the amount of radio airplay, the number of downloads, and the amount of streaming activity.\nSome charts are specific to a particular musical genre and most to a particular geographical location. The most common period covered by a chart is one week with the chart being printed or broadcast at the end of this time. Summary charts for years and decades are then calculated from their component weekly charts. Component charts have become an increasingly important way to measure the commercial success of individual songs.\nA common format of radio and television programmes is to run down a music chart.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Embouchure (English:  (listen)) or lipping is the use of the lips, facial muscles, tongue, and teeth in playing a wind instrument. This includes shaping the lips to the mouthpiece of a woodwind instrument or the mouthpiece of a brass instrument. The word is of French origin and is related to the root bouche, 'mouth'. Proper embouchure allows instrumentalists to play their instrument at its full range with a full, clear tone and without strain or damage to their muscles.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A choral symphony is a musical composition for orchestra, choir, and sometimes solo vocalists that, in its internal workings and overall musical architecture, adheres broadly to symphonic musical form. The term \"choral symphony\" in this context was coined by Hector Berlioz when he described his Rom\u00e9o et Juliette as such in his five-paragraph introduction to that work. The direct antecedent for the choral symphony is Ludwig van Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. Beethoven's Ninth incorporates part of the Ode an die Freude (\"Ode to Joy\"), a poem by Friedrich Schiller, with text sung by soloists and chorus in the last movement. It is the first example of a major composer's use of the human voice on the same level as instruments in a symphony.A few 19th-century composers, notably Felix Mendelssohn and Franz Liszt, followed Beethoven in producing choral symphonic works. Notable works in the genre were produced in the 20th century by Gustav Mahler, Igor Stravinsky, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Benjamin Britten and Dmitri Shostakovich, among others. The final years of the 20th century and the opening of the 21st century have seen several new works in this genre, among them compositions by Peter Maxwell Davies, Tan Dun, Philip Glass, Hans Werner Henze, Krzysztof Penderecki, William Bolcom and Robert Strassburg.The term \"choral symphony\" indicates the composer's intention that the work be symphonic, even with its fusion of narrative or dramatic elements that stems from the inclusion of words. To this end, the words are often treated symphonically to pursue non-narrative ends, by use of frequent repetition of important words and phrases, and the transposing, reordering or omission of passages of the set text. The text often determines the basic symphonic outline, while the orchestra's role in conveying the musical ideas is similar in importance to that of the chorus and soloists. Even with a symphonic emphasis, a choral symphony is often influenced in musical form and content by an external narrative, even in parts where there is no singing.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In a musical composition, a chord progression or harmonic progression (informally chord changes, used as a plural) is a succession of chords. Chord progressions are the foundation of harmony in Western musical tradition from the common practice era of Classical music to the 21st century. Chord progressions are the foundation of Western popular music styles (e.g., pop music, rock music), traditional music, as well as genres such as blues and jazz. In these genres, chord progressions are the defining feature on which melody and rhythm are built.\nIn tonal music, chord progressions have the function of either establishing or otherwise contradicting a tonality, the technical name for what is commonly understood as the \"key\" of a song or piece. Chord progressions, such as the common chord progression I\u2013vi\u2013ii\u2013V, are usually expressed by Roman numerals in Classical music theory. In many styles of popular and traditional music, chord progressions are expressed using the name and \"quality\" of the chords. For example, the previously mentioned chord progression, in the key of C major, would be written as C major\u2013A minor\u2013D minor\u2013G major in a fake book or lead sheet. In the first chord, C major, the \"C\" indicates that the chord is built on the root note \"C\" and the word \"major\" indicates that a major chord is built on this \"C\" note.\nIn rock and blues, musicians also often refer to chord progressions using Roman numerals, as this facilitates transposing a song to a new key. For example, rock and blues musicians often think of the 12-bar blues as consisting of I, IV, and V chords. Thus, a simple version of the 12-bar blues might be expressed as I\u2013I\u2013I\u2013I, IV\u2013IV\u2013I\u2013I, V\u2013IV\u2013I\u2013I. By thinking of this blues progression in Roman numerals, a backup band or rhythm section could be instructed by a bandleader to play the chord progression in any key. For example, if the bandleader asked the band to play this chord progression in the key of C major, the chords would be C\u2013C\u2013C\u2013C, F\u2013F\u2013C\u2013C, G\u2013F\u2013C\u2013C; if the bandleader wanted the song in G major, the chords would be G\u2013G\u2013G\u2013G, C\u2013C\u2013G\u2013G, D\u2013C\u2013G\u2013G; and so on.\nThe complexity of a chord progression varies from genre to genre and over different historical periods. Some pop and rock songs from the 1980s to the 2010s have fairly simple chord progressions. Funk emphasizes the groove and rhythm as the key element, so entire funk songs may be based on one chord. Some jazz-funk songs are based on a two-, three-, or four-chord vamp. Some punk and hardcore punk songs use only a few chords. On the other hand, bebop jazz songs may have 32-bar song forms with one or two chord changes every bar.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Chording means pushing several keys or buttons simultaneously to achieve a result.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A chordioid, also called chord fragment or fragmentary voicing or partial voicing, is a group of musical notes which does not qualify as a chord under a given chord theory, but still useful to name and reify for other reasons.\nThe main use of chordioids is to form \"legitimate\" chords enharmonically in 12TET by adding one or more notes to this base.  It is typical of chordioids that many different resultant chords can be created from the same base depending on the note or combination of notes added.  The resultant chords on a single chordioid are somewhat related, because they can be progressed between using motion of just one voice.  Theorists \u2013 or practical music teachers \u2013 writing of chordioids usually go so far as to advise that students learn them in the practical manner of chords generally: in all transpositions, ranges, permutations, and voicings, for reading, writing, and playing.\nIt is the case, also, that \"legitimate chords\" can be used as chordioids to create resultant chords by the same process.  Perhaps this is whence the non-chord chordioids come.  The Italian augmented 6th chord (It+6) is one example, from which proceed the French augmented 6th chord (Fr+6) and German augmented 6th chord (Gr+6) by addition of one note.  Rawlins (2005) asserts that the notion derives from practice of such composers as Eric Satie, Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, and Gabriel Faure, and was first used in jazz by Bill Evans.Two chordioids may potentially be combined, as well.  Typically, duplication of notes will result in a reduced number of unique notes in the resultant.\nChordioids as a technique is related to polychords insofar as polychords are the result of an additive process, but differs in that the basis of polychords is the addition of two known chords.  Chordioids is related also to upper structures as a technique insofar as upper structures represent groups of notes not commonly taken to be \"legitimate\" chords, but differs in that chordioids as a technique uses a priori structures held in common rather than a free selection of color tones appropriate for a lower integral chord.  Chordioids is related to slash chords as a technique insofar as known chords may be used as chordioids to create resultant scales, but differs in that chordioids used are not exclusively known chords.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A chord is in close harmony (also called close position or close structure) if its notes are arranged within a narrow range, usually with no more than an octave between the top and bottom notes. In contrast, a chord is in open harmony (also called open position or open structure) if there is more than an octave between the top and bottom notes. The more general term spacing describes how far apart the notes in a chord are voiced. A triad in close harmony has compact spacing, while one in open harmony has wider spacing.\nClose harmony or voicing can refer to both instrumental and vocal arrangements. It can follow the standard voice-leading rules of classical harmony, as in string quartets or Bach chorales, or proceed in parallel motion with the melody in thirds or sixths.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, a coda ([\u02c8ko\u02d0da]) (Italian for \"tail\", plural code) is a passage that brings a piece (or a movement) to an end. It may be as simple as a few measures, or as complex as an entire section.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A composer is a person who writes music. The term is especially used to indicate composers of Western classical music, or those who are composers by occupation. Many composers are, or were, also skilled performers of music.\nIn other contexts, the term 'composer' can refer to a literary writer, or more rarely and generally, someone who combines pieces into a whole.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Musical tributes or homages from one composer to another can take many forms. Following are examples of the major types of tributes occurring in classical music. A particular work may fit into more than one of these types.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A concert aria is normally a free-standing aria or opera-like scene (scena) composed for singer and orchestra, written specifically for performance in concert rather than as part of an opera. Concert arias have often been composed for particular singers, the composer always bearing that singer's voice and skill in mind when composing the work.\nApart from only denoting arias for singer and orchestra, the term is also used to indicate arias which were specifically composed as insertion arias for already-existing operas, either as additions to the score or as substitutions for other arias. These are sometimes performed in concerts because they are no longer required for their original purpose, though they were not, strictly speaking, composed for performance in concert.\nThe concert arias which are most commonly performed today were written by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, but there are many examples by other composers, such as:\n\n\"Son qual nave ch'agitata\" by Riccardo Broschi (written for the famous castrato Farinelli)\n\"Ermina\" by Juan Arriaga\n\"Ah! perfido\" by Ludwig van Beethoven\n\"Der Wein\" for soprano and orchestra by Alban Berg\n\"Scena di Berenice\" by Joseph Haydn\n\"Infelice!\" by Felix Mendelssohn", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, the conclusion is the ending of a composition and may take the form of a coda or outro.\nPieces using sonata form typically use the recapitulation to conclude a piece, providing closure through the repetition of thematic material from the exposition in the tonic key. In all musical forms other techniques include \"altogether unexpected digressions just as a work is drawing to its close, followed by a return...to a consequently more emphatic confirmation of the structural relations implied in the body of the work.\"For example:\n\nThe slow movement of Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 2, where a \"diminished-7th chord progression interrupts the final cadence.\"\nThe slow movement of Symphony No. 5 by Beethoven, where, \"echoing afterthoughts\", follow the initial statements of the first theme and only return expanded in the coda.\nVar\u00e8se's Density 21.5, where partitioning of the chromatic scale into (two) whole tone scales provides the missing tritone of b implied in the previously exclusive partitioning by (three) diminished seventh chords.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A contrafact is a musical work based on a prior work. The term comes from classical music and has only since the 1940s been applied to jazz, where it is still not standard. In classical music, contrafacts have been used as early as the parody mass and In Nomine of the 16th century. More recently, Cheap Imitation (1969) by John Cage was produced by systematically changing notes from the melody line of Socrate by Erik Satie using chance procedures.\nIn jazz, a contrafact is a musical composition consisting of a new melody overlaid on a familiar harmonic structure. Contrafact can also be explained as the use of borrowed chord progressions.As a compositional device, it was of particular importance in the 1940s development of bop, since it allowed jazz musicians to create new pieces for performance and recording on which they could immediately improvise, without having to seek permission or pay publisher fees for copyrighted materials (while melodies can be copyrighted, the underlying harmonic structure cannot be).\nContrafacts are not to be confused with musical quotations, which comprise borrowing rhythms or melodic figures from an existing composition.\nIn spite of its usefulness, the term \"contrafact\" has not won wide acceptance in Western classical theory.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A contralto (Italian pronunciation: [kon\u02c8tralto]) is a type of classical female singing voice whose vocal range is the lowest female voice type.The contralto's vocal range is fairly rare; similar to the mezzo-soprano, and almost identical to that of a countertenor, typically between the F below middle C (F3 in scientific pitch notation) to the second F above middle C (F5), although, at the extremes, some voices can reach the D below middle C (D3) or the second B\u266d above middle C (B\u266d5). The contralto voice type is generally divided into the coloratura, lyric, and dramatic contralto.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Copedent is a term used to describe the tuning and pedal arrangement on a pedal steel guitar and is unique to that instrument. Typically expressed in the form of a table or chart, the word is a portmanteau of \"chord\u2013pedal\u2013arrangement and is pronounced \"co-PEE-dent\".  It was coined in 1969 by Steel Guitar Hall of Fame member Tom Bradshaw and first reached a wide audience in a 1972 article in Guitar Player magazine. A complete copedent includes the order of strings, their tuning, string gauges, and whether a string is plain or wound; it also indicates how any string's pitch is changed by applying a foot pedal or a knee lever. It has become an international standard used by steel guitar players and manufacturers to describe the specifications of these instruments.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A count off, count in, or lead-in is a verbal, instrumental or visual cue used in musical performances and recordings to ensure a uniform entrance to the performance by the musicians and to establish the piece's initial tempo, time signature and style. Although a count off usually lasts just one or two bars, it is able to convey the music's style, tempo, and dynamics from the leader (such as the conductor, bandleader or principal) to the other performers. A count off is generally in the same style of the piece of music\u2014for instance, a joyful swing tune should have an energized count off. A misleading lead-in, one which indicates a different meter than that of the piece, is a false trail.\nCounting off is evident in musical genres other than Western classical and popular music; Ghanaian ethnomusicologist J. H. Kwabena Nketia has observed the benefits of such techniques in West African music.\n\nA silent count off, such as those given by an orchestral conductor using a baton, may be given as a value \"in front\" (e.g. \"eight in front\" refers to a count off of eight beats).In recorded music, the final two beats of the count off (one, two, one\u2014two\u2014three\u2014four) are often silent to avoid spill onto the recording, especially if the piece has a pickup. The count off is typically edited out after the recording has finished. There are, however, instances where the count off is deliberately kept on a recording\u2014sometimes even edited onto a recording. In the case of \"I Saw Her Standing There\" by The Beatles, the count off was edited onto a different take of the song. A recorded count off can be made by musicians through an open microphone or through the studio's talkback system, the latter being done by non-performing personnel such as the producer or engineer. The inclusion of a count off in a studio recording may give the impression of a live performance, as on the Beatles' \"Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band Reprise\" (1967).Pre-count and count-off are functions of digital audio workstations which give an amount of click track\u2014typically two bars\u2014before the recording begins.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A countertenor (also contra tenor) is a type of classical male singing voice whose vocal range is equivalent to that of the female contralto or mezzo-soprano voice types, generally extending from around G3 to D5 or E5, although a sopranist (a specific kind of countertenor) may match the soprano's range of around C4 to C6. Countertenors often are baritones or tenors at core, but only on rare occasions do they use their lower vocal range, instead preferring their falsetto or high head voice.\nThe nature of the countertenor voice has radically changed throughout musical history, from a modal voice, to a modal and falsetto voice, to the primarily falsetto voice which is denoted by the term today. This is partly because of changes in human physiology and partly because of fluctuations in pitch.The term first came into use in England during the mid-17th century and was in wide use by the late 17th century. However, the use of adult male falsettos in polyphony, commonly in the soprano range, was known in European all-male sacred choirs for some decades previous, as early as the mid-16th century. Modern-day ensembles such as the Tallis Scholars and the Sixteen have countertenors on alto parts in works of this period. There is no evidence that falsetto singing was known in Britain before the early 17th century, when it was occasionally heard on soprano parts.In the second half of the 20th century, there was great interest in and renewed popularity of the  countertenor voice, partly due to pioneers such as Alfred Deller, as well as the increased popularity of Baroque opera and the need of male singers to replace the castrati roles in such works. Although the voice has been considered largely an early music phenomenon, there is a growing modern repertoire collection for countertenors, especially in contemporary music.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A cover band (or covers band) is a band that plays songs recorded by someone else, sometimes mimicking the original as accurately as possible, and sometimes re-interpreting or changing the original. These remade songs are known as cover songs. New or unknown bands often find the format marketable for smaller venues, such as pubs, clubs or parks. The bands also perform at private events, for example, weddings and birthday parties, and may be known as a wedding band, party band, function band or band-for-hire. A band whose covers consist mainly of songs that were chart hits is often called a top 40 band. Some bands, however, start as cover bands, then grow to perform original material. For example, The Rolling Stones released three albums consisting primarily of covers before recording one with their own original material.\nCover bands play several types of venues.  When a band is starting out, they might play private parties and fundraisers, often for little or no money, or in return for food and bar privileges, although many professional musicians refuse to do this.  With enough experience, a band will begin to \"play out\" professionally at bars and night clubs. Some cover bands are made up of full-time professional musicians. These bands are usually represented by an entertainment agency.\nWhen cover bands consist of professional musicians, they often do not have a fixed lineup; rather, they are often made up of a flexible lineup of session musicians, utilizing \"dep\" (deputy, that is, stand-in) musicians where necessary. The music industry is considered by many musicians as a relatively difficult industry to make an income in, and cover bands can be a good source of income for professional musicians alongside other work.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, a cross-beat or cross-rhythm is a specific form of polyrhythm. The term cross rhythm  was introduced in 1934 by the musicologist Arthur Morris Jones (1889\u20131980). It refers to when the rhythmic conflict found in polyrhythms is the basis of an entire musical piece.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, a decet\u2014sometimes dectet, decimette, or even tentet\u2014is a composition which requires ten musicians for a performance, or a musical group that consists of ten people. The corresponding German word is Dezett, the French is dixtuor. Unlike some other musical ensembles such as the string quartet, there is no established or standard set of instruments in a decet.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A descant, discant (discant), or discantus is any of several different things in music, depending on the period in question; etymologically, the word means a voice (cantus) above or removed from others. The Harvard Dictionary of Music states: Anglicized form of L. discantus and a variant of discant. Throughout the Middle Ages the term was used indiscriminately with other terms, such as descant. In the 17th century it took on special connotations in instrumental practice.\nA descant is a form of medieval music in which one singer sang a fixed melody, and others accompanied with improvisations. The word in this sense comes from the term discantus supra librum (descant \"above the book\"), and is a form of Gregorian chant in which only the melody is notated but an improvised polyphony is understood.  The discantus supra librum had specific rules governing the improvisation of the additional voices.\nLater on, the term came to mean the treble or soprano singer in any group of voices, or the higher pitched line in a song. Eventually, by the Renaissance, descant referred generally to counterpoint. Nowadays the counterpoint meaning is the most common.\nDescant can also refer to the highest pitched of a group of instruments, particularly the descant viol or recorder.  Similarly, it can also be applied to the soprano clef. \nIn modern usage, especially in the context of church music, descant can also refer to a high, florid melody sung by a few sopranos as a decoration for a hymn.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In musical terminology, divisi, or as typically printed \u201cdiv.,\u201d is an instruction to divide a single section of instruments into multiple subsections. This usually applies to the violins of the string section in an orchestra, although violas, cellos, and double basses can also be divided. Typically, 4-part French Horn sections include divided sections if Horns 1/2 and/or 3/4 are not playing the same music (\"a2\"). Other brass instruments can also be divided but it is not as frequent as with the Horn section. Woodwinds - especially Flutes and Clarinets - also utilize \"divisi\" to divide music between parts and even between players of the same part.\nAfter a divisi section, it may be cancelled by the instructions tutti, all'unisono. or unison (abbreviated unis.).\nThe German equivalents for divisi and tutti, often used in German language scores, are geteilt (or getheilt, abbreviated get.) and zusammen (abbreviated zus.).Some pieces use notation that refers to half of a section or referring to a specific number of performers. For instance, Giuseppe Verdi's scores include directions for small sections of the chorus by met\u00e0 (\"half\") or soli quattro soprani (\"four sopranos alone\"). Some German late Romantic scores use instructions like die eine H\u00e4lfte/die andere H\u00e4lfte (\"one half\" and \"the other half\").", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A double concerto (Italian: Doppio concerto; German: Doppelkonzert) is a concerto featuring two performers\u2014as opposed to the usual single performer, in the solo role. The two performers' instruments may be of the same type, as in Bach's Double Violin Concerto, or different, as in Brahms's Concerto for Violin, Cello and Orchestra.\nThe term can also refer to the use of a double orchestral body where a work is in concerto grosso form; for example, Martin\u016f's Double Concerto for Two String Orchestras, Piano, and Timpani is commonly known by the title \"Double Concerto,\" where the word \"double\" refers to the two string bodies rather than to the piano and timpani, who are not soloists in the conventional sense.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A drop or beat drop in music, made popular by electronic dance music (EDM) styles, is a point in a music track where a sudden change of rhythm or bass line occurs, which is preceded by a build-up section and break.Originating from disco and 1970s rock, drops are found in genres such as EDM, trap, hip-hop, K-pop and country. With the aid of music production applications, drops can vary in instrumentation and sound. Electronic instruments and tools for making drops include oscillating synthesizers, vocal samples, a drum beat, and basslines.\nCertain drops can include a \"beat-up\" (so-named because it is a point where the volume of the foundational kick drum beat is increased, after it has been faded down during a break or buildup) and \"climax\" (a single, striking drop done late in the track). There are also types of drops which deviate from the standard, such as \"anti-drops\" (songs in which the chorus is more minimal than the build-up) and consecutive \"superseding-drops\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A duet is a musical composition for two performers in which the performers have equal importance to the piece, often a composition involving two singers or two pianists. It differs from a harmony, as the performers take turns performing a solo section rather than performing simultaneously. A piece performed by two pianists performing together on the same piano is a \"piano duet\" or \"piano four hands\". A piece for two pianists performing together on separate pianos is a \"piano duo\".\n\"Duet\" is also used as a verb for the act of performing a musical duet, or colloquially as a noun to refer to the performers of a duet. \nA musical ensemble with more than two solo instruments or voices is called trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, etc.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A duettino is an unpretentious duet with a concise form.  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart offers several well-known examples of the type, including \"L\u00e0 ci darem la mano\" from Don Giovanni, \"Canzonetta sull'aria\" from Le Nozze Di Figaro and \"Duettino No. 3\" from La clemenza di Tito, a song only twenty-four measures long. He also described \"Via resti servita\" in The Marriage of Figaro as a duettino.By the time of Gioachino Rossini, a duettino was a common part of the introduction of the farsa opera genre. Rossini composed several pieces in the form.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Dumka (Ukrainian: \u0434\u0443\u043c\u043a\u0430, d\u00famka, plural \u0434\u0443\u043c\u043a\u0438, d\u00famky) is a musical term introduced from the Ukrainian language, with cognates in other Slavic languages. The word dumka literally means \"thought\".  Originally, it was the diminutive form of the Ukrainian term duma, pl. dumy, \"a Slavic (specifically Ukrainian) epic ballad \u2026  generally thoughtful or melancholic in character\". Classical composers drew on the harmonic patterns in the folk music to inform their more formal classical compositions.The composition of dumky became popular after the publication of an ethnological study and analysis and a number of illustrated lectures made by the Ukrainian composer Mykola Lysenko in 1873 and 1874 in Kiev and Saint Petersburg. They were illustrated by live performances by the blind kobzar Ostap Veresai, who performed a number of dumky, singing and accompanying himself on the bandura. Lysenko's study was the first to specifically analyse the melodies and the accompaniment played on the bandura, kobza or lira of the epic dumy.A natural part of the process of transferring the traditional folk form to a formal classical milieu was the appropriation of the Dumka form by Slavic composers, most especially by the Czech composer Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k. Thus, in classical music, dumka came to mean \"a type of instrumental music involving sudden changes from melancholy to exuberance\". Though generally characterized by a gently plodding, dreamy duple rhythm, many examples are in triple metre, including Dvo\u0159\u00e1k's Slavonic dance (Op. 72 No. 4). His last and best-known piano trio, No. 4 in E minor, Op. 90, has six movements, each of which is a dumka; the work is referred at times by its subtitle, Dumky Trio.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, a duodecet\u2014sometimes duodectet, or duodecimette\u2014is a composition which requires twelve musicians for a performance, or a musical group that consists of twelve people. In jazz, such a group of twelve players is sometimes called a \"twelvetet\". The corresponding German word is Duodezett. The French equivalent form, douzetuor, is virtually unknown (in sharp contrast to dixtuor, the French word for decet). Unlike some other musical ensembles such as the string quartet, there is no established or standard set of instruments in a duodecet.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, the dynamics of a piece is the variation in loudness between notes or phrases. Dynamics are indicated by specific musical notation, often in some detail. However, dynamics markings still require interpretation by the performer depending on the musical context: for instance, the forte marking f (meaning loud) in one part of a piece might have quite different objective loudness in another piece or even a different section of the same piece. The execution of dynamics also extends beyond loudness to include changes in timbre and sometimes tempo rubato.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Elastic scoring is a style of orchestration or music arrangement that was first used by the Australian composer Percy Grainger.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Embouchure (English:  (listen)) or lipping is the use of the lips, facial muscles, tongue, and teeth in playing a wind instrument. This includes shaping the lips to the mouthpiece of a woodwind instrument or the mouthpiece of a brass instrument. The word is of French origin and is related to the root bouche, 'mouth'. Proper embouchure allows instrumentalists to play their instrument at its full range with a full, clear tone and without strain or damage to their muscles.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Ancient literature comprises religious and scientific documents, tales, poetry and plays, royal edicts and declarations, and other forms of writing that were recorded on a variety of media, including stone, stone tablets, papyri, palm leaves, and metal. Before the spread of writing, oral literature did not always survive well, but some texts and fragments have persisted. One can conclude that an unknown number of written works too have likely not survived the ravages of time and are therefore lost. August Nitschke sees some fairy tales as literary survivals dating back to Ice Age and Stone Age narrators.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A false ending is a device in literature and the arts to suggest to the audience that the work has ended, before continuing.\nThe presence of a false ending can be anticipated through a number of ways. The medium itself might betray that the story will continue beyond the false ending. A supposed \"ending\" that occurs when many pages are still left in a book, when a film or song's running time hasn't fully elapsed, or when only half the world has been explored in a video game, is likely to be false. As such, stories with an indeterminate running length or a multi-story structure are much more likely to successfully deceive their audience with this technique. Another indicator is the presence of a large number of incomplete story lines, character arcs, or other unresolved story elements at the time of the false ending. These elements can leave the audience feeling that too much of the story is incomplete and there has to be more.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A false relation (also known as cross-relation, non-harmonic relation) is the name of a type of dissonance that sometimes occurs in polyphonic music, most commonly in vocal music of the Renaissance. \nThe term describes a \"chromatic contradiction\" between two notes sounding simultaneously (or in close proximity) in two different voices or parts; or alternatively, in music written before 1600, the occurrence of a tritone between two notes of adjacent chords.\n\nIn the above example, a chromatic false relation occurs in two adjacent voices sounding at the same time (shown in red). The tenor voice sings G\u266f while the bass sings G\u266e momentarily beneath it, producing the clash of an augmented unison.\n\nIn this instance, the false relation is less pronounced: the contradicting E\u266d (soprano voice) and E\u266e (bass voice) (diminished octave) do not sound simultaneously. Here the false relation occurs because the top voice is descending in a minor key, and therefore takes the notes of the melodic minor scale descending (the diatonic sixth degree). The bass voice ascends and therefore makes use of the ascending melodic minor scale (the raised sixth degree).\nFalse relation is in this case desirable since this chromatic alteration follows a melodic idea, the rising 'melodic minor'. In such cases false relations must occur between different voices, as it follows that they cannot be produced by the semitones that occur diatonically in a mode or scale of any kind. This horizontal approach to polyphonic writing reflects the practices  of composers in the Renaissance and Tudor periods, particularly in vocal composition, but it is also seen, for example, in the hexachord fantasies of  William Byrd (for keyboard). Indeed, vocal music from this era does not often have these accidentals notated in the manuscript (see Musica ficta); experienced singers would have decided whether or not they were appropriate in a given musical context.\nMany composers from the late 16th century onwards however began using the effect deliberately as an expressive device in their word setting. This practice continued well into the Romantic era, and can be heard in the music of Mozart and Chopin, for example.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A fanfare (or fanfarade or flourish) is a short musical flourish that is typically played by trumpets, French horns or other brass instruments, often accompanied by percussion. It is a \"brief improvised introduction to an instrumental performance\". A fanfare has also been defined as \"a musical announcement played on brass instruments before the arrival of an important person\", such as heralding the entrance of a monarch. Historically, fanfares were usually played by trumpet players, as the trumpet was associated with royalty. Bugles are also mentioned. The melody notes of a fanfare are often based around the major triad, often using \"[h]eroic dotted rhythms\".By extension, the term may also designate a short, prominent passage for brass instruments in an orchestral composition. Fanfares are widely used in opera orchestral parts, notably in Wagner's Tannh\u00e4user and Lohengrin and in Beethoven's Fidelio. In Fidelio, the dramatic use of the fanfare is heightened by having the trumpet player perform offstage, which creates a muted effect.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Figured bass is musical notation in which numerals and symbols appear above or below (or next to) a bass note. The numerals and symbols (often accidentals) indicate intervals, chords, and non-chord tones that a musician playing piano, harpsichord, organ, or lute (or other instruments capable of playing chords) should play in relation to the bass note. Figured bass is closely associated with basso continuo: a historically improvised accompaniment used in almost all genres of music in the Baroque period of Classical music (c. 1600\u20131750), though rarely in modern music. Figured bass is also known as thoroughbass.\nOther systems for denoting or representing chords include plain staff notation, used in classical music; Roman numerals, commonly used in harmonic analysis; chord letters, sometimes used in modern musicology; the Nashville Number System; and various chord names and symbols used in jazz and popular music (e.g., C Major or simply C; D minor, Dm, or D\u2212; G7, etc.).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Formula composition is a serially derived technique encountered principally in the music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, involving the projection, expansion, and Ausmultiplikation of either a single melody-formula, or a two- or three-voice contrapuntal construction (sometimes stated at the outset).\nIn contrast to serial music, where the structuring features are more or less abstract and remain largely inaccessible to the listener's ear, in formula composition the musical specifications of pitch, dynamics, duration, timbre, and tempo are always directly evident in the sound, through the use of a concisely articulated melodic tone succession, the formula, which defines the large-scale form as well as all the internal musical details of the composition.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Frisson (UK:  FREE-son, US:  free-SOHN French: [f\u0281is\u0254\u0303]; French for \"shiver\"), also known as aesthetic chills or musical chills is a psychophysiological response to rewarding auditory and/or visual stimuli that often induces a pleasurable or otherwise positively-valenced affective state and transient paresthesia (skin tingling or chills), sometimes along with piloerection (goose bumps) and mydriasis (pupil dilation). The sensation commonly occurs as a mildly to moderately pleasurable emotional response to music with skin tingling; piloerection and pupil dilation not necessarily occurring in all cases.The psychological component (i.e., the pleasurable feeling) and physiological components (i.e., paresthesia, piloerection, and pupil dilation) of the response are mediated by the reward system and sympathetic nervous system, respectively. The stimuli that produce this response are specific to each individual. Frisson is of short duration, lasting only a few seconds. Typical stimuli include loud passages of music and passages\u2014such as appoggiaturas and sudden modulation\u2014that violate some level of musical expectation. While frisson is usually known for being evoked by experiences with music, the phenomenon can additionally be triggered with poetry, videos, beauty in nature or art, or even by eloquent speeches. During a frisson, a sensation of chills or tingling is felt on the skin of the lower back, shoulders, neck, and/or arms. The sensation of chills is sometimes experienced as a series of 'waves' moving up the back in rapid succession and commonly described as \"shivers up the spine.\" Hair follicles may also undergo piloerection.It has been shown that some experiencing musical frisson report reduced excitement when under administration of naloxone (an opioid receptor antagonist), suggesting musical frisson gives rise to endogenous opioid peptides similar to other pleasurable experiences. Frisson may be enhanced by the amplitude of the music and the temperature of the environment. Cool listening rooms and cinemas may enhance the experience.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A ghost band is a band that performs under the name of a deceased leader. In rock and roll, it is a band that performs under the name of the band whose founders are either deceased or have left the band.  Use of the phrase may refer to a repertory jazz ensemble, such as a Dixieland band, with a longstanding, historic name.  But in the strictest sense, a ghost band is connected in some way to a deceased leader.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In show business, a guest appearance is the participation of an outsider performer (such as a musician or actor) in an event such as a music record or concert, show, etc., when the performer does not belong to the regular band, cast, or other performing group. In music, such an outside performer is often referred to as a guest artist. In performance art, the terms guest role or guest star are also common, the latter term specifically indicating the guest appearance of a celebrity. The latter is often also credited as special guest star or special musical guest star by some production companies.\nIn pop music and hip-hop, such guests are often referred to as featured artists or featured guests. Such a performer may be annotated in credits or even in song titles by the abbreviation feat. or further abbreviation ft.; or by the word with or abbreviation w/.\nIn a TV series, a guest star is an actor who appears in one or a few episodes (sometimes a story arc). In some cases a guest star may play an important recurring character and may appear many times in a series, despite not being a member of the main cast; they may ultimately be asked to join the main cast if their role continues. \nThe specific credit and billing given to a given performer\u2014\"starring,\" \"guest star,\" \"special guest star,\" \"also starring,\" etc.\u2014is a matter negotiated between the production and the performer or their agent. \nIn nonfiction radio and television shows, a guest star is a guest on the show who is a celebrity or other noteworthy interviewee or commentator.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Harmonic analysis is a branch of mathematics concerned with the representation of functions or signals as the superposition of basic waves, and the study of and generalization of the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms (i.e. an extended form of Fourier analysis). In the past two centuries, it has become a vast subject with applications in areas as diverse as number theory, representation theory, signal processing, quantum mechanics, tidal analysis and neuroscience.\nThe term \"harmonics\" originated as the Ancient Greek word harmonikos, meaning \"skilled in music\". In physical eigenvalue problems, it began to mean waves whose frequencies are integer multiples of one another, as are the frequencies of the harmonics of music notes, but the term has been generalized beyond its original meaning.\nThe classical Fourier transform on Rn is still an area of ongoing research, particularly concerning Fourier transformation on more general objects such as tempered distributions. For instance, if we impose some requirements on a distribution f, we can attempt to translate these requirements in terms of the Fourier transform of f. The Paley\u2013Wiener theorem is an example of this. The Paley\u2013Wiener theorem immediately implies that if f is a nonzero distribution of compact support (these include functions of compact support), then its Fourier transform is never compactly supported (i.e. if a signal is limited in one domain, it is unlimited in the other). This is a very elementary form of an uncertainty principle in a harmonic-analysis setting.\nFourier series can be conveniently studied in the context of Hilbert spaces, which provides a connection between harmonic analysis and functional analysis. There are four versions of the Fourier transform, dependent on the spaces that are mapped by the transformation (discrete/periodic\u2013discrete/periodic: discrete Fourier transform, continuous/periodic\u2013discrete/aperiodic: Fourier series, discrete/aperiodic\u2013continuous/periodic: discrete-time Fourier transform, continuous/aperiodic\u2013continuous/aperiodic: Fourier transform).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, Hauptstimme (German for primary voice) or Hauptsatz is the main voice, chief part; i.e., the contrapuntal or melodic line of primary importance, in opposition to Nebenstimme. Nebenstimme (German for secondary voice) or Seitensatz is the secondary part; i.e., a secondary contrapuntal or melodic part, always occurring simultaneously with, and subsidiary to, the Hauptstimme. The practice of marking the primary voice within the musical score/parts was invented by Arnold Schoenberg.The terms are used primarily by Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, and Anton Webern, but are not uncommon in scores for string quartet. They are commonly indicated in musical scores with the marks \"H\" and \"N\". When the \"primary voice\" ends in one instrument/staff/part, it may be marked with a closing bracket (such as  \u00ac ) at the point where it passes to another instrument/staff/part.Further contrapuntal lines or material may be considered accompaniment.Other examples of the terms' use include lead and back up vocals, melody and counter-melody.\nIn a footnote to a musical score, Schoenberg wrote, \"The human voice is always Hauptstimme [when present].\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, hemiola (also hemiolia) is the ratio 3:2. The equivalent Latin term is sesquialtera. In pitch, hemiola refers to the interval of a perfect fifth. In rhythm, hemiola refers to three beats of equal value in the time normally occupied by two beats.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A hit song, also known as a hit record, hit single or simply a hit, is a recorded song or instrumental that becomes broadly popular or well-known. Although hit song means any widely played or big-selling song, the specific term hit record usually refers to a single that has appeared in an official music chart through repeated radio airplay audience impressions, or significant streaming data and commercial sales.Historically, before the dominance of recorded music, commercial sheet music sales of individual songs were similarly promoted and tracked as singles and albums are now. For example, in 1894, Edward B. Marks and Joe Stern released The Little Lost Child, which sold more than a million copies nationwide, based mainly on its success as an illustrated song, analogous to today's music videos.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "An impresario (from the Italian impresa, \"an enterprise or undertaking\") is a person who organizes and often finances concerts, plays, or operas, performing a role in stage arts that is similar to that of a film or television producer.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, an interdominant is a temporary dominant, the dominant of a key other than the tonic. Since a composition generally begins and ends with the tonic, the dominant of notes other than the tonic would be found in the middle.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "An Internet band, also called an online band, is a musical group whose members collaborate online through broadband by utilizing a content management system and local digital audio workstations. The work is sometimes released under a Creative Commons license, so musicians can share their \"samples\" to create collaborative musical expressions for noncommercial purposes without ever meeting face to face.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The lead vocalist in popular music is typically the member of a group or band whose voice is the most prominent melody in a performance where multiple voices may be heard. The lead singer sets their voice against the accompaniment parts of the ensemble as the dominant sound. In vocal group performances, notably in soul and gospel music, and early rock and roll, the lead singer takes the main vocal melody, with a chorus or harmony vocals provided by other band members as backing vocalists. Lead vocalists typically incorporate some movement or gestures into their performance, and some may participate in dance routines during the show, particularly in pop music. Some lead vocalists also play an instrument during the show, either in an accompaniment role (such as strumming a guitar part), or playing a lead instrument/instrumental solo role when they are not singing (as in the case of lead singer-guitar virtuoso Jimi Hendrix). \nThe lead singer also typically guides the vocal ensemble and band with visual cues to indicate changes of tempo or dynamics, stops or pauses, and the starts of new sections (unless there is also a conductor onstage, as with a big band or unless an instrumentalist bandleader is providing this role). The lead vocalist also typically speaks to the audience between songs, to give information about the songs (such as who wrote them or why it was chosen), introduce the band members, and develop a rapport with the audience. The lead vocalist may also play a leadership role in rehearsals, unless there is a bandleader who takes on this role. If the lead singer is a singer-songwriter, she or he may write some or all of the lyrics or create entire songs (including chords and melodies).\nExamples of a lead vocalist in rock music are Freddie Mercury from Queen and Mick Jagger from the Rolling Stones. Similarly in soul music, Smokey Robinson was the lead singer of The Miracles. There may be two or more lead vocalists in a band who rotate singing lead between songs or within songs, such as with The Beatles or Fleetwood Mac, or two or more vocalists may share lead vocals on the same lines, as was often the case with ABBA.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Lining out or hymn lining, called precenting the line in Scotland, is a form of a cappella hymn-singing or hymnody in which a leader, often called the clerk or precentor, gives each line of a hymn tune as it is to be sung, usually in a chanted form giving or suggesting the tune.  It can be considered a form of call and response. First referred to as \"the old way of singing\" in eighteenth-century Britain, it has influenced twentieth century popular music singing styles.In 1644, the Westminster Assembly outlined its usage in English churches \"for the present, where many in the congregation cannot read\". Lining out spread rapidly to the Scottish churches where it has persisted longest in Britain. It has survived to the present day among some communities and contexts, including the Gaelic psalmody on Lewis in Scotland, the Old Regular Baptists of the southern Appalachians in the United States, and for informal worship in many African American congregations.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Lip sync or lip synch (pronounced , the same as the word sink, short for lip synchronization) is a technical term for matching a speaking or singing person's lip movements with sung or spoken vocals.\nAudio for lip syncing is generated through the sound reinforcement system in a live performance or via television, computer, cinema speakers, or other forms of audio output. The term can refer to any of a number of different techniques and processes, in the context of live performances and audiovisual recordings.\nIn film production, lip syncing is often part of the post-production phase. Dubbing foreign-language films and making animated characters appear to speak both require elaborate lip syncing. Many video games make extensive use of lip-synced sound files to create an immersive environment in which on-screen characters appear to be speaking. In the music industry, lip syncing is used by singers for music videos, television and film appearances and some types of live performances. Lip syncing by singers can be controversial to fans attending concert performances who expect to view a live performance.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In scale (music) theory, a maximally even set (scale) is one in which every generic interval has either one or two consecutive integers specific intervals-in other words a scale whose notes (pcs) are \"spread out as much as possible.\" This property was first described by John Clough and Jack Douthett. Clough and Douthett also introduced the maximally even algorithm. For a chromatic cardinality c and pc-set cardinality d a maximally even set is\n\n  \n    \n      \n        D\n        =\n        \n          \n            \u230a\n            \n              \n                \n                  c\n                  k\n                  +\n                  m\n                \n                d\n              \n            \n            \u230b\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle D={\\left\\lfloor {\\frac {ck+m}{d}}\\right\\rfloor }}\n  \nwhere k ranges from 0 to d \u2212 1 and m, 0 \u2264 m \u2264 c \u2212 1 is fixed and the bracket pair is the floor function. A discussion on these concepts can be found in Timothy Johnson's book on the mathematical foundations of diatonic scale theory. Jack Douthett and Richard Krantz introduced maximally even sets to the mathematics literature.A scale is said to have Myhill's property if every generic interval comes in two specific interval sizes, and a scale with Myhill's property is said to be a well-formed scale. The diatonic collection is both a well-formed scale and is maximally even. The whole-tone scale is also maximally even, but it is not well-formed since each generic interval comes in only one size.\nSecond-order maximal evenness is maximal evenness of a subcollection of a larger collection that is maximally even. Diatonic triads and seventh chords possess second-order maximal evenness, being maximally even in regard to the maximally even diatonic scale\u2014but are not maximally even with regard to the chromatic scale. (ibid, p.115) This nested quality resembles Fred Lerdahl's \"reductional format\" for pitch space from the bottom up:\n\n(Lerdahl, 1992)In a dynamical approach, spinning concentric circles and iterated maximally even sets have been constructed. This approach has implications in Neo-Riemannian theory, and leads to some interesting connections between diatonic and chromatic theory. Emmanuel Amiot has discovered yet another way to define maximally even sets by employing discrete Fourier transforms.Carey, Norman and Clampitt, David (1989). \"Aspects of Well-Formed Scales\", Music Theory Spectrum 11: 187\u2013206.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Melisma (Greek: \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1, m\u00e9lisma, lit.\u2009'song'; from \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, melos, 'song, melody', plural: melismata) is the singing of a single syllable of text while moving between several different notes in succession. Music sung in this style is referred to as melismatic, as opposed to syllabic, in which each syllable of text is matched to a single note. An informal term for melisma is a vocal run.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Melograph, similar to the Melodiograph, is a mechanical apparatus for ethnomusicological transcription usually producing some sort of graph that can be preserved and filed, similar to a recording of music. Beginning with attempts by Milton Metfessel in 1928, assorted devices such as this have been developed or manufactured, the most notable dating back to the 1950s and situated at the University of California in Los Angeles (Charles Seeger), the University of Oslo (Olav Gurvin and Karl Dahlback), and the Hebrew University in Jerusalem (Dalia Cohen and Ruth Katz).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In animation and film, \"Mickey Mousing\" (synchronized, mirrored, or parallel scoring) is a film technique that syncs the accompanying music with the actions on screen. \"Matching movement to music,\" or, \"The exact segmentation of the music analogue to the picture.\" The term comes from the early and mid-production Walt Disney films, where the music almost completely works to mimic the animated motions of the characters. Mickey Mousing may use music to \"reinforce an action by mimicking its rhythm exactly....Frequently used in the 1930s and 1940s, especially by Max Steiner, it is somewhat out of favor today, at least in serious films, because of overuse. However, it can still be effective if used imaginatively\". Mickey Mousing and synchronicity help structure the viewing experience, to indicate how much events should impact the viewer, and to provide information not present on screen. The technique, \"enable[s] the music to be seen to 'participate' in the action and for it to be quickly and formatively interpreted...and [to] also intensify the experience of the scene for the spectator.\" Mickey Mousing may also create unintentional humor, and be used in parody or self-reference.\nIt is often not the music that is synced to the animated action, but the other way around. This is especially so when the music is a classical or other well-known piece. In such cases, the music for the animation is pre-recorded, and an animator will have an exposure sheet with the beats marked on it, frame by frame, and can time the movements accordingly. In the 1940 film Fantasia, the musical piece The Sorcerer's Apprentice by Paul Dukas, composed in the 1890s, contains a fragment that is used to accompany the actions of Mickey Mouse himself. At one point Mickey, as the apprentice, seizes an axe and chops an enchanted broom to pieces so that it will stop carrying water to a pit. The visual action is synchronized exactly to crashing chords in the music.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The millennial whoop is a vocal melodic pattern alternating between the fifth and third notes in a major scale, typically starting on the fifth, in the rhythm of straight 8th-notes, and often using the \"wa\" and \"oh\" syllables. It was used extensively in 2010s pop music.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Minnesang (German: [\u02c8m\u026an\u0259\u02ccza\u014b]; \"love song\") was a tradition of lyric- and song-writing in Germany and Austria that flourished in the Middle High German period. This period of medieval German literature began in the 12th century and continued into the 14th. People who wrote and performed Minnesang were known as Minnes\u00e4nger (German: [\u02c8m\u026an\u0259\u02ccz\u025b\u014b\u0250]), and a single song was called a Minnelied (German: [\u02c8m\u026an\u0259\u02ccli\u02d0t]).\nThe name derives from minne, the Middle High German word for love, as that was Minnesang's main subject.  The Minnes\u00e4nger were similar to the Proven\u00e7al troubadours and northern French trouv\u00e8res in that they wrote love poetry in the tradition of courtly love in the High Middle Ages.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Moldy figs are purist advocates of early jazz, originally those such as Rudi Blesh, Alan Lomax, and James Jones, who argued that jazz took a wrong turn in the early 1920s with developments such as the introduction of printed scores. Blesh, for example, dismissed the work of Duke Ellington as \"tea dansant music\" with no jazz content whatever.The term was later used by the beboppers with reference to those who preferred older jazz to bebop. During the post-World War II era there was something of a revival of \"traditional\" jazz, and bebop displaced swing as the \"modern\" music to which it was contrasted. More recently, Gene Santoro has referred to Wynton Marsalis and others, who embrace bebop but not other forms of jazz that followed it, as \"latter-day moldy figs\", with bebop now lying on the side of \"jazz tradition\".Although the term was originally a pejorative, it has at times been embraced by trad jazz fans and players.In Stan Freberg's recorded comedy sketch \"Yankee Doodle Go Home\", the fife player isn't happy with the drummer. \"No, I mean when I accepted the gig I didn't know I was going to play fife with the kind of moldy fig drumming like what is going on up ahead there, man.\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The  term multilingual titling defines, in the field of titling for the performing arts (musical theatre, drama, audiovisual productions), the chance for the audience to follow more than one linguistic option.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Multimedia translation, also sometimes referred to as Audiovisual translation, is a specialized branch of translation which deals with the transfer of multimodal and multimedial texts into another language and/or culture. and which implies the use of a multimedia electronic system in the translation or in the transmission process.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A museme is a minimal unit of musical meaning, analogous to a morpheme in linguistics, \"the basic unit of musical expression which in the framework of one given musical system is not further divisible without destruction of meaning.\" A museme may:\n\nbe broken down into component parts which are not in themselves meaningful within the framework of the musical language...but are nevertheless basic elements (not units) of musical expression which, when altered, may be compared to the phonemes of speech in that they alter the museme (morpheme) of which they are part and may thereby also alter its meaning.:\u200a71\u200aThe term was brought to popularity by Philip Tagg, derived from the work of Charles Seeger.:\u200a189\u200aMusematic repetition (\"repetition of musemes\":\u200a269\u200a) is simple repetition \"at the level of the short figure, often used to generate an entire structural framework.\":\u200a189\u200a and contrasted with discursive repetition, in which the repetition is not so precise.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Music manuscripts are handwritten sources of music. Generally speaking, they can be written on paper or parchment. If the manuscript contains the composer's handwriting it is called an autograph. Music manuscripts can contain musical notation as well as texts and images. There exists a wide variety of types from sketches and fragments, to compositional scores and presentation copies of musical works.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "There is a long tradition in classical music of writing music in sets of pieces that cover all the major and minor keys of the chromatic scale. These sets typically consist of 24 pieces, one for each of the major and minor keys (sets that comprise all the enharmonic variants include 30 pieces).\nWell-known examples include Johann Sebastian Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier and Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Chopin's 24 Preludes, Op. 28. Such sets are often organized as preludes and fugues or designated as preludes or \u00e9tudes. Some composers have restricted their sets to cover only the 12 major keys or the 12 minor keys; or only the flat keys (Franz Liszt's Transcendental \u00c9tudes) or the sharp keys (Sergei Lyapunov's Op. 11 set). In yet another type, a single piece may progressively modulate through a set of tonalities, as occurs in Ludwig van Beethoven's Two Preludes through all twelve major keys, Op. 39.\nThe bulk of works of this type have been written for piano solo, but there also exist sets for piano 4-hands; two pianos; organ; guitar; two guitars; flute; recorder; oboe; violin solo; violin and piano; cello solo; cello and piano; voice and piano; and string quartet. There are examples of attempts to write full sets that, for one reason or another, were never completed (Josef Rheinberger's organ sonatas, Dmitri Shostakovich's string quartets, C\u00e9sar Franck's L'Organiste).\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Musical acoustics or music acoustics is a multidisciplinary field that combines knowledge from physics, psychophysics, organology (classification of the instruments), physiology, music theory, ethnomusicology, signal processing and instrument building,  among other disciplines.  As a branch of acoustics, it is concerned with researching and describing the physics of music \u2013 how sounds are employed to make music. Examples of areas of study are the function of musical instruments, the human voice (the physics of speech and singing), computer analysis of melody, and in the clinical use of music in music therapy.\nThe pioneer of music acoustics was Hermann von Helmholtz, a German polymath  of the 19th century who was an influential physician, physicist , physiologist, musician, mathematician and philosopher. His book On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music is a revolutionary compendium of several studies and approaches that provided a complete new perspective to music theory, musical performance, music psychology and the physical behaviour of musical instruments.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Musical Pairing is a patented technique of pairing music with food and beverages using a mathematical formula. This phrase is the registered trademark of Musical Pairing Inc. The company was named as a Top 10 Pop-up Restaurant by Fodor's in 2015.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A musical prefix is a numeral or other prefix used in music theory, specifically musical tuning.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Musical quotation is the practice of directly quoting another work in a new composition. The quotation may be from the same composer's work (self-referential), or from a different composer's work (appropriation).\nSometimes the quotation is done for the purposes of characterization, as in Puccini's use of The Star-Spangled Banner in reference to the American character Lieutenant Pinkerton in his opera Madama Butterfly, or in Tchaikovsky's use of the Russian and French national anthems in the 1812 Overture, which depicted a battle between the Russian and French armies.\nSometimes, there is no explicit characterization involved, as when Luciano Berio used brief quotes from Johann Sebastian Bach, Ludwig van Beethoven, Alban Berg, Pierre Boulez, Gustav Mahler, Claude Debussy, Paul Hindemith, Maurice Ravel, Arnold Schoenberg, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Richard Strauss, Igor Stravinsky, Anton Webern, and others in his Sinfonia.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Musical repertoire is a collection of music pieces played by an individual musician or ensemble, composed for a particular instrument or group of instruments, voice, or choir, or from a particular period or area.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A music genre is a conventional category that identifies some pieces of music as belonging to a shared tradition or set of conventions. It is to be distinguished from musical form and musical style, although in practice these terms are sometimes used interchangeably.Music can be divided into genres in varying ways, such as popular music and art music, or religious music and secular music. The artistic nature of music means that these classifications are often subjective and controversial, and some genres may overlap.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Musicality (music-al-ity) is \"sensitivity to, knowledge of, or talent for music\" or \"the quality or state of being musical\", and is used to refer to specific if vaguely defined qualities in pieces and/or genres of music, such as melodiousness and harmoniousness. These definitions are somewhat hampered by the difficulty of defining music, but, colloquially, \"music\" is often contrasted with noise and randomness. Judges of contest music may describe a performance as bringing the music on the page to life; of expressing more than the mere faithful reproduction of pitches, rhythms, and composer dynamic markings. In the company of two or more musicians, there is the added experience of the ensemble effect in which the players express something greater than the sum of their individual parts. A person considered musical has the ability to perceive and reproduce differences in aspects of music including pitch, rhythm, and harmony (see: ear training). Two types of musicality may be differentiated: to be able to perceive music (musical receptivity) and to be able to reproduce music in addition to creating music (musical creativity).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Niente (Italian pronunciation: [\u02c8nj\u025bnte]), also called quasi niente [\u02c8kwa\u02d0zi \u02c8nj\u025bnte], is a musical dynamic often used at the end of a piece to direct the performer to fade the music away to little more than a bare whisper, normally gradually with a diminuendo, al niente. It is often written as \"n\" or \"\u00f8\".\nIt is also used to direct the performer to fade into a note without any articulation at the beginning of the note, known as dal niente (from nothing): \"n\".\nNiente is distinct from a rest \"in that [during niente] the musician is engaged in making sound but so softly that the sound can not be heard.\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A nonchord tone (NCT), nonharmonic tone, or embellishing tone is a note in a piece of music or song that is not part of the implied or expressed chord set out by the harmonic framework. In contrast, a chord tone is a note that is a part of the functional chord (see: factor (chord)). Non-chord tones are most often discussed in the context of the common practice period of classical music, but they can be used in the analysis of other types of tonal music as well, such as Western popular music.\nNonchord tones are often categorized as accented non-chord tones and unaccented non-chord tones depending on whether the dissonance occurs on an accented or unaccented beat (or part of a beat).\nOver time, some musical styles assimilated chord types outside of the common-practice style. In these chords, tones that might normally be considered nonchord tones are viewed as chord tones, such as the seventh of a minor seventh chord. For example, in 1940s-era bebop jazz, an F\u266f played with a C 7 chord would be considered a chord tone if the chord were analyzed as C7(\u266f11). In European classical music, \"[t]he greater use of dissonance from period to period as a result of the dialectic of linear/vertical forces led to gradual normalization of ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords [in analysis and theory]; each additional non-chord tone above the foundational triad became frozen into the chordal mass.\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A novelette is \"a short piece of lyrical music, especially one for the piano\".The word was used by the composer Robert Schumann as a title for some piano pieces, a choice that reflected his literary background and interests. The music in question (op. 21, and op. 99 no. 9) is episodic, however, and does not especially resemble a narrative. The name may also allude to Clara Novello.Schumann was followed by Niels Gade, Theodor Kirchner, Stephen Heller, Anatoly Lyadov, and much later, by Poulenc (Trois novelettes), Lutos\u0142awski (\"Novelette for Orchestra\"), Chaminade, Tcherepnin, Josef Tal, and George Gershwin (\"Novelette in Fourths\").", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, number  refers to an individual song, dance, or instrumental piece which is part of a larger work of musical theatre, opera, or oratorio. It can also refer either to an individual song in a published collection or an individual song or dance in a performance of several unrelated musical pieces as in concerts and revues. Both meanings of the term have been used in American English since the second half of the 19th century.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In Western classical music, obbligato (Italian pronunciation: [obbli\u02c8\u0261a\u02d0to], also spelled obligato) usually describes a musical line that is in some way indispensable in performance. Its opposite is the marking ad libitum. It can also be used, more specifically, to indicate that a passage of music was to be played exactly as written, or only by the specified instrument, without changes or omissions. The word is borrowed from Italian (an adjective meaning mandatory; from Latin obligatus p.p. of obligare, to oblige); the spelling obligato is not acceptable in British English, but it is often used as an alternative spelling in the US. The word can stand on its own, in English, as a noun, or appear as a modifier in a noun phrase (e.g. organ obbligato).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A one-hit wonder is any entity that achieves mainstream popularity, often for only one piece of work, and becomes known among the general public solely for that momentary success.  The term is most commonly used in regard to music performers with only one hit single that overshadows their other work. Some artists dubbed \"one-hit wonders\" in a particular country have had great success in other countries. Music artists with subsequent popular albums and hit listings are typically not considered a one-hit wonder. One-hit wonders usually see their popularity decreasing after their hit listing and most often do not ever return to hit listings with other songs or albums.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In musicology, the opus number is the \"work number\" that is assigned to a musical composition, or to a set of compositions, to indicate the chronological order of the composer's production. Opus numbers are used to distinguish among compositions with similar titles; the word is abbreviated as \"Op.\" for a single work, or \"Opp.\" when referring to more than one work.\nTo indicate the specific place of a given work within a music catalogue, the opus number is paired with a cardinal number; for example, Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 14 in C-sharp minor (1801, nicknamed Moonlight Sonata) is \"Opus 27, No. 2\", whose work-number identifies it as a companion piece to \"Opus 27, No. 1\" (Piano Sonata No. 13 in E-flat major, 1800\u201301), paired in same opus number, with both being subtitled Sonata quasi una Fantasia, the only two of the kind in all of Beethoven's 32 piano sonatas. Furthermore, the Piano Sonata, Op. 27 No. 2, in C-sharp minor is also catalogued as \"Sonata No. 14\", because it is the fourteenth sonata composed by Ludwig van Beethoven.\nGiven composers' inconsistent or inexistent assignment of opus numbers, especially during the Baroque (1600\u20131750) and the Classical (1750\u20131827) eras, musicologists have developed other catalogue-number systems; among them the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV-number), and the K\u00f6chel-Verzeichnis (K- and KV-numbers) which enumerate the works of Johann Sebastian Bach and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, respectively.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Orchestration is the study or practice of writing music for an orchestra (or, more loosely, for any musical ensemble, such as a concert band) or of adapting music composed for another medium for an orchestra. Also called \"instrumentation\", orchestration is the assignment of different instruments to play the different parts (e.g., melody, bassline, etc.) of a musical work.  For example, a work for solo piano could be adapted and orchestrated so that an orchestra could perform the piece, or a concert band piece could be orchestrated for a symphony orchestra.\nIn classical music, composers have historically orchestrated their own music.  Only gradually over the course of music history did orchestration come to be regarded as a separate compositional art and profession in itself. In modern classical music, composers almost invariably orchestrate their own work.\nHowever, in musical theatre, film music and other commercial media, it is customary to use orchestrators and arrangers to one degree or another, since time constraints and/or the level of training of composers may preclude them orchestrating the music themselves.\nThe precise role of the orchestrator in film music is highly variable, and depends greatly on the needs and skill set of the particular composer.\nIn musical theatre, the composer typically writes a piano/vocal score and then hires an arranger or orchestrator to create the instrumental score for the pit orchestra to play.\nIn jazz big bands, the composer or songwriter writes the lead sheet, which contains the melody and the chords, and then one or more orchestrators or arrangers \"flesh out\" these basic musical ideas by creating parts for the saxophones, trumpets, trombones, and the rhythm section (bass, piano/jazz guitar/Hammond organ, drums).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Ornaments are a decorative embellishment to music, either to a melody or to an accompaniment part such as a bassline or chord. Sometimes different symbols represent the same ornament, or vice versa. Different ornament names can refer to an ornament from a specific area or time period. Understanding these ornaments is important for historically informed performance and understanding the subtleties of different types of music. This list is intended to give basic information on ornaments, with description and illustrations where possible. Ornaments are used in Western classical music, Western popular music e.g., (rock music and pop music) and traditional music (e.g., folk music and blues) and in other world music and classical music from the eastern and Southern Hemisphere continents.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, ornaments or embellishments are musical flourishes\u2014typically, added notes\u2014that are not essential to carry the overall line of the melody (or harmony), but serve instead to decorate or \"ornament\" that line (or harmony), provide added interest and variety, and give the performer the opportunity to add expressiveness to a song or piece. Many ornaments are performed as \"fast notes\" around a central, main note.\nThere are many types of ornaments, ranging from the addition of a single, short grace note before a main note to the performance of a virtuosic and flamboyant trill. The amount of ornamentation in a piece of music can vary from quite extensive (it was often extensive in the Baroque period, from 1600 to 1750) to relatively little or even none. The word agr\u00e9ment is used specifically to indicate the French Baroque style of ornamentation.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Ossia (Italian: [os\u02c8si\u02d0a]) is a musical term for an alternative passage which may be played instead of the original passage. The word ossia comes from the Italian for \"alternatively\" and was originally spelled o sia, meaning \"or be it\".Ossia passages are very common in opera and solo-piano works. They are usually an easier version of the preferred form of passage, but in Mily Balakirev's Islamey, for instance, the urtext has ossia passages of both types (simpler and more difficult). Bel canto vocal music also frequently uses ossia, also called oppure, passages to illustrate a more embellished version of the vocal line.On the other hand, an ossia marking does not always indicate a change in difficulty; the piano solo music of Franz Liszt is typically full of alternative passages, often no easier or more difficult than the rest of the piece. This reflects Liszt's desire to leave his options open during a performance. Many of his ossia passages are cadenzas.\nAn unusual use of ossia is found in Alban Berg's Violin Concerto where several ossia parts are included for the solo violin. If the soloist chooses to play these, the concertmaster is required to play a different ossia (which takes part of the solo violin line that is lost in favor of the soloist's ossia).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "An epilogue or epilog (from Greek \u1f10\u03c0\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 ep\u00edlogos, \"conclusion\" from \u1f10\u03c0\u03af epi, \"in addition\" and \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 logos, \"word\") is a piece of writing at the end of a work of literature, usually used to bring closure to the work. It is presented from the perspective of within the story. When the author steps in and speaks directly to the reader, that is more properly considered an afterword. The opposite is a prologue\u2014a piece of writing at the beginning of a work of literature or drama, usually used to open the story and capture interest. Some genres, for example television programs and video games, call the epilogue an \"outro\" patterned on the use of \"intro\" for \"introduction\".\n\nEpilogues are usually set in the future, after the main story is completed. Within some genres it can be used to hint at the next instalment in a series of work. It is also used to satisfy the reader's curiosity and to cover any loose ends of the story.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Overdubbing (also known as layering) is a technique used in audio recording in which audio tracks that have been pre-recorded are then played back and monitored, while simultaneously recording new, doubled, or augmented tracks onto one or more available tracks of a digital audio workstation (DAW) or tape recorder. The overdub process can be repeated multiple times. This technique is often used with singers, as well as with instruments, or ensembles/orchestras. Overdubbing is typically done for the purpose of adding richness and complexity to the original recording. For example, if there are only one or two artists involved in the recording process, overdubbing can give the effect of sounding like many performers.In vocal performances, the performer usually listens to an existing recorded performance (usually through headphones in a recording studio) and simultaneously plays a new performance along with it, which is also recorded. The intention is that the final mix will contain a combination of these \"dubs\".Another kind of overdubbing is the so called \"tracking\" (or \"laying the basic tracks\"), where tracks containing the rhythm section (usually including drums) are recorded first, then following up with overdubs (solo instruments, such as keyboards or guitar, then finally vocals). This method has been the standard technique for recording popular music since the early 1960s. Today, overdubbing can be accomplished even on basic recording equipment, or a typical PC equipped with a sound card, using digital audio workstation software.\nBecause the process of overdubbing involves working with pre-recorded material, the performers involved do not have to ever have physically met each other, nor even still be alive.  In 1991, decades after her father Nat King Cole had died, Natalie Cole released a \"virtual duet\" recording of \"Unforgettable\" where she overdubbed her vocals onto her father's original recording from the 1960s.  As there is no limit in timespan with overdubbing, there is likewise no limit in distance, nor in the number of overdubbed layers. Perhaps the most wide-reaching collaborative overdub recording was accomplished by Eric Whitacre in 2013, where he edited together a \"Virtual Choir\" of 8,409 audio tracks from 5,905 people from 101 countries.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Overture (from French ouverture, lit. \"opening\") in music was originally the instrumental introduction to a ballet, opera, or oratorio in the 17th century. During the early Romantic era, composers such as Beethoven and Mendelssohn composed overtures which were independent, self-existing instrumental, programmatic works that foreshadowed genres such as the symphonic poem. These were \"at first undoubtedly intended to be played at the head of a programme\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Pesante (Italian pronunciation: [pe\u02c8zante]) is a musical term, meaning \"heavy and ponderous.\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music theory, a phrase (Greek: \u03c6\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03b7) is a unit of musical meter that has a complete musical sense of its own, built from figures, motifs, and cells, and combining to form melodies, periods and larger sections.\nA phrase is a substantial musical thought, which ends with a musical punctuation called a cadence. Phrases are created in music through an interaction of melody, harmony, and rhythm.\nTerms such as sentence and verse have been adopted into the vocabulary of music from linguistic syntax. Though the analogy between the musical and the linguistic phrase is often made, still the term \"is one of the most ambiguous in music....there is no consistency in applying these terms nor can there be...only with melodies of a very simple type, especially those of some dances, can the terms be used with some consistency.\"John D. White defines a phrase as \"the smallest musical unit that conveys a more or less complete musical thought. Phrases vary in length and are terminated at a point of full or partial repose, which is called a cadence.\" Edward Cone analyses the \"typical musical phrase\" as consisting of an \"initial downbeat, a period of motion, and a point of arrival marked by a cadential downbeat\". Charles Burkhart defines a phrase as \"Any group of measures (including a group of one, or possibly even a fraction of one) that has some degree of structural completeness. What counts is the sense of completeness we hear in the pitches not the notation on the page. To be complete such a group must have an ending of some kind \u2026 . Phrases are delineated by the tonal functions of pitch. They are not created by slur or by legato performance ... . A phrase is not pitches only but also has a rhythmic dimension, and further, each phrase in a work contributes to that work's large rhythmic organization.\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, a reduction is an arrangement or transcription of an existing score or composition in which complexity is lessened to make analysis, performance, or practice easier or clearer; the number of parts may be reduced or rhythm may be simplified, such as through the use of block chords.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Music described as piano six hands  is for three pianists at one piano. More rarely the neologism 'Triet' is used, by analogy with the duo/duet distinction sometimes made between 2 pianos and piano four hands (and also because piano trio is an already established term). \nBecause of the limited range available to each player, many of the pieces written for this combination are elementary in nature; many more are arrangements of pieces for other forces. But there are a small number of original works, and a handful of virtuoso three-player groups have emerged in the 21st century.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A playlist is a list of video or audio files that can be played back on a media player either sequentially or in a shuffled order. In its most general form, an audio playlist is simply a list of songs, but sometimes a loop. The term has several specialized meanings in the realms of television broadcasting, radio broadcasting and personal computers. \nA playlist can also be a list of recorded titles on a digital video disk. On the Internet, a playlist can be a list of chapters in a movie serial; for example, Flash Gordon in the Planet Mongo is available on YouTube as a playlist of thirteen consecutive video chapters.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A power trio is a rock and roll band format having a lineup of electric guitar, bass guitar and drum kit (drums and cymbals), leaving out a second rhythm guitar or keyboard instrument that are often used in other rock music bands that are quartets and quintets. Larger rock bands often use one or more additional rhythm sections to fill out the sound with chords and harmony parts.\nMost power trios in hard rock and heavy metal music use the electric guitar player in two roles; during much of the song, they play rhythm guitar, playing the chord progression for the song and performing the song's important riffs, and then switching to a lead guitar role during the guitar solo. While one or more band members typically sing while playing their instruments, power trios in hard rock and heavy metal music generally emphasize instrumental performance and overall sonic impact over vocals and lyrics. An example of a power trio is Mot\u00f6rhead, whose lead vocalist, Lemmy, played bass and sang lead vocals. Although four-piece bands such as The Who or Led Zeppelin may function instrumentally as a power trio, with three instrumentalists and a lead vocalist, these bands are not usually considered as power trios.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, precompositional decisions are those decisions which a composer decides upon before or while beginning to create a composition. These limits may be given to the composer, such as the length or style needed, or entirely decided by the composer.\nPrecompositional decisions may also include which key, scale, musical form, style, genre, or idiom in which to write, to use techniques such as the twelve tone technique, serialism, or not to (consciously) use a system at all. Other examples may include isorhythm, ostinato, passacaglia, chaconne, rhythms, or chord progression.\nPrecompositional decisions do not necessarily, and almost always do not, preclude compositional decisions, and may actually allow the initial consideration of the choices to be made. One might say that, \"thus, while it liberates imagination as to what the world may be, it refuses to legislate as to what the world is\" (Bertrand Russell, Our Knowledge of the External World). Thus precompositional decisions do not necessarily ease the compositional choices.\nOn the other hand, the concept of precompositional decisions is unclear as it is often impossible to determine which decisions occur before or during a composition.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The section principal in an orchestra, as well as any large musical ensemble, is the lead player for each respective section of instruments. For example, there are multiple sections in an orchestra. The strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion sections all have subsections. The first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, double basses, flutes, clarinets, oboes, bassoons, trumpets, trombones, French horns, tubas, and percussion are all subsections, each led by a principal player. The principal for each section is normally the most skilled and valuable player, selected through an audition process. The section principal demonstrates leadership not only through a high standard of playing, but also through verbal communication and body language. The role of section principal requires one to play at a high level, and to be a team leader with competent people skills. Principals often serve the function of verbally communicating directions from the conductor to the rest of their section. Additionally, they are in charge of deciding bowings. \nDuring rehearsals, principals often are expected to contribute musically and technically to the music-making process by making appropriate suggestions to the tutti players.   Section players look to the principal to obtain entrance cues, and orient their playing to their leader's style, dynamics, articulation, and phrasing, among other things. In addition to leading the section, principal players are responsible for playing any solos written for that voice in a given musical score. The principal first violin is called the concertmaster (or \"leader\" in the UK) and is considered the leader of not only the string section, but of the entire orchestra, subordinate only to the conductor.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Program music or programatic  music is a type of instrumental art music that attempts to musically render an extramusical narrative. The narrative itself might be offered to the audience through the piece's title, or in the form of program notes, inviting imaginative correlations with the music. A well-known example is Sergei Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf. \nThe genre culminates in the symphonic works of Richard Strauss that include narrations of the adventures of Don Quixote, Till Eulenspiegel, the composer's domestic life, and an interpretation of Nietzsche's philosophy of the \u00dcbermensch. Following Strauss, the genre declined and new works with explicitly narrative content are rare. Nevertheless the genre continues to exert an influence on film music, especially where this draws upon the techniques of 19th century late romantic music. Similar compositional forms also exist within popular music, including the concept album and rock opera.\nThe term is almost exclusively applied to works in the European classical music tradition, particularly those from the Romantic music period of the 19th century, during which the concept was popular, but pieces which fit the description have long been a part of music. The term is usually reserved for purely instrumental works (pieces without singers and lyrics), and not used, for example for opera or lieder. Single-movement orchestral pieces of program music are often called symphonic poems. Absolute music, in contrast, is intended to be appreciated without any particular reference to the outside world.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A raga or raag (IAST: r\u0101ga; also raaga or ragam; literally 'coloring', 'tingeing', 'dyeing') is a melodic framework for improvisation akin to a melodic mode in Indian classical music. The r\u0101ga is a unique and central feature of the classical Indian music tradition, and as a result has no direct translation to concepts in classical European music. Each r\u0101ga is an array of melodic structures with musical motifs, considered in the Indian tradition to have the ability to \"colour the mind\" and affect the emotions of the audience.Each r\u0101ga provides the musician with a musical framework within which to improvise. Improvisation by the musician involves creating sequences of notes allowed by the r\u0101ga in keeping with rules specific to the r\u0101ga. R\u0101gas range from small r\u0101gas like Bahar and Shahana that are not much more than songs to big r\u0101gas like Malkauns, Darbari and Yaman, which have great scope for improvisation and for which performances can last over an hour. R\u0101gas may change over time, with an example being Marwa, the primary development of which has been going down into the lower octave, in contrast with the traditional middle octave. Each r\u0101ga traditionally has an emotional significance and symbolic associations such as with season, time and mood. The r\u0101ga is considered a means in the Indian musical tradition to evoking specific feelings in an audience. Hundreds of r\u0101ga are recognized in the classical tradition, of which about 30 are common, and each r\u0101ga has its \"own unique melodic personality\".There are two main classical music traditions, Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian), and the concept of r\u0101ga is shared by both. R\u0101ga are also found in Sikh traditions such as in Guru Granth Sahib, the primary scripture of Sikhism. Similarly, it is a part of the qawwali tradition in Sufi Islamic communities of South Asia. Some popular Indian film songs and ghazals use r\u0101gas in their composition.Every raga has a swara (a note or named pitch) called shadja, or adhara sadja, whose pitch may be chosen arbitrarily by the performer. This is taken to mark the beginning and end of the saptak (loosely, octave). The raga also contains an adhista, which is either the swara Ma or the swara Pa. The adhista divides the octave into two parts or anga \u2013 the purvanga, which contains lower notes, and the uttaranga, which contains higher notes. Every raga has a vadi and a samvadi. The vadi is the most prominent swara, which means that an improvising musician emphasizes or pays more attention to the vadi than to other notes. The samvadi is consonant with the vadi (always from the anga that does not contain the vadi) and is the second most prominent swara in the raga.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Ragmala or Ragamala (pronounced r\u0101gm\u0101l\u0101) a composition of twelve verses, running into sixty lines that names various ragas which appears in most saroops of Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji after the compositions of Sri Guru Arjan Dev Ji entitled \"Mundaavani\" (The Royal Seal).\nThe title literally means a 'garland of Ragas, or musical melodies'.  \"Mala\" means \"garland\", while \"Raga\" is a \"musical composition or mode\", which has also given rise to the series of Ragamala paintings. This list differs according to the author and the music school it is based upon. Thus there exists a number of such lists in the music text books of India.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A refrain (from Vulgar Latin refringere, \"to repeat\", and later from Old French refraindre) is the line or lines that are repeated in music or in poetry \u2014 the \"chorus\" of a song. Poetic fixed forms that feature refrains include the villanelle, the virelay, and the sestina.\nIn popular music, the refrain or chorus may contrast with the verse melodically, rhythmically, and harmonically; it may assume a higher level of dynamics and activity, often with added instrumentation. Chorus form, or strophic form, is a sectional and/or additive way of structuring a piece of music based on the repetition of one formal section or block played repeatedly.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Rhythm (from Greek \u1fe5\u03c5\u03b8\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, rhythmos, \"any regular recurring motion, symmetry\") generally means a \"movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions\". This general meaning of regular recurrence or pattern in time can apply to a wide variety of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of anything from microseconds to several seconds (as with the riff in a rock music song); to several minutes or hours, or, at the most extreme, even over many years. \nRhythm is related to and distinguished from pulse, meter, and beats:\n\nRhythm may be defined as the way in which one or more unaccented beats are grouped in relation to an accented one. ... A rhythmic group can be apprehended only when its elements are distinguished from one another, rhythm...always involves an interrelationship between a single, accented (strong) beat and either one or two unaccented (weak) beats.\nIn the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a human scale; of musical sounds and silences that occur over time, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language and poetry. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the rhythmic delivery of the lyrics is one of the most important elements of the style. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as \"timed movement through space\" and a common language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry. For example, architects often speak of the rhythm of a building, referring to patterns in the spacing of windows, columns, and other elements of the fa\u00e7ade. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, Godfried Toussaint, William Rothstein, Joel Lester, and Guerino Mazzola.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The ripieno (Italian pronunciation: [ri\u02c8pj\u025b\u02d0no], Italian for \"stuffing\" or \"padding\") is the bulk of instrumental parts of a musical ensemble who do not play as soloists, especially in Baroque music. These are the players who would play in sections marked tutti, as opposed to soloist sections. It is most commonly used in reference to instrumental music, although it can also be used in choral music. An individual member of the ripieno is called a ripienista.\nIn the concerto grosso, it refers to the larger of the two ensembles as opposed to the group of soloists called the concertino. In a ripieno concerto, there is no dominant soloist, so it resembles an early symphony. It can also refer to the main body of orchestra in early orchestral music, although this use is today often disregarded.\nIn band music, the term (or its variant spellings repiano and ripiano) is used similarly to designate the players not at the leading desk, especially the clarinet and cornet players in military bands.The expression senza ripieni is an instruction to play without the ripienistas; this instruction is frequently found in works by Handel.The term can also be used to designate a pipe organ mixture stop.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The ripieno concerto is a somewhat later type of Baroque music, the term concerto here reverting to its earlier meaning of work for an ensemble. The word ripieno is from the Italian for \"padding\". The concerto ripieno was sometimes referred to as a \"concerto a quattro\" (or \"a cinque\" if the orchestra included two viola parts, a standard scoring in the 17th century). These were merely compositions for the ripieno alone (i.e. for string orchestra and continuo), with either no solo parts or clearly subsidiary ones. Beginning with the six ripieno concertos, Op. 5 (1692), of Giuseppe Torelli, this genre enjoyed an efflorescence that extended until about 1740.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Riyaz (lit.\u2009'training, practice') is the systematic practice of music, dance or any other art form usually under the guidance of a teacher or preceptor. In Hindustani classical music tradition, it is employed as a repertoire of exercises to cultivate the musicality of one's voice or fingers. It is known as Sadhakam or Sadhana in Carnatic music. It is followed rigorously by the students as well as exponents of vocal as well as dancing forms.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A round (also called a perpetual canon [canon perpetuus] or infinite canon) is a musical composition, a limited type of canon, in which a minimum of three voices sing exactly the same melody at the unison (and may continue repeating it indefinitely), but with each voice beginning at different times so that different parts of the melody coincide in the different voices, but nevertheless fit harmoniously together. It is one of the easiest forms of part singing, as only one line of melody need be learned by all parts, and is part of a popular musical tradition. They were particularly favoured in glee clubs, which combined amateur singing with regular drinking. The earliest known rounds date from 12th century Europe. One characteristic of rounds is that, \"There is no fixed ending,\" in the sense that they may be repeated as many times as possible, although many do have \"fixed\" endings, often indicated by a fermata.\"Row, Row, Row Your Boat\" is a well-known children's round for four voices. Other well-known examples are \"Fr\u00e8re Jacques\", \"Three Blind Mice\", and, more recently, the outro of \"God Only Knows\" by The Beach Boys (the first usage in contemporary pop music).A catch is a round in which a phrase that is not apparent in a single line of lyrics emerges when the lyrics are split between the different voices. \"Perpetual canon\" refers to the end of the melody leading back to the beginning, allowing easy and immediate repetition. Often, \"the final cadence is the same as the first measure\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The rule of the octave is a way of harmonizing each note of the diatonic scale, reflecting common practice, and has its origin in the practice of thorough bass, or basso continuo, where it provided an easy way to find which chord could accompany each note of the scale in the bass, particularly in the absence of figuring. The earliest description of the chords harmonizing an octave may be that by Antonio Bruschi in 1711. The name (r\u00e8gle des octaves, \"rule of the octaves\") was first given by Fran\u00e7ois Campion in 1716.  The rule of the octave also formed the cornerstone of the \"regole\" (rules) of partimento collections. There is normally a different harmonization for ascending and descending bass lines, and, although called a rule, there are several variants with different chords. Different versions for the major and minor scales are recorded.  One example for the major scale by John Hiles:", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Sargam refers to singing the notes, mostly commonly used in Indian music, instead of the words of a composition, with use of various ornamentations such as meend, gamak, kan and khatka, as part of a khyal performance. This is generally done in medium-tempo as a bridge between the alap and taan portions. \nAs an example, one could sing PmRSnSRRSRnSPnmPgmnnPmgmRSnS in raga Adana, given that raga's vadi-samvadi and the rules of the raga (see swara for explanation of the notes).\nThe musical octave is said to have evolved from the elaborate and elongated chants of Sama Veda, based on these basic swaras. Siksha is the subject that deals with phonetics and pronunciation. Naradiya Siksha elaborately discusses the nature of swaras, both Vedic chants and the octave.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A scratch vocal is a vocal performance that a singer records to provide a reference track that music producers and audio engineers can use as they craft other pieces of the recorded song.\nMost of the time, the singer ultimately re-records the vocal performance after production is complete. However, there are a number of exceptions to this rule, such as \"The Pi\u00f1a Colada Song\" by Rupert Holmes, where the re-recording lacked the desired energy and spontaneity, or \"Superstar\" by The Carpenters, where the scratch was so well performed that a re-record was deemed unnecessary.\nScratch vocals are also often used in the production of feature-length animated films to bring storyboards to life as \"animatics,\" in which storyboard frames are synced to the relevant dialogue, together with a rough soundtrack generated on a synthesizer.  Animation directors \"hire temporary voices to help find their way through various script revisions, visual renderings and other steps of the process.\"   Scratch vocals may be obtained from professional voice actors (who may or may not be well-established in the voice-over community but are generally unknown to the general public) or from anyone around the studio willing to chip in a line or two (as well as friends or family members).  \nFor lead roles of animated films, scratch vocals are nearly always replaced in the final cut by vocal tracks recorded by bankable stars or experienced character actors.  However, in the rush to meet deadlines, if the scratch vocals for a minor role are good enough, the director may skip auditions and simply use the actor who recorded the scratch vocals in the role. This is how many animation studio employees (and their friends and family members) end up with minor credits as cast members on their studio's products.\nIf scratch vocals for a lead role are exceptionally good, the studio may approve casting of the scratch vocalist in the lead role\u2014as occurred with Pixar's Turning Red (2022).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A set list, or setlist, is typically a handwritten or printed document created as an ordered list of songs, jokes, stories and other elements an artist intends to present during a specific performance.\nA setlist can be made of nearly any material that can be written or printed on, but are most commonly paper, cardboard or cardstock. They are also often laminated, especially for outdoor venues. The setlist is usually taped onto the stage where the musicians can see it, or to equipment such as a monitor or amplifier.\nArtists and bands use setlists for a variety of reasons beyond the mere order of performance events. They are often used to help create the set's overall mood by establishing a memorable sense of range and variety in tone, tempo and dynamics between songs.They are also used to create sets for specific audiences and locations. An increasingly common application is the use of technologies such as instant polling on social media and websites, where fans can choose material to be performed.\nMany performers also craft their playlists to highlight other elements of their shows, such as visual ambiance, choreography, or to refer to specific albums or phases of their careers.Music fans also refer to the setlist in the non-physical sense of what a performing artist chooses to play. Many artists use the same list for every performance on a concert tour. Others prefer to vary their lists during a tours, either for the benefit of fans who attend multiple performances or to avoid a sense of monotony among the musicians. The Grateful Dead was known for never playing the same setlist twice. Some such artists have predetermined \"slots\" in an otherwise mostly fixed show where different songs can be inserted. Some artists even state that the same song will not be played at two shows in a row; and still others, such as Van Morrison, use no predetermined list at all.\n\nThere are websites that track and report information on such things as the venue and bands on the bill of each date, as well as which band members were in attendance, copies of the show posters and other memorabilia available, and most importantly, the actual setlist used for that particular event. This is done to provide a more accurate record of each individual show, which is later used to differentiate between performances during a tour, as many artists will change their setlist from one night to another. In the pre-smartphone era, devoted followers attending concerts of popular artists such as Bruce Springsteen or Led Zeppelin, which have very large fan bases spanning the globe, often took on the task of tracking which songs were played and in what order, creating their own handwritten version of the correct setlist for the event to be shared later with other fans through fan clubs and other forums. When early cellular phones became commonplace with the general public, people began using text-messaging to report the songs played in real-time to a friend or fellow fan who would then update a running setlist on one or more Internet forums devoted to the performer of the night. When internet-connected smartphones came about, fans began to post the setlists directly to these forums and websites themselves, often as part of a running play-by-play commentary of their concert experiences on social media sites such as Myspace and later Twitter.\nCollecting setlists has become nearly as popular for music fans as collecting ticket stubs and show posters, with the actual physical setlist becoming a treasured and uniquely rare souvenir for concert goers and fans of music, in general. Fans often wait around after a concert just so they can grab one off the stage after a performance or so they can try requesting one from a roadie or other event staff. Crew members also sometimes keep items like original setlists,  guitar picks, drumsticks and other items used during a performance as keepsakes or to later sell in the memorabilia market or on auction websites such as eBay, where collectors, fans, and concert attendees who are looking to highlight their own experience of a particular show can purchase them for their own collection. In some cases, so great is the urge for a fan to obtain a setlist that they do not wait for a show to end before trying to get their hands on one.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In the entertainment industry, a sleeper hit is a film, television series, music release, video game, or some other entertainment product that was initially unsuccessful on release but became a success later on. A sleeper hit may have little promotion or lack a successful launch but gradually develops a fan following that garners it media attention, which in turn increases its public exposure and public interest in the product.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Song of the summer is the unofficial designation of the song that is dominant both culturally and commercially between the end of May and the beginning of September in a given year. Although the idea of a song of the summer had been around for years, it became a common term in the 1990s. By the early 2000s, achieving the label of \"song of the summer\" became a competition urged on by media outlets. In the 21st century, the growing fragmentation of musical sources has made it more difficult for a single song to become overwhelmingly pervasive.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A song plugger or song demonstrator was a vocalist or piano player employed in the early 20th century by department stores, music stores and song publishers to promote and help sell new sheet music, which was how hits were advertised before good-quality recordings were widely available. Music publisher Frank Harding has been credited with innovating the sales method. Typically, the pianist sat on the mezzanine level of a store and played whatever music was sent up to him by the clerk of the store selling the sheet music. Patrons could select any title, have it delivered to the song plugger, and get a preview of the tune before buying it.\nAlthough the terms are often used interchangeably, those who worked in department and music stores were most often known as \"song demonstrators\", while those who worked directly for music publishers were called \"song pluggers.\"\nMusicians and  composers who had worked as song pluggers included George Gershwin, Ron Roker, Jerome Kern, Irving Berlin and Lil Hardin Armstrong. Movie executive Harry Cohn had been a song plugger.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Songshark is a term for a dishonest music publisher, whose main source of income is the naivete of new songwriters, whom they charge for services a reputable publisher would provide free to their clients.\"Song shark\" is the trade name for any individual, or firm who, with the deliberate intention to defraud, solicits business from amateur songwriters, advising them that by having music written to their lyrics, or vice versa, they will have a finished composition which will immediately be \"snatched up\" by a music publisher. Often, the song shark will himself claim to be a publisher, and will tell the songwriter that his only expense will be in \"defraying half the costs of publication.\"\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A soprano ([so\u02c8pra\u02d0no]) is a type of classical female singing voice and has the highest vocal range of all voice types. The soprano's vocal range (using scientific pitch notation) is from approximately middle C (C4) = 261 Hz to \"high A\" (A5) = 880 Hz in choral music, or to \"soprano C\" (C6, two octaves above middle C) = 1046 Hz or higher in operatic music. In four-part chorale style harmony, the soprano takes the highest part, which often encompasses the melody. The soprano voice type is generally divided into the coloratura, soubrette, lyric, spinto, and dramatic soprano.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Spruchdichtung or Sangspruchdichtung is the German term for a genre of Middle High German sung verse. An individual work in this genre is called a Spruch (plural Spr\u00fcche), literally a \"saying\", and may consist of one or more strophes.While closely associated with the lyric genre Minnesang, its theme is not love, but rather \n\nthe Spruch treated predominantly of rational, didactic and pragmatic issues, including, for example, socio-political commentary, topics related to moral or religious teaching and philosophy, practical wisdom, biographical material, praise of patrons, begging and much else besides.\n\nWhere the texts offer general moral comment, they may also be considered gnomic poetry, while works directed at particular personages or issues are rather political poetry.\nThe most important medieval collection of Spr\u00fcche is the Jenaer Liederhandschrift (MS J), which also has a large number of Spruch melodies.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, the Italian term stretto [\u02c8stretto] (plural: stretti) has two distinct meanings:\n\nIn a fugue, stretto (German: Engf\u00fchrung) is the imitation of the subject in close succession, so that the answer enters before the subject is completed.\nIn non-fugal compositions, a stretto (also sometimes spelled stretta) is a passage, often at the end of an aria or movement, in faster tempo. Examples include the end of Franz Liszt's transcendental etude No.10, the end of the last movement of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony; measure 227 of Chopin's Ballade No. 3; measures 16, 17 and 18, of his Prelude No. 4 in E minor; and measure 25 of his Etude Op. 10, No. 12, \"The Revolutionary.\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Subtone is an advanced technique of tone generation on woodwind instruments, particularly the saxophone and clarinet. It is often described as a soft, breathy timbre that is usually produced in the lowest range of the instrument with low volume.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In the entertainment industry, a summer hit is a song that is released and peaks in its popularity during summer. In some years, a single pop song will gain widespread international popularity during the summer season, becoming that summer's definitive summer hit in many countries. Many of the best-known summer hits emerge from outside the British and American pop music industries.\nThe equivalent of summer hit in France is the tube de l'\u00e9t\u00e9 (summer tube), an expression that exists since 1960s which became more commercially used by the late 1990s.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Syncopation is a musical term meaning a variety of rhythms played together to make a piece of music, making part or all of a tune or piece of music off-beat. More simply, syncopation is \"a disturbance or interruption of the regular flow of rhythm\": a \"placement of rhythmic stresses or accents where they wouldn't normally occur\". It is the correlation of at least two sets of time intervals.Syncopation is used in many musical styles, especially dance music. According to music producer Rick Snoman, \"All dance music makes use of syncopation, and it's often a vital element that helps tie the whole track together\". In the form of a back beat, syncopation is used in virtually all contemporary popular music.Syncopation can also occur when a strong harmony is simultaneous with a weak beat, for instance, when a 7th-chord is played on the second beat of 34 measure or a dominant chord is played at the fourth beat of a 44 measure. The latter occurs frequently in tonal cadences for 18th- and early-19th-century music and is the usual conclusion of any section.\nA hemiola (the equivalent Latin term is sesquialtera) can also be considered as one straight measure in three with one long chord and one short chord and a syncope in the measure thereafter, with one short chord and one long chord. Usually, the last chord in a hemiola is a (bi-)dominant, and as such a strong harmony on a weak beat, hence a syncope.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Synthesia is a piano keyboard trainer for Microsoft Windows, IOS, macOS, and Android which allows users to play a MIDI keyboard or use a computer keyboard in time to a MIDI file by following on-screen directions, much in the style of Keyboard Mania or Guitar Hero. Additionally, Synthesia can be paired with MIDI keyboards that have illuminated keys, or with virtual player piano on screen, which some people believe makes learning piano easier for beginners. It was originally named Piano Hero, due to the similarity of gameplay with Guitar Hero; this was until Activision (the owners of the rights to Guitar Hero) sent a cease and desist to the program's creator, Nicholas Piegdon.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Tacet is Latin which translates literally into English as \"(it) is silent\" (pronounced: , , or ). It is a musical term to indicate that an instrument or voice does not sound, also known as a rest. In vocal polyphony and in orchestral scores, it usually indicates a long period of time, typically an entire movement. In more modern music such as jazz, tacet tends to mark considerably shorter breaks. Multirests, or multiple-measure rests, are rests which last multiple measures (or multiple rests, each of which lasts an entire measure).\n\nTacet. (Lat.) A word by which the performer is to understand that the instrument with the name of which it is conjoined is to be silent: a Violino Tacet; the violin is not to play: Oboe Tacet; the oboe is silent.\nIt was common for early symphonies to leave out the brass or percussion in certain movements, especially in slow (second) movements, and this is the instruction given in the parts for the player to wait until the end of the movement.\n\nIt is also commonly used in accompaniment music to indicate that the instrument does not play on a certain run through a portion of the music, e.g. \"Tacet 1st time.\" The phrase tacet al fine is used to indicate that the performer should remain silent for the remainder of the piece (or portion thereof), and need not, for example, count rests.\nTacet may be appropriate when a particular instrument/voice/section, \"is to rest for an entire section, movement, or composition.\" \"Partial rests, of course, in every case must be written in. Even though it means 'silent,' the term tacet...is not a wise substitution for a lengthy rest within a movement...The term tacet, therefore, should be used only to indicate that a player rests throughout an entire movement.\"N.C.\" (\"no chord\") is often used in guitar tablature or chord charts to indicate tacets, rests, or caesuras in the accompaniment.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In barbershop music, a tag is a dramatic variation put in the last section of the song.  It is roughly analogical to a coda in classical music.\nTags are characterized by heightening the dramatic tension of the song, frequently including a hanger or sustained note against which the other singers carry the rhythm.  In addition, good tags can be sung as short, stand-alone works.  Tags may be soft and tender but are typically characterized by loud, \"paint-peeling\", ringing chords.  According to the competition rules of the Barbershop Harmony Society, every song entered for a competition must have a tag.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Tasto solo is an Italian term used in music scores, usually on the continuo part, to indicate that a note or section should be played on its own, without harmony. The term tasto is Italian for key (as Italian \"tastiera\" is for fingerboard), so the part is to be played solo by the fingerboard instrument (e.g. cello) and not by the harmony instrument (e.g. harpsichord) where a basso continuo line is played by more than one instrument. The phrase first appeared in music theory books in the eighteenth century, but was used by composers such as Arcangelo Corelli before this time. C.P.E. Bach commented that, in practice, Italians did not play tasto solo.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In musical terminology, tempo (Italian for \"time\"; plural tempos, or tempi from the Italian plural) is the speed or pace of a given piece. In classical music, tempo is typically indicated with an instruction at the start of a piece (often using conventional Italian terms) and is usually measured in beats per minute (or bpm). In modern classical compositions, a \"metronome mark\" in beats per minute may supplement or replace the normal tempo marking, while in modern genres like electronic dance music, tempo will typically simply be stated in BPM.\nTempo may be separated from articulation and meter, or these aspects may be indicated along with tempo, all contributing to the overall texture. While the ability to hold a steady tempo is a vital skill for a musical performer, tempo is changeable. Depending on the genre of a piece of music and the performers' interpretation, a piece may be played with slight tempo rubato or drastic variances. In ensembles, the tempo is often indicated by a conductor or by one of the instrumentalists, for instance the drummer.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A tenor is a type of classical male singing voice whose vocal range lies between the countertenor and baritone voice types. It is the highest male chest voice type. The tenor's vocal range extends up to C5. The low extreme for tenors is widely defined to be B2, though some roles include an A\u266d2 (two A\u266ds below middle C). At the highest extreme, some tenors can sing up to the second F above middle C (F5). The tenor voice type is generally divided into the leggero tenor, lyric tenor, spinto tenor, dramatic tenor, heldentenor, and tenor buffo or spieltenor.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Terp is music and dance industry jargon for \"dance\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Territory bands were dance bands that crisscrossed specific regions of the United States from the 1920s through the 1960s. Beginning in the 1920s, the bands typically had 8 to 12 musicians. These bands typically played one-nighters, six or seven nights a week at venues like VFW halls, Elks Lodges, Lions Clubs, hotel ballrooms, and the like. Francis Davis, jazz critic for The Village Voice, likened territory bands to \"the Top 40 cover bands (of the 1970s and 1980s) of their day, typically relying on stock arrangements of other ensembles' hits.\" He said, \"many historians give much credit to territory bands for popularizing modern ballroom dancing that began during the World War I era with the influence of Vernon and Irene Castle.\"Territory bands helped disseminate popular music\u2014which included swing, jazz, sweet dance music, or any combination thereof\u2014bringing it to remote gin mills and dance halls that were otherwise ignored by national booking agents representing genuine recording stars like Ellington and Armstrong. Many developed original repertoires and signature sounds, none more storied than Walter Page's Blue Devils, the Oklahoma City-based outfit that Count Basie joined in 1926.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music theory, Terzschritt (German: third step) is the progression from one major chord to another major chord, or a minor chord to another minor chord by major third root movement. Additionally, and more specifically, it is a dualistic major third relationship, in which the ascending progression from a major tonic triad to major mediant triad is equivalent to the descending one between a major tonic triad and a flat subdominant minor triad. The major chord on the mediant is itself the Terzklang (De: third chord).\n\"'Where is the E major chord in C major?'...a Terzschritt from the tonic....'What is the E major triad in C major?'...a Terzklang....'How does the E major triad make sense in C major?'...it functions either as III+...or as [D](SP).\" The subdominant parallel (Sp) of the dominant ([D]), G, is E ([D](Sp)).\nIn the work of Hugo Riemann (1849-1919), inversionally related chord progressions are grouped together: the progressions C major->E major and C minor->Ab minor belong to the same category: \"Terzschritte\" (see counter parallel). The first of these moves a major triad up by major third, while the second moves a minor triad down by major third, with the switch from ascending to descending motion accompanying the change from major to minor. The ascending major third progression is regarded as a \"Terzschritt\", while the descending progression is called \"Terzwechsel.\" In the context of neo-Riemannian theory, this transformation is called \"L-then-P\". The basic transformations of neo-Riemannian theory, discussed below, all associate changes in direction with the switch from major to minor.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Text declamation refers to the manner in which a composer sets words to music.  Aesthetically, declamation is conceived of as \"accurate\" (approximating the natural rhythms and patterns of human speech) or not, which informs perceptions about emotional power as expressed through the relationship between words and music.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The 32-bar form, also known as the AABA song form, American popular song form and the ballad form, is a song structure commonly found in Tin Pan Alley songs and other American popular music, especially in the first half of the 20th century.As its alternative name AABA implies, this song form consists of four sections: an eight-bar A section; a second eight-bar A section (which may have slight changes from the first A section); an eight-bar B section, often with contrasting harmony or \"feel\"; and a final eight-bar A section. The core melody line is generally retained in each A section, although variations may be added, particularly for the last A section.\nExamples of 32-bar AABA form songs include \"Over the Rainbow\", \"I Got Rhythm\", \"What'll I Do\", \"Make You Feel My Love\", \"The Man I Love\",:\u200a5\u200a and \"Blue Skies\".:\u200a109\u200a Many show tunes that have become jazz standards are 32-bar song forms.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The word  titling, in the performing arts (opera, drama, audiovisual productions), defines the work of linguistic mediation encompassing subtitling and surtitling.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Tone and sound are terms used by musicians and related professions to refer to the audible characteristics of a player's sound.  Tone is the product of all influences on what can be heard by the listener, including the characteristics of the instrument itself, differences in playing technique (e.g. embouchure for woodwind and brass players, fretting technique or use of a  slide in stringed instruments, or use of different  mallets in percussion), and the physical space in which the instrument is played.  In electric and electronic instruments, tone is also affected by the  amplifiers,  effects, and  speakers used by the musician. In recorded music, tone is also influenced by the microphones, signal processors, and recording media used to  record,  mix, and  master the final recording, as well as the listener's audio system.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Tonus peregrinus, the wandering tone, or the ninth tone, is a reciting tone in Gregorian chant.\nThe chant example here is not identified as the tonus peregrinus in the Liber usualis (see LU, pp. 760\u2013761), although it is in Aeolian mode. For the tonus peregrinus in its customary usage for Psalm 113, see LU p. 160.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A treble voice is a voice which takes the treble part. In the absence of a separate descant part, this is normally the highest-pitched part, and otherwise the second highest. The term is most often used today within the context of choral music in reference to youthful singers. The American Choral Directors Association defines a treble as \"a singer, both male and female, ages eight to sixteen\".While the term treble is gender neutral, the term is widely used in place of the term boy soprano within the United Kingdom. The term became widely used by English composers of polyphonic choral music during the English pre-Reformation and Reformation eras. At this time choral music written for the Church of England was often voiced in five parts with TrMATB (Treble, Meane, Alto, Tenor, Bass) being one of the most common voicings utilized by Thomas Tallis and his contemporaries.In the Baroque era the term treble was used differently than it is today. The term was used in operas, cantatas, choral works, and other compositions to refer to three different kinds of singers: adult women, boy sopranos, and castrati. The term is still used by opera composers today when a role requires a child vocalist.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, a triad is a set of three notes (or \"pitch classes\") that can be stacked vertically in thirds. The term \"harmonic triad\" was coined by Johannes Lippius in his Synopsis musicae novae (1612). Triads are the most common chords in Western music.\nWhen stacked in thirds, notes produce triads. The triad's members, from lowest-pitched tone to highest, are called:\nthe root\nNote: Inversion does not change the root. (The third or fifth can be the lowest note.)\nthe third \u2013 its interval above the root being a minor third (three semitones) or a major third (four semitones)\nthe fifth \u2013 its interval above the third being a minor third or a major third, hence its interval above the root being a diminished fifth (six semitones), perfect fifth (seven semitones), or augmented fifth (eight semitones). Perfect fifths are the most commonly used interval above the root in Western classical, popular and traditional music.Some 20th-century theorists, notably Howard Hanson and Carlton Gamer, expand the term to refer to any combination of three different pitches, regardless of the intervals. The word used by other theorists for this more general concept is \"trichord\". Others use the term to refer to combinations apparently stacked by other intervals, as in \"quartal triad\".\nIn the late Renaissance music era, and especially during the Baroque music era (1600\u20131750), Western art music shifted from a more \"horizontal\" contrapuntal approach (in which multiple, independent melody lines were interwoven) toward progressions, which are sequences of triads. The progression approach, which was the foundation of the Baroque-era basso continuo accompaniment, required a more \"vertical\" approach, thus relying more heavily on the triad as the basic building block of functional harmony.\nThe root of a triad, together with the degree of the scale to which it corresponds, primarily determine its function. Secondarily, a triad's function is determined by its quality: major, minor, diminished or augmented. Major and minor triads are the most commonly used triad qualities in Western classical, popular and traditional music. In standard tonal music, only major and minor triads can be used as a tonic in a song or some other piece of music. That is, a song or other vocal or instrumental piece can be in the key of C major or A minor, but a song or some other piece cannot be in the key of B diminished or F augmented (although songs or other pieces might include these triads within the triad progression, typically in a temporary, passing role). Three of these four kinds of triads are found in the major (or diatonic) scale. In popular music and 18th-century classical music, major and minor triads are considered consonant and stable, and diminished and augmented triads are considered dissonant and unstable.\nWhen we consider musical works we find that the triad is ever-present and that the interpolated dissonances have no other purpose than to effect the continuous variation of the triad.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A trumpet voluntary is a voluntary \u2013 a musical composition for the organ \u2013 played using the trumpet stop. Trumpet voluntaries are associated with the English Baroque era and usually consist of a slow introduction followed by a faster section with the right hand playing fanfare-like figures over a simple accompaniment in the left hand. In some instances, the trumpet stop is replaced by the cornet or a flute stop. Echo effects are also sometimes used.\n\nThe best-known trumpet voluntary is the Prince of Denmark's March, a composition by Jeremiah Clarke written circa. 1700. It is properly a rondo for keyboard and was not originally called a trumpet voluntary. It is very popular as wedding music and was played at the 1981 wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer. This piece,  particularly in a well-known arrangement for trumpet, string orchestra and organ by Sir Henry Wood,  was incorrectly attributed for years to Henry Purcell. It is now known to have been the work of Clarke. \nThe organist and composer John Stanley also wrote several trumpet voluntaries, as did Clarke's teacher John Blow.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Tutti is an Italian word literally meaning all or together and is used as a musical term, for the whole orchestra as opposed to the soloist. It is applied similarly to choral music, where the whole section or choir is called to sing. Music examination boards may instruct candidates to \"play in tuttis\", indicating that the candidate should play both the solo and the tutti sections.\nAn orchestrator may specify that a section leader (e.g., the principal violinist) plays alone, while the rest of the section is silent for the duration of the solo passage, by writing solo in the music at the point where it begins and tutti at the point where the rest of the section should resume playing.\n\nIn organ music, it indicates that the full organ should be used: all stops and all couplers. Some organ consoles offer a toe stud or piston to toggle the tutti: pressing once activates all stops (although it does not physically move the stop knobs), and pressing again reverts to the previous registration.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In Schenkerian analysis, the fundamental structure (German: Ursatz) describes the structure of a tonal work as it occurs at the most remote (or \"background\") level and in the most abstract form. A basic elaboration of the tonic triad, it consists of the fundamental line accompanied by the bass arpeggiation. Hence the fundamental structure, like the fundamental line itself, takes one of three forms, according to which tonic triad pitch is the primary tone. The example hereby shows a fundamental structure in C major, with the fundamental line descending from scale degree :\n\nThe Urlinie offers the unfurling (Auswicklung) of a basic triad, it presents tonality on horizontal paths. The tonal system, too, flow into these as well, a system intended to bring purposeful order into the world of chords through its selection of the harmonic degrees. The mediator between the horizontal formulation of tonality presented by the Urlinie and the vertical formulation presented by the harmonic degrees is voice leading.\nThe upper voice of a fundamental structure, which is the fundamental line, utilizes the descending direction; the lower voice, which is the bass arpeggiation through the fifth, takes the ascending direction (fig. 1). [...] The combination of fundamental line and bass arpeggiation constitutes a unity. [...] Neither the fundamental line nor the bass arpeggiation can stand alone. Only when acting together, when unified in a contrapuntal structure, do they produce art.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Wall of Sound (also called the Spector Sound) is a music production formula developed by American record producer Phil Spector at Gold Star Studios, in the 1960s, with assistance from engineer Larry Levine and the conglomerate of session musicians later known as \"the Wrecking Crew\". The intention was to exploit the possibilities of studio recording to create an unusually dense orchestral aesthetic that came across well through radios and jukeboxes of the era. Spector explained in 1964: \"I was looking for a sound, a sound so strong that if the material was not the greatest, the sound would carry the record. It was a case of augmenting, augmenting. It all fit together like a jigsaw.\"A popular misconception holds that the Wall of Sound was created simply through a maximum of noise and distortion, but the method was actually more nuanced. To attain the Wall of Sound, Spector's arrangements called for large ensembles (including some instruments not generally used for ensemble playing, such as electric and acoustic guitars), with multiple instruments doubling or tripling many of the parts to create a fuller, richer tone. For example, Spector often duplicated a part played by an acoustic piano with an electric piano and a harpsichord. Mixed well enough, the three instruments would then be indistinguishable to the listener.Among other features of the sound, Spector incorporated an array of orchestral instruments (strings, woodwind, brass and percussion) not previously associated with youth-oriented pop music. Reverb from an echo chamber was also highlighted for additional texture. He characterized his methods as \"a Wagnerian approach to rock & roll: little symphonies for the kids\". The combination of large ensembles with reverberation effects also increased the average audio power in a way that resembles compression. By 1979, the use of compression had become common on the radio, marking the trend that led to the loudness war in the 1980s.The intricacies of the technique were unprecedented in the field of sound production for popular music. According to Beach Boys leader Brian Wilson, who used the formula extensively: \"In the '40s and '50s, arrangements were considered 'OK here, listen to that French horn' or 'listen to this string section now.' It was all a definite sound. There weren't combinations of sound and, with the advent of Phil Spector, we find sound combinations, which\u2014scientifically speaking\u2014is a brilliant aspect of sound production.\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Woodshedding\", or shedding, is a term commonly used by musicians to mean rehearsing a difficult passage repeatedly until it can be performed flawlessly.  The term is used metaphorically where \"the woodshed\" means any private place to practice without being heard by anyone else. This is based on the assumption that an actual woodshed would likely be in a remote location, away from the main house.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The 1Xtra Chart is a discontinued weekly record chart based on sales of singles in the United Kingdom. It listed the 40 biggest-selling urban music songs released within a three-month time period, and featured genres such as hip hop, R&B, dancehall and rap. The chart was compiled by the Official Charts Company (OCC) on behalf of the UK music industry, and each week's new number one was announced on The 1Xtra Chart at 1 p.m. on Saturdays on BBC Radio 1Xtra. Adele Roberts took over from Sarah-Jane Crawford in spring 2012, and it had been hosted by Ronnie Herel until December 2010. The chart was also listed on the official websites of both BBC Radio 1 and the OCC.\nThe 1Xtra Chart was launched during October 2007. Its first number one was \"Valerie\" by Mark Ronson featuring Amy Winehouse.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "3 for Tonight is a musical revue in two acts with music by composer Walter Schumann and lyrics by Robert Wells. In addition to the original material by Schumann and Wells, the revue also included the song \"In That Great Gettin' Up Mornin\" by Jester Hairston and two songs by Jack Norworth, \"By the Light of the Silvery Moon\" and \"Shine on, Harvest Moon\". The musical opened on Broadway on April 6, 1955, at the Plymouth Theatre where it closed after 85 performances on June 18, 1955. On June 22, 1955, the cast performed the musical live on television for national broadcast on CBS. Produced by Paul Gregory, the production was staged by Gower Champion who also starred in the musical with his wife Marge Champion, Harry Belafonte, Betty Benson, and Hiram Sherman. The show won the Outer Critics Circle Award for Best Musical in 1955.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The following is a list of notable events and releases of the year 1996 in Norwegian music.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Black Music Appreciation Month is an annual celebration of African-American music in the United States. It was initiated as Black Music Month by President Jimmy Carter who, on June 7, 1979, decreed that June would be the month of Black music.\nIn 2009, the commemoration was given its current name by President Barack Obama.  In his 2016 proclamation, Obama noted that African-American music and musicians have helped the country  \"to dance, to express our faith through song, to march against injustice, and to defend our country's enduring promise of freedom and opportunity for all. \"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Aheng (from Turkish: Ahenk, meaning harmony in English) is a musical ensemble or the music played by the ensemble itself. The aim, structure and function of the aheng ensembles were defined in the musical ensembles in Albania and other Balkan countries in the 18th to 20th centuries.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\u2018Ajam (Turkish: Acem) is the name of a maqam (musical mode) in Arabic, Turkish, and related systems of music. Ajam (\u0639\u062c\u0645) in this usage means \"Persian\".\nThe maqam Ajam is constructed of two Ajam trichords with \"whole step-whole step\" pitch intervals and spacing similar to the 1-2-3 (or 5-6-7) scale degrees found in an equal-tempered Western major scale (although the Ajam trichord's third scale degree may be tuned just slightly flat of an equal-tempered third).  Because most uses of these Ajam trichords place the next (fourth) scale step a halfstep above the last (third) scale step of the Ajam trichord, the result is essentially the same as the \"whole step\u2014whole step\u2014half step\" tetrachord construction of the Western major scale, and thus the maqam Ajam sounds generally the same as the major scale in Western music.\nOn F (notated C in Turkish music), Ajam is known as Jaharkah (in Turkish: \u00c7\u00e2rg\u00e2h, see also Chahargah (mode)).\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Alberti bass is a particular kind of accompaniment figure in music, often used in the Classical era, and sometimes  the Romantic era. It was named after Domenico Alberti (1710\u20131740/46), who used it extensively, although he was not the first to use it.Alberti bass is a kind of broken chord or arpeggiated accompaniment, where the notes of the chord are presented in the order lowest, highest, middle, highest. This pattern is then repeated several times throughout the music. The broken chord pattern helps to create a smooth, sustained, flowing sound on the piano. \"Chords of harmony broken up into short patterns. Steady bass patterns in orchestral music which give the rhythmic drive to Classical music, compensating for the energetic drive of the Baroque basso continuo line.\"Alberti bass is usually found in the left hand of pieces for keyboard instruments, especially for Mozart's piano pieces. However, it is also found in pieces for other instruments. It has been described as, \"a true tolerable monotony,\" and as, \"perhaps the most overworked fixture of eighteenth-century music.\"Well-known examples of Alberti bass include the beginning of Mozart's Piano Sonata, K 545, and the third movement of Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata. A famous example from 20th-century American popular music is the rhythm guitar part of the 1962 surf rock standard \"Pipeline\", by The Chantays. Alberti bass is also used in the ending theme of Nintendo's Super Mario Bros. 2. \n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Amaku Kiken na Kaori  (\u3042\u307e\u304f\u5371\u967a\u306a\u9999\u308a, Sweet & Dangerous Scent) is the ninth single by Japanese singer-songwriter Tatsuro Yamashita, released on April 1982. This was his last single under the AIR/RVC label.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Amoebaean singing is a type of singing competition originating in Ancient Greece. In it, a first party sings according to a topic and verse structure of their choosing. A second singer then responds with the same verse structure and on a related topic. This repeats until one side concedes or a third party can determine the winner.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Amor Aeternus \u2013 The Devil Worshiper is a famous Italian phrase used to chant by villagers in the Old city of Naples Italy, back in 1800. These people were to known to sacrifice newborn babies by draining their blood and offer to the son of Lucifer, Bishamon.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Anak Kayan (Children of Kayan) is a folk music orchestra in Malaysia established in 2010 in Kuantan, Pahang. The founder of the group is Noor Azman b. Norawi, better known by his pseudonym Man Kayan.The orchestra consists of 15 musicians playing traditional Malay instruments (various drums and gongs) and performing folk songs and melodies. The group actively tours the country. It participated many times in the Pangkor International Poetry and Folk Song Festival.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In audio and recording, what is known colloquially as an anchor point is a center position in a stereo mix reserved for only three or four important tracks. Most modern pop productions are anchored by lead (vocals and soloing instruments), bass, kick drum, and snare drum. These are usually within a few degrees of center (horizontal) and front (proximity or depth) in the mix. Exceptions include early stereo recordings using \"stereo-switching\" (a three-way switch allowing only left output, right output, or both) rather than pan pots) such as the Beatles's \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" and Jimi Hendrix's \"Purple Haze\". Examples of tracks using anchor points include The Breeders's \"Cannonball\", The Cure's \"Catch\", Lady Gaga's \"Just Dance\", Lily Allen's \"The Fear\", Radiohead's \"Airbag\", Squarepusher's \"Star Time 2\", Stone Roses's \"One Love\", and Weezer's \"My Name Is Jonas\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Les Annales du Th\u00e9\u00e2tre et de la Musique (\"The Annals of Theatre and Music\") was an annual French periodical which covered French dramatic and lyric theatre for 42 years, from 1875 to 1916. The volumes also covered concert series and necrology. It was co-edited by \u00c9douard No\u00ebl (1848\u20131926) and Edmond Stoullig (1845\u20131918) and was published in Paris by Charpentier from 1876 to 1895 and Berger-Levrault in 1896. Beginning in 1897 it was published annually by Paul Ollendorff (with Stoullig as the sole editor) up to 1914 with the penultimate volume published in 1916 (covering the years 1914\u20131915) and the final volume in 1918 (covering the year 1916). A total of 41 volumes were published.Substantial prefaces were contributed by, among others, \u00c9mile Zola (1878), Victorin de Jonci\u00e8res (1880), \u00c9mile Perrin (1882),  Charles Garnier (1883), Charles Gounod (1885), Jules Barbier (1886), Henri Meilhac (1889), Ludovic Hal\u00e9vy (1890), \u00c9mile Faguet (1897), Albert Carr\u00e9 (1899), Catulle Mend\u00e8s (1902), Camille Saint-Sa\u00ebns (1904), Jean Richepin (1905), Maurice Donnay (1908), Robert de Flers (1911), and L\u00e9on Blum (1912).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Artist 100 is a chart published weekly by Billboard in the United States. The Billboard Artist 100 combines performance across the Hot 100 chart, the Billboard 200 album chart, and the Internet-centric Social 50 chart.The Artist 100 chart premiered in the issued dated July 19, 2014, with Trey Songz ranked number one. Taylor Swift ranks as the artist with the most weeks atop the chart.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "An artistic director may refer to someone who directs a musical ensemble, and in this medium, is often abbreviated as simply Director. The typical jobs of a musical artistic director are to choose repertoire for the ensemble, come up with an artistic vision for the group and also a long-term strategy for programming, and also to help choose performers if the ensemble is not pre-set. An artistic director may also be\u2014and often is\u2014the conductor of the ensemble and a \"jack of all trades\", performing multiple roles and even managing the ensemble, although that role is often left to a Managing Director if financial resources are available. A musical artistic director essentially mirrors a theatrical artistic director, albeit working in a different medium.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Avaz, or Awaz (Persian: \u0622\u0648\u0627\u0632) is an unmetered vocal section of a mode in Persian music.\nIn the years 1965 and 1966, Mahmoud Karimi (maestro of Persian vocal music) performed the whole Avazs which were recorded and transcribed by Mohammad-Taghi Massoudieh. This version was published in 1997 in Tehran.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The bakshy or bakhshi (Persian: \u0628\u062e\u0634\u06cc, romanized: bax\u0161i ) are traditional Turkmen musicians. Historically, they have been traveling singers and shamans, acting as healers and spiritual figures, and also providing the music for celebrations of weddings, births, and other important life events. They sing either a cappella or to the accompaniment of traditional instruments (primarily the two-stringed lute called the dutar). The Turkmen bakshy tradition is closely related to the larger Turkic Ashik tradition.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A battle record, also often called a battle tool or battle breaks, is a vinyl record made up of brief samples from songs, film dialogue, sound effects, and drum loops for use by a DJ. The samples and drum loops are used for scratching and performances by turntablists. The most famous example of this format is Super Duck Breaks, a 1996 release by \"The Turntablist,\" a pseudonym of DJ Babu.Battle records that get released to the general public are often made by DJs banking on their celebrity or looking to capitalize on rare items in their collections. Creative, novel, or bizarre inclusions are especially prized. Often, the samples featured on these records do not have the blessing of the original copyright holders. Because of this, the use of pseudonyms and anonymous releases are common.  Often, even the original sources of the samples are renamed or obscured, leading to some newcomers becoming disconnected from the history of the work.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Bayat-e Esfahan (Persian: \u0628\u06cc\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0635\u0641\u0647\u0627\u0646) is one of melodic pieces of Iranian traditional music, known as a branch of Dastgah-e Shur or Dastgah-e Homayun. Some musical theorists consider the Bayat-e Esfahan an independent dastgah within the Persian radif system.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Beatov\u00e1 s\u00ed\u0148 sl\u00e1vy (Czech for Beat Hall of Fame or simply BSS) is a listing of people who have significantly contributed to Czech (or Czechoslovak) rock music. Nominations are made in three categories: musician, dead musician, and band. Each year's selections are voted on by listeners of Radio Beat station.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A board mix is a recording created by running lines directly off a mixing console while sound is mixed in real time.  The alternative to a board mix is use a virtual mixing console, an increasingly popular approach.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Bob Dylan Archive is a collection of documents and objects relating to American singer Bob Dylan. It was announced on March 2, 2016 that the archive had been acquired by the George Kaiser Family Foundation (GKFF) and The University of Tulsa (TU). It will be under the care of the University's Helmerich Center for American Research.The archive consists of more than 6,000 items, including notebooks, contracts, unreleased concert films and the leather jacket Dylan wore at the 1965 Newport Folk Festival. Most of the material has never before been seen by members of the public; it will now be made available for research and will form the basis of public exhibitions. The Woody Guthrie Centre Archives were purchased earlier by the GKFF and are already housed in Tulsa.Dylan is quoted as saying \"I'm glad that my archives, which have been collected all these years, have finally found a home and are to be included with the works of Woody Guthrie and especially alongside all the valuable artifacts from the Native American Nations. To me it makes a lot of sense and it's a great honor.\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Boheoja (\ubcf4\ud5c8\uc790; \u6b65\u865b\u5b50; lit. \"pacing the void\") is a Korean court music repertoire originated from China. It was introduced from Song Dynasty during Goryeo Dynasty period which at the time was ruled by King Yejong.Categorized as sa (\u8a69; poetry), the repertoire is poetry based-musical orchestra. Introduced collectively with another Chinese piece called Nakyangchun (Spring In Luoyang), Bohoja now is only preserved in Korea and vanished in China. There are 2 versions of Boheoja: Boheosa, version played by combination of wind and string instruments. Boheosa is an original version with 7 stanzas and 82 melodic lines. The second version is Boheoja which have been shortened with only 3 stanzas and 29 melodic lines. In Goryeo and Joseon Dynasty, Boheoja was played as accompaniment of banquets and dances. Instruments used in Boheoja are dangpiri (Chinese piri), janggu (hourglass-shaped drum), daegeum (large bamboo flute), dangjeok (small Chinese flute), haegeum (2 stringed fiddle), jwago (seated-drum), ajaeng (bowed-zither), pyeonjong (metal bells), and pyeongyeong (stone bells).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Bologna School is a term for the group of composers active in Bologna in the mid-late 17th century; most were associated with the church of Saint Petronius or the Accademia Filarmonica. They include Cazzati, Perti, G. B. Vitali, Torelli and Corelli (who had Bolognese links although he mainly worked in Rome); the school is associated with sacred music and particularly with the rise of the instrumental concerto and sonata, including music for trumpet and strings, a Bolognese speciality.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Breakaway music is a modern U.S. Naval tradition used to motivate sailors upon the conclusion of underway replenishment (UNREP), although using breakaway music is at the discretion of the captain, and not all commands use it. When the two ships involved in the UNREP conclude their transfer of fuels and stores and commence their breakaway, a song  is played over the 1 Main Circuit. The song may be selected by the captain, or the officer of the deck (OOD) or navigation officer). Some commands will allow the crew to vote on a song from a list of popular choices, usually during morning quarters. Breakaway music may sometimes be related to the name of the ship, such as the \"Theme from Star Trek\" (USS Enterprise (CVN-65)) or \"Kansas City, Here I Come\" (USS Kansas City (AOR-3)).  The fast combat support ship, and oiler, USS Camden (AOE-2)  played the \"Baby Elephant Walk\" (written in 1961 by composer Henry Mancini, for the 1962 release of the movie Hatari!) after each UNREP in honor of its nickname \"The Powerful Pachyderm of the Pacific\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A breath mark or luftpause is a symbol used in musical notation.  It directs the performer of the music passage to take a breath (for wind instruments and vocalists) or to make a slight pause (for non-wind instruments). This pause is normally intended to shorten the duration of the preceding note and not to alter the tempo; in this function it can be thought of as a grace rest.  It is usually placed above the staff and at the ends of phrases.  Its function is analogous to the comma in several written languages.  Indeed, a common notation for the breath mark looks very similar to a written comma.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Broderzinger or Broder singers, from Brody in Ukraine, were Jewish itinerant performers in Austrian Galicia, Romania, and Russia, professional or semiprofessional songwriters and performers, who from at least the early 19th century sang and danced, often in comic disguises, and who performed short one-act plays. They were often badchonim (traditional wedding entertainers) and meshorerim (singers in cantors' choirs). They were among the first to publicly perform Yiddish-language songs outside of Purim plays and wedding parties, and were an important precursor to Yiddish theatre. They erected miniature stages and entertained customers in taverns, wine cellars, and restaurant gardens.The first written records of the Broder singers are the remarks of Jews passing through Brody, which was a trading center on a major route of travel (\"a stopping point on the travels of Russian Jewish merchants to and from the Leipzig fair.\"). These records are generally disapproving of the singing of songs when no religious occasion called for music.\nLater the term Broder Singer was applied to performers who had no connection with Brody.\nAmong the most famous Broder singers were Berl Margulis - better known as Berl Broder (1815\u20131868) - and Moyshe Prizament and his son Shloyme Prizament. Some of Berl Broder's original songs, along with the works of his son and grandson who continued the tradition of secular Yiddish writing, can be found in his grandson Ber Margulies' book Dray doyres\u0300 lider fun Berl Broder (Margulies), feli\u1e6donen fun Yom Hatsyoni (Yits\u1e25a\u1e33Margulies), poemen un lider fun Ber Margulies (1957) (free online download from the Yiddish Book Center).\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Bubbling Under the Top LPs was a weekly record chart published in the United States by Billboard magazine in the 1970s and 1980s. A corollary to the Bubbling Under the Hot 100 singles chart, this chart listed albums that had not yet charted on the magazine's main album chart, Top LPs & Tape.\nThe chart first appeared in the 26 December 1970 issue of the magazine. Its first iteration was an unnumbered list, but numbering began in the 13 March 1971 issue. The chart ranged from four to 35 entries, until settling at ten entries from 6 July 1974 on.  Beginning with the issue of 20 October 1984, the chart was renamed Bubbling Under the Top 200 Albums to matching a title change of the main album chart.  It was renamed again\u2014Bubbling Under the Top Pop Albums\u2014beginning in the 9 February 1985 issue once again reflecting a change of the main album chart's name. For the life of the chart, it was paired with Bubbling Under the Hot 100.\nThe chart ceased to exist after its final appearance in the 24 August 1985 issue, the same date that saw a discontinuation of the Bubbling Under Hot 100. While the Bubbling Under Hot 100 was revived in 1992, Billboard has never published another Bubbling Under albums chart.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Canadian Conservatory of Music was a music conservatory in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada that was actively providing higher education in music during the first half of the 20th century.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Cancionero Musical de Montecassino (Montecassino, Biblioteca dell'Abbazia, 871), known by the abbreviation \"(CMM)\" is an important Neapolitan manuscript of music from the 1480s, containing many otherwise unknown compositions.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Canzonissima was an Italian musical variety show broadcast by Rai 1 from 1958 to 1974, aired on Saturday evening except for the last two editions in which it was aired on Sunday afternoon. The program was referred to as \"the synthesis and the model of comparison of the Italian television variety\".\n\nIt was born in radio as a song tournament in 1956, with the title Le canzoni della fortuna and gained great public success. The following year it was brought on television titled Voci e volti della fortuna and turned into a competition between amateurs from the various regions of Italy, with the participation of some professional singers, who competed in a separate group.\nIn 1958, the variety took the name Canzonissima that remained until the end, with an exception from 1963 to 1967 when the transmission continued with new formats and new titles; Gran Premio, Napoli contro tutti, La prova del nove, Scala reale e Partitissima.\nThe show consisted of a musical contest (with singers combined with some state lottery numbers) from the elaborate rules which were generally different from one edition to another; the competition was interspersed with dances and comedy sketches involving  special guests.The 1959 edition contributed to the launch Nino Manfredi's career, and the 1970 edition launched the career of Raffaella Carr\u00e0.\nThe 1962 edition, hosted by Dario Fo and Franca Rame, generated large political controversities due to use of censorship to cut some satirical sketches of Fo; the couple Fo-Rame was eventually fired, and the scandal lead to a long interruption of five years.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A capriccio or caprice (sometimes plural: caprices, capri or, in Italian, capricci), is a piece of music, usually fairly free in form and of a lively character. The typical capriccio is one that is fast, intense, and often virtuosic in nature.\nThe term has been applied in disparate ways, covering works using many different procedures and forms, as well as a wide variety of vocal and instrumental forces. The earliest occurrence of the term was in 1561 by Jacquet de Berchem and applied to a set of madrigals. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, it could refer to madrigals, music intended alternatively for voices or instruments, or strictly instrumental pieces, especially keyboard compositions.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Cascading strings (also sometimes known as \"tumbling strings\") is an arrangement technique of British light music. This technique is associated in the U.S. with the style of easy listening known as beautiful music. The cascading strings effect was first developed by British composer/arranger Ronald Binge in 1951 for Annunzio Paolo Mantovani and his Mantovani Orchestra, with whom the sound would be most associated.In 1951, record label Decca wanted Mantovani's 12-piece orchestra to produce something that would rival the big American concert orchestras. Binge, a musician in Mantovani's orchestra, had already been experimenting with arrangements that might replicate the long reverberating sound of composer Claudio Monteverdi, who had written works to take advantage of the spatial properties of the acoustic in large cathedrals. He now suggested that they dramatically increase the size of the string section of the orchestra. Decca invested in the expensive idea, which Mantovani called \"a mass of strings.\" Work began on an album to be released in 1952, which would make Mantovani famous worldwide.When given the arrangement for what would become their first hit, Charmaine, Mantovani had misgivings. \"When we played it, it really sounded beautiful and the whole of the orchestra was delighted with it. Well, when an orchestra is delighted, I start worrying. It\u2019s too good, as a rule: musicians\u2019 music.\" Soloist Max Jaffa recalled that nobody had expected the sound; \"it came as a complete surprise.\" In a 1996 radio interview, violinist Sidney Sax recalled:\n\nWhat it is, is a delayed sound. You have a chord structure and chords move along together and what Binge would do, he would take one note away from the chord and shift it into the next bar and it would create a different sound. It sounded as though you had left something behind \u2013 an echo. It was such a wonderful, unusual sound. My colleagues and I thought we had heard everything from symphonies to foxtrots, and suddenly there was this new sound. Ronnie had produced something which nobody had ever produced before.\nThe arrangements were difficult to play. Multiple string sections would play the same notes, at the same volume, but slightly behind each other. To avoid playing in unison required intense concentration. If the various sections played at different volumes, the effect would be too dissonant and pulsing. The violinists had to maintain intonation in the high registers, so to give warmth and richness to the music the violas were voiced very close to the cellos.In addition to the \"echo\" effect, the violins achieved a \"cascading\" effect by performing runs or arpeggios over melodies in the lower strings.U.S. Record producers Hugo and Luigi also did a series of recordings under the name \"Cascading Voices\" and later \"Cascading Strings.\"\nOne effect of the cascading strings technique is to emulate the acoustic properties of a large hall such as a cathedral, through simulated reverberation. The effect is achieved in an orchestra using multiple string sections, which would play slightly different parts from one another, in a cascading effect, thus creating the  illusion of reverberation of the original sound.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Chalgia Sound System is a Macedonian music band which performs Macedonian folklore music. Their first studio album Chalgia Sound System was released in 2010.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A Charanga is a small amateur marching band with wind and percussion instruments that plays festivals mainly in Northern Spain, Castilla-La Mancha, Castilla y Le\u00f3n and the Valencian Community. In the past, the name charanga also applied to certain military musical bands of the Spanish Army and as ship's company bands in the Spanish Navy.\nCharangas mainly play popular, traditional songs that have simple rhythms and often feature risqu\u00e9 lyrics. Also, they often play medleys. \nThey frequently play at pasacalles, a performance which moves along the streets of a town, while the public follows the band and dances to its tunes. \nThey are usually composed of about 5 to 10 musicians and can be amateurs who meet for the festivities, or professionals who go from town to town paid by city councils or groups of people. Many middle and high school music students take advantage of their knowledge to earn extra income by playing in the charanga.They perform popular songs with cheeky lyrics and the musical hits of the year, typical songs depending on the geographical location, some also compose their own songs or make their own potpourris.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Charm Of Sound association (\u00c4\u00e4nen Lumo) is the name of a Finnish association for Electronic Music and Sound Art, founded by Petri Kuljuntausta in 1995.Petri Kuljuntausta's \"Charm of Sound\" is a 1997 text-based environmental composition in three parts, which is composed for the environment of outer space. It invites the living creatures of Saturn's moon, Titan, to perform this work by using all the suitable material, solid and liquid, found on the ground of Titan.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The music of the Chronicles of Narnia film series was recorded and released in conjunction with the post-production and releases of each of the three corresponding films.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A clarinet trio is a chamber ensemble that consists of a clarinet, a bowed string instrument and a piano, or a musical work for such an ensemble. The string instrument can be a cello, a viola, or a violin. Therefore, a clarinet trio can be referred to below:\n\nClarinet-cello-piano trio\nClarinet-viola-piano trio\nClarinet-violin-piano trio", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Clear Blue Sky was a British progressive rock band officially formed in London, England, but better known in Italy.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A clock chime is a melody or a set of melodies played at intervals upon a set of bells to mark the passage of time.  It is also the name of such a set of bells when they are not part of a larger bell instrument such as a carillon.  It is distinct from the striking of the hour by a single bell, although a clock that plays a clock chime normally plays the associated hour strike as well, while the hour bell may or may not have a part in the melodies.  The bells used to play clock chimes are most commonly located in bell towers or grandfather clocks, but may be found in other places as well.  A variety of melodies exist, many associated with a particular location or bell tower that originated or popularized them.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "ColoringBook is a three-part series of recordings by composer Clayton Counts.  Incorporating elements of drone, minimalism, and found sound, the records feature an array of instrumentalists, with a heavy focus on stringed and keyed instruments.\nThe project is regarded as a work of noise music, though some of it is structurally similar to jazz, contemporary classical, or electroacoustic music.  It is known for its use of synthesis, layering, and spatialization.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Concert production is the act of putting on a concert or a live music performance.  As an individual's role, this refers to the person coordinating all the staff and equipment necessary to make a concert happen;\n they monitor the schedule, pay the staff, act as a hub for communication between team members, and generally make sure the event runs smoothly.  The role of a concert producer or concert promoter is best filled by a person with good organizational skills, a diplomatic demeanor, and plenty of charisma.  As a company's role, concert production may also include the responsibility of booking the musicians, marketing the concert, and the financial loss or gain of the event. Over the last 10 years, the number of independent concert producers in the United States has diminished greatly due to acquisition of smaller firms by large national companies.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Dance/Electronic Singles Sales (previously known as Hot Dance Singles Sales and Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales) was a chart released weekly by Billboard magazine in the United States, established in 1985. It measured the sale of commercially released singles that deal with dance music and remixes.\nThe Hot Dance Singles Sales once included non-dance songs and singles without dance remixes if they were released as maxi singles, including singles by such artists as the industrial metal band Ministry and alternative rock band The Smiths. It was felt that this rule misled the chart's purpose of measuring the sales of dance music, and thus non-dance/non-remix maxi singles were later excluded from the chart. As a result, although many non-dance acts release singles today in the maxi-single format, they are not included in this chart unless the single includes dance remixes. \nWhen introduced, the chart ranked the top 50 songs each week. By 2001, it was reduced to 25 and was reduced to a 10-song chart following the introduction of the Dance Airplay chart in 2003. On January 17, 2013, Billboard added Hot Dance/Electronic Songs, which tracks the 50 most popular dance and electronic songs based on club play, single sales, overall radio airplay, downloads, and online streaming. \nBillboard discontinued the Singles Sales chart after 2013, as it was incorporated into the Dance/Electronic Songs chart and due to the decreasing number of vinyl sales.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Digital booklet is the digital equivalent of booklet attached to physical release that often accompany digital music purchases. They are most commonly distributed in PDF. One well-known distributor of digital booklets with digital purchases is the iTunes Store; the first instance of this on the iTunes Store was the release of the album How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb by rock band U2.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Digital feedback reduction is the application of digital techniques to sound reinforcement in order to reduce audio feedback and increase headroom.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A dirge is a somber song or lament expressing mourning or grief, such as would be appropriate for performance at a funeral. The English word dirge is derived from the Latin Dirige, Domine, Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam (\"Direct my way in your sight, O Lord my God\"), the first words of the first antiphon (a short chant in Christian liturgy) in the Matins (a canonical hour before sunrise) of the Office for the Dead (a prayer cycle), based on Psalms 5:8 (5:9 in the Vulgate).  The original meaning of dirge in English referred to this office.\nA Christian funeral lament from the Cleveland area of north-east Yorkshire is known as the Lyke-Wake Dirge. It\u2019s associated with the Lyke Wake Walk, a 40-mile challenge walk across the moorlands of north-east Yorkshire, as the members' anthem of the Lyke Wake Club, a society whose members are those who have completed the walk within 24 hours.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Discoring was a music show broadcast by Rai 1 from 1977 to 1989, created by Gianni Boncompagni, aired mainly on Sunday. The program could be considered analogous to the English show Top of the Pops.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In sound recording, dubbing is the transfer or copying of previously recorded audio material from one medium to another of the same or a different type. It may be done with a machine designed for this purpose, or by connecting two different machines: one to play back and one to record the signal. The purpose of dubbing may be simply to make multiple copies of audio programs, or it may be done to preserve programs on old media which are deteriorating and may otherwise be lost.  \nOne type of dubbing device combines two different storage media, such as an audio cassette deck that incorporates a Compact Disc recorder. Such a device enables the transfer of audio programs from an obsolete medium to a widely used medium. It may also simply be used to transfer material between two types of media which are popular in different settings, so that material originating in one type of environment can be used in another. An example of the latter would be the dubbing of a Digital BetaCam videocassette to DVD.\nAnother type of dubbing device is designed to rapidly produce many copies of a program. It may combine a single playback unit with multiple recording units to simultaneously create two, four, eight, sixteen, or more copies during the playback of a single original program. This type of device can often perform the copying process at many times the standard playback speed. Typical multiplexed dubbing decks of either analog (cassette) or digital (CD) programs can operate at 48 times the standard playback speed, thus producing complete copies of a program in sixty or ninety seconds. Sometimes this high-speed dubbing incurs some loss of quality compared to the best normal (1\u00d7) speed dub.\nThe verb \"dub\" as used here long predates and is unrelated to the Jamaican musical style dub music; the origin of both words stems from the dubplate. It is also different with the term dubbing, which is mostly a type of frottage dance usually found in the Caribbean clubs.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Jared Lee (born 1989), known professionally by his stage name Duckwrth (pronounced \"duckworth\" and stylized as DUCKWRTH), is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, and artist from Los Angeles, California. In the mid-2010s, he began releasing his own songs online under the Duckwrth moniker and expanded his audience when he collaborated and released a split project with The Kickdrums in 2015 titled Nowhere. In 2016, Duckwrth released his first full-length album, I'm Uugly. In late 2017, he released a mixtape, An XTRA UUGLY Mixtape, being his first record with Republic Records. The song \"MICHUUL.\" was featured in the HBO series Insecure and the CW series All American. In 2019, he released The Falling Man EP and released his major label debut album on Republic, SuperGood in 2020. Duckwrth's single Start A Riot featuring rapper Shaboozey was also featured in the 2018 film, Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Dynaflex is a trademark for a thin, lightweight vinyl LP phonograph record introduced by RCA Records in late 1969. Rather than using the stiff plastic material used by conventional vinyl pressings, Dynaflex records used a softer, pliable formulation that allowed RCA to use less material, saving money and also making the record appear to lie flatter on turntables. At the time, as a cost-cutting measure, most industry record pressing plants were using recycled or \"reground\" vinyl, taking old and unsold records, cutting out the center with the paper labels, then melting the rest\ndown and reusing the material to make new records. Such \"reground\" vinyl records typically sounded much noisier and scratchier when played than a record made from new or \"virgin\" vinyl; collectors noted that records pressed from \"reground\" vinyl sometimes had small remnants of paper labels or other materials embedded in them.\nRCA's Dynaflex records varied somewhat in thickness, but most literally \"flopped\" back and forth when held between the hands. Some were so thin and flexible they could actually be bent nearly in half. This flexibility also gave them theoretically more resiliency in shipping, resulting in fewer returns from retailers due to breakage and cracks.  \nOpinions from record collectors and audiophiles are divided as to Dynaflex's sound quality. Some felt that the sound quality actually improved, due to the purer vinyl used, and better processes for removing impurities in the vinyl compounds; others felt that Dynaflex pressings were noisier and lacked bass frequencies compared to conventional records, and also had more \"rumble\" (low frequency noise) than conventional thick pressings. While RCA claimed that Dynaflex records were less noisy and less susceptible to warpage and would last longer than conventional vinyl records, some consumers (particularly classical listeners) derisively referred to the new product as  'Dynawarp' because of evidence that Dynaflex records were prone to warp on dealers' shelves, just from the pressure of the shrinkwrap on the album jacket.\nSome critics charged that Dynaflex was nothing more than a ploy devised by RCA to save money by using less vinyl than in traditional, thicker records.\nRCA Records apparently never fully implemented the use of Dynaflex, as regular thicker vinyl records continued to be manufactured; many titles issued by RCA were available in both Dynaflex and heavier vinyl pressings.\nAround 1974-75, RCA began to gradually reduce the number of Dynaflex records being manufactured; Dynaflex records were quietly discontinued entirely, sometime in the late 1970s.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The \u00c9cossaise (in French: Scottish) is a musical form and a type of contradanse in a Scottish style \u2013 a Scottish country dance at least in name \u2013 that was popular in France and Great Britain at the end of the 18th century and at the beginning of the 19th. Despite the \u00c9cossaise mimicking a Scottish country dance, it is actually French in origin. The \u00e9cossaise was usually danced in 2/4 time in two lines, with men facing the women. As the dance is executed, couples progress to the head of the line.\u00c9cossaise compositions were mainly written for solo piano, so that couples could dance to it. The musical form was also adopted by some classical composers, including Ludwig van Beethoven, (WoO 83 and WoO 86 for piano and WoO 22 and WoO 23,now lost, for military band); Franz Schubert, (D.145,158, 299, 421, 511, 529, 643, 697, 734, 735, 781, 782, 783, 816, and 977);  Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Chopin (Op. 72 number 3) and Ccecile Chaminade's \u00c9cossaise, Op. 151.This music usually includes significant dynamic contrasts, with fortissimos and pianissimos very close together, contributing to its unique dynamic energy. They sometimes have a central tune upon which some of the strains are based. An \u00e9cossaise by Johann Nepomuk Hummel is included in the second volume for piano in the Suzuki Method.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Ela San To Tzivaeri,' \u0388\u03bb\u03b1 \u03c3\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf \u03c4\u03b6\u03b9\u03b2\u03b1\u03ad\u03c1\u03b9 (el)  is a Greek folkloric song (Tsifteteli). The meter is 44. Its music was composed Greek Vasilis Kazoulis. Greek lyrics written by Vasilis Kazoulis.\nThere are similar song known as \u039a\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03b1 \u0393\u03b9\u03b1 \u03a4\u03bf \u03a4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 (Krata gia to telos) (Hebrew:Bakafe Shel Stelios) Its music was composed Greek Pantelis Thalassinos. Greek lyrics written by Elias Katsulis. Hebrew Lyrics written by Zion Kedem.\nThere are similar song known as \u0414\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435 \u0414\u043e\u0448\u044a\u043b (Dobre Doshul). Its music was composed Bulgarian Gloria. Bulgarian lyrics written by Gloria.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Elmay\u0131 top top yapal\u0131m\" (\"Let's do lumps of apples\") is a Turkish folk tune. The meter is 44. The tune is a kind of Ka\u015f\u0131k Havas\u0131, or spoon dance, the original form of which was popular in Hendek. Popular recordings include the version by \u00d6mer \u015ean & Elvan Erba\u015f\u0131.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The EMI REDD .17, .37 and .51 were vacuum-tube-based mixing consoles designed by EMI for their Abbey Road Studios.  They were used to mix several influential albums, including most of the Beatles' albums and the first two Pink Floyd albums.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "ESCUnited is a website that covers the Eurovision Song Contest.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Cuatro Estaciones Porte\u00f1as, also known as the Estaciones Porte\u00f1as or The Four Seasons of Buenos Aires, are a set of four tango compositions written by \u00c1stor Piazzolla, which were originally conceived and treated as different compositions rather than one suite, although Piazzolla performed them together from time to time. The pieces were scored for his quintet of violin (viola), piano, electric guitar, double bass and bandone\u00f3n. By giving the adjective porte\u00f1o, referring to those born in Buenos Aires, the Argentine capital city, Piazzolla gives an impression of the four seasons in Buenos Aires.\nThe order of performance Piazzolla gave to his \"Estaciones Porte\u00f1as\" is: Oto\u00f1o (Autumn), Invierno (Winter), Primavera (Spring), Verano (Summer). It was different from Vivaldi's order.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "According to the Global Ethnodoxology Network (GEN), Ethnodoxology is \"the interdisciplinary study of how Christians in every culture engage with God and the world through their own artistic expressions.\"Other definitions developed and used during the first 20 years of the term being used:\n\nEthnodoxology is the theological and anthropological study, and practical application, of how every cultural group might use its unique and diverse artistic expressions appropriately to worship the God of the Bible.\nEthnodoxology is \"the theological and practical study of how and why people of diverse cultures praise and glorify the true and living God as revealed in the Bible.\"\nEthnodoxology is a theological and anthropological framework guiding all cultures to worship God using their unique artistic expressions.\nEthnodoxology is the worldwide practice and study of arts facilitation that encourages the grass-roots, local composition and production of artistry that is culturally relevant, biblically sound, and emotionally resonant, for use in the body of Christ for worship, discipleship, evangelism, and other extensions of God\u2019s love in the world.The term ethnodoxology was coined by Dave Hall. The earliest appearance of the term in print was a 1997 issue of the journal EM News (Vol. 6, No. 3), by the editor, Brian Schrag.\nA broad resource for those in the field is a pair of volumes: Worship and Mission for the Global Church: An Ethnodoxology Handbook and its how-to companion Creating Local Arts Together: A Manual to Help Communities Reach their Kingdom Goals. The GEN YouTube channel contains many videos about the practice of ethnodoxology. The open-access scholarly journal Ethnodoxology: A Global Forum on Arts and Christian Faith contains peer-reviewed papers, working papers, and book reviews in the field.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The European Union Chamber Orchestra (EUCO) is a chamber orchestra with funding from the European Commission, founded in 1981 and initially known as the European Community Chamber Orchestra.The orchestra has toured worldwide and broadcast on BBC Radio 3. It has performed with at that time debuting Peter Donohoe, Nikolai Demidenko, Amandine Savary, Sheku Kanneh-Mason, and Tasmin Little. The orchestra has produced 18 CDs.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Faiyen (Thai: \u0e44\u0e1f\u0e40\u0e22\u0e47\u0e19) is a Thai political hybrid band of pop and modern luk thung, republican and human-rights activist group, and podcaster. The group emerged as a band that produced satirical songs of Thai monarchy in 2011, after red shirts' protests were suppressed by the Thai army, allegedly supported by the monarchy. The group fled to Laos, sought to evade l\u00e8se majest\u00e9 law, amid 2014 Thai coup d'\u00e9tat. In 2019, fear of a death threat from Thai authority, current members, Khunthong, Chom, Yammy, Tito, and former member, Wat Wanlayangkoon have been in exile in France, podcasting about politics in Thailand on daily from there. Port is currently living in Bangkok, he was charged and briefly imprisoned on l\u00e8se majest\u00e9 law in 2021.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "La Favoritte is an early music ensemble, founded in 2002, that has specialized in the performance of Baroque music on period instruments. The ensemble also enjoys stretching the bounds of its repertoire to include Medieval, Renaissance and contemporary works. The special focus of La Favoritte is the music of women composers, and the musical traditions of early Canada; great artists from ages past, including \u00c9lisabeth Jacquet de La Guerre and Barbara Strozzi, as well as the Augustine and Ursuline Nuns of New France. Since its inception as a trio, La Favoritte has grown to a larger ensemble frequently performing as a full-sized Baroque orchestra including winds, brass, and timpani. La Favoritte is a supporter of Ottawa's new chamber music concert hall in partnership with The Ottawa Chamber Music Society (www.chamberfest.com) through the Online Auction for the Arts.\nIn June 2003 the ensemble made its international debut at the prestigious Boston Early Music Festival. La Favoritte has performed on CBC, CTV and TV Ontario and has collaborated with groups such as Seventeen Voyces and Musica Divina in highly praised performances.\nThe current members are  Lise Maisonneuve, Madeleine Owen, Barbara Zuchowicz, Kevin James, and Johanne Couture.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Festival International de Musique Actuelle de Victoriaville is an annual international music festival held in Victoriaville, Quebec that showcases contemporary music.\nThe festival is known for its small scale (usually no more than 20 performances per year), as well as its emphasis on unique collaborations between musicians. Several of these collaborations have been issued on records, on the Victo record label.\nDespite its location in rural Quebec, the festival has attracted several international artists every year, many of them coming back several times to play at the festival. This list includes John Zorn, Thurston Moore and Lee Ranaldo of Sonic Youth, Jim O'Rourke, Godspeed You! Black Emperor and The Ex. Frequent collaborators also includes Ren\u00e9 Lussier, Fred Frith and Chris Cutler of Art Bears, Jean Derome, Cecil Taylor and Peter Br\u00f6tzmann.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A finale is the last movement of a sonata, symphony, or concerto; the ending of a piece of non-vocal classical music which has several movements; or, a prolonged final sequence at the end of an act of an opera or work of musical theatre.Michael Talbot wrote of the finales typical in sonatas: \"The rondo is the form par excellence used for final movements, and ... its typical character and structural properties accord perfectly with those thought desirable in a sonata finale of the early nineteenth century.\" Carl Czerny (1791\u20131857) observed \"that first movements and finales ought to\u2014and in practice actually do\u2014proclaim their contrasted characters already in their opening themes.\"In theatrical music, Christoph Willibald Gluck was an early proponent of extended finales, with multiple characters, to support the \"increasingly natural and realistic\" stories in his operas that \"improved continuity and theatrical validity\" beyond the earlier works.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Finger tapping is a piano technique developed by Alberto Guerrero for his pupil Glenn Gould. According to Guerrero, the idea for the technique came from a circus show with an extremely flexible young boy.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A fling is an Irish musical form in duple meter. Like the highland, it is related to the Scottish highland fling and the hornpipe, found throughout the British Isles. Like its Scottish cousin, a fling is played in cut time and has a dotted rhythm. A typical fling has a 16-bar form divided into two parts, each consisting of four bars which are repeated: AABB.\n\nA transcription of Mary Brennan's Favourite fling\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Flo & Joan (or Flo and Joan, a name they took from their grandmother and her sister) is an English comedy music act consisting of sisters, Rosie and Nicola Dempsey. The act generally consists of comedy songs. Flo & Joan has been featured on BBC One's Live at The Apollo, the 2019's Royal Variety Performance and Richard Herring Leicester Square Theatre Podcast. In 2018, they were featured in a Nationwide building society television advert. They grew up in Portsmouth, lived in Toronto for a few years, and as of February 2019, now live in London.They released an Amazon Prime Video special, Alive on Stage, based on their Edinburgh Fringe show in 2019. Their song \"Drank too much\", which recounts a fictitious night drinking with a non-existent friend Dino, has been featured on many comedy shows.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Carl Foerster & Sons was a Milwaukee maker of bandone\u00f3ns, concertinas, accordions, reed organs, and roller organs. Founded by German migrants, it was active from at least 1909 through at least the 1920s.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Gamelan Pacifica is an American musical ensemble, as well as a non-profit music and dance foundation that focuses on cross-cultural and interdisciplinary collaboration. Formed as a community group in 1980, the group plays the gamelan, and is as of 2022 ensemble in residence at the Cornish College of the Arts in Seattle. The ensemble is directed by Jarrad Powell.Their instruments were built by composer and instrument builder Daniel Schmidt using aluminum. The American gamelan is a Javanese-style iron and bronze double gamelan (in pelog and slendro).The ensemble's repertoire is traditional, with a focus on Central Javanese style; also modern and contemporary compositions from within the international gamelan repertoire. Their album Nourishment contains an arrangement of Philip Glass's Glassworks (1982) opening movement; Lou Harrison's Double Concerto for Violin, Cello and Javanese Gamelan (1982); pieces by three other composers; and traditional pieces. They have performed a just 11-limit tuning pelog scale using harmonics 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, and 15, used in the first movement of Lou Harrison's Scenes from Cavafy (1980), while the second movement uses a slendro based on the 7-limit intervals 8/7 and 7/6.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Doctor Click is a rhythm controller manufactured by the American company Garfield Electronics.  It was released in 1982.In the pre-MIDI era, the Doctor Click enabled various different synthesizers and drum machines to communicate with each other.\nIt features two independent channels.There are also footswitch inputs for Play, Reset and Enter.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Glasgow Orpheus Choir was founded in Glasgow, Scotland in 1906 by Hugh S. Roberton.\nIt originated in the Toynbee Musical Association, which had been created in 1901. The Glasgow Orpheus Choir came to be considered without peer in Britain, and it toured widely enjoying world acclaim. Roberton expected the highest standards of performance from its members. Its voice was a choir voice, its individual voices not tolerated. He set new standards in choral technique and interpretation.\nTheir repertoire included many Scottish folk songs arranged for choral performance, and paraphrases, as well as Italian madrigals, English motets and the music of the Russian Orthodox Church. The choir also performed the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, Felix Mendelssohn, Peter Cornelius, Johannes Brahms and others.\nRoberton was knighted in the 1931 New Year's Honours.  The choir disbanded in 1951 on his  retirement, but was immediately replaced by the Glasgow Phoenix Choir, led by Peter Mooney.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Glashaus is a music production team composed of brothers Dan and Tom Glashausser.  Dan went to New York University for classical piano/sound engineering and Tom studied classical guitar and composition at Manhattan School of Music.  Their songs have been recorded by Moxie Raia, Post Malone, Rita Ora, Rachel Platten, Travie McCoy, and Vic Mensa. Other credits include Selena Gomez, Wiz Khalifa, Ty Dolla Sign and Steve Aoki among others. The brothers are best known for their work with Moxie Raia.  They produced and co-wrote six songs on her mix tape, 931  which Raia performed on Justin Bieber's Purpose World Tour.  Glashaus has also worked on developing The Spencer Lee Band in collaboration with SB Projects and The Brain Music.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Golden Vanity is a 1976 folk album by Martin Simpson. It was recorded and produced at Leader Sound by Bill Leader, and was originally issued by Trailer Records in the United Kingdom, catalogue number LER 2099. The sleeve includes notes by Martin Simpson and Barbara Dickson. Golden Vanity was Simpson's first album. It includes British and American songs and tunes, mostly traditional in origin. The title track is the traditional ballad \"Golden Vanity\".\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Grana\u00edna (Spanish pronunciation: [\u0261\u027eana\u02c8ina]) is a flamenco style of singing and guitar playing from Granada. It is a variant of the Granada fandangos. It was originally danceable, but now has lost its rhythm, is much slower, and is usually only sung or played as a guitar solo, reflecting its Arab-Moorish heritage more strongly than other fandangos.The famous singer Don Antonio Chac\u00f3n (1869\u20131929) is attributed with freeing the grana\u00edna from its rhythmic ties and making it popular.\nSingers usually finish their rendering of the grana\u00edna with a media grana\u00edna, a similar tune but rising to a higher pitch. Manuel Vallejo (1891\u20131960) was a famous exponent of this latter cante.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Grand Central Chorus are members of the British Association of Barbershop Singers. They are five-time BABS National Chorus Champions.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The G\u00fcm\u00fc\u015fl\u00fck International Music Festival is held in the small fishing village of G\u00fcm\u00fc\u015fl\u00fck, Bodrum, on the southwest coast of Turkey. It began in 2004 and between 2006 and 2012 was organized by Bodrum Klasik M\u00fczik Derne\u011fi (Classical Music Association of Bodrum), founded in 2006 for this purpose. In 2016 the festival expanded its programming to include a dedicated guitar week and a series of jazz concerts. The G\u00fcm\u00fc\u015fl\u00fck Festival Academy is organized annually parallel to the festival.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Haskell organ pipe construction, sometimes known as \"Haskelling\" is a method of organ construction used when space does not permit the builder to build a full-length pipe. It consists of a shorter (compared to the full-length pipe) tube nested within another shorter tube. This construction, however, subtly alters the tone of the pipe, causing it to adopt a slightly string-like tone.  The minimum height of a 16-foot pipe using this technique is around 10 feet.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A headliner is the main act in a music, theatre, or comedy performance.  Generally, the headliner is the final act in a performance, preceded by the opening act(s).\nIn music, the headliner often reserves sole permissions to the name of the tour.  Thus, tour names often reflect the name of the latest album or a popular song from the latest album of the headliner.  Additionally, the headliner is often the most famous or prominent act in the performance.\nThe main event is a similar concept in sports.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "How Bad Is Your Spotify?, also known as How Bad Is Your Streaming Music? and \"Judge my Spotify\", is an internet bot created by Matt Daniels of digital publication The Pudding that will roast users based on the contents of their Spotify library.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The How To Destroy the Universe festival is a California music event that presents experimental noise, industrial sounds, and avant-garde visual art. Founded in 2002 by Berkeley, California Ethan Port and Scot Jenerik and the San Francisco-based experimental music label Mobilization Records, the festival aimed to expand the parameters of what is termed \"art\" and \"culture.\" The bands who played during the event focused on \"exploding conventions around song structure, melody and rhythm and then reassembling the parts.\" The 2002-2005 tours had included fire-art, multimedia performances and throat singing. Bands who played in 2006 include Blixa Bargeld of Einst\u00fcrzende Neubauten, the Living Jarboe of the Swans, F-Space, and Sixteens. In 2010, a four day How to Destroy the Universe festival took place in the San Francisco Bay Area to celebrate what turned out to be the final Throbbing Gristle performances in the United States. \nAlthough occasional, the festival series is still active.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A hymnal or hymnary is a collection of hymns, usually in the form of a book, called a hymnbook (or hymn book). Hymnals are used in congregational singing. A hymnal may contain only hymn texts (normal for most hymnals for most centuries of Christian history); written melodies are extra, and more recently harmony parts have also been provided. \nHymnals are omnipresent in churches but they are not often discussed; nevertheless, liturgical scholar Massey H. Shepherd once observed: \"in all periods of the Church\u2019s history, the theology of the people has been chiefly molded by their hymns.\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Hymnary.org is an online database of hymns, hymnodists and hymnals hosted by Calvin College's Calvin Institute of Christian Worship and Christian Classics Ethereal Library. The searchable database contains over one million hymn tunes and texts and incorporates the Dictionary of North American Hymnology. It has received grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Hymn Society in the United States and Canada.In addition to standard search functions, users have the ability to search for hymns by entering notes of the melody.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "An illustrated song is a type of performance art that combines either live or recorded music with projected images. It was a popular form of entertainment in the early 20th century in the United States.Live performers (usually both a pianist and a vocalist) and music recordings were both used by different venues (vaudeville houses first and later in nickelodeons) to accompany still images projected from glass slides. This allowed the images to be painted in color by hand.  A single song was usually accompanied by 12 to 16 different images that sequentially \"illustrated\" the lyrics.  Projection booths used either stereopticons with two projectors or machines that combined projection of both slides and moving pictures.  Illustrated songs often preceded silent films and/or took place during reel changes, but some venues relied principally on illustrated songs alone.  At least ten thousand small theaters nationwide featured illustrated songs. Illustrated songs were seen as a valuable promotional tool for marketing sheet music. Audience participation was encouraged, and repeat performances also helped encourage sheet music sales.Several film stars began their careers as models who illustrated lyrics through a series of song slides.  These stars included Roscoe Arbuckle, Fanny Brice, Eddie Cantor, George Jessel, Alice Joyce, Florence Lawrence, and Norma Talmadge.The first illustrated song was \"The Little Lost Child\" in 1894. The song went on to become a nationwide hit selling more than two million copies of its sheet music, its success credited mainly to illustrated song performances which have been termed the first \"music video.\"", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The imperial phase is the period in which a musical artist is regarded to be at their commercial and creative peak simultaneously. The phrase was coined by Neil Tennant of the Pet Shop Boys to describe the group's feelings on their career circa \"Domino Dancing\" (1988).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Symphony No.1 In Memoriam to the Martyrs of Babi Yar was written by the Ukrainian composer of Jewish descent Dmitri Klebanov in 1945. It is a commemoration of the massacre of the Jews in Babi Yar, Ukraine, during the Holocaust. The symphony was based on Jewish traditional tunes. In particular, its finale was a variation of  \"The Mourner's Kaddish\" prayer. The symphony was quickly forbidden (as part of the Soviet regime's effort to stop  Jewish commemoration activities) and the composer was stripped of the position of Chairman of the Kharkiv chapter of the Union of Soviet Composers. Klebanov was accused of \"distortion of historical truth about the Soviet people\" (the official Soviet party line was that those perished during the war were all Soviet people, and singling out particular ethnicities was forbidden), \"bourgeois formalism\" and \"cosmopolitanism\" and there were even efforts to accuse him of anti-Soviet activities. For the first time the symphony was performed in 1990, posthumously.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The International Confederation of Electroacoustic Music (ICEM), or Bourges International Confederation of Electroacoustic Music (IMEB, French: Institut international de musique \u00e9lectroacoustique de Bourges, also \"Bourges International Institute of Electroacoustic Music\"), formerly Groupe de musique exp\u00e9rimentale de Bourges, is a music organization in support of electroacoustic music, including computer music.\nThe ICEM holds the International Electronic Music Festival and gives music awards for electroacoustic music during the Bourges International Electro-Acoustic Music Competition (also known as \"Bourges Electroacoustic Music Competition\" and as the International Electro-Acoustic Music Competition in/at Bourges). It was founded in 1973, \"to promote elecoacoustic composition,\" and began to include music software as a category in 1996.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Inversions higher than the third require extended chords; the fourth inversion requires a ninth chord, the fifth an eleventh chord, etc.\n\nIf you're working with extended chords, there are more than two possible inversions. For example, the third inversion of a seventh chord puts the seventh in the bass; the fourth inversion of a ninth chord puts the ninth in the bass.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The term Ionian (or Heptanese) School of Music (Greek: \u0395\u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03ae \u03a3\u03c7\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae, literally: \"Seven Islands' School\") denotes the musical production of a group of Heptanesian composers, whose heyday was from the early 19th century till approximately the 1950s. Conventionally, it is divided in two periods: the First Generation (\u03a0\u03c1\u1f60\u03c4\u03b7 \u0393\u03b5\u03bd\u03b9\u03ac) from 1815, till the end of the 1860s, and the Second Generation (\u0394\u03b5\u03cd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b7 \u0393\u03b5\u03bd\u03b9\u03ac) from 1871 and onwards. Prominent representatives of this genre include Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Xyndas, Spyridon Samaras and Pavlos Carrer. Other composers include Dionysius Rodotheatos, Iosif Liveralis, Antonios Liveralis, Georgios Lambiris, Iosif Kaisaris, Spyridon Kaisaris, Dionysios Lavrangas, Eleni Lambiri and later Dionysios Visvardis.\nThe Music Museum of the Philharmonic Society of Corfu has in its collections several scores by these and other 19th and 20th century Ionian composers.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The 1990s brought a growing international awareness of Irish traditional music, along with a period of economic success for Ireland (the \"Celtic Tiger\") and the launch of the music-and-dance show Riverdance. In America, the 1991 television series Bringing It All Back Home, produced by Philip King, focussed on the Irish roots of much American music, and was followed by other TV productions also themed around Irish music.As Irish music became more widely performed and increasingly commercialised, debates arose over issues of \"purity\" in Irish music in the face of diversifying settings and uses, and also over intellectual property inhering in compositions and recordings in the genre.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Iskender bogazi dardir gecilmez\"(tr) or \u03a6\u03af\u03bb\u03b1 \u03bc\u03b5 \u03b3\u03b9\u03b1\u03c4\u03af \u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03ce\u03bd\u03c9 (el) is a Turkish and Greek folkloric tune (Karsilamas).The meter is 98.Its Turkish music was composed  (Kemani Serkis Efendi)(Sarkis Suciyan). Its Greek lyrics written by Stelios Chrysinis.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Italian overture is a piece of orchestral music which opened several operas, oratorios and other large-scale works in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.\nAn Italian overture typically has a three-movement structure \u2013 the outer movements are quick, the middle movement is slow.\nThis type of overture was particularly popular among Italian composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti, and in the early 18th century would usually be called sinfonia. Later, to avoid confusion with other types of sinfonia/symphony, the term Italian overture was used more frequently.\nThe structure of the Italian overture/sinfonia was the base from which the classical multi-movement cycle - used in genres including the symphony, concerto, and sonata - developed around the middle of the 18th century. For more about the (18th century) relationship between Italian overtures, other types of overtures (e.g. the French overture) and early symphonies, see sinfonia.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "iTunes New Artist Spotlight is a list of featured new artists' releases organized by genre.  The list is decided upon by iTunes editorial staff based on various factors sometimes including pre-order sales, musical quality and length of time artist has been active.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Izzy Stradlin & The Ju Ju Hounds Live is a live EP recorded in Dublin by American rock musician Izzy Stradlin and his band The Ju Ju Hounds. The record comes from a show that was played at The Tivoli Theatre in Dublin, Ireland (12.18.1992). This five song EP was released in Japan only.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A J-card is the paper card inserted in the plastic storage case of most audio cassette releases, as well as being latterly wrapped around the outside of many Blu-ray and DVD steelbooks and similar special editions. The J-card usually contains an image of the album cover, a track listing, credits, and copyright information, with some releases having foldout cards with multiple panels to contain lyrics, liner notes, or additional artwork. Most J-cards contain the title of the content on the edge for quick reference while in storage.\nThe J-card gets its name from being folded into the shape of the letter J (when viewed from the side) to fit inside the cassette's case.\nToday, custom made CD-R covers are often called J-cards. Similarly styled covers were used in CD covers in the 1990s for single cases and are still used today.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "J.P. Morgan Saves the Nation is a 1995 musical with a book by Jeffrey M. Jones and music by Jonathan Larson.Jonathan Larson was invited to compose music for En Garde Arts\u2018s production of Jeffrey M. Jones\u2019 J.P. Morgan Saves the Nation, a postmodern work detailing the life of financier J. P. Morgan. Larson was called in as a replacement as Jones' long-time collaborator, Dan Moses Schreier, dropped out, suggested by artistic director Annie Hamburger after hearing a recording of the workshop production of Rent at New York Theatre Workshop.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The JAM is an American-based music production and song writing duo Mike Mani and Jordan Omley, who have been working together since the early 2000s. As two of SONY Music Publishing\u2019s top producers and songwriters, they have collaborated with artists such as The BackstreetBoys, Santana, JoJo, Lady Gaga, Raven-Symon\u00e9, Blake Lewis, and The X Factor winner Leona Lewis.  Mani's work won them a Grammy award for their collaboration on Santana's Supernatural album featuring Eric Clapton. The duo just discovered super talent Becky G (hit song Shower) and signed her to RCA where they are working with top hitmaker Dr Luke on her project.   They have recently done work with the Nickelodeon TV show Star Camp, produced by Quincy Jones, and are helping Nick Cannon to develop Nickelodeon's \"SchoolGyrls\". The Jam produced and wrote four songs with Lady Gaga on Michael Bolton's new album One World One Love and discovered singing sensation Tori Kelly.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The JOrchestra is a symphony orchestra based in Amman, Jordan.The orchestra rebranded as JOrchestra in 2015. It was formerly known as the Amman Symphony Orchestra (ASO).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The folk group Kaguyahime released the song Kandagawa (\u795e\u7530\u5ddd) on September 20, 1973, named after the Kanda River (Kandagawa). With lyrics by Makoto Kitaj\u014d and music by K\u014dsetsu Minami, the single was a remix of a tune released the previous July on the album Kaguyahime Third. It was arranged by Takasuke Kida. Minami sang the lead vocal. Masahiro Takegawa played violin on the single. The lyrics reminisce over the bittersweet experiences of living with a girlfriend in a small room during Kitaj\u014d's college days. With sales of 1.6 million copies, it held the top spot on the Oricon charts for seven weeks (including six in a row) and was Kaguyahime's greatest hit.\nIn 1974, Keiko Sekine (Takahashi) and Masao Kusakari starred in a film based on the song.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Kataleya & Kandle  is a Ugandan music duo consisting of the Kataleya & Kandle. The duo holds the distinction of being Uganda's first female music duo.  They are managed by  Theron Music  Records since 2021.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Edin Karamazov (born 1965) is a Bosnian musician,  lutenist and guitarist.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Keyboard tablature is a form of musical notation for keyboard instruments. Widely used in some parts of Europe from the 15th century, it co-existed with, and was eventually replaced by modern staff notation in the 18th century. The defining characteristic of the best known type, German organ tablature, is the use of letters to indicate pitch (with added stems or loops to indicate accidentals) as well as beams for rhythm. Spain and Portugal used a slightly different cipher tablature, called cifra.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Kolovrat is a Russian Rock Against Communism (RAC)/thrash metal band. This is a cult band among the Russian nationalists and has been described as \"famous\" in the RAC scene and \"best known\" of the Russian white power bands. It has been described as a neo-Nazi group.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Konradsen is a Norwegian musical duo founded by musicians Jenny Marie Sabel and Eirik Vildgren. They are both originally from northern Norway, but by the release of their debut album had relocated to Oslo.The group released its debut album, Saints & Sebastian Stories, on October 25, 2019, which was awarded the Norwegian Grammy Awards in the category indie/alternative. A follow-up EP was released on May 1, 2020, also on the label Cascine.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Kungss\u00e5ngen (The King's Song) is the Swedish royal anthem. It is also known by its first line, Ur svenska hj\u00e4rtans djup en g\u00e5ng (English: Once from the depths of Swedish hearts). Although sung on such occasions as the King's birthday, the annual opening of the Riksdag and the Nobel Prize ceremony, the song is not considered the Swedish national anthem. Du gamla, Du fria is the de facto national anthem of Sweden, but has never been officially recognised.\nThe lyrics were written by Carl Vilhelm August Strandberg and the music composed for four part male chorus by Otto Lindblad. Kungss\u00e5ngen replaced the previous royal anthem, Bevare Gud v\u00e5r kung, which was sung to the melody of the British royal anthem, God Save the King. It was first performed in Lund on 5 December 1844 at a party arranged by the University to celebrate the accession of King Oscar I, and was officially adopted in 1893.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Kunkunshi (\u5de5\u5de5\u56db  (Okinawan) pronounced [ku\u014bkun\u0255i\u02d0]) is the traditional notation system by which music is recorded in the Ryukyu Islands. The term kunkunshi originally referred to the first three notes of a widely known Chinese melody, although today it is used almost exclusively in reference to the sheet music.Kunkunshi is believed to have been first developed by Mongaku Terukina or by his student Choki Yakabi in the early to mid-1700s. However, it was not until the end of the 19th century that the form became standardized for writing sanshin music. Yakabi is attributed to having written the earliest known, surviving collection of kunkunshi. The Yakabi Kunkunshi consists of 117 compositions written in the kaki nagashi style. In this form, the sanshin finger positions are written in a flowing style with no indication of rhythm. \n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Kunstreligion is a term used around the turn of the nineteenth century to refer to Art-as-religion, specifically music, but also used to refer to any art that was sacralized.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Lepa Brena (HITOVI \u2013 6 CD-a) (English: Lepa Brena (HITS \u2013 6 CD-a) is a box set by Bosnian pop-folk singer Lepa Brena. It was released by Grand Production on 29 February 2016. The six-disc box set was released in Europe, and included all of Lepa Brena's studio albums from the years 2000 to 2013. The album artwork consisted of a collage of the album covers.\nThis is her third compilation album.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Limb independence is a term commonly used by drummers to describe the coordination ability that is necessary for the physical multitasking of advanced drumming. Drummers use four limbs when they play. For example, the left foot on the hi-hat (sometimes on another bass drum if double bass drums are used), the right foot on the bass drum, and the two hands on other cymbals and drums on the drum kit. Limb independence allows them to play different rhythms, without having to consciously focus on each one individually. This is especially important in jazz and Latin based drumming. It is also one of the more difficult parts of learning the drums, since it is harder to process.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Steelbands, originating from Trinidad and Tobago, are groups of musicians who play steelpan instruments including the Tenor, Double Tenor, Double Second, Cello, Guitar, Quadrophonic and Bass together as an orchestral ensemble, often with expansive percussion and rhythm section.\nThis is a list of notable steelbands organized by country.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Liverpool Wall of Fame is a wall in front of the Cavern Club on Mathew Street in Liverpool, England. It features a litany of groups which played at the original Cavern Club, including acts from Liverpool who have reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart. The wall also features a disc for every Liverpool musical act that had a No. 1 hit. Artists from Liverpool have produced more No. 1 hit singles than any other city in the world.\nIt was unveiled on 14 March 2001 by Lita Roza, whose song \"(How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window?\" was the first song by a Liverpool act\u2014and the first British act\u2014to reach No. 1 on the UK singles chart. It features 54 Liverpool No. 1 UK chart hits since 1952, and also incorporates an award-winning music-themed seat. The wall is dominated by the Beatles, who have 17 records featured on it.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Lo que el viento me ense\u00f1\u00f3 is the eighth studio album by contemporary Christian music duo Tercer Cielo. The album was released digitally on April 24, 2012 was released in physical format to the shops of music, produced and distributed under the record labels Universal Music Latin/Vene Music/F\u00e9 y Obra Music/Kasa Productions/Mucho Fruto respectively.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Lonely Shepherd, also known as Einsamer Hirte or Der einsame Hirte in German or as El pastor solitario in Spanish, is an instrumental piece by James Last, first released in a recording with the Romanian panflutist Gheorghe Zamfir.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Peter Lurye (born July 25, 1957) is an American composer and lyricist. He is a native and resident of New York City.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Lygaria  or Ligaria, \u039b\u03c5\u03b3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03ac(el) is an anonymous Greek folkloric tune (syrtos).The meter is 44.\n It is widespread as a Nisiotika music tune, all over the world.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Maithili Music is one of the most ancient types of music in the Indian subcontinent. It originated from Mithila, a geographical and cultural region of the Indian subcontinent bounded by the Mahananda River in the east, the Ganges in the south, the Gandaki River in the west and by the foothills of the Himalayas in the north. It comprises certain parts of Bihar and Jharkhand of India and adjoining districts of the eastern Terai of Nepal.\nNo one knows exactly when Maithili Music came into existence, probably due to the length of its history, but its age indicates that it might have helped other music develop and flourish in India and Nepal.It is believed that many new types of music forms have been sprouted from Maithili music as it is believed to be the oldest form of music is South Asia. Maithili music are played during a variety of ritual occasions, and it is believed that some of the most melodic music among them. The music was generally based on the daily life of a common man which made it relatable to the audience and hence accepted on mass. Although Maithili Music is usually played by classical instruments, it has been modernized and now uses various modern instruments. Some significant contributors to this music style are Maha Kavi Vidyapati Thakur, Udit Narayan Jha, Sharda Sinha. and new sensation Maithili Thakur (India's rising star Runner up 2017).\"Music Maithili\" is also name of maithili online musice streaming plate forum Maithili.com.np . Maithili traditional music is largest folk music of world wide.[8]", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Mala Punica is an early music ensemble led by Pedro Memelsdorff.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Mangiko\" (Greek: \u039c\u03ac\u03b3\u03ba\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf,Greek: \u03a3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03c4\u03c3\u03bf\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03c7\u03c4\u03cc,Yiddish: Yoshke Fort Avek) is a Greek and Yiddish folkloric tune hasaposerviko in the meter 24. \nGreek music and lyrics are by Kostas Karipis. The Yiddish music and lyrics are by Aaron Lebedeff. The song was also performed under the name \"Chiftilareasa\" by the Romanian music group Trei Parale.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Manuscript paper (sometimes staff paper in U.S. English, or just music paper) is paper preprinted with staves ready for musical notation. Manuscript paper is also available for drum notation and guitar tabulature.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The March, Strathspey and Reel or MSR is a set of tunes consisting of a march, a strathspey and a reel, three different simple time metres.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Mari music is the music of the Volga-Finnic Mari people of Russia. Mari music is generally pentatonic.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Marshall Time Modulator is an analog delay line-based musical effects device created by Stephen St. Croix that could be used to produce a wide variety of flanging and chorus effects. It was heavily used by the record producer Martin Hannett, who Paul Humphreys has said \"used it on everything\". Bands who worked with Hannett described it as the \"Marshall Time Waster\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Melbourne shuffle is a rave dance that developed in the 1980s. Typically performed to electronic music, the dance originated in the Melbourne rave scene, and was popular in the late 1980s and 1990s. The dance moves involve a fast heel-and-toe movement or T-step, combined with a variation of the running man coupled with a matching arm action. The dance is improvised and involves \"repeatedly shuffling your feet inwards, then outwards, while thrusting your arms up and down, or side to side, in time with the beat\". It is also strongly associated with the wearing of phat pants. Other moves can be incorporated including 360-degree spins and jumps and slides. Popular Melbourne clubs during the dance's heyday included Hard Kandy, Bubble, Xpress at Chasers, Heat, Mercury Lounge, Viper, Two Tribes at Chasers and PHD.  Melbourne's first techno dance parties Biology, Hardware and Every Picture Tells A Story were popular with Melbourne Shuffle innovators.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Merle's Tune is a hymn tune composed by American composer Hal Hopson in 1983 and copyright to Hope Publishing Company. The most common texts used for Merle's Tune are How lovely, Lord, how lovely and Blest Be the God of Israel. Merle's Tune is written in G major with a meter of 76.76 D.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Mexican jazz is the given name for the jazz created by Mexicans or in Mexico since the 1920s, although there were isolated cases even in the genesis of the jazz genre itself.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Micrologus is a treatise on Medieval music written by Guido of Arezzo, dating to approximately 1026. It was dedicated to Tedald, Bishop of Arezzo. This treatise outlines singing and teaching practice for Gregorian chant, and has considerable discussion of the composition of polyphonic music.\nThis treatise discusses modified parallel organum as well as free organum. The examples given are in two voices, set note-against-note, and the voices are frequently permitted to cross. He advised against use of the perfect fifth and minor second, favouring instead the major second and perfect fourth (though thirds were also permitted).\nOne point of importance is his guideline for the occursus (meaning \"meeting\" or \"concurrence\", running on the same path), which is a predecessor of the later cadence. An occursus occurs where two voices approach a unison. He suggested that the unison should be approached either by contrary motion from a major third, or oblique motion from a major second.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Midgardsblot is an annual extreme metal and folk music festival organized in Borre, Norway. The festival has been organized since 2015 and takes place at the Midgard Viking Centre, museum in a former Viking settlement and the largest burial mound site in Northern Europe. The programme of Midgardsblot includes tours of the area, battle reenactments, documentary screenings, lectures and panel discussions, as well as a Viking village, a Viking market and a games arena for archery, axe-throwing, and other activities.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Mokats Mirza is a medieval Armenian folk song, sometimes considered as a ballad. The song originates from Moxoene. Four versions of the song have survived, all of them in the Mokats dialect.  The song gained popularity in the Armenian Highlands, after it was recorded by Komitas.\nThe content of the song is the following. Supposedly, the Kurdish Kolot Pasha invites the ishkhan Mokats Mirza to Zezire. Kolot Pasha poisons Mokats Mirza in order to marry his wife. Afterwards Mokats Mirza was buried in Malakava.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A movement is a self-contained part of a musical composition or musical form. While individual or selected movements from a composition are sometimes performed separately, a performance of the complete work requires all the movements to be performed in succession. A movement is a section, \"a major structural unit perceived as the result of the coincidence of relatively large numbers of structural phenomena\".\nA unit of a larger work that may stand by itself as a complete composition. Such divisions are usually self-contained. Most often the sequence of movements is arranged fast-slow-fast or in some other order that provides contrast.\nWhile the ultimate harmonic goal of a tonal composition is the final tonic  triad, there will\n also be many interior harmonic goals found within the piece, some of them tonic triads and some of them not. ...We use the term cadence to mean a harmonic goal, specifically the chords used at the goal.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Jack Steadman (born 1989 or 1990), also known by his stage name Mr Jukes (stylised in lowercase), is an English singer-songwriter, musician, and record producer best known as the vocalist and primary songwriter of the indie rock band Bombay Bicycle Club since its formation in 2005. He released his debut album as Mr Jukes, God First, in 2017.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "MTV Showtown was the flagship show of MTV Canada and the successor to the previous flagship show, MTV Live which premiered on February 5, 2013. The show aired Monday through Thursday at 11pm ET and was created when MTV vacated Live's studio at Masonic Temple. The show consisted of MTV Live's main hosts, with the exception of Daryn Jones, who was replaced by Graham Chittenden.No new episodes aired after the last week of June 2013, causing speculation that the show had been cancelled by MTV Canada. Repeated requests for information and interviews have not been responded to by MTV Canada producers, show hosts and public relations.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A music cruise is a type of cruise ship tourism whose purpose centers around a musician, band, or musical lineup with performances by the act or acts and interaction between the cruise-goers and the stars. Music cruises can be thematic in genre, such as jazz, blues, rock, a musical era such as the 1980s, country, and others, or may center around a particular musician, band or related bands. Music cruises feature musical performances by the act or acts, and involve social activities between fans and cruise performers such as Meet and Greets, question and answer sessions, and parties.Music cruises have grown in popularity significantly in the United States since the 1990s, to the point of popular music festivals such as Coachella are offering at-sea versions of their concert series and band such as KISS, Weezer, Mot\u00f6rhead, and solo acts like Kid Rock have done music cruises. While music cruises usually have an older demographic, there are still concerns about alcohol-related incidents taking place on board.Examples of music cruises include Holy Ship! \u2013 held annually since 2012 \u2013 and Jam Cruise \u2013 held fourteen times since 2004 \u2013 both of which sail out of PortMiami.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The city of Irkutsk is the administrative center of Irkutsk Oblast, both of which produced several famous popular musicians and have a number of styles of folk music.  Musicians from Irkutsk include the rock bands Bely Ostrog (a.k.a. Two Siberians (White Fort)), Printsip Neopredelyonnosti, and Chyorno-Belye Snimki.  The city of Irkutsk has long been a center for musical development in Siberia.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The music of Aragon has through history absorbed Roman, Celtic, Moorish and French influences, much like its culture. Traditional instruments used in the region include bagpipes, drums, flutes, tambourines, rattles and, perhaps most distinctively, the guitarro and bandurria.\nJota (music) is the best-known style of music from Aragon. While regionally emblematic to Aragon, the Jota is also danced in most regions of Spain, unlike for instance flamenco which until recently was uniquely regional to Andalucia and some neighbouring areas. The Jota is played instrumentally, danced, and sung. \nOther genres of traditional Aragonese music include albadas and rondas.\nSome of the most notable Spain cupletistas were born in Aragon in the first decades of the 20th century. Raquel Meller became a major international star. Other important cupletistas included Preciosilla, Paquita Escribano, Matilde Arag\u00f3n, Mercedes Ser\u00f3s, one of the creators of the Catalan couplet, Ofelia de Arag\u00f3n and Elvira de Amaya.Recent artists with folk influences include Jos\u00e9 Antonio Labordeta, La Bullonera or Joaqu\u00edn Carbonell. In Pop and Rock music, the most popular groups have been H\u00e9roes del silencio and Amaral.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Asian music encompasses numerous musical styles originating in many Asian countries.\nMusical traditions in Asia\n\nMusic of Central Asia\nMusic of Afghanistan (when included in the definition of Central Asia)\nMusic of Kazakhstan\nMusic of Kyrgyzstan\nMusic of Mongolia (culturally Central Asia)\nMusic of Tajikistan\nMusic of Turkmenistan\nMusic of Uzbekistan\nMusic of East Asia\nMusic of Taiwan\nMusic of China\nMusic of Hong Kong\nMusic of Japan\nMusic of Korea\nMusic of North Korea\nMusic of South Korea\nMusic of Tibet\nMusic of South Asia\nAsian Underground\nMusic of Afghanistan\nMusic of Bangladesh\nMusic of Bhutan\nMusic of India\nRavanahatha\nMusic of the Maldives\nMusic of Nepal\nMusic of Pakistan\nMusic of Sri Lanka\nMusic of Southeast Asia\nMusic of Brunei\nMusic of Cambodia\nMusic of East Timor\nMusic of Indonesia\nMusic of Sunda\nMusic of Java\nMusic of Bali\nMusic of Laos\nMusic of Malaysia\nMusic of Myanmar\nMusic of the Philippines\nMusic of Singapore\nMusic of Thailand\nMusic of Vietnam\nMusic of West Asia (Middle East)\nArabic music\nMusic of Bahrain\nMusic of Jordan\nMusic of Iraq\nMusic of Lebanon\nMusic of Palestine\nMusic of Saudi Arabia\nMusic of Syria\nMusic of the United Arab Emirates\nMusic of Yemen\nMusic of Armenia\nAssyrian/Syriac folk music\nMusic of Azerbaijan\nMusic of Cyprus\nMusic of Georgia\nMusic of Iran\nDiaspora Jewish music\nMusic of Turkey", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The music of French Polynesia came to the forefront of the world music scene in 1992, with the release of The Tahitian Choir's recordings of unaccompanied vocal Christian music called himene t\u0101rava, recorded by French musicologist Pascal Nabet-Meyer.  This form of singing is common in French Polynesia and the Cook Islands, and is distinguished by a unique drop in pitch at the end of the phrases, which is a characteristic formed by several different voices; it is also accompanied by steady grunting of staccato, nonsensical syllables.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Gibraltar is a British overseas territory with many musical influences. Rock based music is undergoing a renaissance with a multitude of local bands playing original material and covers. Local venues have begun accepting Gibraltarian bands and those from nearby Spain, resulting in a varied mix of live performances every weekend as well as some weekday nights.\nMusicians from Gibraltar include Charles Ramirez, the first guitarist invited to play with the Royal College of Music Orchestra, and successful rock bands like Breed 77, Melon Diesel and Taxi.\nThe best known Gibraltarian musician is Albert Hammond, who has had top 10 hits in the UK & US, and has written many songs for international artists such as Whitney Houston, Tina Turner and Julio Iglesias among many others.\nConcerts in Gibraltar by well known international acts have recently given local acts a showcase for original material in their supporting roles. These include Surianne supporting Suzanne Vega, Sarah Howard supporting Steve Hogarth, Jetstream supporting Ali Campbell and Jessie J and SuperWookie supporting Marillion at the annual Gibraltar Music Festival.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Traditional music of Karelia is a form of music performed among Karelian people. It has been less influenced by germanic elements than traditional Finnish music, which is why many Finnish musicians and other creators have used it as source of inspiration. Like other Baltic Finnic people Karelians have performed rune singing. Unlike Finland and like the neighboring Ingrian music of Russia, however, Karelia is also home to musical laments.  The kantele is a popular instrument in Karelia as well as throughout Finland.Karelian folk music continues to be performed by groups like the Karelian Folk Music Ensemble, who sing in Finnish, Russian and Karelian, and have toured across Europe and the United States. Bands performing in traditional styles include, among others, Burlakat and Myll\u00e4rit. The popular Finnish folk group V\u00e4rttin\u00e4 has recorded a number of songs based on Karelian melodies.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Music of Ladakh reflects a rich musical heritage and cultural legacy of Ladakh. Ladakhi music is similar to the music of Tibet. Ladakh is also called Mini Tibet.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Music of Macedonia is the music of the Greek geographic and historic region of Macedonia. It forms part of the broader musical tradition of mainland Greece and of the southern Balkans. Compared to other regions of Greece, the music of Macedonia is characterized by a high degree of diversity, due to the numerous influences it has received over the years from neighboring countries and particularly from refugees arriving in the early 20th century. In general terms, Macedonian music can be thought of as the connecting chain between the Western musical tradition of Epirus and Thessaly and the Eastern musical tradition of Thrace and Constantinople.\nMacedonian music is known for its tradition of patriotic folk songs, including klepht songs and songs that make references to the Macedonian Struggle. It is also notable for the use of brass instruments (called ch\u00e1lkina), trumpets, tympana and koudounia. Other instruments used include clarinet, violin and Macedonian lyra.\nFolk dances from Macedonia include the Macedonia, Hasapiko and Syrtaki (found allover Greece), Leventikos, Endeka Kozanis, Stankena, Akritikos, Baidouska, Macedonikos antikristos, Kori Eleni, Partalos, Kleftikos Macedonikos, Mpougatsas, Kastorianos, O Nikolos, Antikrystos, Sirtos Macedonias, Zeibekiko and Kapitan Louka.\nMacedonia and especially its capital, Thessaloniki, maintain a thriving music scene and have been home to many of Greece's most prominent popular musicians of singers, including Marinella, Stavros Kouyioumtzis, Giannis Kalatzis, Paschalis Terzis, Natassa Theodoridou, Antonis Remos, Nikos Papazoglou, Giannis Aggelakas, as well as bands such as Onirama, Xylina Spathia, Trypes and Nightrage.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Murcia is a region in the South East of Spain with many external influences varying from the ancient Moors that occupied the area for centuries to the adjacent Communities (Andalusia, Castilla\u2013La Mancha, etc.). Its music is determined by the heavy use of string instruments as the bandurria or the Spanish guitar and percussion instruments like the castanets (\"casta\u00f1uelas\" or \"postizas\") and the tambourine.\nMurcian music is most notably represented by the religious songs performed by the Auroros, which are derived from La Mancha and Andalusian folk music.  They include a cappella chants, sometimes accompanied by church bells.  They are often performed in small paths in orchards at night.\nThe cuadrilla is the typical folk ensemble of Murcia, which is traditionally organized by occupation or guild such as harvesters (\"segaores\" [[Sic| [sic]]]) or builders (\"alba\u00f1iles\"), but now they are performed at celebrations and holidays, especially on Christmas by reduced bands with occasional dancing.  The fandango murciano is a well-known variation of the Andalusian fandango characterized by long extensions of the voice.  Jos\u00e9 Verd\u00fa's Cantos populares de Murcia is a well-known collection of Murcian songs.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The music of Nauru demonstrates its Micronesian heritage.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The music of Polynesia is a diverse set of musical traditions from islands within a large area of the central and southern Pacific Ocean, approximately a triangle with New Zealand, Hawaii and Easter Island forming its corners. Traditional Polynesian music is largely an inseparable part of a broader performance art form, incorporating dance and recital of oral traditions; most literature considers Polynesian music and dance together. Polynesian music expanded with colonial European contact and incorporated instruments and styles introduced through a process of acculturation that continues to the present day. Although the European tradition of hymn-singing brought by Christian missionaries was probably the most important influence, others are evident; Hawaii's influential k\u012b h\u014d\u02bbalu (\u201cslack key\u201d) music incorporated the Spanish guitar introduced in the late 19th century, and later introduced the steel guitar to country music. Hip hop and R&B influences have created a contemporary Urban Pasifika music genre with a strong Polynesian identity and supported by the annual Pacific Music Awards in New Zealand.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Seychelles, which is an independent island chain in the Indian Ocean, has a distinct kind of music. Folk music incorporates multiple influences in a syncretic fashion, including English contredanse, polka and mazurka, French folk and pop, sega from Mauritius and R\u00e9union, taarab, zouk, soukous moutya and other pan-African genres, as well as Polynesian and Indian  music.  A complex form of percussion music called Kanmtole is popular, along with combinations of Sega and Reggae called Seggae and combinations of Moutya and Reggae called Mouggae, as is Montea, a fusion of native folk rhythms with Kenyan benga developed by Patrick Victor. Jean Marc Volcy is another famous Seychellois musician who has brought a modern touch to traditional music. He has several albums including Sove Lavi.\nThe growth of Seychelles music has since seen the adoption of a blend of contemporary reggae and mainstream, international popular music.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Southeast Asian music encapsulates numerous musical traditions and styles in many countries of Southeast Asia. This subregion consists of eleven countries, namely, Brunei, Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam, which accommodate hundreds of ethnic groups. Thousands of styles of music are present as a result of regional groups speaking many languages all over the subregion of Asia. Regionalism is usually accepted and celebrated, however, it is sometimes suppressed by the people, even though countries from southeast Asia are trying to construct national cultures. Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity are the paramount faiths in Southeast Asia. Throughout history to the present time, instrumental and vocal music has been centralized and focused on the religious life of subregional Asia. Urbanization has helped to assimilate musical and religious practices. Although modernization has put a significant threat on the distinctive regional music traditions, most countries in the region have maintained their own unique style and nature of music that encapsulates various periods of development in music, culture, and belief.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The music of the Americas is very diverse since, in addition to many types of Native American music, the music of Europe and the music of Africa have been found there for some five centuries, creating many hybrid forms that have influenced the popular music of the world.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Xeremiers or colla de xeremiers is a traditional ensemble that consists of flabiol (a five-hole tabor pipe) and xeremies (bagpipes). Majorca has produced popular singer-songwriters like Maria del Mar Bonet. British DJs like Paul Oakenfold made the vacationing island of Ibiza a capital of house music, leading to the creation of Balearic Beat.  Francesc Guerau and Antoni Literes are among the best known classical composers of the islands.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The traditional music of the Federated States of Micronesia varies widely across the four states, and has, in recent times, evolved into popular music influenced by Europop, country music and reggae.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Music of Thessaly is the music of the geographic and historical region of Thessaly (Greek: \u0398\u03b5\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03bb\u03af\u03b1) in Greece. Folk dances from Thessaly are slow and stately, however the music accompanying the Syrtos dance, is typically livelier and more energetic than it is in other parts of Greece and include: Kalamatianos, Thessalikos, Dionysiakos, koftos, Sirtaki, Kalamatiano, Syrtos, kleistos, kangeli, gaitanaki, tsamikos, Pilioritikos, Svarniara, Sta tria, Karagouna, Kleistos, zeibekiko, Rougatsiarikos, Tsamiko of Deskati, antikrystos and galanogalani.\nAlso, every year in Tyrnavos occurs the Phallus Festival before Easter, a pagan fertility festival in honour of the god of Mount Olympus, Dionysus which locates in ancient Greece and is one of the most famous worldwide. There is also a long-standing tradition of a cappella music in Thessaly, including in dance music.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Music2titan is the name given to four musical themes composed by French musicians Julien Civange and Louis Haeri that were placed on board ESA's Huygens probe in October 1997. \"Hot Time\", \"Bald James Deans\", \"Lalala\" and \"No Love\" reached Titan, a moon of Saturn, on January 2005 after a seven-year, four-billion-kilometre (2.5\u00d7109 mi) journey.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Musik-Konzepte is a quarterly series of German language musicology texts founded in 1977 by Heinz-Klaus Metzger and Rainer Riehn and dedicated to the avant-garde in music of all epochs. Since 2004 it has been edited by Ulrich Tadday.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "MUTEK is a Montreal-based festival dedicated to the promotion of electronic music and the digital arts.  Its central platform is an annual five-day event in Montreal that takes place in late August. Alongside the Montreal edition, MUTEK also hosts international versions of its festival.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Nagoriyuki (\u306a\u3054\u308a\u96ea, lit.\u2009'remaining snow') is a song by Japanese folk group Kaguyahime from their album Sankaidate no Uta (1974).A cover by Iruka released as a single in 1975 became her most successful track, and Nagoriyuki has since been covered by a lengthy list of other artists (see ja:\u306a\u3054\u308a\u96ea#\u305d\u306e\u4ed6\u306e\u30ab\u30d0\u30fc). It is used as a jingle for Tsukumi Station; Sh\u014dz\u014d Ise, the composer, hails from Tsukumi. A 2002 movie directed by Nobuhiko Obayashi uses the song as a central theme, and Iruka recorded a Korean rendition for the 2004 movie Chirusoku no Natsu.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The National Music Conservatory (NMC) is a music school in Amman, Jordan.NMC was established by the Noor Al Hussein Foundation in 1986. It is an institution for the development of musicians and the promotion of music appreciation in Jordan.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music history, the Neapolitan School is a group, associated with opera, of 17th and 18th-century composers who studied or worked in Naples, Italy, the best known of whom is Alessandro Scarlatti, with whom \"modern opera begins\". Francesco Provenzale is generally considered the school's founder.\nIt is with the Neapolitan school...that the History of Modern Music commences\u2014insofar as that music speaks the language of the feelings, emotions, and passions.\nThe Neapolitan School has been considered in between the Roman School and the Venetian School in importance.However, \"The concept of Neapolitan school, or more particularly Neapolitan opera, has been questioned by a number of scholars. That Naples was a significant musical center in the 18th century is beyond doubt. Whether the composers working in Naples at that time developed or partook of a distinct and characteristic musical style is less clear\" since so little is known about the repertory.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "La Nef (French: The Nave (of a ship or church or a medieval boat) is a French-Canadian early music performance group founded in Quebec in 1991. The founding members were Sylvain Bergeron, the guitar and musical director; and Claire Gignac, the contralto, recorder, theatrical director; and Viviane LeBlanc, soprano.Their first show was Musiques pour Jeanne la Folle (\"Music for Joan the Mad\"), later recorded as a CD for Dorian Recordings.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Neue Berliner Musikzeitung was a musical periodical that appeared in the years 1847\u20131896 and was published by Bote & Bock. It was a continuation of the Berlin musical newspaper published between 1844\u20131847 by Karl Gaillard.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "New Music Manchester refers to a group of English composers and performers who studied at the Royal Manchester College of Music (now the RNCM) and Manchester University in the 1950s. The Manchester School is principally identified with the composers Harrison Birtwistle, Peter Maxwell Davies and Alexander Goehr, and together with the pianist John Ogdon and the conductor and trumpeter Elgar Howarth they formed the group New Music Manchester. Its members played a significant role in reshaping the landscape of British music in the later 20th century.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Nordic-Baltic Choral Festival is a biennial music festival for Nordic and Baltic choirs organised by a national association of one of the Nordic or Baltic countries. Launched by Latvian conductor Imants Kokars in 1995, every edition so far has gathered several thousands of singers.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "North American Time Capsule is a 1967 composition by American experimental composer Alvin Lucier. The piece was composed at the invitation of Sylvania Applied Research Laboratories, which offered Lucier the use of a prototype vocoder. The vocal content of the piece was provided by the Brandeis University Chamber Chorus, of which Lucier was then the director. The score calls for members of the Chorus to \u201cprepare a plan of activity using speech, singing, musical instruments, or any other sound producing means that might describe\u2014to beings very far from the earth\u2019s environment either in space or in time\u2014the physical, social, spiritual, or any other situation in which we find ourselves at the present time.\u201d Along with Sylvania engineer Calvin Howard, Lucier used the vocoder to isolate and manipulate elements of speech in real time. Eight separate tracks were recorded and subsequently mixed by Lucier. The piece is available on Vespers and Other Early Works (New World Records).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Norway has produced a number of famous rock bands, including Titanic, a-ha and Kaizers Orchestra.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Noson Lawen (Welsh pronunciation: [\u02c8n\u0254s\u0254n \u02c8lau\u025bn]) is a Welsh language-phrase for a party with music, similar to a ceilidh.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Note nere (English: black note) was a style of madrigal composition, which used shorter note values than usual and had more black note-heads.The style was introduced around 1540, and had a short vogue among composers publishing in Venice including Costanzo Festa, Giaches de Wert, Cipriano di Rore and many minor composers, such as in the First Book (1548) of Giandomenico Martoretta. \nThe first note nere madrigals had appeared, unannounced, in 1538, in the music for the wedding of Cosimo de Medici, where four of seven canzone by Corteccia are note nere, and 1539 with two of the madrigals in Arcadelt's Fourth Book. The first publication to establish the pattern that title pages of the collections were often marked as madrigali a note nere, in contrast to conventional but unstated note bianche, was Claudio Veggio's book of 1540 - which was marked misura a breve; the same idea. Alfred Einstein interpreted this as \"short measure\".  \nThe time signature of note nere madrigals was  rather than  (now the sign for alla breve). Pietro Aron, in his Lucidario (1545), states what would appear evident - that shorter black notes in  should have evened out to longer white notes in , making the change in the notation merely cosmetic, but Glareanus noted that there was no strict proportion between C and C with a vertical slash. The common conclusion of scholars is that the notation was meant to signal contrast between very fast and very slow beats as part of the chromatic style.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Notron is a British-designed MIDI step sequencer used by Bj\u00f6rk, Peter Gabriel, Howie B and others. Produced in two models, the Mark 1 was available between 1996 and 1998. The Mark 2 was a slim blue box produced until about 2001. About 100 Mark 1 units were sold and a similar amount of Mark 2s.The Notron was a step-time MIDI sequencer having four rows and up to 16 steps. It was made to be used as a lap-top device for ease in live performances. In 2006 the company released a software version of the Latronic Notron.It was designed by and developed by Gerard Campbell and the software was written by Dave Spowage of Concourse Systems (UK).  The original model bodywork was designed by Martyn Seiles. It was sold under the company name Latronic.\nIn 1999 the Notron won a Millennium Award from the Design Council and was exhibited at the Millennium Dome during 2000.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Novopolotsk State Musical College is an undergraduate Belarusian music college established in 1968. Several of its graduates have gone on to have national and/or international musical careers.,In 1997, the college opened a special department for talented children, providing individual progress for each child. The department often launches fund-raising programmes to continue its financing and development.The college has eight departments, and subjects include musicology (leading to the qualification of professor), brass and percussion, piano, orchestral string instruments and chamber ensemble, chorus conducting, folk chorus, folk instruments (bayan, accordion) and string folk instruments.It is currently directed by Alexander Ivanovich Kondratyuk. In its 40 years, it has produced over 2,000 students. Amongst its teachers are Galina Malykh, Marina Starostenkova and Mikhail Ivashkin.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Nuclear Blaze is a blackened grindcore project formed by Jarek \"Fire\" Pozarycki of unblack metal bands Frost Like Ashes and Elgibbor. The band began in July 2006, as a solo venture of Pozarycki. The band was signed with Nosral Recordings until it went out of business.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Open Audio License is a free music license created in 2001 by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF).\nIt provides freedom and openness of use for music and other expressive works.\nThe EFF now encourages artists to use the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license instead of the Open Audio License, and it \"designates the Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike license as version 2.0 of the Open Audio License.\"\nThe Creative Commons licenses express the same principles as the original Open Audio License\u2014a recognition that some creators want to make their works available to the public on less restrictive terms than copyright's defaults, with permission to copy, distribute, adapt, and publicly perform their works.\nPublication of the first version of the Open Audio License spurred the creation of the original Open Music Registry to support the license and provide a directory for finding works released under the license.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A opening act, also known as a warm-up act, support act, or supporting act, is an entertainment act (musical, comedic, or otherwise), that performs at a concert before the featured act, or \"headliner\". Rarely, an opening act may perform again at the end of the event, or perform with the featured act after both have had a set to themselves.\nThe opening act's performance serves to \"warm up\" the audience, making it appropriately excited and enthusiastic for the headliner. \nIn rock music, the opening act will usually be an up-and-coming group with a smaller following than the featured artist.  On long concert tours, different opening acts may be used for different legs of the tour. \nIn comedy, a warm-up comedian or crowd warmer is a stand-up comedian who performs at a comedy club or before the filming of a television comedy in front of a studio audience.\nMore rarely, a comedian will open for a music concert. Their role is to make the audience feel integral to the show and encourage reactions during the show. They usually work alone and perform a comedy routine while also possibly explaining aspects of the show. In a television recording, they will also perform during commercial breaks. Some warm-up routines before talk shows involve giving prizes to audience members. The use of warm-ups in comedy dates back before television to radio shows.In sports, an undercard is a preliminary bout or race between lesser known competitors, at a boxing, professional wrestling, horse racing, auto racing, or other sports event.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Orchestra United was a four-part British television series that followed a youth orchestra from its creation to a final, full-scale concert. The series was broadcast on Channel 4 during summer 2010.\nThe Hall\u00e9 Harmony Youth Orchestra was formed from 75 young people (11 to 18 years of age) from Manchester who showed musical talent. The intention of its conductor, James Lowe, was to demonstrate that young people of all social, cultural and ethnic backgrounds could both enjoy and participate in major classical music. Two were selected to perform as soloists in a concert in the Hall\u00e9 Orchestra's 2,000 seat Bridgewater Hall, an important concert venue in Manchester.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "PAL: Pacifier Activated Lullaby is a pacifier fitted with an adapter, which houses a computer chip that activates a CD player outside the incubator. Developed in 2000 by Dr. Jayne M. Standley along with the Center for Music Research at Florida State University, the PAL is used during music therapy interventions in the neonatal intensive-care unit to promote and reinforce non-nutritive sucking (NNS) opportunities on premature infants. Dr. Standley found that infants could differentiate between silence and musical stimuli, which meant infants could be positively reinforced with music when they sucked with enough endurance and strength.The sensors in the PAL detect correct non-nutritive sucking characteristics and activate a CD player which reproduces lullabies through small speakers placed binaurally in the incubator above the infant's head.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A page-turner is a person employed to turn sheet music pages for a soloist or accompanist, often a pianist, usually during a performance.While some music is arranged so that the pages end at places where the musician can spare one hand to turn them, this is not always possible. A page-turner is often necessary for musicians who are playing complex pieces and prefer not to play from memory. A page-turner needs to be able to understand the musician's signals and follow the music to know when to turn the page, and to do so quickly and unobtrusively. Page-turners are sometimes acquaintances of the performer or members of the accompanying orchestra doing a favour. Professional page-turners are often freelance casual workers, not associated with any given concert hall or orchestra.\nMechanical page-turners are also available, sometimes controlled by the musician via a foot pedal. Charles Hall\u00e9 is said to have invented the automatic page-turner. Foot pedals to turn pages are also available for music displayed on computers.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Paluke Bangaramayena\" one of the famous Telugu compositions by the 17th century composer and devotee of Lord Sri Rama, Bhadrachala Ramadasu. He is known to have composed hundreds such songs however the original music is lost.\nIndian Carnatic vocalist Mangalampalli Balamuralikrishna set music to these songs in the 1950s and popularized them. These have become one of the most famous renditions. Subsequently, many versions of this song have been sung.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A Pe\u00f1a is a meeting place or grouping of musicians or artists, either in Spain (where it is known as Pe\u00f1a Flamenca) or in various South American countries. In Chile in particular, the term came to mean a cheap, popular venue where folk music was played and simple food and drink were available, usually in the form of Nueva Canci\u00f3n, the kind of music popularised by musicians such as Violeta Parra and Victor Jara in the 1960s and early 1970s Because of its association with the Unidad Popular Government of Salvador Allende, the concept of a Pe\u00f1a is often associated with social justice and grassroots culture.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Philips Pavilion was a World's Fair pavilion designed for Expo '58 in Brussels by the office of Le Corbusier. Commissioned by electronics manufacturer Philips, the pavilion was designed to house a multimedia spectacle that celebrated postwar technological progress. Because Le Corbusier was busy with the planning of Chandigarh, much of the project management was assigned to Iannis Xenakis, who was also an experimental composer and was influenced in the design by his composition Metastaseis.\nThe reinforced concrete pavilion is a cluster of nine hyperbolic paraboloids in which music, Edgard Var\u00e8se's Po\u00e8me \u00e9lectronique, was spatialized by sound projectionists using telephone dials. The speakers were set into the walls, which were coated in asbestos, creating a textured look to the walls. Var\u00e8se drew up a detailed spatialization scheme for the entire piece which made great use of the physical layout of the pavilion, especially the height of it. The asbestos hardened the walls which created a cavernous acoustic. As audiences entered and exited the building Xenakis's musique concr\u00e8te composition Concret PH was heard. The building was demolished on 30 January 1959.\nThe European Union funded a virtual recreation of the Philips Pavilion, which was chaired by Vincenzo Lombardi from the University of Turin.\nArseniusz Romanowicz's Warszawa Ochota train station in Poland is supposedly inspired by the Philips Pavilion.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Phonetical singing is singing by learning and performing the lyrics of a song by the words' phonetic sounds, without necessarily understanding the content of the lyrics, for example an artist who performs in Spanish even though they may not be proficient in the language.\nFor the DreamWorks animated film The Prince of Egypt, Israeli singer Ofra Haza sang most of the 17 versions of the song \"Deliver Us\" phonetically.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In DJing, phrasing, also called stage matching, refers to alignment of phrases of two tracks in a mix. This allows the transition between the tracks to be done without breaking the musical structure.\nPhrasing is an aspect of beatmixing, not a separate technique. Because most music has a 4/4 time signature and a simple structure of 16-bar phrases, to align the phrases of two tracks it is often enough to start the track to be mixed in at a phrase boundary in the track currently playing. Careful phrasing can produce a seamless mix by making the breaks in two tracks coincide, or aligning the break in one track with the start of the beat in the other.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Piano Day is held on the 88th day of the year (March 28th in normal years and March 29th in leap years) in celebration of and reference to the 88 keys on a standard piano. From an idea by the German pianist and composer Nils Frahm in 2015 \"because it doesn\u2019t hurt to celebrate the piano and everything around it: performers, composers, piano builders, tuners, movers and most important, the listener\", the event has grown in subsequent years with amateur and commercial success.\nEach year live concerts and online events have been held, recent locations including Moscow, Alicante, Helsinki, Rennes, Leeds, Melbourne, Sacramento, Copenhagen and many others, listed annually on the event's website. There are also SoundCloud and Spotify playlists available from each year.\nIn 2015 the Piano Day team announced the construction of a vertical concert grand piano, the Klavins M450.\nOn Piano Day 2018 Christian Henson of Spitfire Audio launched a website and YouTube channel called Pianobook dedicated to creating and sharing sampled instruments for free.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Pidulik marss (Presidential March, also translated to Solemn March) is the official honorary march of the President of Estonia which is played as a welcoming/inspection march for the president, who is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Estonian Defence Forces. The march was composed by Estonian musician Eero Liives (1892\u20131978). Today the march is played by the Kaitsev\u00e4e Orkester during military reviews of troops such as the Estonian Honour Guard during state visits and the Eesti Kaitsev\u00e4gi during military parades in Tallinn.On 27 January 1923, it was adopted as the military march by of the Estonian Head of State. Prior to that, Bj\u00f6rneborgarnas marsch (known in Estonian as Porilaste marss) was used as a presidential song. The government chose to abandon the natively Swedish march, to differentiate itself from Finland, which also uses it as an honorary march. The march is still used as official honorary music for high-ranking officials. The march would be performed for the last time in 4 decades on Independence Day in 1940, due to the German and later Soviet occupation of Estonia taking place in the following four years. Both governments tried to cultivate a separate identity and culture from the Estonian people, which included banning traditional ceremonial pieces such as Pidulik marss. The march was reinstated in 1991, after Estonia's declaration of independence became legal, and has been used by the state ever since.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Playing the Building was an art installation by David Byrne, ex singer of Talking Heads, and F\u00e4rgfabriken, an independent art venue in Stockholm. It originally ran from October 8 to November 13, 2005, at F\u00e4rgfabriken. The concept would later be realized in New York City in the Battery Maritime Building in 2008 (May 31 to August 10), in London in The Roundhouse in 2009 (August 8 to 31), and in Minneapolis at the Aria building in the Minneapolis Warehouse Historic District in 2012 (November 5 to December 4).The concept entailed utilizing the infrastructure of these buildings and spaces as resonating bodies to create sounds. Different methods are used to produce the sounds, including hitting columns with metal rods, strapping vibrating motors to girders, and blowing air through pipes. The sounds often resemble musical instruments, including organs and flutes.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Pommez Internacional is an Argentine band, founded in 2010 in Buenos Aires", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A pop duo is a pop music group with only two members.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Prague underground was an underground culture developed in Prague, Czechoslovakia in the late 1960s and 1970s during the Normalization period. The movement was characterized by resistance against conformity, conventions, and consumerism. Because of its non-conformity, it had serious problems with the communist regime which considered it as a political opposition.\nIt was mainly expressed with experimental rock, art rock and psychedelic rock music (The Plastic People of the Universe, DG 307) and samizdat literature, partially inspired by the culture scene around Andy Warhol and The Velvet Underground. The unofficial leader of this commune was art-historian and poet Ivan Martin Jirous. He designated the status of the community as a parallel world independent on the mainstream regime. Although being imprisoned many times, he never gave up on leading role in the movement. Among the fans of this subculture was, for example, former Czech President V\u00e1clav Havel. This friendship led to the creation of Charter 77, which was sparked by the imprisonment of Jirous and The Plastic People of the Universe.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In acoustics, the prefix of a sound is an initial phase, the onset of a sound quite dissimilar to the ensuing lasting vibration.\nThe term was coined by J. F. Schouten (1968, 42), who called it one of at least five major acoustic parameters that determine the elusive attributes of timbre.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A premi\u00e8re, also spelled premiere, is the debut (first public presentation) of a play, film, dance, or musical composition.\nA work will often have many premi\u00e8res: a world premi\u00e8re (the first time it is shown anywhere in the world) and its first presentation in each country. When a work originates in a country that speaks a different language from that in which it is receiving its national or international premi\u00e8re, it is possible to have two premi\u00e8res for the same work in the same country\u2014for example, the play The Maids by the French dramatist Jean Genet received its British premi\u00e8re (which also happened to be its world premi\u00e8re) in 1952, in a production given in the French language. Four years later, it was staged again, this time in English, which was its English-language premi\u00e8re in Britain.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Qa\u00f1at/Qe\u00f1et (Amharic: \u1245\u129d\u1275) sometimes written Kignit, Keniet, Gegnet, Gignit are secular musical scales developed by the Amhara ethnic group of Ethiopia. Qa\u00f1at consists in a set of intervals defining the mode of a musical piece or the tuning scale of the instrument playing the piece. There are four main qa\u00f1at scales that are used, all of which are pentatonic: tizita (\u1275\u12dd\u1273), bati (\u1263\u1272), ambassel (\u12d0\u121d\u1263\u1230\u120d), and anchihoye (\u12a0\u1295\u127a\u1206\u12ec). Three additional modes are variations on the above: tezeta minor, bati major, and bati minor. Some songs take the name of their qa\u00f1at, such as tizita, a song of reminiscence.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Rak Salai Dokfai Ban (Thai: \u0e23\u0e31\u0e01\u0e2a\u0e25\u0e32\u0e22\u0e14\u0e2d\u0e01\u0e1d\u0e49\u0e32\u0e22\u0e1a\u0e32\u0e19), is a song by Thai Mor lam singer Jintara Poonlarp, released in November 1998 by Master Tape (GMM Grammy). Written by Dao Bandon and produced by Sawat Sarakham, the track appears on the album Mor lam sa on 1.\nThis song is symbol of Red Cross's festival of Loei Province, and was covered by Darunee Sutthiphithak in 2017.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A random number book is a book whose main content is a large number of random numbers or random digits. Such books were used in early cryptography and experimental design, and were published by the Rand Corporation and others. The Rand corporation book A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates was first published in 1955 and was reissued in 2001. A sequel, A Million And One Random Digits was published in 2022.\nRandom number books have been rendered obsolete for most purposes by the ready availability of random number generators running on electronic computers. However they still have niche uses, particularly in the performance of experimental music pieces that call for them, such as Vision (1959) and Poem (1960) by La Monte Young.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In popular music, a re-edit is an altered version of a recorded song created by repeating, reordering, or removing sections of the original recording - for example, making a chorus repeat several times in a row, or extending the length of a break section. Like remixes, re-edits are especially common in dance music.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A record sleeve (not to be confused with a record jacket/cover) is the outer covering of a vinyl record. Alternative terms are dust sleeve and album liner. A record sleeve can be made of paper, cardboard, rice paper, polypropylene, etc. It may be acid-free or anti-static and also contain an inner liner (polylined). A record sleeve can be full or have a cut-out center hole for viewing the labels without having to remove the record from the sleeve. Besides the standard white color, they can come in various colors and have label logos, lyrics, sleeve notes, artwork, etc. on them.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Reich Richter P\u00e4rt was a duo of 2019 live immersive interdisciplinary performance pieces which combined paintings, new musical compositions, and film.  The work in its original form was site specific as commissioned for and staged under the guidance of curators Hans Ulrich Obrist and Alex Poots at \"The Shed in an architectural setting which is possessed with the ability to morph according to the work being exhibited and or performed therein.  The work as titled consisted of a pair of artistic collaborations;  firstly between the German artist Gerhard Richter and the Estonian composer Arvo P\u00e4rt  (which built upon a concept originally developed by Obrist and Poots for the Manchester International Festival) and secondly between Richter and the American composer Steve Reich. The second part of the work also featured a collaboration between Richter and the filmmaker Corinna Belz, a film based on the artist's 2012 book Patterns.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Rekilaulu is a type of rhymed stanzaic folksong in Finland.  \nThis musical form was influenced by German, Swedish, and British traditions of ballads and broadsides.  The term rekilaulu may be a Finnish adaptation of the German terms Reigenlied or Reihenlied.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Repercussion (latinized form of \"repeating\" or \"rebounding\") is a special vocal singing technique consisting on singing a tone with a constant pitch.\nThe technique has been and is especially used in Gregorian chant where repetitions of sounds are prescribed by certain neumes, such as a distropha or a tristropha. The vocals are modulated in volume, without necessarily resulting in a pitch fluctuation, or a vibrato. If the singing is not performed by a soloist, the singers modulate their voices in unison according to the direction of the cantor. The perfect singing of repercussion requires vocal training and appropriate respiratory support.\nA similar term, which means something different, is the word \"repercussa\". This is another name for the recitation tone, an important structural tone within the church modes.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A rhapsody in music is a one-movement work that is episodic yet integrated, free-flowing in structure, featuring a range of highly contrasted moods, colour, and tonality. An air of spontaneous inspiration and a sense of improvisation make it freer in form than a set of variations.\nThe word rhapsody is derived from the Greek: \u1fe5\u03b1\u03c8\u1ff3\u03b4\u03cc\u03c2, rhaps\u014didos, a reciter of epic poetry (a rhapsodist), and came to be used in Europe by the 16th century as a designation for literary forms, not only epic poems, but also for collections of miscellaneous writings and, later, any extravagant expression of sentiment or feeling. In the 18th century, literary rhapsodies first became linked with music, as in Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart's Musicalische Rhapsodien (1786), a collection of songs with keyboard accompaniment, together with a few solo keyboard pieces. The first solo piano compositions with the title, however, were V\u00e1clav Jan Tom\u00e1\u0161ek\u2019s fifteen Rhapsodies, the first of which appeared in 1810.  Although vocal examples may be found as late as Brahms's Alto Rhapsody, Op. 53 (1869), in the 19th century the rhapsody had become primarily an instrumental form, first for the piano and then, in the second half of the century, a large-scale nationalistic orchestral \"epic\"\u2014a fashion initiated by Franz Liszt. Interest in Romani violin playing beginning in the mid-19th century led to a number of important pieces in that style, in particular by Liszt, Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k, George Enescu, Ern\u0151 Dohn\u00e1nyi, and B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k, and in the early 20th century British composers exhibiting the influence of folksong composed a number of examples, including Ralph Vaughan Williams's three Norfolk Rhapsodies, George Butterworth's A Shropshire Lad, and Frederick Delius's Brigg Fair (which is subtitled \"An English Rhapsody\").Some familiar examples may give an idea of the character of a rhapsody:\n\nHugo Alfv\u00e9n, Swedish Rhapsody No. 1 (Midsommarvaka), for orchestra\nB\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k, Rhapsody No. 1 and Rhapsody No. 2 for violin and piano (also arranged for orchestra)\nJohannes Brahms, Two Rhapsodies, Op. 79, and Rhapsody in E-flat major, Op. 119, No. 4, for solo piano\nEmmanuel Chabrier, Espa\u00f1a, rhapsody for orchestra\nClaude Debussy, Premi\u00e8re rhapsodie for clarinet and piano (also orchestrated by the composer)\nClaude Debussy, Rhapsody for alto saxophone and orchestra\nErn\u0151 Dohn\u00e1nyi, Four Rhapsodies, Op. 11, for solo piano\nGeorge Enescu, Romanian Rhapsodies Nos. 1 and 2, for orchestra\nEdward German, Welsh Rhapsody, for orchestra\nGeorge Gershwin, Rhapsody in Blue, Second Rhapsody, for piano and orchestra\nJames P. Johnson, Yamekraw\u2014A Negro Rhapsody\nHerbert Howells, Three Rhapsodies, Op. 17, for solo organ\nFranz Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsodies for solo piano\nDavid Popper, Hungarian Rhapsody\nSergei Rachmaninoff, Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, Op. 43, for piano and orchestra\nMaurice Ravel, Rapsodie espagnole, for orchestra\nRalph Vaughan Williams, Norfolk Rhapsody No. 1, for orchestra\nPancho Vladigerov, Bulgarian Rhapsody \"Vardar\"In 1975, the British rock band Queen released \"Bohemian Rhapsody\", a bombastic mock-operatic rock song which is in the form of a four-part suite, but performed with rock instrumentation. Though described by its composer Freddie Mercury as a \"mock opera\", it has also been characterized as a \"sort of seven-minute rock cantata (or 'megasong') in three distinct movements\". It became one of the UK's best-selling singles of all time.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A ribbon controller is a tactile sensor used to control synthesizers. It generally consists of a resistive strip that acts as a potentiometer. Because of its continuous control, ribbon controllers are often used to produce glissando effects.\nEarly examples of the use of ribbon controllers in a musical instrument are in the Ondes Martenot and Trautonium. In some early instruments, the slider of the potentiometer was worn as a ring by the player. In later ribbon controllers, the ring was replaced by a conductive layer that covered the resistive element.\nRibbon controllers are found in early Moog synthesizers, but were omitted from most later synthesizers. The Yamaha CS-80 synthesizer is well-known for its inclusion of a ribbon controller, used by Vangelis to create many of the characteristic sounds in the Blade Runner soundtrack.Although ribbon controllers are less common in later synthesizers, they were used in the Moog Liberation and Micromoog. Roland incorporated a ribbon controller in their JP-8000 synthesizer.\nAs of 2020, ribbon controllers are available as control voltage and MIDI peripherals. An example of a modern synthesizer that uses a ribbon controller is the Swarmatron.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Ribbon Music is an American-based independent Music Publishing Company, representing a diverse roster of international writers working across a multitude of genres including rock, country, punk, metal, dabke, electronic, Latin and folk.\nFor a complete list of clients and further information visit ribbonmusic.com.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Romanesca is a melodic-harmonic formula popular from the mid\u201316th to early\u201317th centuries that was used as an aria formula for singing poetry and as a subject for instrumental variation. The pattern, which is found in an endless collection of compositions labeled romanesca, is a descending descant formula within a chordal progression that has a bass which moves by 4ths. The formula was not to be viewed as a fixed tune, but as a framework over which elaborate ornamentation can occur.  It was most popular with Italian and Spanish composers of the Renaissance and early Baroque period. It was also used by vihuelistas including Luis de Narv\u00e1ez, Alonso Mudarra, Enr\u00edquez de Valderr\u00e1bano, and Diego Pisador.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Romanian Christmas Carols, Sz, 57, BB 67 (Hungarian: Rom\u00e1n kolindadallamok) is a set of little colinde, typical Christmas songs from Romanian villages, habitually sung by small groups of children, adapted in 1915 by Hungarian composer B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k to be played on the piano after hearing them sung in the below villages.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Romanian major, also known as lydian dominant flat 2 or flat 9, is a musical scale, noted for its flattened 2nd and sharpened fourth degrees, the latter a distinctive feature of Romanian traditional music. A C Romanian major scale has the notes C, D\u266d, E, F\u266f, G, A, B\u266d, which is 1, \u266d2, 3, \u266f4, 5, 6, \u266d7.  Though it is called a major scale, it is typically played over a C13 (\u266d9) (\u266f11) (also F\u266f major over C) dominant chord. This is an enharmonic mode of B Harmonic Minor (A# & C# in B Harmonic Minor, Bb & Db in C Romanian Major), along with D Harmonic Major (C# in G Harmonic Major, Db in C Romanian Major). The root note of F Harmonic Major is raised a semitone to F#, and the root note of D Aeolian Dominant lowered a semitone to Db. There is also a \u266e6 with the Db Super Lydian Augmented scale, lowering the B\u266e to Bb. \nRomanian major's notes are the same as a half-whole diminished scale (C, D\u266d, E\u266d, E, F\u266f, G, A, B\u266d) but with no E\u266d (or \u266d3rd position). Therefore, this scale should have diminished seventh chords, particularly from its second note. This scale's \u266f4th and 6th notes have minor or major (dominant) chord, while the root only has a major (dominant) chord (distinction from the half-whole diminished scale that the root, \u266d3rd, \u266f4th, and 6th notes have full diminished, half diminished, minor, and dominant chords built from that scale).\nThe 5th mode, Jazz minor flat 5, also known as Jeth's Mode, is a jazz minor or melodic minor scale with a flattened 5th,  and is named after Dutch composer Willem Jeths. It can also be thought of as a whole half diminished scale omitting the augmented fifth. It can be used for soloing instead of regular jazz minor. The Jazz minor flat 5 mode in C contains the notes C, D, E\u266d, F, G \u266d, A, B, which has the formula 1, 2, \u266d3, 4, \u266d5, 6, 7. This is an enharmonic mode of E Harmonic Minor (D# & F# in E Harmonic Minor, Eb & Gb in C Jeth's Mode), along with G Harmonic Major (F# in G Harmonic Major, Gb in C Jeth's Mode). The root note of Bb Harmonic Major is raised a semitone to B\u266e, and the root note of G Aeolian Dominant lowered a semitone to Gb. There is also a \u266e6 with the Gb Super Lydian Augmented scale, lowering the E\u266e to Eb.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The rudl or rull is a western Norwegian couples' folk dance in 24 or 68 related to the Swedish snoa.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Rustle noise is noise consisting of aperiodic pulses characterized by the average time between those pulses (such as the mean time interval between clicks of a Geiger counter), known as rustle time (Schouten ?).  Rustle time is determined by the fineness of sand, seeds, or shot in rattles, contributes heavily to the sound of sizzle cymbals, drum snares, drum rolls, and string drums, and makes subtle differences in string instrument sounds.  Rustle time in strings is affected by different weights and widths of bows and by types of hair and rosin in strings.  The concept is also applicable to flutter-tonguing, brass and woodwind growls, resonated vocal fry in woodwinds, and eructation sounds in some woodwinds.  Robert Erickson suggests the exploration of accelerando-ritardando scales producible on some acoustic instruments and further variations in rustle noise \"because this apparently minor aspect of musical sounds has a disproportionately large importance for higher levels--textures, ensemble timbres, [and] contrasts between music events.\" (Erickson 1975, p. 71-72)", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Saint Wenceslas Chorale (Czech: Svatov\u00e1clavsk\u00fd chor\u00e1l) or simply Saint Wenceslas is the church hymn and one of the oldest known Czech songs and Czech religious anthems. Its roots can be found in the 12th century and it belongs to the most popular religious songs also today, and to the oldest still used European chants. The hymn is mentioned as \"old and well-known\" in the chronicle from the 13th century. Also strophic structure, language and undulating melody and harmonization confirm that assumption. The text of the song  had originally three strophes. To the chant, originally in Old Czech, some new strophes have been added and also removed from over the centuries. Its final form becomes from the turn 18th and 19th century and in that version is still used today.\nThe content of the anthem is a prayer to Saint Wenceslas, Duke of Bohemia and the Czech patron saint to intercede for his nation in God to help from injustice and ensure the salvation. The hymn is regularly sung today, usually at the end of a Sunday Mass or a major Christian holidays.\nIn 1918, in the beginnings of the Czechoslovak state, the song was discussed as a possible candidate for the national anthem.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Santini Collection is an archive of musical scores dating back to the 18th century, originally the collection of Fortunato Santini, a Catholic priest born in a Roman orphanage in 1778. The archive contains autograph manuscripts by George Frideric Handel and Alessandro Scarlatti, and in some cases preserved the only copies of these works for many years.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Sarpada is a raga in Hindustani classical music. It is a raga sung in the morning, that belongs to the Bilaval thaat.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Saule, P\u0113rkons, Daugava\" is a Latvian choir song. The text originates from the poem Daugava by the Latvian poet Rainis, while the musical part is composed by M\u0101rti\u0146\u0161 Brauns.The song was first performed in the Valmiera Drama Theatre in 1988. In 1990 it was performed at the Latvian Song and Dance Festival and quickly became a musical symbol of the Singing Revolution. After Latvia regained its independence, the song remained highly popular and there was even a discussion of it becoming the new national anthem.In 2014, an adapted version of the song with lyrics of Miquel Mart\u00ed i Pol, titled Ara \u00e9s l'hora became the official anthem of the Catalan independence movement.In 2018, it was voted the best Latvian song by listeners of the Radio SWH radio station, winning a plurality of the nearly 137,000 votes cast.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Sebene is a kind of instrumental bridge typically executed on the electric guitar. It is a characteristic element of Soukous. The development of the sebene in Congolese music has been credited to Franco Luambo but predates him, with Congolese guitarist Henri Bowane being the reputed inventor in the 1940s. In the sebene, one or more guitarists repeat short phrases, while the lead player improvises around the theme.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Second Fiddle to a Steel Guitar is a 1965 American comedy film directed by Victor Duncan, and is notable for the reunion of Bowery Boys' actors Leo Gorcey and Huntz Hall, who had last appeared in a film together nine years earlier\u2014in Crashing Las Vegas.  The film was released on September 15, 1965, by Marathon Pictures.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Senza Rete was a music show created by Giorgio Calabrese and broadcast by Rai 1 (at the time  Programma Nazionale) from 1968 to 1975.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Settevoci was an Italian musical variety show broadcast by Rai 1 (at the time called \"Programma Nazionale\") from 1966 to 1970, hosted by Pippo Baudo and aired on Sunday afternoon. The program was a large success, and contributed to launch the careers of many artists, including Albano Carrisi, Massimo Ranieri, Nicola Di Bari, and Orietta Berti. It also marked the first personal success for the presenter Baudo.The show consisted of a contest with singers combined in couples, and included a quiz to test their knowledge in the music field. The final results were eventually determined through a clap-o-meter.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Seufzer eines Ungeliebten \u2013 Gegenliebe (Sigh of an unloved \u2013 Love requited), WoO 118, is a secular cantata for voice and piano by Ludwig van Beethoven, composed at the end of 1794 or in 1795 from two complementary poems combined into one from the collection Lyrische Gedichte (1789) by Gottfried August B\u00fcrger. Beethoven offered it to the publisher Peters of Leipzig in a letter from 5 June 1822, but it was only published posthumously in 1837 by Anton Diabelli.The work was written shortly after Beethoven's arrival in Vienna in November 1793 to take lessons from Joseph Haydn, who also set the Gegenliebe to music (Hob. XVIIa: 16). The sketches are mixed with that of another cantata, Adelaide6. It is also the period of a young man's first love:\n\"In Vienna, at least for as long as I lived there, Beethoven was still engaged in romantic relationships, and at that time he had made conquests which would have been very difficult, if not impossible, for more than one Adonis. - Can a man, without having known love in its most intimate mysteries, have composed Adelaide, Fidelio and so many other works? [\u2026] I will note again that, as far as I know, all the objects of his passions were of a high rank.\"\n- Franz Gerhard Wegeler, Biographical notes on Ludwig van Beethoven, p. 43-447.Gegenliebe marks the first appearance of the melody that Beethoven will use in the Fantaisie chorale opus 80 for piano, choir and orchestra in 1808, which is a foreshadowing of the \"Ode to Joy\" from the Ninth Symphony.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Sever Your Ties, also known as SYT, was a metalcore and band from San Diego, California. Their first studio album, Safety in the Sea, was released on July 8, 2008, through Solid State Records and Tooth and Nail Records. Band members included Dustin Peterson, Sean Marnul, Justin Coyle, Patrick Lemley, Michael DiDia and Philippe Gutierrez. The band had been working on a comedy album and live action tour when on June 4, 2010, they announced that they were disbanding, due to the new found friendship between singer Sean Marnul and film director, Porter Min. After disbanding, singer Sean Marnul formed the comedy duo Gravy Brothers with friend Caleb Chial of The Black Keys while working with Porter Min on the set of Iron Man 2.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A sextet (or hexad) is a formation containing exactly six members. The former term is commonly associated with vocal ensembles (e.g. The King's Singers, Affabre Concinui) or musical instrument groups, but can be applied to any situation where six similar or related objects are considered a single unit.Musical compositions with six parts are sextets. Many musical compositions are named for the number of musicians for which they are written. If a piece is written for six performers, it may be called a \"sextet\". Steve Reich's \"Sextet\", for example, is written for six percussionists. However, much as many string quartets do not include \"string quartet\" in the title (though many do), many sextets do not include \"sextet\" in their title. See: string sextet and piano sextet.\nIn jazz music a sextet is any group of six players, usually containing a drum set (bass drum, snare drum, hi-hat, ride cymbal), string bass or electric bass, piano, and various combinations of the following or other instruments: guitar, trumpet, saxophone, clarinet, trombone.\nIn heavy metal and rock music, a sextet typically contains, but is not restricted to, a lead vocalist, two guitarists, a bassist, drummer, and keyboardist.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Kelvin Anom also known as Bra Kevin Beats in the entertainment space, is a Ghanaian rapper and known for the song Three Headed Beats and Riddle Riddle.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Shanguy is French-Italian music collective project founded in 2017.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Shockadelica is the second studio album by guitarist and songwriter Jesse Johnson. It was released in 1986 on A&M Records and peaked at number 70 on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Sign singing or Karaoke signing is singing using sign language. Typically a song is played, and the performer expressively performs a sign language version of the lyrics.  Whereas vocal singing uses pitch and tone to convey expressions, sign singing relies on the performer's hands, body, and facial expressions.Choirs can perform sign singing and have gathered popularity in recent years as accessibility for the Deaf community and interest in signing languages have risen.  Competitions in which sign choirs can compete include the National Signing Choir Competition in the UK.Well-known sign singers include the Japanese Tomoko Nakayama, a follower of Nichiren Buddhism, and the bawdy Australian duo Dislabelled. In London in 2003, a series of \"Deaf Idol\" events were held where deaf participants competed in karaoke singing, dance etc., in a similar format to the TV show Pop Idol.\nSign language can be used to express extremely nuanced feeling, and so sign singing is an important creative input for the deaf.\nSign singing is featured in the movie Napoleon Dynamite during a scene when two members of the \"happy hands club\" perform a song titled \"The Rose\" written by Bette Midler, entirely in sign.  The signing club depicted in the film was largely inspired by a sign singing club that was previously established at Preston High School (Idaho), where the movie was filmed. The film brought wider attention to the club, originally called the \"Good hands club,\" which was founded by educator Dan Robertson, who conceived the idea for the group while studying ASL at Brigham Young University. In 2013 the troupe performed on stages at Disneyland, in the Tabernacle in Salt Lake City with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, and flew to Orlando for the convention of a large corporation.A sign language interpretation by the late Kimberly Rae Schaefer during Pearl Jam's 2000 tour for \"Given to Fly\" garnered public attention for the passionate and emotional signing.The National Anthem was sung and signed in British Sign Language at the Opening Ceremony of the 2012 Olympics\nby The Kaos Signing Choir for Deaf and Hearing Children.The 2015 Broadway musical theater production of Spring Awakening integrated American sign language within the choreography of dance moves, while also utilizing a mixture of hearing and deaf performers.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A Singakademie - originally a phenomenon of the German-speaking realm - is a large mixed choral society, whose primary aims are to study large, significant choral works - mostly those of acknowledged masters; to train themselves with these works; and to cultivate social interaction to a high degree. Public performance of concerts is secondary.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Sioux are a large group of Native Americans generally divided into three subgroups: Lakota, Dakota and Nakota.  \nAmong the Dakota, traditional dance songs generally begin in a high pitch, led by a single vocalist (solo) who sings a phrase that is then repeated by a group.  This phrase then cascades to a lower pitch until there is a brief pause.  Then, the song's second half, which echoes the first, is sung (incomplete repetition).  The second part of the song often includes \"honor beats,\" usually in the form of four beats representing cannon fire in battle.  The entire song may be repeated several times, at the discretion of the lead singer.\nMany songs use only vocables, syllabic utterances with no lexical meaning.  Sometimes, only the second half of the song has any lyrics.\nIn some traditional songs, women sing one octave above the men, though they do not sing the first time the song is sung or the lead line at any time.\nPercussion among the Dakota use drums, sometimes with syncopation.  In competition songs, beats start off as an irregular ruffle and are then followed by a swift regular beat.\nThe Dakota Flag Song begins special events, such as powwows, and is not accompanied by a dance.  Other kinds of songs honor veterans, warriors or others. \nNon-Powwow types of Dakota songs include Sun dance, Yuwipi, Inipi, courtship, flute, lullaby, peyote, and Christian hymns.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Slip-cueing is a turntable-based DJ technique which consists of holding a record still while the platter rotates underneath the slipmat and releasing it at the right moment. In this way the record attains the right speed almost immediately, with no need to wait for the heavy platter to accelerate.\nSlip-cueing was introduced to the disco scene by Francis Grasso, but the technique had been used for many years in the radio broadcast industry; it was often used by radio stations to match a following song to the preceding song, preserving the beat. Grasso used this method to great effect in order to create a continuous flow of music for a nightclub dance floor.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A slipmat is a circular piece of slippery cloth or synthetic materials disk jockeys place on the turntable platter instead of the traditional rubber mat.\nUnlike the rubber mat which is made to hold the record firmly in sync with the rotating platter, slipmats are designed to slip on the platter, allowing the DJ to manipulate a record on a turntable while the platter continues to rotate underneath.  This is useful for holding a record still for slip-cueing, making minute adjustments during beatmatching and mixing and pulling the record back and forth for scratching. They are also very commonly used simply as decoration for when a record isn't on the turntable.\nThe slipmat was invented by hip-hop pioneer Grandmaster Flash to improve its sound and move the vinyl counterclockwise without causing too much drag and too much friction. In a Washington Post interview, he recalls \u201cMy mother was a seamstress so I knew different types of materials,\u201d he continues. Having settled on felt, Flash encountered another issue. \u201cThe problem with felt is that it draped, it was limp,\u201d he recalls. \u201cSo I ran home and got a copy of my album and I bought just enough felt to cut out two round circles the same size as a 33\u2019 LP and\u2014when my mother wasn't looking\u2014I turned the iron all the way up high and I used my mother's spray starch. I sprayed it until this limp piece of felt became\u2014I called it a wafer, like what you get in church at Easter. Today it's called a slipmat.\u201d\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "slotMusic was a brand of microSD memory card developed by SanDisk preloaded with music in MP3 format. They were first available at Wal-Mart and Best Buy stores in October 2008. The current selection of songs comes from Universal Music Group, Sony BMG, Warner Music Group and EMI Music. As of mid-2011, SanDisk's website lists a total of 14 albums available in the SlotMusic format.\nThe audio files contain no digital rights management, and are encoded at minimum bitrates of 256 to 320 kbit/s.A slotMusic albums may also include high-quality images and videos in multiple formats. The contents of each microSD card may be altered by the user, enabling them to add or remove files from the slotMusic card as desired. Another type of card, slotRadio, was developed in 2009 which had radio-like controls. A slotRadio card had more restrictions on how it worked, such as not being able to backtrack to a previous song.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Standard Music Font Layout, or SMuFL, is an open standard for music font mapping.\nThe standard was originally developed by Daniel Spreadbury of Steinberg for its scorewriter software Dorico, but is now developed and maintained by the W3C Music Notation Community Group, along with the standard for MusicXML (which, itself, supports SMuFL).SMuFL is a substantial development beyond the previous de facto mapping standard created by Cleo Huggins in the Sonata font she designed for Adobe in 1985 (which was Adobe's first original typeface).\nNumerous scorewriters support SMuFL (as of June 2021, these include Dorico, Finale and MuseScore but not LilyPond or Sibelius) and a number of free and commercial SMuFL-compliant fonts are available.Bravura, designed by Daniel Spreadbury of Steinberg for Dorico and initially released in 2013, is the SMuFL reference font.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Snapshot is an album by Daryl Braithwaite released in 2005. It was his first studio album since Taste the Salt in 1993.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The genre of solo saxophone has a rich, but largely unmapped history in contemporary music, particularly jazz. Many, but not all, musicians who play and record solo saxophone use extended techniques, a vocabulary of the saxophone beyond its normal range. Notable musicians in this field include Kaoru Abe, Anthony Braxton, Peter Br\u00f6tzmann, John Butcher, Don Dietrich, Eric Dolphy, Brandon Evans, Paul Flaherty, Mats Gustafsson, Coleman Hawkins, Lee Konitz, Steve Lacy, Roscoe Mitchell, Evan Parker, Sonny Rollins, Sam Newsome, Ned Rothenberg, Masayoshi Urabe, Ken Vandermark, Colin Stetson, Jonah Parzen-Johnson and Andre Vida, Gianni Gebbia.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Solo tuning is a system of choosing the reeds for a diatonic wind instrument (such as a harmonica or accordion) to fit a pattern where blow notes repeat a sequence of\n\nC E G C(perhaps shifted to begin with E or with G) and draw notes follow a repeating sequence of\n\nD F A B(perhaps correspondingly shifted).  Or, alternately, these blow notes and draw notes, raised by a semitone, to\n\nC\u266f F G\u266f C\u266fand to\n\nD\u266f F\u266f A\u266f CTraditionally, this tuning is used with chromatic harmonicas, as opposed to the more common and popular diatonic harmonicas, which use Richter tuning.\nFor example:\n\nand", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Sopranino refers to a singing voice that is higher than soprano.  It typically refers to a range of about E4 to E6, sometimes extending as high as G6.  A sopranino voice type is rare.  It is not considered a classical music part, but would be cast as a soprano.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Soviet kobzars were stylised performers on the bandura created to replace the traditional authentic kobzari who had been wiped out in the 1930s. These performers were often blind and although some actually had contact with the authentic kobzari of the previous generation, many received formal training in the Folk conservatories by trained musicians and played on contemporary chromatic concert factory made instruments. \nTheir repertoire was primarily made up of censored versions of traditional kobzar repertoire and focused on stylized works that praised the Soviet system and Soviet heroes. Most of this music lost its traditional folk characteristics such as modal tunings, traditional folk melodic embellishments, playing style etc.\nThe group includes performers such as Yevhen Adamtsevych, Petro Huz', and Yehor Movchan.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The springar is a Norwegian couple's folk dance with an uneven 34 rhythm, traditionally danced by a man and a woman.  The man is given more opportunity to improvise his moves.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Ernest Gaskell Sterndale Bennett,  (May 30, 1884 \u2013 April 9, 1982) was an actor and theatre director in Canada.\nBorn in London and a grandson of the English composer Sir William Sterndale Bennett, he was educated at Derby School and in 1904 qualified with first class honours as a civil and mechanical engineer from the Central Technical College of the City & Guilds of London Institute. In 1905 he emigrated to Canada and began working in amateur theatres in Moose Jaw, Medicine Hat and Lethbridge.  He founded and directed the Lethbridge Playgoers Club and the Alberta Drama Festival upon which the Governor General the Earl of Bessborough later based the Dominion Drama Festival.\nAbandoning his career as an engineer in favor of the theatre, he moved to Toronto in 1933 to become a professional actor, director, teacher, adjudicator and consultant.  He was a director of the T Eaton Dramatic Club, later renamed The Toronto Masquers Club.  Several of his students won major awards.\nDuring the Second World War he served as a munitions inspector for the British Admiralty Technical Mission. In 1945 he returned to Toronto to create the drama department of the Royal Conservatory of Music and in 1949 co-founded the Canadian Theatre School, the only establishment of its type in the country.\nIn December 1974 he was appointed a Member of the Order of Canada for services to the theatre. He died in Toronto on 8 April 1982 just two months before his 98th birthday.In his memory the Sterndale Bennett Theatre in the Genevieve E. Yates Memorial Centre in Lethbridge, Alberta was opened on 21 April 1990.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Steve Stevens (born Steven Bruce Schneider; May 5, 1959) is an American guitarist and songwriter. He is best known as Billy Idol's guitarist and songwriting collaborator, and for his lead guitar work on the theme to Top Gun \u2013 \"Top Gun Anthem\" \u2013 for which he won a Grammy in 1987: Best Pop Instrumental Performance. Stevens has played for Michael Jackson, Ric Ocasek, Robert Palmer, and many others. Stevens was in Vince Neil's band from 1992 to 1994, touring and recording on his album Exposed. Stevens was a founding member of the supergroup Bozzio Levin Stevens, which released Black Light Syndrome in 1997 and Situation Dangerous in 2000. He brought Spanish flamenco guitar stylings to the song \"Pistolero\" (1999) for the trance group Juno Reactor.  During 2012\u20132016, Stevens appeared with Kings of Chaos. His \"Steve Stevens\" group headlined the closing performance at the Musikmesse in Frankfurt, Germany, in April 2016. He is also a television personality on the E! show Married to Rock, alongside his wife, Josie Stevens.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Stile rappresentativo (Italian for \"representative style\") is an Italian opera term. It is a style of singing developed in the early Italian operas of the late 16th century that is more expressive than speech, but not as melodious as song. It is a dramatic recitative style of the early Baroque era in which melodies move freely over a foundation of simple chords.In The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music, it is defined as follows:\n\nstile rappresentativo (Italian, \"In representational style\"). Term used by early Italian composers of opera and oratorio to describe their new device of recitative, in which human speech was represented dramatically as in Peri's Euridice (1600) and Monteverdi's L'Arianna (1608).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A sting, sometimes called a sounder, is a short musical phrase, primarily used in broadcasting and films as a form of punctuation.  For example, a sting might be used to introduce a regular section of a show, indicate the end of a scene, or indicate that a dramatic climax is imminent. A classic sting is the Dun dun duuun! played to indicate a period of suspense.\nIt can be played on a variety of instruments and performed by a group or orchestral ensemble.\nAnother form of sting, often mistakenly called a rimshot, is used only in comedy and played just on percussion instruments (such as drums or cymbals) as a payoff after the delivery of a punchline.\nA musical sting can be used in drama, comedy, horror or any genre, and in radio and television advertising. It is a part of the music director's lexicon.  It is often used to build tension. Stings are often used in horror movies to accentuate jump scares, called a \"scare chord\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A sting is a short drum sequence played by a drummer to punctuate a joke, especially an obvious one. A sting is often used as accompaniment during cabaret- and circus-style shows. Sometimes the sound of the sting is written ba dum tsh, ba-dum cha, ba-dum ching, ba dum tiss and occasionally ba dum tis. In British English, boom boom is used, for example in \"Ha ha ha! Boom! Boom!\", the catchphrase of the children's television character, Basil Brush. An abbreviation used in chats is //*. When a full orchestra flourish is to be indicated as a sting, it sometimes is written or spoken as, ta da! or ta da\u2014 as an interjection.\nIn the context of percussion, rimshot normally refers to a single stroke of the stick in which the rim and head of a drum are both struck simultaneously by the same stick, creating an accent. A rimshot in this context is only a component of the sting, and does not appear at all in some stings.\n\nCommon stings may feature a short roll followed by a crash or splash cymbal and kick drum, a flam, or a rimshot. The notation shown here is an advanced example that uses a tom then kick, followed by a pause to put the final stroke offbeat, and a final stroke using both the snare and kick drums to support a one-handed cymbal choke, meaning all three are hit at once.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A string octet is a piece of music written for eight string instruments, or sometimes the group of eight players. It usually consists of four violins, two violas and two cellos, or four violins, two violas, a cello and a double bass.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Sub-bass sounds are the deep, low-register pitches below approximately 70 Hz (C\u266f2 in scientific pitch notation) and extending downward to include the lowest frequency humans can hear, approximately 20 Hz (E0). \nIn this range, human hearing is less sensitive, so these notes tend to be felt more than heard. The low E-string on a bass guitar is usually tuned to 41.2 Hz, while the lowest note on a standard piano is A at 27.5 Hz. Sound reinforcement systems and PA systems often use one or more subwoofer loudspeakers to amplify sounds in the sub-bass range. Sounds below sub-bass are infrasound.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Suburban Exotica is a compilation album by the English comedian and singer Lorraine Bowen. It was released on 6 December 2010.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Sugarfactory was a music venue and night club in Amsterdam, Netherlands. It was located on the Lijnbaansgracht, near the Leidseplein in the centre of Amsterdam.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "James Richard Prudhomme (born 15 February 1995), better known as Suicideyear, is an American electronic music composer, DJ and songwriter from Baton Rouge, Louisiana.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Super Madrigal Brothers is a video game music duo consisting of Oliver Cobol (born Adam Bruneu) and Fashion Flesh (born John Talaga).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A suspended cymbal is any single cymbal played with a stick or beater rather than struck against another cymbal. Common abbreviations used are \"sus. cym.,\" or \"sus. cymb.\" (with or without the period).\nMost drum kits contain at least two suspended cymbals: a crash cymbal and a ride cymbal.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Swaralipi (Bengali: \u09b8\u09cd\u09ac\u09b0\u09b2\u09bf\u09aa\u09bf) is any system used in sheet music in order to represent aurally perceived music through the use of written notes for Indian classical music.\n\n", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Carl Maria von Weber's Symphony No. 1 in C Op. 19, (J. 50) was written in 1806\u20131807. It was written for Duke Eugen of W\u00fcrttemberg, who employed Weber from 1806.It has four movements:", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Symphony No. 3 also known as the September Symphony (Polish: Symfonia wrze\u015bniowa) is a symphony in four movements by Wojciech Kilar.\nThe impulse for writing the piece came from the September 11 attacks. The composer admitted in an interview with Tygodnik Powszechny that he loves America uncritically and incurably. The author's intention was to encourage the Americans. The work includes allusions to the song of Samuel Ward, America, the Beautiful from 1895. The work was completed in 2003. The world premiere took place in Warsaw on September 2, 2003. The Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra was conducted by Antoni Wit.Titles of parts of a work:\n\n1. Largo\n2. Allegro\n3. Largo\n4. Moderato", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Les Synth\u00e9tistes were a group of Belgian composers whose goal was to synthetize the modern musical tendencies starting in 1925. All of them were ex-pupils of the Belgian composer Paul Gilson and started the organization as a way to celebrate their teacher's 60th birthday in 1925. Their first act was to publish the magazine La Revue Musicale Belge. The group longed to be a Belgian counterpart to the famous French composing group Les Six.\nThe first concert devoted to these synthetists took place in December 1929 and was directed by Constant Moreau. Their first big official concert took place on the 27th of Februari 1930 in the Royal Conservatory of Brussels. It was played by the Groot Harmonieorkest van de Belgische Gidsen and conducted by Arthur Pr\u00e9vost.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Takht (alternatively spelled Takhat) (Persian: \u062a\u062e\u062a) is the representative musical ensemble, the orchestra, of Middle Eastern music. In Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Jordan, the ensemble consists of the oud, the qanun, the kamanjah (or now alternatively violin), the ney, the riq, and the darabukkah . The word takht means \"bed\", \"seat\", or \"podium\" in Persian.\nThe melody instruments may play heterophonically in octaves or perform solos. Instrumental forms include bashraf, sama'i, tahmilah, and dulab. The ensemble may be joined by a male or female vocalist and a group of four to six singers who provide the refrain sections. Vocal genres performed include dawr, muwashshah, layali, ma'luf, qasidah, and mawwal.\nWhile the takht typically comprised between two and five musicians, a similar, but larger ensemble (numbering eight or more) is called a firqa in Arabic.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A tape operator or tape op, also known as a second engineer, is a person who performs menial operations in a recording studio in a similar manner to a tea boy or gopher. They may act as an apprentice or an assistant to a recording engineer and duties can consist of threading audio tape, setting up microphones and stands, configuring MIDI equipment and cables, and sometimes pressing the relevant transport controls on the recorder or digital audio workstation. Abbey Road Studios always assigned at least one tape op to each recording session.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music, a tape phase is a recorded composition using a tape loop or its electronic simulation to produce and vary sounds. It is a form of tape music.Tape phase compositions generally make little use of tonality owing to the difficulty of producing and maintaining a coherent pitch. They may have a strong pulse and rhythm, as in the work of Steve Reich, or may be free form in this regard, as in the work of Jimi Hendrix.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Terra Terra \u2013 The Aquarius Era is a music drama by Nicholas Lens. It is the second part of the operatic trilogy The Accacha Chronicles, following the successful first part Flamma Flamma. In 12 sections, the score combines orchestra, chorus and six operatic voices that contrast with the eerie tonalities of two female nasal-natural singers.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The third inversion of a seventh chord is the voicing in which the seventh of the chord is the bass note and the root a major second above it. In the third inversion of a G-dominant seventh chord, the bass is F \u2014 the seventh of the chord \u2014 with the root, third, and fifth stacked above it (the root now shifted an octave higher), forming the intervals of a second, a fourth, and a sixth above the inverted bass of F, respectively. In figured bass, it is referred to as a 42 chord.\n\nAccording to The American History and Encyclopedia of Music:Inversions are not restricted to the same number of tones as the original chord, nor to any fixed order of tones except with regard to the interval between the root, or its octave, and the bass note, hence, great variety results.\nNote that any voicing above the bass is allowed. A third inversion chord must have the seventh chord factor in the bass, but it may have any arrangement of the root, third, and fifth above that, including doubled notes, compound intervals, and omission (F-G-B-D, F-B-D-G', F-G-B-D-G', etc.)", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In music,  a thirty-second note (American) or demisemiquaver (British) is a note played for 1\u204432 of the duration of a whole note (or semibreve). It lasts half as long as a sixteenth note (or semiquaver) and twice as long as a sixty-fourth (or hemidemisemiquaver).\nThirty-second notes are notated with an oval, filled-in note head and a straight note stem with three flags or beams. A single thirty-second note is always stemmed with flags, while two or more are usually beamed in groups.\nAs with all notes with stems, thirty-second notes are drawn with stems to the right of the notehead, extending up, when they are below the middle line of the musical staff. When they are on or above the middle line, they are drawn with stems on the left of the note head, extending down. Flags are always on the right side of the stem, and curve to the right. On stems extending up, the flags start at the top and curve down; for downward extending stems, the flags start at the bottom of the stem and curve up. When multiple thirty-second notes or eighth notes (or sixteenths, etc.) are next to each other, the flags may be connected with a beam. Similar rules apply to smaller divisions such as sixty-fourth notes.\nA related symbol is the thirty-second rest or demisemiquaver rest (shown to the right), which denotes a silence for the same duration as a thirty-second note.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Ti mou stelneis grammata (Greek: \u03a4\u03b9 \u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1; English: You Send Me Letters)  is an anonymous Cappadocian Greek folk tune (Kasik Havasi (in Turkish) or \u03a7\u03bf\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03b9\u03ce\u03bd (in Greek)). The meter is 44. There are similar folk tunes known as P\u0131nar ba\u015f\u0131 burma burma and Sut ictim dilim yandi.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Top Hit Music Awards is a Russian/Ukrainian annual music awards ceremony established by TopHit in 2013. Russian artists, authors and producers are honored for outstanding achievements in popular music and record business, based on the data of song rotation on air of the radio stations. Ceremonies are held annually in Moscow.There is a Top Hit Hall of Fame as a part of the award. Every year 10 nominees are announced by partnering radio stations, determined by voting. Then past Hall of Fame members elect 2 of them.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Tourner dans le vide\" is a song by French singer-songwriter Indila. It was released as second single on 22 February 2014 from her debut album Mini World.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "A triumphal march is a musical form generally reflecting a triumph, victory or great joy.\nMany composers have written a triumphal march, with maybe the best known one being by Italian opera composer, Giuseppe Verdi for his 1871 grand opera, Aida, where, in the second act, Radames leads the Egyptian army on its return following their victory over the Ethiopians. The triumphal scene gives directors the opportunity for elaborate spectacle typical of the grand opera of the period in the nineteenth century.\nIt often played during graduation ceremonies in Latin America and the Philippines which is also called the Martsang Pandang\u00e1l (Filipino for \"Honours March\") which is an excerpt from Verdi's march. The piece is also one of three compositions (the other two being the Spanish anthem Marcha Real and the French anthem La Marseillaise) that influenced the Philippine National Anthem, according to its composer, Juli\u00e1n Felipe. Verdi's triumphal march has also become the background of many a popular football chant, especially in his native Italy.\nAmong other composers who have composed triumphal marches are Ludwig van Beethoven, Edward Elgar, Edvard Grieg and Alfred Hollins. Alexander Glazunov's is known as the \"Triumphal March on the Occasion of the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, 1893\".", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The tr\u01b0\u1eddng ca \"long song\", is a lyrical genre of Vietnamese song and poetry. The term tr\u01b0\u1eddng ca in Vietnamese applies both to poetry - including the European epos, or Epic poem (vi:tr\u01b0\u1eddng ca), but secondly also to a specific Vietnamese song genre (vi:Tr\u01b0\u1eddng ca (\u00e2m nh\u1ea1c)) which is a development of both European and traditional Vietnamese models. Notable exponents of the song genre include the three masters of the 1960s and 1970s, V\u0103n Cao, Ph\u1ea1m Duy and Tr\u1ecbnh C\u00f4ng S\u01a1n who wrote long lyrics with the intention not of poems to be read, but to be sung. An example of French references is found in Tr\u1ecbnh C\u00f4ng S\u01a1n's tr\u01b0\u1eddng ca, using the image of a tireless sand crab, which draws on Camus' The Myth of Sisyphus to make a Vietnamese lament-ballad.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Turkish music charts have been issued by Nielsen Music control and Radiomonitor. There is no singles chart issued based on single sales, since Turkey has an album-oriented market. Album sales are announced by M\u00fc-yap, but M\u00fc-yap does not announce weekly album charts.\nThere were three single charts derived from the main chart and issued by Billboard T\u00fcrkiye magazine that are considered official:\n\nT\u00fcrk\u00e7e Top 20 - lists only Turkish language songs (published by Nielsen Music Control)\nT\u00fcrkiye Top 20 - lists only foreign songs (published by Billboard T\u00fcrkiye), although it was shut down in 2010.\nTurkish Rock Top 20 Chart, lists Turkish language rock songs and is published by Billboard T\u00fcrkiye.The current single chart is published by Radiomonitor T\u00fcrkiye.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Turning the beat around, abbreviated as TBA in some music textbooks, is a form of temporary tactus or pulse (music) in popular electronic music and electronic dance music. This includes forms of syncopation that issue a challenge to dancers to find the downbeat. In this terminology a \"reverse TBA,\" involves the explicit contradiction of a previously established pulse. The term is to be distinguished from downtempo.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "TV3 Mentor is a music reality show organized by TV3. The reality show was the first reality show concerning music organized in Ghana.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "UFO Collective was an early South African rave organisation established in Cape Town in 1989 by Carl Mason and Jesse Stagg.\nKey members of the collective were UK artist Nik Jevons, Massimo Loi, Jerome Wagner, DJ Will Hutton (aka DJ Will Travel) and UK DJ Chris Powell.\nUFO collective was responsible for staging the first African rave the World Peace Party in 1991 and conceiving Africa's first dedicated House Music club Eden.\nAn offshoot of UFO was the design group known as the Paint Possee. Specializing in interior design projects, murals and public arts projects, the Paint Possee had a vivid post-modern psychedelic style influenced heavily by ancient Mayan artwork interpreted in an early Hip Hop Wild Style. The number of e's at the end of 'Posse' signed in a mural or artwork, indicated the number of artists in this loose collective at any given time.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The UK Compilation Chart is a record chart based on sales of multi artist compilation albums in the United Kingdom. It is compiled weekly by the Official Charts Company (OCC), and each week's Top 40 is published online on the official websites of the OCC (Top 100), BBC Radio 1 and MTV, and in the magazines Music Week (Top 20) and UKChartsPlus (Top 50).\nThough only accredited to compiling multi-artist compilation albums, the chart compiles all full-length various artist releases, regardless of whether they are compilations or studio albums where all the recordings are new (such as The Help Album in 1995 or Radio 1 Established 1967 in 2007).", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "\"Ulah Havasi\" (Turkish:Vlachs Dance) is a Turkish and Vlachs folkloric musical piece from the album Music of the Sultans, Sufis & Seraglio, Vol. 2 - Music of the Dancing Boys.  The piece is performed by the Lalezar Ensemble.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Undertone singing is a set of singing techniques in which the vocalist makes use of vibrations of the vocal apparatus in order to produce subharmonic tones below the bass tone and extend the vocal range below the limits of the modal voice. In particular, the sound is produced via constricting the larynx in order to produce oscillations in the vocal cords and vestibular folds (or \"false vocal cords\") at certain frequencies of the vocal cords - corresponding to integer divisions of the frequency produced by  the vestibular folds, such as 1:2, 1:3, and 1:4 ratios. This will produce the corresponding subharmonic to that frequency. For example, in a 1:2 ratio, each second vibration of the vocal folds, the vestibular fold will complete a single vibration cycle which will result in an subharmonic produced an octave below the bass tone produced by the vocal cords. This technique is attested in Buddhist Chant as well as Mongolian Throat Singing and is often used in conjunction with other vocal techniques such as vocal fry. The technique produces a deep, growling quality.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "In Swahili culture, most notably in Zanzibar and in some areas of western Kenya, the word unyago refers both to a set of rituals and to the music and dance styles that are traditionally associated with such rituals. \nThe unyago rituals were practiced to celebrate the coming of age of girls or during weddings. In those rituals, older women would teach the young ones about sex and conjugal life. These rituals would last several days and be accompanied by dances and music.\nIn modern East Africa, unyago rituals are still occasionally practiced, but unyago dances and music are also performed independent of such rituals, as part of the local folk music. Bi Kidude and Bi Ngwali are two well-known Zanzibari singers who occasionally perform unyago music.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The Uruguayan Invasion was a musical phenomenon of the 1960s similar to the British Invasion, with rock bands from Uruguay gaining popularity in Argentina.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The valona is a popular narrative song- and poetry-form of the Mexican state of Michoac\u00e1n. Its main characteristics are a bitter sense of humor, bawdy content, and social concerns. The lyrics of a Valona are composed as groupings of ten-line strophes, each line made up of eight syllables; musically, all valonas are sung (in fact, almost recited) to just a single tune, with an instrumental refrain after each strophe, which can vary.\nAs a narrative popular genre, the valona is literarily and musically related to the Mexican corrido. In a broader stylistic sense, it is akin with other Mexican genres composed in ten minor-verse strophes (d\u00e9cimas or espinelas), such as some huapangos and the son arribe\u00f1o, along with certain other Latin American genres, such as the Chilean run-run and the rhapsodes of the Argentine payadores.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The viol\u00ed de bufa is Catalan instrument, a type of bladder fiddle,  made of a pig's bladder connected to a bowed stick of cane, over which pass one to three strings, that are \"bowed\" with another knobby stick, as though playing the double bass.In Ripoll and other places bordering the Ter, the instrument is traditionally played during Carnestoltes (Carnival), and produces a deep and dull sound, like a simbomba marina.The instrument has been labeled primitive and unrefined, but despite its limited repertoire historically found popularity with peasant dances and popular songs.Bufa is Aragonese for \"pig's bladder.\" The word means \"buffoonery\" in Spanish.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Vocal hiccup is a \"hiccuping\" singing technique which was notably used by Buddy Holly and Michael Jackson.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Vocality or special vocal effects are vocal or vocally inspired devices including guttural effects, interpolated vocality, falsetto, blue notes, melismas, lyric improvisation, and vocal rhythmization. All of the listed devices are attributes of American vocality and are used to emotionalize vocal and instrumental performances in Black American vernacular music.Guttural effects include screams, shouts, moans, and groans. Shouts may be intoned or nonintoned (definite in pitch/sung or indefinite in pitch/spoken). Interpolated vocality is the addition of new vocal sounds or texts (interpolated verbalism) to a song while lyric variation is derived from or embellishes existing lyrics.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Voice break generally refers to transitions between different vocal registers of the human voice. Although singing is mostly done using the modal register, it is important for more professional singers to be able to smoothly move between different vocal registers.\nProfessional singers refer to this break as the Passaggio. \nUnintentional voice breaks are called a voice crack.\nVoice break may also refer to the deepening of the male voice during puberty, known as the voice change.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Voiceless Mass by Din\u00e9-American composer Raven Chacon was the winner of the 2022 Pulitzer Prize for Music. The work was written specifically for the pipe organ at the Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist (Milwaukee) and it was premiere at this Cathedral on November 21, 2021.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Vox Luminis are a Belgian early music vocal ensemble led by Lionel Meunier. Their recording of Heinrich Sch\u00fctz's Musicalische Exequien for Ricercar won a Gramophone Award and International Classical Music Awards (ICMA) in 2012.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Wang Lisan (Chinese: \u6c6a\u7acb\u4e09; pinyin: W\u0101ng L\u00ecs\u0101n; 24 March 1933 \u2013 6 July 2013) was a Chinese composer and music educator, born in Wuhan, Hubei.His well-known works includes The Other Mountains(5 Prelude and Fugue), and Under the Sun.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Until the 17th century a bard would compose a poem knowing it was going to be sung. Poetry was called music of the tongue and string music was called music of the string (\"Cerdd Dant\"). The Welsh word \"cerdd\" can mean either poetry or music. When bardic music died out the knowledge of how the music was set also died out.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Whare Flat Folk Festival is a music festival held annually over four days each New Year at Waiora Scout Camp in Whare Flat, located in the Silver Stream valley some 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) northwest of the city centre of Dunedin in the South Island of New Zealand. It has been held each year since 1975 and usually attracts international musical talent. In addition to professional acts, the Festival offers opportunities for attendees to improve their music and dance skills at workshops, join in with others at late-night sessions, or perform at open mic shows. For the purposes of the Festival, \"folk\" music is defined broadly to include any acoustic music; the programme regularly includes a two-hour slot of blues on one afternoon. Whare Flat Folk Festival is run entirely by volunteers.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "WhoSampled is a website and app database of information about sampled music or sample-based music, cover songs and remixes.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "World Hip Hop Beats is a hip hop production group from Los Angeles, California which specializes in the creation of instrumental music for educational use. The group has released two studio albums and five singles.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The World Music Conference is a prominent annual music conference organised by the British Carnatic Choir in the Midlands UK. It is organized in partnership with the Consul General of India in Birmingham, West Midlands Combined Authority and a host of premier partners.\nThe three-day event aims to bring together artistes, scholars and music professionals, spanning diverse cultures from across the world to promote a sense of peace and harmony. It specifically focuses on themes such as music and mental health [1]  and on children and young people in a bid to inspire and encourage them to consider a career in music.The first  and second conference was held in November 2017 and hosted by the University of Wolverhampton. The free event is believed to be the only one of its kind to be held in the UK. The third conference held in November 2019 was hosted by Aston University.The fourth annual conference is a virtual two day conference, organised by British Carnatic Choir, in partnership with Consulate General of India in Birmingham, West Midlands Combined Authority and hosted by Birmingham City University.The fifth annual World Music Conference is supported by UNESCO-UK.The conference is in partnership with Birmingham City University, Royal Birmingham Conservatoire as Education partners", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Yaman Ay\u015fem(tr) is a Turkish and Greek folkloric tune (Karsilamas).The meter is 98.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Yvonne is a musical comedy with a book and lyrics by Percy Greenbank and music by Jean Gilbert and Vernon Duke (at that time still using his birth name of Dukelsky). It was adapted by Greenbank from an Austrian musical of the same name. Some additional songs were written by the show's conductor, Arthur Wood. The story concerns an engaged young lady, Yvonne Savigny, the daughter of old professor who loves riotous gaiety. To avoid trouble, she impersonates an absent music hall star at the Scala Music Hall. A young man has fallen in love with Yvonne and disguises himself as a servant in her father's house. After various complications, Yvonne leaves her silly fianc\u00e9 for the amorous suitor and all ends happily.\nYvonne was first played in the British provinces before premiering at Daly's Theatre, London, in May 1926, directed by Herbert Mason and produced by the company originally created by impresario George Edwardes. Ivy Tresmand took the title role, and Arthur Pusey co-starred as Yvonne's suitor. Other cast members included Maria Minetti, who played the music hall star; Mark Lester as Professor Savigny, Horace Percival and later Gene Gerrard as the hapless fianc\u00e9, and American dancer Hal Sherman as a comic waiter and gardener. After its London run of 280 performances, the company again toured the productionin the UK.The musical did not go down well with critics; No\u00ebl Coward was one of those who disliked it, referring to it as \"Yvonne the Terrible\". It was Greenbank's last major work for the West End stage.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Zaharoula, \u0396\u03b1\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03bb\u03b1(el) is Greek folkloric tune. The meter is 24.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Zeelaf or Zilaf is a raga in Hindustani classical music. It is a pentatonic melody (i.e. containing only 5 svaras) is composed of the following svaras : Sa Ga Ma Pa Dha. It is performed very rarely. Zeelaf also employs the subtle GM -> S meend. It is from the Asavari Thaat. But it is played in the Bhairav aang also. Zeelaf has been used by Qawwals and Khayals.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "Zoroastrian music is a genre of religious music that accompanies religious and traditional rites among the Zoroastrian people.\nAlthough certain ancient Zoroastrian traditions show a negative approach towards Zoroastrian melodies such as the pre-Islamic pastorals and minstrels, Zoroastrian music has been in the religion since it was founded.Historical texts prove that prior to the arrival of Islam in Persia, Zoroastrians knew choral and solo performance songs.  The majority of these songs are no longer performed, although Zoroastrian religious songs still do remain. The wording of these songs are attained from either the Avesta or from the Gathas (sayings attributed to Zoroaster).  Islamic influence can be seen in the melodies of the Naderi method of prayer recitation and pilgrim's songs. Musical instruments in zoroastrian such as Tonbak, Daf, Ney, Zurna, Tar (string instrument), Kamancheh, and SetarDue to the death of the mobeds, many Zoroastrian customs have been forgotten and only a few remain.", "label": "Music"}, {"sentence": "The earth pyramids of Ritten (German: Erdpyramiden am Ritten; Italian: Piramidi di terra del Renon [pi\u02c8ra\u02d0midi di \u02c8t\u025brra del re\u02c8non]) are a natural monument that is located on the Ritten, a plateau not far from Bolzano in northern Italy. Earth pyramids are a fairly widespread phenomenon that exist in various locations, such as South Tyrol and Platten.\nThe original name in this area for these earth pyramids is Lahnt\u00fcrme, i.e., landslide towers. They originate from glacial moraine rocks. The columns of the pyramids may be more or less elongated, and the higher they are, the thinner they get, ending usually with a stone cover. These earth pyramids are constantly evolving, continuously eroding, and will possibly collapse and make way for new formations.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The earth pyramids in South Tyrol are a special natural phenomenon that comes about in particular terrain, usually after a landslide or an unhinging of the earth.\nThe main cause of the formation of earth pyramids is the continuous alternation of periods of torrential rain and drought. These phenomena, in particularly friable terrain, over the years, increasingly erode the ground and form such earth pyramids. Usually the pyramids are formed in terrain very well sheltered from wind so that they cannot be damaged by it.\nMoreover, the life of the earth pyramids is strongly dependent on the climate which reigns during the time in which it is shaped by the rock that covers it.\nThere are several earth pyramids that can be safely visited. Among the most famous and admired the following are the most outstanding:\n\nthe earth pyramids of Ritten, a plateau above Bolzano, which are divided into three distinct groups near the villages Klobenstein, Oberbozen, and Unterinn\nthe earth pyramids of Platten near Percha in the Puster ValleyOther, less famous, earth pyramids are:\n\nin Terenten, Puster Valley\nin M\u00f6lten\nin Jenesien near Bolzano\nin the hinterland of Merano, in Tirol, Kuens, and Riffian\nin Karneid and Steinegg, one of its hamlets\nin Neustift in the Rigger valley\nin Segonzano in the Cembra valley in the adjoining province Trentino (not South Tyrol any more)", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A natural monument is a natural or natural/cultural feature of outstanding or unique value because of its inherent rarity, representative of aesthetic qualities or cultural significance. \nUnder World Commission on Protected Areas guidelines, natural monuments are level III, described as:\n\n\"Areas are set aside to protect a specific natural monument, which can be a landform, sea mount, submarine cavern, geological feature such as a cave or even a living feature such as an ancient grove. They are generally quite small protected areas and often have high visitor value.\"This is a lower level of protection than level II (national parks) and level I (wilderness areas).\nThe European Environment Agency's guidelines for selection of a natural monument are:\nThe area should contain one or more features of outstanding significance. Appropriate natural features include waterfalls, caves, craters, fossil beds, sand dunes and marine features, along with unique or representative fauna and flora; associated cultural features might include cave dwellings, cliff-top forts, archaeological sites, or natural sites which have heritage significance to indigenous peoples.\nThe area should be large enough to protect the integrity of the feature and its immediately related surroundings.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The Bliha (Serbian Cyrillic: \u0411\u043b\u0438\u0445\u0430) is a river in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is a left tributary of the Sana river, located in region of Bosanska Krajina, on Sanski Most municipality territory and town vicinity.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The Bliha Falls (Bosnian: Vodopad Blihe; or Bosnian: Slapovi Blihe), called by locals Blihin Skok (English: Bliha's Jump or English: Leap of Bliha), is a waterfall on the Bliha river located near Fajtovci, 14 kilometers west of Sanski Most, Bosnia and Herzegovina. At this point, the water of the Bliha drops from 56 meters high cliff. It is designated a natural monument since 1965.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The Ekeby oak tree (Swedish: Ekebyhovseken) is an oak tree in Eker\u00f6 outside Stockholm, Sweden, close to Ekebyhov Castle. It is the largest living deciduous tree in Sweden by volume.The Ekeby oak is approximately 500 years old. It was declared a natural monument in 1956. There are many old trees around Ekebyhov Castle; the oak, sometimes called Eker\u00f6j\u00e4tten (the Eker\u00f6 giant) stands alone in a field south of the castle, where it had no competition for space from other trees. It was measured in 2008 as the largest tree by volume in Sweden.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Playa de Gulpiyuri is a flooded sinkhole with an inland beach located near Llanes, in Asturias Northern Spain, around 100 m from the Cantabrian Sea. It is the shortest beach in the world.Roughly 40 meters in length, it is fully tidal due to a series of tunnels carved by the salt water of the Cantabrian Sea, which allows water from the Bay of Biscay to create small waves.The word \u2018Gulpiyuri\u2019 means \u2018water circle\u2019. Unlike many other hidden beaches around the world, Playa de Gulpiyuri is actually fully tidal and even has waves bathing the small strip of sand. The crystal clear water may be a little cold after remaining underground for a while before getting to Gulpiyuri Beach.It is a popular tourist destination, natural monument, and part of Spain's Regional Network of Protected Natural Areas.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Relic woods (Russian: \u0420\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0301\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u0430\u0301) is a natural monument (Protected areas of Ulyanovsk Oblast).", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Ulsan Gray Whale Migration Site is a natural monument located in Ulsan, South Korea. It was given National Natural Monument status on December 3, 1962. Each year, from the month of April until mid June, whales pass through Ulsan Gray Whale Migration Site, 20-30 kilometres from the Ulsan coast. It is a popular whale watching destination. Ulsan Whale Festival is hosted in the month of April each year.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Ynnakh Mountain, also known as Arga Ynnakh Khaya (Russian: \u0410\u0440\u0433\u0430 \u042b\u043d\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u0425\u0430\u044f), Gora Ulakhan Ynnakh (Russian: \u0413\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0423\u043b\u0430\u0445\u0430\u043d \u042b\u043d\u043d\u0430\u0445) and as Mother Mountain (Russian: \u041c\u0430\u0442\u044c-\u0413\u043e\u0440\u0430), is a mountain in Verkhoyansky District, Yakutia, Russian Federation. \nThe mountain has been classified as a natural monument of Russia with number 1420068. It is an important mountain in Yakut culture, where the word \"Ynnakh\" comes from Yakut: \u042b\u044b\u043d\u043d\u0430\u0430\u0445, meaning scary, creepy.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Agglomerins are bacterial natural products, identified as metabolites of Pantoea agglomerans which was isolated in 1989 from river water in Kobe, Japan. They belong to the class of tetronate antibiotics, which include tetronomycin, tetronasin, and abyssomicin C. The members of the agglomerins differ only in the composition of the acyl chain attached to the tetronate ring. They possess antibiotic activity against anaerobic bacteria and weak activity against aerobic bacteria in vitro. The structures were solved in 1990. Agglomerin A is the major component (38%), followed by agglomerin B (30%), aggglomerin C (24%), and agglomerin D (8%).", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Ambergris ( or , Latin: ambra grisea, Old French: ambre gris), ambergrease, or grey amber is a solid, waxy, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish colour produced in the digestive system of sperm whales. Freshly produced ambergris has a marine, fecal odor. It acquires a sweet, earthy scent as it ages, commonly likened to the fragrance of rubbing alcohol without the vaporous chemical astringency.Ambergris has been highly valued by perfume makers as a fixative that allows the scent to endure much longer, although it has been mostly replaced by synthetic ambroxide. Dogs are attracted to the smell of ambergris and are sometimes used by ambergris searchers.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Dicerandrol C is a natural product. It is a less toxic isomer of phomoxanthone A (PXA) and phomoxanthone B (PXB), all three of which are members of the class of phomoxanthone compounds. The phomoxanthones are named after the fungus Phomopsis, from which they were first isolated, and after their xanthonoid structure. Chemically, they are dimers of two tetrahydroxanthones that are covalently linked to each other. Dicerandrol C itself is a homodimer of two identical diacetylated tetrahydroxanthones. The position of the link between the two tetrahydroxanthones is the only structural difference between dicerandrol C and its isomers PXA and PXB: In PXA, the two xanthonoid monomers are symmetrically linked at C-4,4\u2019, while in PXB, they are asymmetrically linked at C-2,4\u2019, and in dicerandrol C, they are symmetrically linked at C-2,2\u2019.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Natural food and all-natural food are terms in food labeling and marketing with several definitions, often implying foods that are not manufactured by processing. In some countries like the United Kingdom, the term \"natural\" is defined and regulated; in others, such as the United States, the term natural is not enforced for food labels, although there is USDA regulation of organic labeling.The term is assumed to describe foods having ingredients that are intrinsic to an unprocessed food.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Laucysteinamide A (LcA) is a marine natural product isolated from a cyanobacterium, Caldora penicillata.It is structurally related to other marine cyanobacterial metabolites such as somocystinamide A and curacin A, which have inspired extensive investigations into their use as a lead for anticancer therapies. Its biological activity profile has not been fully evaluated due to decomposition of the natural sample. However, it has shown moderate cytotoxicity against H460 human lung cancer cells.In order to examine the possibility that LcA's true bioactivity was diminished by solubility issues, Taylor et al. chemically synthesized LcA. This synthetic sample was incorporated into an emulsifier PEG400 and tested for its cytotoxicity against H460 cells. This sample did not show any more activity than the natural sample, implying that LcA only has moderate cytotoxicity. In addition, simple enamide analogs showed no activity. This work implies that the exceptional antiproliferative activity of somocystinamide A arises from the dimeric nature of its structure and not from the enamide moiety.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Mycofactocin is a small molecule derived from a peptide of the type known as RiPP (ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides), naturally occurring in many types of Mycobacterium. It was discovered in a bioinformatics study in 2011.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The phomoxanthones are a loosely defined class of natural products. The two founding members of this class are phomoxanthone A and phomoxanthone B. Other compounds were later also classified as phomoxanthones, although a unifying nomenclature has not yet been established. The structure of all phomoxanthones is derived from a dimer of two covalently linked tetrahydroxanthones, and they differ mainly in the position of this link as well as in the acetylation status of their hydroxy groups. The phomoxanthones are structurally closely related to other tetrahydroxanthone dimers such as the secalonic acids and the eumitrins. While most phomoxanthones were discovered in fungi of the genus Phomopsis, most notably in the species Phomopsis longicolla, some have also been found in Penicillium sp.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The mycotoxin phomoxanthone A, or PXA for short, is a toxic natural product that affects the mitochondria. It is the most toxic and the best studied of the naturally occurring phomoxanthones. PXA has recently been shown to induce rapid, non-canonical mitochondrial fission by causing the mitochondrial matrix to fragment while the outer mitochondrial membrane can remain intact. This process was shown to be independent from the mitochondrial fission and fusion regulators DRP1 and OPA1.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The mycotoxin phomoxanthone B, or PXB for short, is a toxic natural product. It is a less toxic isomer of phomoxanthone A and one of the two founding members of the class of phomoxanthone compounds. The phomoxanthones are named after the fungus Phomopsis, from which they were first isolated, and after their xanthonoid structure. Chemically, they are dimers of two tetrahydroxanthones that are covalently linked to each other. PXB itself is a homodimer of two identical diacetylated tetrahydroxanthones. The position of the link between the two tetrahydroxanthones is the only structural difference between PXB and its isomers PXA and dicerandrol C: In PXA, the two xanthonoid monomers are symmetrically linked at C-4,4\u2019, while in PXB, they are asymmetrically linked at C-2,4\u2019, and in dicerandrol C, they are symmetrically linked at C-2,2\u2019.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Phoslactomycin (PLM) is a natural product from the isolation of Streptomyces species. This is an inhibitor of the protein serine/threonine phosphatase which is the protein phosphate 2A (PP2A). The PP2A involves the growth factor of the cell such as to induce the formation of mitogen-activated protein interaction and playing a role in cell division and signal transduction. Therefore, PLM is used for the drug that prevents the tumor, cancer, or bacteria. There are nowsaday has 7 kinds of different PLM from PLM A to PLM G which differ the post-synthesis from the biosynthesis of PLM.\nPhoslactomycin B (PLM B) is the product of the post synthase of the biosynthesis of phoslactomycin and the intermediate to produce the other PLMs. The biosynthesis of phoslactomycin belongs to type I polyketide synthase (PKS). A polyketide is are characterized by a macrocyclic lactone and is produced by bacteria and fungi. From the PLM B, there are many articles wrote about the synthesis of different PLM A through PLM G.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The R\u00f6mpp Encyclopedia Natural Products is an encyclopedia of natural products written by German chemists who specialize in this area of science. It is published by Thieme Medical Publishers.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The salinosporamides are a group of closely related chemical compounds isolated from marine bacteria in the genus Salinispora.  They possess a densely functionalized \u03b3-lactam-\u03b2-lactone bicyclic core.\nSalinosporamide A has attracted interest for its potential use in treating various types of cancer.In addition, a variety of synthetic analogs have been prepared.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, naturalism is the idea or belief that only natural laws and forces (as opposed to supernatural ones) operate in the universe.\n\nNaturalism is not so much a special system as a point of view or tendency common to a number of philosophical and religious systems; not so much a well-defined set of positive and negative doctrines as an attitude or spirit pervading and influencing many doctrines. As the name implies, this tendency consists essentially in looking upon nature as the one original and fundamental source of all that exists, and in attempting to explain everything in terms of nature. Either the limits of nature are also the limits of existing reality, or at least the first cause, if its existence is found necessary, has nothing to do with the working of natural agencies. All events, therefore, find their adequate explanation within nature itself. But, as the terms nature and natural are themselves used in more than one sense, the term naturalism is also far from having one fixed meaning.\n\nAccording to philosopher Steven Lockwood, naturalism can be separated into an ontological sense and a methodological sense.  \"Ontological\" refers to ontology, the philosophical study of what exists. On an ontological level, philosophers often treat naturalism as equivalent to materialism. For example, philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that nature is best accounted for by reference to material principles. These principles include mass, energy, and other physical and chemical properties accepted by the scientific community. Further, this sense of naturalism holds that spirits, deities, and ghosts are not real and that there is no \"purpose\" in nature. This stronger formulation of naturalism is commonly referred to as metaphysical naturalism. On the other hand, the more moderate view that naturalism should be assumed in one's working methods as the current paradigm, without any further consideration of whether naturalism is true in the robust metaphysical sense, is called methodological naturalism.With the exception of pantheists\u2014who believe that Nature is identical with divinity while not recognizing a distinct personal anthropomorphic god\u2014theists challenge the idea that nature contains all of reality. According to some theists, natural laws may be viewed as secondary causes of God(s).\nIn the 20th century, Willard Van Orman Quine, George Santayana, and other philosophers argued that the success of naturalism in science meant that scientific methods should also be used in philosophy. According to this view, science and philosophy are not always distinct from one another, but instead form a continuum.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Analog observation is, in contrast to naturalistic observation, a research tool by which a subject is observed in an artificial setting. Typically, types of settings in which analog observation is utilized include clinical offices or research laboratories, but, by definition, analog observations can be made in any artificial environment, even if the environment is one which the subject is likely to encounter naturally.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Biological naturalism is a theory about, among other things, the relationship between consciousness and body (i.e. brain), and hence an approach to the mind\u2013body problem. It was first proposed by the philosopher John Searle in 1980 and is defined by two main theses: 1) all mental phenomena from pains, tickles, and itches to the most abstruse thoughts are caused by lower-level neurobiological processes in the brain; and 2) mental phenomena are higher-level features of the brain.\nThis entails that the brain has the right causal powers to produce intentionality. However, Searle's biological naturalism does not entail that brains and only brains can cause consciousness. Searle is careful to point out that while it appears to be the case that certain brain functions are sufficient for producing conscious states, our current state of neurobiological knowledge prevents us from concluding that they are necessary for producing consciousness. In his own words:\n\n\"The fact that brain processes cause consciousness does not imply that only brains can be conscious. The brain is a biological machine, and we might build an artificial machine that was conscious; just as the heart is a machine, and we have built artificial hearts. Because we do not know exactly how the brain does it we are not yet in a position to know how to do it artificially.\" (Biological Naturalism, 2004)", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Nicolas Antoine Boulanger (11 November 1722, in Paris \u2013 16 September 1759, in Paris) was a French philosopher and man of letters during the Age of Enlightenment.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The Brights movement is a social movement whose members since 2003 refer to themselves as Brights and have a worldview of philosophical naturalism.\nMost Brights believe that public policies should be based on science (a body of knowledge obtained and tested by use of the scientific method). Brights are likely to oppose the practice of basing public policies on supernatural doctrines. Brights may therefore be described as secularists.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Classical Marxism refers to the economic, philosophical and sociological theories expounded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels as contrasted with later developments in Marxism, especially Marxism\u2013Leninism.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy of science and philosophy of mind, cognitive closure is the proposition that human minds are constitutionally incapable of solving certain perennial philosophical problems. Owen Flanagan calls this position anti-constructive naturalism or the \"new mysterianism\" and the primary advocate of the hypothesis, Colin McGinn, calls it transcendental naturalism acknowledging the possibility that solutions may be knowable to an intelligent non-human of some kind. According to McGinn, such philosophical questions include the mind-body problem, identity of the self, foundations of meaning, free will, and knowledge, both a priori and empirical.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Adolf Dygasi\u0144ski (March 7, 1839, Niegos\u0142awice\u2013June 3, 1902, Grodzisk Mazowiecki) was a Polish novelist, publicist and educator. In Polish literature, he was one of the leading representatives of Naturalism.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Ethical naturalism (also called moral naturalism or naturalistic cognitivistic definism) is the meta-ethical view which claims that:\n\nEthical sentences express propositions.\nSome such propositions are true.\nThose propositions are made true by objective features of the world, independent of human opinion.\nThese moral features of the world are reducible to some set of non-moral features.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The evolutionary argument against naturalism (EAAN) is a philosophical argument asserting a problem with believing both evolution and philosophical naturalism simultaneously. The argument was first proposed by Alvin Plantinga in 1993 and \"raises issues of interest to epistemologists, philosophers of mind, evolutionary biologists, and philosophers of religion\". The EAAN argues that the combined belief in both evolutionary theory and naturalism is epistemically self-defeating. The argument for this is that if both evolution and naturalism are true, then the probability of having reliable cognitive faculties is low. This argument comes as an expansion of the argument from reason, although the two are separate philosophical arguments.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Formative epistemology is a collection of philosophic views concerned with the theory of knowledge that emphasize the role of natural scientific methods.   According to formative epistemology, knowledge is gained through the imputation of thoughts from one human being to another in the societal setting.  Humans are born without intrinsic knowledge and through their evolutionary and developmental processes gain knowledge from other human beings.  Thus, according to formative epistemology, all knowledge is completely subjective and truth does not exist.\nThis shared emphasis on scientific methods of studying knowledge shifts focus to the empirical processes of knowledge acquisition and away from many traditional philosophic questions. There are noteworthy distinctions within formative epistemology. Replacement naturalism maintains that traditional epistemology should be abandoned and  replaced with the methodologies of the natural sciences.  The general thesis of cooperative naturalism is that traditional epistemology can benefit in its inquiry by using the knowledge we have gained from the cognitive sciences.  Substantive naturalism focuses on an asserted equality of facts of knowledge and natural facts.  \nObjections to formative epistemology have targeted features of the general project as well as characteristics of specific versions.  Some objectors suggest that natural scientific knowledge cannot be circularly grounded by the knowledge obtained through cognitive science, which is itself a natural science. This objection from circularity has been aimed specifically at strict replacement naturalism. There are similar challenges to substance naturalism that maintain that the substance naturalists' thesis that all facts of knowledge are natural facts is not only circular but fails to accommodate certain facts. Several other objectors have found fault in the inability of formative methods to adequately address questions about what value forms of potential knowledge have or lack. Formative epistemology is generally opposed to the anti-psychologism of Immanuel Kant, Gottlob Frege, Karl Popper and others.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Hempel's dilemma is a question first asked (at least on record) by the philosopher Carl Hempel.  It has relevance to naturalism and physicalism in philosophy, and to philosophy of mind.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Humanistic naturalism is the branch of philosophical naturalism wherein human beings are best able to control and understand the world through use of the scientific method, combined with the social and ethical values of humanism. Concepts of spirituality, intuition, and metaphysics are considered subjectively valuable only, primarily because they are unfalsifiable, and therefore can never progress beyond the realm of personal opinion. A boundary is not drawn between nature and what lies \"beyond\" nature; everything is regarded as a result of explainable processes within nature, with nothing lying outside it.The belief is that all living things are intricate extensions of nature, and therefore deserve some degree of mutual respect from human beings. Naturalists accept the need for adaptation to current change, however it may be, and also that life must feed upon life for survival. However, they also recognize the necessity for a fair exchange of resources between all species. Humanistic naturalists are generally concerned with the ethical aspects of \"worldview naturalism.\"Industry and technology are sometimes regarded as enemies to naturalism, but this is not always the case. For those who do believe in such threats, the thought is that the majority of human history, societies were largely agricultural and hunter-gatherer and lived in relative harmony and balance with nature. With the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, some humanistic naturalists see this balance as being increasingly threatened. This view has some similarities with anarcho-primitivism and other anti-modernist perspectives.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter is a 2011 book by biological anthropologist Terrence Deacon. The book covers topics in biosemiotics, philosophy of mind, and the origins of life. Broadly, the book seeks to naturalistically explain \"aboutness\", that is, concepts like intentionality, meaning, normativity, purpose, and function; which Deacon groups together and labels as ententional phenomena.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Legal naturalism is a term coined by Olufemi Taiwo to describe a current in the social philosophy of Karl Marx which can be interpreted as one of natural law. Taiwo considered it the manifestation of Natural Law in a dialectical materialist context. The concept recognizes the existence of legal priorities or principles, which form an intrinsic part of an economic system.Taiwo distinguished legal naturalism from Marxism by faulting the latter's bifurcation of the canon between the economic \"substructure\" of a society and the humanitarian, moral, cultural \"superstructure\". However, he acknowledged that legal naturalism is, ultimately, \"a novel synthesis of the Marxist theory with the natural law theory\". According to Taiwo, legal naturalism is both natural law and positive law, constituting a duality of legal existence. The theory is distinctive from other theories under naturalism in the sense that it views natural law as part of social formation or mode of production.A related concept to legal naturalism is iusnaturalism, which holds that the ideas of nature and divinity or reason validate natural and positive laws.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Liberal naturalism is a heterodox form of philosophical naturalism that lies in the conceptual space between scientific (or reductive) naturalism and supernaturalism. It allows that one can respect the explanations and results of the successful sciences without supposing that the sciences are our only resource for understanding humanity and our dealings with the world and each other.\nThe term \"liberal naturalism\" was introduced in 2004 by Mario De Caro & David Macarthur and, independently, by Gregg Rosenberg. This form of naturalism has been ascribed to Immanuel Kant. In De Caro's work liberal naturalism is developed as a mild metaphysical realism; whereas in Macarthur's work liberal naturalism is associated with metaphysical quietism and opens into a philosophy of the manifest image.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Marxism is a left-wing to far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand class relations and social conflict as well as a dialectical perspective to view social transformation. It originates from the works of 19th-century German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As Marxism has developed over time into various branches and schools of thought, currently no single, definitive Marxist theory exists.Some Marxist schools of thought place greater emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while rejecting or modifying other aspects. Some schools have sought to combine Marxian concepts and non-Marxian concepts which has then led to widely varying conclusions.Marxism has had a profound impact on global academia, having influenced many fields, including anthropology, archaeology, art theory, criminology, cultural studies, economics, education, ethics, film theory, geography, historiography, literary criticism, media studies, philosophy, political science, political economy, psychology, science studies, sociology, urban planning, and theater.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The mechanical philosophy is a form of natural philosophy which compares the universe to a large-scale mechanism (i.e. a machine). The mechanical philosophy is associated with the scientific revolution of Early Modern Europe. One of the first expositions of universal mechanism is found in the opening passages of Leviathan by Hobbes published in 1651.\nSome intellectual historians and critical theorists argue that early mechanical philosophy was tied to disenchantment and the rejection of the idea of nature as living or animated by spirits or angels. Other scholars, however, have noted that early mechanical philosophers nevertheless believed in magic, Christianity and spiritualism.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Mechanism is the belief that natural wholes (principally living things) are similar to complicated machines or artifacts, composed of parts lacking any intrinsic relationship to each other.\nThe doctrine of mechanism in philosophy comes in two different flavors. They are both doctrines of metaphysics, but they are different in scope and ambitions: the first is a global doctrine about nature; the second is a local doctrine about humans and their minds, which is hotly contested. For clarity, we might distinguish these two doctrines as universal mechanism and anthropic mechanism.\n\nThere is no constant meaning in the history of philosophy for the word Mechanism. Originally, the term meant that cosmological theory which ascribes the motion and changes of the world to some external force. In this view material things are purely passive, while according to the opposite theory (i. e., Dynamism), they possess certain internal sources of energy which account for the activity of each and for its influence on the course of events; These meanings, however, soon underwent modification. The question as to whether motion is an inherent property of bodies, or has been communicated to them by some external agency, was very often ignored. With many cosmologists the essential feature of Mechanism is the attempt to reduce all the qualities and activities of bodies to quantitative realities, i. e. to mass and motion. But a further modification soon followed. Living bodies, as is well known, present at first sight certain characteristic properties which have no counterpart in lifeless matter. Mechanism aims to go beyond these appearances. It seeks to explain all \"vital\" phenomena as physical and chemical facts; whether or not these facts are in turn reducible to mass and motion becomes a secondary question, although Mechanists are generally inclined to favour such reduction. The theory opposed to this biological mechanism is no longer Dynamism, but Vitalism or Neo-vitalism, which maintains that vital activities cannot be explained, and never will be explained, by the laws which govern lifeless matter.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Metaphysical naturalism (also called ontological naturalism, philosophical naturalism and antisupernaturalism) is a philosophical worldview which holds that there is nothing but natural elements, principles, and relations of the kind studied by the natural sciences.  Methodological naturalism is a philosophical basis for science, for which metaphysical naturalism provides only one possible ontological foundation. Broadly, the corresponding theological perspective is religious naturalism or spiritual naturalism. More specifically, metaphysical naturalism rejects the supernatural concepts and explanations that are part of many religions.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Naturalistic observation, sometimes referred to as fieldwork, is a research methodology in numerous fields of science including ethology, anthropology, linguistics, the social sciences, and  psychology, in which data are collected as they occur in nature, without any manipulation by the observer. Examples range from watching an animal's eating patterns in the forest to observing the behavior of students in a school setting. During naturalistic observation, researchers take great care using unobtrusive methods to avoid interfering with the behavior they are observing. Naturalistic observation contrasts with analog observation in an artificial setting that is designed to be an analog of the natural situation, constrained so as to eliminate or control for effects of any variables other than those of interest. There is similarity to observational studies in which the independent variable of interest cannot be experimentally controlled for ethical or logistical reasons.Naturalistic observation has both advantages and disadvantages as a research methodology. Observations are more credible because the behavior occurs in a real, typical scenario as opposed to an artificial one generated within a lab. Behavior that could never occur in controlled laboratory environment can lead to new insights. Naturalistic observation also allows for study of events that are deemed unethical to study experimentally, such as the impact of high school shootings on students attending the high school. However, because extraneous variables cannot be controlled as in a laboratory, it is difficult to replicate findings and demonstrate their reliability. In particular, if subjects know they are being observed they may behave differently than otherwise. It may be difficult to generalize findings of naturalistic studies beyond the observed situations.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Naturalistic pantheism, also known as scientific pantheism, is a form of pantheism. It has been used in various ways such as to relate God or divinity with concrete things, determinism, or the substance of the universe. God, from these perspectives, is seen as the aggregate of all unified natural phenomena. The phrase has often been associated with the philosophy of Baruch Spinoza, although academics differ on how it is used.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "According to Franz Brentano, intentionality refers to the \"aboutness of mental states that cannot be a physical relation between a mental state and what it is about (its object) because in a physical relation each of the relata must exist whereas the objects of mental states might not.\"\nSeveral problems arise for features of intentionality, which are unusual for materialistic relations.  Representation is unique. When 'x represents y' is true, it is not the same as other relations between things, like when 'x is next to y' or when 'x caused y' or when 'x met y', etc. Representation is different because, for instance, when 'x represents y' is true, y need not exist. This isn't true when say 'x is the square root of y' or 'x caused y' or 'x is next to y'. Similarly, when 'x represents y' is true, 'x represents z' can still be false, even when y = z.  Intentionality encompasses relations that are both physical and mental. In this case, \"Billy can love Santa and Jane can search for unicorns even if Santa does not exist and there are no unicorns.\"", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Naturalized epistemology (a term coined by W. V. O. Quine) is a collection of philosophic views concerned with the theory of knowledge that emphasize the role of natural scientific methods. This shared emphasis on scientific methods of studying knowledge shifts focus to the empirical processes of knowledge acquisition and away from many traditional philosophical questions. There are noteworthy distinctions within naturalized epistemology. Replacement naturalism maintains that traditional epistemology should be abandoned and  replaced with the methodologies of the natural sciences.  The general thesis of cooperative naturalism is that traditional epistemology can benefit in its inquiry by using the knowledge we have gained from the cognitive sciences.  Substantive naturalism focuses on an asserted equality of facts of knowledge and natural facts.  \nObjections to naturalized epistemology have targeted features of the general project as well as characteristics of specific versions.  Some objectors suggest that natural scientific knowledge cannot be circularly grounded by the knowledge obtained through cognitive science, which is itself a natural science. This objection from circularity has been aimed specifically at strict replacement naturalism. There are similar challenges to substance naturalism that maintain that the substance naturalists' thesis that all facts of knowledge are natural facts is not only circular but fails to accommodate certain facts. Several other objectors have found fault in the inability of naturalized methods to adequately address questions about what value forms of potential knowledge have or lack.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Newtonianism is a philosophical and scientific doctrine inspired by the beliefs and methods of natural philosopher Isaac Newton. While Newton's influential contributions were primarily in physics and mathematics, his broad conception of the universe as being governed by rational and understandable laws laid the foundation for many strands of Enlightenment thought. Newtonianism became an  influential intellectual program that applied Newton's principles in many avenues of inquiry, laying the groundwork for modern science (both the natural and social sciences), in addition to influencing philosophy, political thought and theology.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "In metaphysics, nominalism is the view that universals and abstract objects do not actually exist other than being merely names or labels. There are at least two main versions of nominalism. One version denies the existence of universals \u2013 things that can be instantiated or exemplified by many particular things (e.g., strength, humanity). The other version specifically denies the existence of abstract objects \u2013 objects that do not exist in space and time.Most nominalists have held that only physical particulars in space and time are real, and that universals exist only post res, that is, subsequent to particular things. However, some versions of nominalism hold that some particulars are abstract entities (e.g., numbers), while others are concrete entities \u2013 entities that do exist in space and time (e.g., pillars, snakes, bananas).\nNominalism is primarily a position on the problem of universals.   It is opposed to realist philosophies, such as Platonic realism, which assert that universals do exist over and above particulars, and to the hylomorphic substance theory of Aristotle, which asserts that universals are immanently real within them. However, the name \"nominalism\" emerged from debates in medieval philosophy with Roscellinus.\nThe term nominalism stems from the Latin nomen, \"name\". John Stuart Mill summarised nominalism in the apothegm \"there is nothing general except names\".In philosophy of law, nominalism finds its application in what is called constitutional nominalism.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Orthodox Marxism is the body of Marxist thought that emerged after the death of Karl Marx (1818\u20131883) and which became the official philosophy of the majority of the socialist movement as represented in the Second International until the First World War in 1914. Orthodox Marxism aims to simplify, codify and systematize Marxist method and theory by clarifying the perceived ambiguities and contradictions of classical Marxism.\nThe philosophy of orthodox Marxism includes the understanding that material development (advances in technology in the productive forces) is the primary agent of change in the structure of society and of human social relations and that social systems and their relations (e.g. feudalism, capitalism and so on) become contradictory and inefficient as the productive forces develop, which results in some form of social revolution arising in response to the mounting contradictions. This revolutionary change is the vehicle for fundamental society-wide changes and ultimately leads to the emergence of new economic systems.In the term orthodox Marxism, the word \"orthodox\" refers to the methods of historical materialism and of dialectical materialism\u2014and not the normative aspects inherent to classical Marxism, without implying dogmatic adherence to the results of Marx's investigations.One of the most prominent historical proponents of orthodox Marxism was the Czech-Austrian theorist Karl Kautsky.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Philo  was a peer-reviewed academic journal published by the Society of Humanist Philosophers from 1998 to 2014. While it has now ceased publication, it was published at the Center for Inquiry with assistance from Purdue University. It focused on the discussion of philosophical issues from an explicitly naturalist perspective. The journal published articles, critical discussions, review essays, and book reviews in all fields of  philosophy, and particularly invited work on the philosophical credentials of both naturalism and various supernaturalist alternatives to naturalism. Electronic access to the journal is  provided by the Philosophy Documentation Center.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Political naturalism is a political ideology and legal system which believes that there is a natural law, just and obvious to all, that crosses ideologies, faiths and personal thinking, that naturally guaranties justice. It is inspired by sociological naturalism, and scientific naturalism's belief that the precision of natural sciences can be applied to social sciences, and hence to practical social activities like politics and law.\nIt may be seen as a natural law-based version of legalism/constitutionalism (especially of prescriptive constitutionalism, in the way it tries, idealistically, to make a constitution how it should justly be), and it bears relation with many constitutional monarchies (as in that system they too believe in rule of the law and in certain things who are naturally correct (like monarchy, monarchic institutions and traditions.\nThe roots of this legal political ideology may be found in positive visions of natural law (like John Locke's and Rousseau's, and even in the Founding Fathers of the United States. The Catholic German Centre Party politician and diplomat Karl Friedrich von Savigny also thought so.Its main modern thinker is Egyptian legal scholar and creator of the Egyptian Civil Code Al-Razzak Al-Sanhuri. Through the Egyptian Code, many other Arab constitutions (in monarchist and pre-dictatorships Iraq and Libya and modern Qatar) ended up including political naturalist laws, and Al-Sanhuri himself wrote the Syrian and Jordanian civil codes and the Kuwaiti commercial code.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Alexander Rosenberg (who generally publishes as \"Alex\") is an American philosopher and novelist. He is the R. Taylor Cole Professor of Philosophy at Duke University, well known for contributions to philosophy of biology and philosophy of economics.\nRosenberg describes himself as a \"naturalist\".", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Scientism is the opinion that science and the scientific method are the best or only way to render truth about the world and reality.While the term was defined originally to mean \"methods and attitudes typical of or attributed to natural scientists\", some scholars (and subsequently many others) also adopted it as a pejorative term with the meaning \"an exaggerated trust in the efficacy of the methods of natural science applied to all areas of investigation (as in philosophy, the social sciences, and the humanities)\".\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Sociological naturalism is a theory that states that the natural world and social world are roughly identical and governed by similar principles. Sociological naturalism, in sociological texts simply referred to as naturalism, can be traced back to the philosophical thinking of Auguste Comte in the 19th century, closely connected to positivism, which advocates use of the scientific method of the natural sciences in studying social sciences. It should not be identified too closely with Positivism, however, since whilst the latter advocates the use of controlled situations like experiments as sources of scientific information, naturalism insists that social processes should only be studied in their natural setting.  A similar form of naturalism was applied to the scientific study of art and literature by Hippolyte Taine (see Race, milieu, and moment).\nContemporary sociologists do not generally dispute that social phenomena take place within the natural universe and, as such, are subject to natural constraints, such as the laws of physics.  Up for debate is the nature of the distinctiveness of social phenomena as a subset of natural phenomena. Broad support exists for the antipositivist claim that crucial qualitative differences mean that one cannot explain social phenomena effectively using investigative tools or even standards of validity derived from other natural sciences. From this point of view, naturalism does not imply scientism.  \nHowever, a classically positivist conflation of naturalism with scientism has not disappeared; this view is still dominant in some old and prestigious schools, such as the sociology departments at the University of Chicago in the United States, and McGill University in Montr\u00e9al, Canada.\nMore recently, actor-network theory has analyzed the social construction of the nature/society distinction itself.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Theistic Naturalism is a series of religious beliefs that rejects divine intervention while keeping theism.It is different from traditional or classical theism.:\u200a123\u200a Theistic naturalists think evolution and naturalism can be in tune with Christianity.:\u200a85\u200a", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Time and Eternity - An Essay on the Philosophy of Religion (1st imp. Princeton New Jersey 1952, Princeton University Press, 169 pp) is a philosophy book written by Walter Terence Stace. At the time of writing, Stace was a professor of philosophy at Princeton University, where he had worked since 1932 after a 22-year career in the Ceylon Civil Service. Time and Eternity was one of his first books about the philosophy of religion and mysticism, after writing throughout most of the 1930s and 1940s that was influenced by phenomenalist philosophy.\nIn his introduction Stace writes that Time and Eternity is an attempt to set out the fundamental nature of religion, and to deal with the conflict between religion and naturalism. He explains that the basic idea set out in the book is that all religious thought is symbolic, and that his influences include Rudolf Otto, especially his Mysticism East and West, and Immanuel Kant. He says he was motivated to write the book in an attempt to add to the \"other half of the truth which I now think naturalism [as espoused in his 1947 essay Man Against Darkness] misses\".\nThe book begins by looking at religion, specifically God as non-being and as being, put by Stace as the negative and positive divine. Stace then defines two orders of being - time and eternity, which he says intersect in the moment of mystic illumination. He goes on to say that the nature of God or eternity is such that all religious language is symbolic and that it is necessarily subject to contradictions.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Transcendental anatomy, also known as philosophical anatomy, was a form of comparative anatomy that sought to find ideal patterns and structures common to all organisms in nature. The term originated from naturalist philosophy in the German provinces, and culminated in Britain especially by scholars Robert Knox and Richard Owen, who drew from Goethe and Lorenz Oken. From the 1820s to 1859, it persisted as the medical expression of natural philosophy before the Darwinian revolution.Amongst its various definitions, transcendental anatomy has four main tenets:\n\nthe presupposition of an Ideal Plan among the multiplicity of visible structures in the animal and plant kingdom, and that the Plan determines function\nthe Ideal Plan acted as a force for the maintenance of anatomical uniformity (as opposed to diversity-inducing forces of Nature)\nthe belief that this a priori Plan was discoverable\nthe desire to discover universal Laws underlying anatomical differences.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Working from Within: The Nature and Development of Quine's Naturalism is a 2018 book by Dutch philosopher and historian of analytic philosophy Sander Verhaegh. Released at a time in which there was increasing work done on Willard Van Orman Quine in the history of analytic philosophy, the book was the first to provide a full account of the historical development of his naturalism, as well as the first to use the extensive archive materials on the philosopher at Harvard University's Houghton Library. In the book, Verhaegh argues that Quine's naturalism can be best characterised as a commitment to \"working from within\". He also argues that the development of Quine's naturalism can be better understood by examining the obstacles that Quine faced writing an unpublished book entitled Sign and Object and the ways in which he overcame them. The book was academically well-received, gaining especial praise for the quality of its historical scholarship and use of archival sources, but also faced some critiques regarding its interpretations and relevancy to contemporary philosophy.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A phenomenon  is an observable event. The term came into its modern philosophical usage through Immanuel Kant, who contrasted it with the noumenon, which cannot be directly observed. Kant was heavily influenced by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in this part of his philosophy, in which phenomenon and noumenon serve as interrelated technical terms. Far predating this, the ancient Greek Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus also used phenomenon and noumenon as interrelated technical terms.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The prehistoric monument of Stonehenge has long been studied for its possible connections with ancient astronomy. The site is aligned in the direction of the sunrise of the summer solstice and the sunset of the winter solstice. Archaeoastronomers have made a range of further claims about the site's connection to astronomy, its meaning, and its use.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR), sometimes auto sensory meridian response, is a tingling sensation that usually  begins on the scalp and moves down the back of the neck and upper spine. A pleasant form of paresthesia, it has been compared with auditory-tactile synesthesia and may overlap with frisson.ASMR signifies the subjective experience of \"low-grade euphoria\" characterized by \"a combination of positive feelings and a distinct static-like tingling sensation on the skin.\" It is most commonly triggered by specific auditory or visual stimuli, and less commonly by intentional attention control. A genre of videos intended to induce ASMR has emerged, over 13 million of which had been published on YouTube by June 2018.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "An explanandum (a Latin term) is a sentence describing a phenomenon that is to be explained, and the explanans are the sentences adduced as explanations of that phenomenon. For example, one person may pose an explanandum by asking \"Why is there smoke?\", and another may provide an explanans by responding \"Because there is a fire\". In this example, \"smoke\" is the explanandum, and \"fire\" is the explanans.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The fan effect  is a psychological phenomenon under the branch of cognitive psychology where recognition times or error rate for a particular concept increases as more information about the concept is acquired. The word \"fan\" refers to the number of associations correlated with the concept.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Forecast by analogy is a forecasting method that assumes that two different kinds of phenomena share the same model of behaviour. For example, one way to predict the sales of a new product is to choose an existing product which \"looks like\" the new product in terms of the expected demand pattern for sales of the product.\n\"Used with care, an analogy is a form of scientific model that can be used to analyze and explain the behavior of other phenomena.\"According to some experts, research has shown that the careful application of analogies improves the accuracy of the forecast.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The ideomotor phenomenon is a psychological phenomenon wherein a subject makes motions unconsciously. Also called ideomotor response (or ideomotor reflex) and abbreviated to IMR, it is a concept in hypnosis and psychological research. It is derived from the terms \"ideo\" (idea, or mental representation) and \"motor\" (muscular action). The phrase is most commonly used in reference to the process whereby a thought or mental image brings about a seemingly \"reflexive\" or automatic muscular reaction, often of minuscule degree, and potentially outside of the awareness of the subject. As in responses to pain, the body sometimes reacts reflexively with an ideomotor effect to ideas alone without the person consciously deciding to take action. The effects of automatic writing, dowsing, facilitated communication, applied kinesiology, and ouija boards have been attributed to the phenomenon.The associated term \"ideo-dynamic response\" (or \"reflex\") applies to a wider domain, and extends to the description of all bodily reactions (including ideo-motor and ideo-sensory responses) caused in a similar manner by certain ideas, e.g., the salivation often caused by imagining sucking a lemon, which is a secretory response. The notion of an ideo-dynamic response contributed to James Braid's first neuropsychological explanation of the principle through which suggestion operated in hypnotism.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A lucid dream is a type of dream in which the dreamer becomes aware that they are dreaming while dreaming. During a lucid dream, the dreamer may gain some amount of control over the dream characters, narrative, or environment; however, this is not actually necessary for a dream to be described as lucid. Lucid dreaming has been studied and reported for many years. Prominent figures from ancient to modern times have been fascinated by lucid dreams and have sought ways to better understand their causes and purpose. Many different theories have emerged as a result of scientific research on the subject and have even been shown in pop culture. Further developments in psychological research have pointed to ways in which this form of dreaming may be utilized as a form of sleep therapy.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The meridian-crossing effect is a phenomenon described and evidenced for in the scientific field of visual neuropsychology. It refers to an increase in reaction time to non-attended stimuli located across the vertical meridian, compared to non-attended stimuli located across the horizontal meridian (Huges & Zimba, 1987),  i.e., the movement of attention is slower when it has to cross the vertical meridian as compared to the horizontal meridian. The horizontal meridian in a visual field extends from the left to the right of the observer. The vertical meridian, on the other hand extends from above the line of sight of the observer to below the line of sight of the observer. The vertical meridian can also be seen as a barrier that differentiates the attended stimuli from the non- attended stimuli. Meridian crossing effect can also be called different-hemifield advantage. According to this, performance rates increase when a task is completed across both the left and right visual hemifields than when performed in a within hemifield version of the task (Sereno & Kosslyn, 1991).  A hemifield can be defined as a 170\u00b0 range of vision that is seen by one eye focusing straight ahead. This should not be confused with bilateral distribution advantage. Different-hemifield advantage mainly holds true only for early perceptual processes. It focuses on the competition for attentional resources in spatial attention. Bilateral distribution advantage on the other hand occurs during more complex or demanding tasks.  The Meridian crossing effect was first described by H. C. Huges and L. D. Zimba in the year 1987 in their paper, \"Natural boundaries for the spatial spread of directed visual attention\".", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Planetshine is the dim illumination, by sunlight reflected from a planet, of all or part of the otherwise dark side of any moon orbiting the body. Planetlight is the diffuse reflection of sunlight from a planet, whose albedo can be measured.\nThe most observed and familiar example of planetshine is earthshine on the Moon, which is most visible from the night side of Earth when the lunar phase is crescent or nearly new, without the atmospheric brightness of the daytime sky. Typically, this results in the dark side of the Moon being bathed in a faint light.\nPlanetshine has also been observed elsewhere in the Solar System. In particular, the Cassini space probe used Saturn's shine to image portions of the planet's moons, even when they do not reflect direct sunlight. The New Horizons space probe similarly used Charon's shine to discover albedo variations on Pluto's dark side.Although using a geocentric model in 510 AD, Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata was the first to correctly explain how planets and moons have no light of their own, but rather shine due to the reflection of sunlight in his Aryabhatiya.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Pro-aging trance, also known as pro-aging edifice, is a term coined by British author and biomedical gerontologist Aubrey de Grey to describe the broadly positive and fatalistic attitude toward aging in society.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The recovery effect is a phenomenon observed in battery usage where the available energy is less than the difference between energy charged and energy consumed. Intuitively, this is because the energy has been consumed from the edge of the battery and the charge has not yet diffused evenly around the battery.When power is extracted continuously voltage decreases in a smooth curve, but the recovery effect can result in the voltage partially increasing if the current is interrupted.The KiBaM battery model describes the recovery effect for lead-acid batteries and is also a good approximation to the observed effects in Li-ion batteries. In some batteries the gains from the recovery life can extend battery life by up to 45% by alternating discharging and inactive periods rather than constantly discharging. The size of the recovery effect depends on the battery load, recovery time and depth of discharge.Even though the recovery effect phenomenon is more prominent in the lead acid battery chemistry, its existence in alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries is still questionable. For instance, a systematic experimental case study shows that an intermittent discharge current in case of alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries results in a decreased usable energy output compared to a continuous discharge current of the same average value. This is primarily due to the increased overpotential experienced due to the high peak currents of the intermittent discharge over the continuous discharge current of same average value.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Social phenomena or social phenomenon (singular) are any behaviours, actions, or events that takes place because of social influence, including from contemporary as well as historical societal influences.  They are often a result of multifaceted processes that add ever increasing dimensions as they operate through individual nodes of people. Because of this, social phenomenon are inherently dynamic and operate within a specific time and historical context.Social phenomena are observable, measurable data.  Psychological notions may drive them, but those notions are not directly observable; only the phenomena that express them.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A superbloom is a rare desert botanical phenomenon in which an unusually high proportion of wildflowers whose seeds have lain dormant in desert soil germinate and blossom at roughly the same time. The phenomenon is associated with an unusually wet rainy season. The term may have developed as a label in the 1990s.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Vertigo is a condition where a person has the sensation of movement or of surrounding objects moving when they are not. Often it feels like a spinning or swaying movement. This may be associated with nausea, vomiting, sweating, or difficulties walking. It is typically worse when the head is moved. Vertigo is the most common type of dizziness.The most common disorders that result in vertigo are benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), M\u00e9ni\u00e8re's disease, and labyrinthitis. Less common causes include stroke, brain tumors, brain injury, multiple sclerosis, migraines, trauma, and uneven pressures between the middle ears. Physiologic vertigo may occur following being exposed to motion for a prolonged period such as when on a ship or simply following spinning with the eyes closed. Other causes may include toxin exposures such as to carbon monoxide, alcohol, or aspirin. Vertigo typically indicates a problem in a part of the vestibular system. Other causes of dizziness include presyncope, disequilibrium, and non-specific dizziness.Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo is more likely in someone who gets repeated episodes of vertigo with movement and is otherwise normal between these episodes. The episodes of vertigo should last less than one minute. The Dix-Hallpike test typically produces a period of rapid eye movements known as nystagmus in this condition. In M\u00e9ni\u00e8re's disease there is often ringing in the ears, hearing loss, and the attacks of vertigo last more than twenty minutes. In labyrinthitis the onset of vertigo is sudden and the nystagmus occurs without movement. In this condition vertigo can last for days. More severe causes should also be considered. This is especially true if other problems such as weakness, headache, double vision, or numbness occur.Dizziness affects approximately 20\u201340% of people at some point in time, while about 7.5\u201310% have vertigo. About 5% have vertigo in a given year. It becomes more common with age and affects women two to three times more often than men. Vertigo accounts for about 2\u20133% of emergency department visits in the developed world.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Well-founded phenomena (Latin: phenomena bene fundata), in the philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz, are ways in which the world falsely appears to us, but which are grounded in the way the world is (as opposed to dreams or hallucinations, which are false appearances that are not thus grounded).\nFor Leibniz, the universe is made up of an infinite number of simple substances or monads, each of which contains a representation of the entire universe (past, present, and future), and which are all causally isolated from one another (\"Monads have no windows through which anything could enter or depart.\")  For the most part the monads' perceptions are more or less confused and obscure, but some of them correspond either to the ways in which other monads are related or to the ways that the representation is genuinely ordered; these are the well-founded phenomena.\nIn the world of ordinary experience we might call a rainbow a well-ordered phenomenon; it appears to us to be a coloured arch in the sky, though there is in fact no arch there.  We are not suffering from hallucinations, though, for the appearance is grounded in the way the world is ordered \u2013 in the behaviour of light, dust motes, water particles, etc.\nFor Leibniz, there are two main categories of well-founded phenomena: the ordinary world of individual objects and their interactions, and more abstract phenomena such as space, time, and causality. This is also found in his expression of pre-established harmony being the basis of causation.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A whiting event is a phenomenon that occurs when a suspended cloud of fine-grained calcium carbonate precipitates in water bodies, typically during summer months, as a result of photosynthetic microbiological activity or sediment disturbance. The phenomenon gets its name from the white, chalky color it imbues to the water. These events have been shown to occur in temperate waters as well as tropical ones, and they can span for hundreds of meters. They can also occur in both marine and freshwater environments. The origin of whiting events is debated among the scientific community, and it is unclear if there is a single, specific cause. Generally, they are thought to result from either bottom sediment re-suspension or by increased activity of certain microscopic life such as phytoplankton. Because whiting events affect aquatic chemistry, physical properties, and carbon cycling, studying the mechanisms behind them holds scientific relevance in various ways.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The widowhood effect is the increase in the probability of a person dying during a relatively short period of time after their long-time spouse has died. The pattern indicates a sharp increase in risk of death for the widower particularly, but not exclusively, in the three months after the death of their spouse. This process has also been called \"dying of a broken heart\". Being widowed leads to an increased likelihood of developing severe mental disorder. This can be attributed to the unanticipated decisions widows have to make with regards to the death of their spouse. Responses of grief and bereavement due to the loss of a spouse increases vulnerability to psychological and physical illnesses.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Yuasa Phenomenon, named after Japanese physicist and science historian Mitsutomo Yuasa (sometimes referred to as Mintomo Yuasa), suggests that in the modern era, the world center of scientific activity (defined as producing more than 25% of the world's scientific achievements) moves from one country to another about every 80\u223c100 years.Analyzed data states the \"modern world science centre has shifted from Italy (1504\u20131610) to the United Kingdom (1660\u20131750), to France (1760\u2013 1840), to Germany (1875\u20131920), and to the United States (1920 to the present).\"This phenomenon and its study methodology are an emerging Scientometrics study area. Indicators are pointing to China rise as a world center of scientific activity. This phenomenon is also described by other names including the Bernal\u2014Yuasa phenomenon. Shigeo Minowa links Yuasa's finding to Joseph Ben-David movements of Centers of Learning.Ben-David's Centers of Learning migration observations are discussed in various works.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Nature worship or naturism is any of a variety of religious, spiritual and devotional practices that focus on the worship of the nature spirits considered to be behind the natural phenomena visible throughout nature. A nature deity can be in charge of nature, a place, a biotope, the biosphere, the cosmos, or the universe. Nature worship is often considered the primitive source of modern religious beliefs and can be found in theism, panentheism, pantheism, deism, polytheism, animism, totemism, shamanism, paganism, and sarnaism. Common to most forms of nature worship is a spiritual focus on the individual's connection and influence on some aspects of the natural world and reverence towards it.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Earth-centered religion or nature worship is a system of religion based on the veneration of natural phenomena. It covers any religion that worships the earth, nature, or fertility deity, such as the various forms of goddess worship or matriarchal religion. Some find a connection between earth-worship and the Gaia hypothesis. Earth religions are also formulated to allow one to utilize the knowledge of preserving the earth.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Gaia philosophy (named after Gaia, Greek goddess of the Earth) is a broadly inclusive term for related concepts that living organisms on a planet will affect the nature of their environment in order to make the environment more suitable for life. This set of hypotheses holds that all organisms on a life-giving planet regulate the biosphere in such a way as to promote its habitability. Gaia concept draws a connection between the survivability of a species (hence its evolutionary course) and its usefulness to the survival of other species.\nWhile there were a number of precursors to Gaia hypothesis, the first scientific form of this idea was proposed as the Gaia hypothesis by James Lovelock, a UK chemist, in 1970. The Gaia hypothesis deals with the concept of biological homeostasis, and claims the resident life forms of a host planet coupled with their environment have acted and act like a single, self-regulating system. This system includes the near-surface rocks, the soil, and the atmosphere. Today many scientists consider such ideas to be unsupported by, or at odds with, the available evidence (see Gaia hypothesis criticism). These theories are however significant in green politics.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Natural religion most frequently means the \"religion of nature\", in which God, the soul, spirits, and all objects of the supernatural are considered as part of nature and not separate from it. Conversely, it is also used in philosophy to describe some aspects of religion that are said to be knowable apart from divine revelation through logic and reason alone (see Deism and Natural theology), for example, the existence of the unmoved Mover, the first cause of the universe.Most authors consider natural religion as not only the foundation of monotheistic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam but also distinct from them. According to some authors, aspects of natural religion are found universally among all peoples, often in such forms of shamanism and animism. They are still practiced in many parts of the world. The religions of Native American societies for example are considered as possessing some aspects of natural religion.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A nature religion is a religious movement that believes nature and the natural world is an embodiment of divinity, sacredness or spiritual power. Nature religions include indigenous religions practiced in various parts of the world by cultures who consider the environment to be imbued with spirits and other sacred entities. It also includes modern Pagan faiths, which are primarily concentrated in Europe and North America.\nThe term \"nature religion\" was first coined by the American religious studies scholar Catherine Albanese, who used it in her work Nature Religion in America: From the Algonkian Indians to the New Age (1991), and she later went on to use it in other studies. After Albanese developed the term, it has been used by other academics working in the discipline.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A totem (from Ojibwe: \u1451\u144c\u14bc or \u1451\u144c\u14bb doodem) is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe, such as in the Anishinaabe clan system.While the word totem itself is an anglicisation of the Ojibwe term (and both the word and beliefs associated with it are part of the Ojibwe language and culture), belief in tutelary spirits and deities is not limited to the Ojibwe people. Similar concepts, under differing names and with variations in beliefs and practices, may be found in a number of cultures worldwide. The term has also been adopted, and at times redefined, by anthropologists and philosophers of different cultures. \nContemporary neoshamanic, New Age, and mythopoetic men's movements not otherwise involved in the practice of a traditional, tribal religion have been known to use \"totem\" terminology for the personal identification with a tutelary spirit or spirit guide. However, this can be seen as cultural misappropriation.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The sky is an unobstructed view upward from the surface of the Earth. It includes the atmosphere and outer space. It may also be considered a place between the ground and outer space, thus distinct from outer space.\nIn the field of astronomy, the sky is also called the celestial sphere. This is an abstract sphere, concentric to the Earth, on which the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars appear to be drifting. The celestial sphere is conventionally divided into designated areas called constellations.\nUsually, the term sky informally refers to a perspective from the Earth's surface; however, the meaning and usage can vary. An observer on the surface of the Earth can see a small part of the sky, which resembles a dome (sometimes called the sky bowl) appearing flatter during the day than at night. In some cases, such as in discussing the weather, the sky refers to only the lower, denser layers of the atmosphere.\nThe daytime sky appears blue because air molecules scatter shorter wavelengths of sunlight more than longer ones (redder light). The night sky appears to be a mostly dark surface or region spangled with stars. The Sun and sometimes the Moon are visible in the daytime sky unless obscured by clouds. At night, the Moon, planets, and stars are similarly visible in the sky.\nSome of the natural phenomena seen in the sky are clouds, rainbows, and aurorae. Lightning and precipitation are also visible in the sky. Certain birds and insects, as well as human inventions like aircraft and kites, can fly in the sky. Due to human activities, smog during the day and light pollution during the night are often seen above large cities.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Flight or flying is the process by which an object moves through a space without contacting any planetary surface, either within an atmosphere (i.e. air flight or aviation) or through the vacuum of outer space (i.e. spaceflight).  This can be achieved by generating aerodynamic lift associated with gliding or propulsive thrust, aerostatically using buoyancy, or by ballistic movement.\nMany things can fly, from animal aviators such as birds, bats and insects, to natural gliders/parachuters such as patagial animals, anemochorous seeds and ballistospores, to human inventions like aircraft (airplanes, helicopters, airships, balloons, etc.) and rockets which may propel spacecraft and spaceplanes.\nThe engineering aspects of flight are the purview of aerospace engineering which is subdivided into aeronautics, the study of vehicles that travel through the atmosphere, and astronautics, the study of vehicles that travel through space, and ballistics, the study of the flight of projectiles.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The green flash and green ray are meteorological optical phenomena that sometimes occur transiently around the moment of sunset or sunrise. When the conditions are right, a distinct green spot is briefly visible above the upper rim of the Sun's disk; the green appearance usually lasts for no more than two seconds. Rarely, the green flash can resemble a green ray shooting up from the sunset or sunrise point.\nGreen flashes occur because the Earth's atmosphere can cause the light from the Sun to separate, or refract, into different colors. Green flashes are a group of similar phenomena that stem from slightly different causes, and therefore, some types of green flashes are more common than others.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The night sky is the nighttime appearance of celestial objects like stars, planets, and the Moon, which are visible in a clear sky between sunset and sunrise, when the Sun is below the horizon.\nNatural light sources in a night sky include moonlight, starlight, and airglow, depending on location and timing. Aurorae light up the skies above the polar circles. Occasionally, a large coronal mass ejection from the Sun or simply high levels of solar wind may extend the phenomenon toward the Equator.The night sky and studies of it have a historical place in both ancient and modern cultures. In the past, for instance, farmers have used the status of the night sky as a calendar to determine when to plant crops. Many cultures have drawn constellations between stars in the sky, using them in association with legends and mythology about their deities.\nThe anciently developed belief of astrology is generally based on the belief that relationships between heavenly bodies influence or convey information about events on Earth. The scientific study of celestial objects visible at night takes place in the science of observational astronomy.\nThe visibility of celestial objects in the night sky is affected by light pollution. The presence of the Moon in the night sky has historically hindered astronomical observation by increasing the amount of ambient brightness. With the advent of artificial light sources, however, light pollution has been a growing problem for viewing the night sky. Optical filters and modifications to light fixtures can help to alleviate this problem, but for optimal views, both professional and amateur astronomers seek locations far from urban skyglow.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Sky brightness refers to the visual perception of the sky and how it scatters and diffuses light.  The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night is easily visible.  If light sources (e.g. the Moon and light pollution) were removed from the night sky, only direct starlight would be visible. \nThe sky's brightness varies greatly over the day, and the primary cause differs as well. During daytime, when the Sun is above the horizon, the direct scattering of sunlight is the overwhelmingly dominant source of light. During twilight (the duration after sunset or before sunrise until or since, respectively, the full darkness of night), the situation is more complicated, and a further differentiation is required.\nTwilight (both dusk and dawn) is divided into three 6\u00b0 segments that mark the Sun's position below the horizon. At civil twilight, the center of the Sun's disk appears to be between 1/4\u00b0 and 6\u00b0 below the horizon. At nautical twilight, the Sun's altitude is between \u20136\u00b0 and \u201312\u00b0. At astronomical twilight, the Sun is between \u201312\u00b0 and \u201318\u00b0. When the Sun's depth is more than 18\u00b0, the sky generally attains its maximum darkness.\nSources of the night sky's intrinsic brightness include airglow, indirect scattering of sunlight, scattering of starlight, and light pollution.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the conditions of the atmosphere for a given location and time. People have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia and formally since the 19th century. Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere, land, and ocean and using meteorology to project how the atmosphere will change at a given place.\nOnce calculated manually based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure, current weather conditions, and sky condition or cloud cover, weather forecasting now relies on computer-based models that take many atmospheric factors into account. Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The inaccuracy of forecasting is due to the chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, the land, and the ocean, the error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric and related processes. Hence, forecasts become less accurate as the difference between current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and provide confidence level in the forecast.\nThere is a vast variety of end uses to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property. Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture, and therefore to traders within commodity markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days. On an everyday basis, many use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow and wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them. \nWeather forecasting is a part of the economy, for example, in 2009, the US spent approximately $5.1 billion on weather forecasting, producing benefits estimated at six times as much.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The universe (Latin: universus) is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the universe. According to this theory, space and time emerged together 13.787\u00b10.020 billion years ago, and the universe has been expanding ever since the Big Bang. While the spatial size of the entire universe is unknown, it is possible to measure the size of the observable universe, which is approximately 93 billion light-years in diameter at the present day.\nThe earliest cosmological models of the universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric, placing Earth at the center. Over the centuries, more precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus Copernicus to develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System. In developing the law of universal gravitation, Isaac Newton built upon Copernicus's work as well as Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion and observations by Tycho Brahe.\nFurther observational improvements led to the realization that the Sun is one of a few hundred billion stars in the Milky Way, which is one of a few hundred billion galaxies in the universe. Many of the stars in a galaxy have planets. At the largest scale, galaxies are distributed uniformly and the same in all directions, meaning that the universe has neither an edge nor a center. At smaller scales, galaxies are distributed in clusters and superclusters which form immense filaments and voids in space, creating a vast foam-like structure. Discoveries in the early 20th century have suggested that the universe had a beginning and that space has been expanding since then at an increasing rate.According to the Big Bang theory, the energy and matter initially present have become less dense as the universe expanded. After an initial accelerated expansion called the inflationary epoch at around 10\u221232 seconds, and the separation of the four known fundamental forces, the universe gradually cooled and continued to expand, allowing the first subatomic particles and simple atoms to form. Dark matter gradually gathered, forming a foam-like structure of filaments and voids under the influence of gravity. Giant clouds of hydrogen and helium were gradually drawn to the places where dark matter was most dense, forming the first galaxies, stars, and everything else seen today.\nFrom studying the movement of galaxies, it has been discovered that the universe contains much more matter than is accounted for by visible objects; stars, galaxies, nebulas and interstellar gas. This unseen matter is known as dark matter (dark means that there is a wide range of strong indirect evidence that it exists, but we have not yet detected it directly). The \u039bCDM model is the most widely accepted model of the universe. It suggests that about 69.2%\u00b11.2% [2015] of the mass and energy in the universe is a cosmological constant (or, in extensions to \u039bCDM, other forms of dark energy, such as a scalar field) which is responsible for the current expansion of space, and about 25.8%\u00b11.1% [2015] is dark matter. Ordinary ('baryonic') matter is therefore only 4.84%\u00b10.1% [2015] of the physical universe. Stars, planets, and visible gas clouds only form about 6% of the ordinary matter.There are many competing hypotheses about the ultimate fate of the universe and about what, if anything, preceded the Big Bang, while other physicists and philosophers refuse to speculate, doubting that information about prior states will ever be accessible. Some physicists have suggested various multiverse hypotheses, in which our universe might be one among many universes that likewise exist.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The cosmos (UK: , US: ) is another name for the Universe. Using the word cosmos implies viewing the universe as a complex and orderly system or entity.The cosmos, and our understanding of the reasons for its existence and significance, are studied in cosmology \u2013 a broad discipline covering scientific, religious or philosophical aspects of the cosmos and its nature. Religious and philosophical approaches may include the cosmos among spiritual entities or other matters deemed to exist outside our physical universe.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The Local Volume is a collection of more than 500 galaxies located in an area of the observable universe near us, within a spherical region with a radius of 11 megaparsecs from Earth or up to a radial velocity of redshift of z < 0.002 (550 km/s).It was in this region of the universe where the Local Volume Legacy (LVL) project took place for the study of 258 galaxies through cycles of observations made by the Spitzer Space Telescope using the Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) and the Multiband Imaging Photometer (MIPS).\n\nThis Local Volume study included all galaxies within a 3.5 megaparsec subvolume and a collection of spiral and irregular galaxies within 11 megaparsecs. The goals of the study were to collect data on the rate of star formation, stellar mass in old star populations, cosmic dust, and starlight interference.We can also define the Local Volume by the distance of 10 Mpc over which the Hubble Space Telescope can distinguish stellar populations in galaxies. This definition can be extended to 15 Mpc to cover a full range of galaxy environments, from voids to clusters and massive clusters. In the future, it should be possible to extend our definition of Local Volume to even greater distances.\nWithin the Local Volume is the Local Sheet, an area of flattened space containing about 60 galaxies that share the same velocity and is about 7 megaparsecs in radius and about 0.5 megaparsecs thick. The Local Group, of which the Milky Way and the Andromeda galaxy are part, is part of the Local Sheet and therefore, of the Local Volume. The Local Volume, in turn, is included in the Laniakea Supercluster.\nLocal Volume galaxies have a preferred movement called virgocentric flow, towards the Virgo cluster, caused by its overwhelming gravity.Among the member galaxies of the Local Volume, there are several large galaxies or particular galaxies such as Centaurus A, the Bode galaxy (M81), the Cigar galaxy (M82), the Circinus galaxy, the Southern Pinwheel galaxy (M83), the Pinwheel galaxy (M101), the Sombrero Galaxy (M104), NGC 1512, M51, M74, M66 and M96.Recently, following Hubble Space Telescope observations, two dwarf galaxies, Pisces A and Pisces B, have been identified as having migrated into the Local Volume from the neighboring Local Void.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A vacuum is a space devoid of matter. The word is derived from the Latin adjective vacuus for \"vacant\" or \"void\".  An approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure.  Physicists often discuss ideal test results that would occur in a perfect vacuum, which they sometimes simply call \"vacuum\" or free space, and use the term partial vacuum to refer to an actual imperfect vacuum as one might have in a laboratory or in space. In engineering and applied physics on the other hand, vacuum refers to any space in which the pressure is considerably lower than atmospheric pressure. The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object that is surrounded by a vacuum.\nThe quality of a partial vacuum refers to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. Other things equal, lower gas pressure means higher-quality vacuum. For example, a typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to reduce air pressure by around 20%. But higher-quality vacuums are possible. Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth (10\u221212) of atmospheric pressure (100 nPa), and can reach around 100 particles/cm3. Outer space is an even higher-quality vacuum, with the equivalent of just a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter on average in intergalactic space.Vacuum has been a frequent topic of philosophical debate since ancient Greek times, but was not studied empirically until the 17th century. Evangelista Torricelli produced the first laboratory vacuum in 1643, and other experimental techniques were developed as a result of his theories of atmospheric pressure. A Torricellian vacuum is created by filling a tall glass container closed at one end with mercury, and then inverting it in a bowl to contain the mercury (see below).Vacuum became a valuable industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes, and a wide array of vacuum technologies has since become available. The development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human health, and on life forms in general.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "In physics, aether theories (also known as ether theories) propose the existence of a medium, a space-filling substance or field as a transmission medium for the propagation of electromagnetic or gravitational forces. Since the development of special relativity, theories using a substantial aether fell out of use in modern physics, and are now replaced by more abstract models.This early modern aether has little in common with the aether of classical elements from which the name was borrowed. The assorted theories embody the various conceptions of this medium and substance.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "In accelerator physics, a beamline refers to the trajectory of the beam of particles, including the overall construction of the path segment (guide tubes, diagnostic devices) along a specific path of an accelerator facility. This part is either\n\nthe line in a linear accelerator along which a beam of particles travels, or\nthe path leading from particle generator (e.g. a cyclic accelerator, synchrotron light sources, cyclotrons, or spallation sources) to the experimental end-station.Beamlines usually end in experimental stations that utilize particle beams or synchrotron light obtained from a synchrotron, or neutrons from a spallation source or research reactor. Beamlines are used in experiments in particle physics, materials science, life science, chemistry, and molecular biology, but can also be used for irradiation tests or to produce isotopes.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a vacuum deposition method used to produce high quality, and high-performance, solid materials. The process is often used in the semiconductor industry to produce thin films.In typical CVD, the wafer (substrate) is exposed to one or more volatile precursors, which react and/or decompose on the substrate surface to produce the desired deposit. Frequently, volatile by-products are also produced, which are removed by gas flow through the reaction chamber.\nMicrofabrication processes widely use CVD to deposit materials in various forms, including: monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, and epitaxial. These materials include: silicon (dioxide, carbide, nitride, oxynitride), carbon (fiber, nanofibers, nanotubes, diamond and graphene), fluorocarbons, filaments, tungsten, titanium nitride and various high-\u03ba dielectrics.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A cold cathode is a cathode that is not electrically heated by a filament. A cathode may be considered \"cold\" if it emits more electrons than can be supplied by thermionic emission alone. It is used in gas-discharge lamps, such as neon lamps, discharge tubes, and some types of vacuum tube. The other type of cathode is a hot cathode, which is heated by electric current passing through a filament. A cold cathode does not necessarily operate at a low temperature: it is often heated to its operating temperature by other methods, such as the current passing from the cathode into the gas.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The Dirac sea is a theoretical model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles with negative energy. It was first postulated by the British physicist Paul Dirac in 1930 to explain the anomalous negative-energy quantum states predicted by the Dirac equation for relativistic electrons (electrons traveling near the speed of light). The positron, the antimatter counterpart of the electron, was originally conceived of as a hole in the Dirac sea, before its experimental discovery in 1932.In hole theory, the solutions with negative time evolution factors are reinterpreted as representing the positron, discovered by Carl Anderson. The interpretation of this result requires a Dirac sea, showing that the Dirac equation is not merely a combination of special relativity and quantum mechanics, but it also implies that the number of particles cannot be conserved.Dirac sea theory has been displaced by quantum field theory, though they are mathematically compatible.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "In quantum field theory, a false vacuum is a hypothetical vacuum that is stable, but not in the most stable state possible (it is metastable). It may last for a very long time in that state, but could eventually decay to the more stable state, an event known as false vacuum decay. The most common suggestion of how such a decay might happen in our universe is called bubble nucleation \u2013 if a small region of the universe by chance reached a more stable vacuum, this \"bubble\" (also called \"bounce\") would spread.\nA false vacuum exists at a local minimum of energy and is therefore not stable, in contrast to a true vacuum, which exists at a global minimum and is stable.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The International Union for Vacuum Science, Technique, and Applications (IUVSTA) is a union of 34 science and technology national member societies whose role is to stimulate international collaboration in the fields of vacuum science, technique and applications, and related multi-disciplinary topics.\nIUVSTA is a Member Scientific Associate of the International Council for Science (ICSU).\nFounded in 1958, IUVSTA is an interdisciplinary union which represents several thousands of physicists, chemists, materials scientists, engineers and technologists who are active in basic and applied research, development, manufacturing, sales and education. IUVSTA finances advanced scientific workshops, international schools and technical courses, worldwide.\nIUVSTA comprises member societies from the following countries:\nArgentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Netherlands, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,  United Kingdom, and USA.\nThe main purposes of the IUVSTA are to organize and sponsor international conferences and educational activities, as well as to facilitate research and technological developments in the field of vacuum science and its applications.\nThe history and structure of the Union are described in two articles in scientific journals.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Manifold vacuum, or engine vacuum in an internal combustion engine is the difference in air pressure between the engine's intake manifold and Earth's atmosphere.\nManifold vacuum is an effect of a piston's movement on the induction stroke and the choked flow through a throttle in the intake manifold of an engine. It is a measure of the amount of restriction of airflow through the engine, and hence of the unused power capacity in the engine. In some engines, the manifold vacuum is also used as an auxiliary power source to drive engine accessories and for the crankcase ventilation system.\nManifold vacuums should not be confused with Venturi vacuums, which are an effect exploited in carburetors to establish a pressure difference roughly proportional to mass airflow and to maintain a somewhat constant air/fuel ratio. It is also used in light airplanes to provide airflow for pneumatic gyroscopic instruments.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "In chemistry, metal vapor synthesis (MVS) is a method for preparing metal complexes by combining freshly produced metal atoms or small particles with ligands.  In contrast to the high reactivity of such freshly produced metal atoms, bulk metals typically are unreactive toward neutral ligands.  The method has been used to prepare compounds that cannot be prepared by traditional synthetic methods, e.g. Ti(\u03b76-toluene)2.  The technique relies on a reactor that evaporates the metal, allowing the vapor to impinge on a cold reactor wall that is coated with the organic ligand. The metal evaporates upon being heated resistively or irradiated with an electron beam.  The apparatus operates under high vacuum. In a common implementation, the metal vapor and the organic ligand are co-condensed at liquid nitrogen temperatures.In several case where compounds are prepared by MVS, related preparations employ conventional routes.  Thus, tris(butadiene)molybdenum was first prepared by co-condensation of butadiene and Mo vapor, but yields are higher for the reduction of molybdenum(V) chloride in the presence of the diene.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A molecular sieve is a material with pores (very small holes) of uniform size. These pore diameters are similar in size to small molecules, and thus large molecules cannot enter or be adsorbed, while smaller molecules can. As a mixture of molecules migrate through the stationary bed of porous, semi-solid substance referred to as a sieve (or matrix), the components of highest molecular weight (which are unable to pass into the molecular pores) leave the bed first, followed by successively smaller molecules. Some molecular sieves are used in size-exclusion chromatography, a separation technique that sorts molecules based on their size. Other molecular sieves are used as desiccants (some examples include activated charcoal and silica gel).The pore diameter of a molecular sieve is measured in \u00e5ngstr\u00f6ms (\u00c5) or nanometres (nm). According to IUPAC notation, microporous materials have pore diameters of less than 2 nm (20 \u00c5) and macroporous materials have pore diameters of greater than 50 nm (500 \u00c5); the mesoporous category thus lies in the middle with pore diameters between 2 and 50 nm (20\u2013500 \u00c5).", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Nano-suction is a technology that uses vacuum, negative fluid pressure and millions of nano-sized suction cups to securely adhere any object to a flat non-porous surface. When the nano-suction object is pressed against a flat surface, millions of miniature suction cups create a large vacuum, generating a strong suction force that can hold a tremendous amount of weight. The nature of the technology allows easy removal without residue, and makes it reusable.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Non evaporable getters (NEG), based on the principle of metallic surface sorption of gas molecules, are mostly porous alloys or powder mixtures of Al, Zr, Ti, V and Fe. They help to establish and maintain vacuums by soaking up or bonding to gas molecules that remain within a partial vacuum. This is done through the use of materials that readily form stable compounds with active gases. They are important tools for improving the performance of many vacuum systems. Sintered onto the inner surface of high vacuum vessels, the NEG coating can be applied even to spaces that are narrow and hard to pump out, which makes it very popular in particle accelerators where this is an issue. The main sorption parameters of the kind of NEGs, like pumping speed and sorption capacity, have low limits.\nA different type of NEG, which is not coated, is the Tubegetter. The activation of these getters is accomplished mechanically or at a temperature from 550 K. The temperature range is from 0 to 800 K under HV/UHV conditions.\nThe NEG acts as a getter or getter pump that is able to reduce the pressure to less than 10\u221212 mbar.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Outer space, commonly shortened to space, is the expanse that exists beyond Earth and its atmosphere and between celestial bodies. Outer space is not completely empty\u2014it is a near perfect vacuum containing a low density of particles, predominantly a plasma of hydrogen and helium, as well as electromagnetic radiation, magnetic fields, neutrinos, dust, and cosmic rays. The baseline temperature of outer space, as set by the background radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7255 kelvins (\u2212270.4245 \u00b0C; \u2212454.7641 \u00b0F) +/-0.002 K. The plasma between galaxies is thought to account for about half of the baryonic (ordinary) matter in the universe, having a number density of less than one hydrogen atom per cubic metre and a temperature of millions of kelvins. Local concentrations of matter have condensed into stars and galaxies. Studies indicate that 90% of the mass in most galaxies is in an unknown form, called dark matter, which interacts with other matter through gravitational but not electromagnetic forces. Observations suggest that the majority of the mass-energy in the observable universe is dark energy, a type of vacuum energy that is poorly understood. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the universe, but even galaxies and star systems consist almost entirely of empty space.\nOuter space does not begin at a definite altitude above the Earth's surface. The K\u00e1rm\u00e1n line, an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) above sea level, is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. The framework for international space law was established by the Outer Space Treaty, which entered into force on 10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of national sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the peaceful uses of outer space, anti-satellite weapons have been tested in Earth orbit.\nHumans began the physical exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights. This was followed by crewed rocket flights and, then, crewed Earth orbit, first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961. Due to the high cost of getting into space, human spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon. On the other hand, uncrewed spacecraft have reached all of the known planets in the Solar System.\nOuter space represents a challenging environment for human exploration because of the hazards of vacuum and radiation. Microgravity also has a negative effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss. In addition to these health and environmental issues, the economic cost of putting objects, including humans, into space is very high.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Outgassing (sometimes called offgassing, particularly when in reference to indoor air quality) is the release of a gas that was dissolved, trapped, frozen, or absorbed in some material. Outgassing can include sublimation and evaporation (which are phase transitions of a substance into a gas), as well as desorption, seepage from cracks or internal volumes, and gaseous products of slow chemical reactions. Boiling is generally thought of as a separate phenomenon from outgassing because it consists of a phase transition of a liquid into a vapor of the same substance.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Frans Michel Penning (12 September 1894 \u2013 6 December 1953) was a Dutch experimental physicist.  He received his PhD from the University of Leiden in 1923, and studied low pressure gas discharges at the Philips Laboratory in Eindhoven, developing new electron tubes during World War II. Many detailed observations of gas ionization were done with colleagues, finding notable results for helium and magnetic fields.  He made precise measurements of Townsend discharge coefficients and cathode voltage fall. Penning made important contributions to the advancement of high resolution mass spectrometry.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Pressure measurement is the measurement of an applied force by a fluid (liquid or gas) on a surface. Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area. Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure and display pressure mechanically are called pressure gauges, vacuum gauges or compound gauges (vacuum & pressure). The widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device, which both measures and indicates and is probably the best known type of gauge.\nA vacuum gauge is used to measure pressures lower than the ambient atmospheric pressure, which is set as the zero point, in negative values (for instance, \u22121 bar or \u2212760 mmHg equals total vacuum). Most gauges measure pressure relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero point, so this form of reading is simply referred to as \"gauge pressure\". However, anything greater than total vacuum is technically a form of pressure. For very low pressures, a gauge that uses total vacuum as the zero point reference must be used, giving pressure reading as an absolute pressure.\nOther methods of pressure measurement involve sensors that can transmit the pressure reading to a remote indicator or control system (telemetry).", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A vacuum pump is a device that draws gas molecules from a sealed volume in order to leave behind a partial vacuum.  The job of a vacuum pump is to generate a relative vacuum within a capacity. The first vacuum pump was invented in 1650 by Otto von Guericke, and was preceded by the suction pump, which dates to antiquity.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The QCD vacuum is the vacuum state of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). It is an example of a non-perturbative vacuum state, characterized by non-vanishing condensates such as the gluon condensate and the quark condensate in the complete theory which includes quarks. The presence of these condensates characterizes the confined phase of quark matter.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The QED vacuum is the field-theoretic vacuum of quantum electrodynamics. It is the lowest energy state (the ground state) of the electromagnetic field when the fields are quantized. When Planck's constant is hypothetically allowed to approach zero, QED vacuum is converted to classical vacuum, which is to say, the vacuum of classical electromagnetism.Another field-theoretic vacuum is the QCD vacuum of the Standard Model.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "In quantum field theory, the quantum vacuum state (also called the quantum vacuum or vacuum state) is the quantum state with the lowest possible energy. Generally, it contains no physical particles. The word zero-point field is sometimes used as a synonym for the vacuum state of a quantized field which is completely individual.\nAccording to present-day understanding of what is called the vacuum state or the quantum vacuum, it is \"by no means a simple empty space\". According to quantum mechanics, the vacuum state is not truly empty but instead contains fleeting electromagnetic waves and particles that pop into and out of the quantum field.The QED vacuum of quantum electrodynamics (or QED) was the first vacuum of quantum field theory to be developed. QED originated in the 1930s, and in the late 1940s and early 1950s it was reformulated by Feynman, Tomonaga, and Schwinger, who jointly received the Nobel prize for this work in 1965. Today the electromagnetic interactions and the weak interactions are unified (at very high energies only) in the theory of the electroweak interaction.\nThe Standard Model is a generalization of the QED work to include all the known elementary particles and their interactions (except gravity). Quantum chromodynamics (or QCD) is the portion of the Standard Model that deals with strong interactions, and QCD vacuum is the vacuum of quantum chromodynamics. It is the object of study in the Large Hadron Collider and the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, and is related to the so-called vacuum structure of strong interactions.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "The self-sealing suction cup is a suction cup that exerts a suction force only when it is in physical contact with an object. Unlike most other suction cups, it does not exert any suction force when it is not in contact with an object. Its grasping ability is achieved entirely through passive means without the use of sensors, valves, or actuators.It was designed so that, when used as part of a suction cup array, the suction cups that don't come in contact with the object remain sealed. By having only the suction cups that are in direct contact of the object to exhibit suction force, the researchers were able to minimize leak points where air could enter and increase the pressure that each active cup receives, maximizing the suction force. As a result, an array of self-sealing suction cups can grasp and pick up a wide range of object sizes and shapes. This comes in contrast to conventional suction cups that are typically designed for one specific object size and geometry. In addition, suction cups of various sizes have been manufactured, ranging from the palm of a hand to the point of a fingertip.The self-sealing suction cup was first developed in 2010 by a collaboration of researchers from the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL), the Edgewood Chemical Biological Center at Aberdeen Proving Ground, and the University of Maryland.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Suction is the colloquial term to describe the air pressure differential between areas. \nRemoving air from a space results in a pressure differential. Suction pressure is therefore limited by external air pressure. Even a perfect vacuum cannot suck with more pressure than is available in the surrounding environment. Suctions can form on the sea, for example, when a ship founders.\nWhen the pressure in one part of a physical system is reduced relative to another, the fluid in the higher pressure region will exert a force relative to the region of lowered pressure, referred to as pressure-gradient force. Pressure reduction may be static, as in a piston and cylinder arrangement, or dynamic, as in the case of a vacuum cleaner when air flow results in a reduced pressure region.\nWhen animals breathe, the diaphragm and muscles around the rib cage cause a change of volume in the lungs. The increased volume of the chest cavity decreases the pressure inside, creating an imbalance with the ambient air pressure, resulting in suction.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A suction cup, also known as a sucker, is a device or object that uses the negative fluid pressure of air or water to adhere to nonporous surfaces, creating a partial vacuum.Suction cups are peripheral traits of some animals such as octopuses and squids, and have been reproduced artificially for numerous purposes.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Ultra-high vacuum (UHV) is the vacuum regime characterised by pressures lower than about 100 nanopascals (1.0\u00d710\u22127 Pa; 1.0\u00d710\u22129 mbar; 7.5\u00d710\u221210 Torr). UHV conditions are created by pumping the gas out of a UHV chamber. At these low pressures the mean free path of a gas molecule is greater than approximately 40 km, so the gas is in free molecular flow, and gas molecules will collide with the chamber walls many times before colliding with each other. Almost all molecular interactions therefore take place on various surfaces in the chamber.\nUHV conditions are integral to scientific research. Surface science experiments often require a chemically clean sample surface with the absence of any unwanted adsorbates. Surface analysis tools such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and low energy ion scattering require UHV conditions for the transmission of electron or ion beams. For the same reason, beam pipes in particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider are kept at UHV.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Vacuum cementing or vacuum welding is the natural process of solidifying small objects in a hard vacuum.  The most notable example is dust on the surface of the Moon.\nThis effect was reported to be a problem with the first American and Soviet satellites, as small moving parts would seize together.In 2009 the European Space Agency published a peer-reviewed paper detailing why cold welding is a significant issue that spacecraft designers need to carefully consider. The conclusions of this appropriately titled study can be found on page 25 of \"Assessment of Cold Welding Between Separable Contact Surfaces due to Impact and Fretting Under Vacuum\". The paper also cites a documented example from 1991 with the Galileo spacecraft high-gain antenna (see page 2; the technical source document from NASA regarding the Galileo spacecraft is also provided in a link here).One source of difficulty is that vacuum (AKA cold) welding does not exclude relative motion between the surfaces that are to be joined. This allows the broadly defined notions of galling, fretting, sticking, stiction and adhesion to overlap in some instances. For example, it is possible for a joint to be the result of both vacuum welding and galling (and/or fretting and/or impact). Galling and vacuum welding, therefore, are not mutually exclusive.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A vacuum coffee maker brews coffee using two chambers where vapor pressure and gravity produce coffee. This type of coffee maker is also known as vac pot, siphon or syphon coffee maker, and was invented by Loeff of Berlin in the 1830s. These devices have since been used for more than a century in many parts of the world. Design and composition of the vacuum coffee maker varies.  The chamber material is borosilicate glass, metal, or plastic, and the filter can be either a glass rod or a screen made of metal, cloth, paper, or nylon. The Napier Vacuum Machine, presented in 1840, was an early example of this technique. While vacuum coffee makers generally were excessively complex for everyday use, they were prized for producing a clear brew, and were quite popular until the middle of the twentieth century. Vacuum coffee makers remain popular in some parts of Asia, including Japan and Taiwan. The Bauhaus interpretation of this device can be seen in Gerhard Marcks' Sintrax coffee maker of 1925.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Vacuum consolidation (or vacuum preloading) is a soft soil improvement method that has been successfully used by geotechnical engineers and specialists of ground improvement companies in countries such as Australia, China, Korea, Thailand and France for soil improvement or land reclamation. It does not necessarily require surcharge fill and vacuum loads of 80kPa or greater can, typically, be maintained for as long as required.  \nHowever, if loads of 80kPa or greater are needed in order to achieve the target soil improvement, additional surcharge may be placed on top of the vacuum system.  The vacuum preloading method is cheaper and faster than the fill surcharge method for an equivalent load in suitable areas.  Where the underlying ground consists of permeable materials, such as sand or sandy clay, the cost of the technique will be significantly increased due to the requirement of cut-off walls into non-permeable layers to seal off the vacuum.  It has been suggested by Carter et al. (2005) that the settlement resulting from vacuum preloading is less than that from a surcharge load of the same magnitude as vacuum consolidation is influenced by drainage boundary conditions.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Vacuum deposition is a group of processes used to deposit layers of material atom-by-atom or molecule-by-molecule on a solid surface. These processes operate at pressures well below atmospheric pressure (i.e., vacuum). The deposited layers can range from a thickness of one atom up to millimeters, forming freestanding structures. Multiple layers of different materials can be used, for example to form optical coatings. The process can be qualified based on the vapor source; physical vapor deposition uses a liquid or solid source and chemical vapor deposition uses a chemical vapor.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Vacuum distillation is distillation performed under reduced pressure, which allows the purification of compounds not readily distilled at ambient pressures or simply to save time or energy. This technique separates compounds based on differences in their  boiling points. This technique is used when the boiling point of the desired compound is difficult to achieve or will cause the compound to decompose. Reduced pressures decrease the boiling point of compounds. The reduction in boiling point can be calculated using a temperature-pressure nomograph using the Clausius\u2013Clapeyron relation.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Vacuum energy is an underlying background energy that exists in space throughout the entire Universe. The vacuum energy is a special case of zero-point energy that relates to the quantum vacuum.\n\nThe effects of vacuum energy can be experimentally observed in various phenomena such as spontaneous emission, the Casimir effect and the Lamb shift, and are thought to influence the behavior of the Universe on cosmological scales. Using the upper limit of the cosmological constant, the vacuum energy of free space has been estimated to be 10\u22129 joules (10\u22122 ergs), or ~5 GeV per cubic meter. However, in quantum electrodynamics, consistency with the principle of Lorentz covariance and with the magnitude of the Planck constant suggests a much larger value of 10113 joules per cubic meter. This huge discrepancy is known as the cosmological constant problem.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Vacuum evaporation is the process of causing the pressure in a liquid-filled container to be reduced below the vapor pressure of the liquid, causing the liquid to evaporate at a lower temperature than normal. Although the process can be applied to any type of liquid at any vapor pressure, it is generally used to describe the boiling of water by lowering the container's internal pressure below standard atmospheric pressure and causing the water to boil at room temperature.\nThe vacuum evaporation treatment process consists of reducing the interior pressure of the evaporation chamber below atmospheric pressure. This reduces the boiling point of the liquid to be evaporated, thereby reducing or eliminating the need for heat in both the boiling and condensation processes. There are other advantages, such as the ability to distill liquids with high boiling points and avoiding decomposition of substances that are heat sensitive.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Vacuum packing is a method of packaging that removes air from the package prior to sealing. This method involves (manually or automatically) placing items in a plastic film package, removing air from inside and sealing the package. Shrink film is sometimes used to have a tight fit to the contents. The intent of vacuum packing is usually to remove oxygen from the container to extend the shelf life of foods and, with flexible package forms, to reduce the volume of the contents and package.Vacuum packing reduces atmospheric oxygen, limiting the growth of aerobic bacteria or fungi, and preventing the evaporation of volatile components. It is also commonly used to store dry foods over a long period of time, such as cereals, nuts, cured meats, cheese, smoked fish, coffee, and potato chips (crisps). On a more short-term basis, vacuum packing can also be used to store fresh foods, such as vegetables, meats, and liquids, because it inhibits bacterial growth.\nVacuum packing greatly reduces the bulk of non-food items. For example, clothing and bedding can be stored in bags evacuated with a domestic vacuum cleaner or a dedicated vacuum sealer. This technique is sometimes used to compact household waste, for example where a charge is made for each full bag collected.\nVacuum packaging products, using plastic bags, canisters, bottles, or mason jars, are available for home use.\nFor delicate food items that might be crushed by the vacuum packing process (such as potato chips), an alternative is to replace the interior gas with nitrogen. This has the same effect of inhibiting deterioration due to the removal of oxygen.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "A vacuum tube, electron tube, valve (British usage), or tube (North America), is a device that controls electric current flow in a high vacuum between electrodes to which an electric potential difference has been applied.\nThe type known as a thermionic tube or thermionic valve utilizes thermionic emission of electrons from a hot cathode for fundamental electronic functions such as signal amplification and current rectification. Non-thermionic types such as a vacuum phototube, however, achieve electron emission through the photoelectric effect, and are used for such purposes as the detection of light intensities. In both types, the electrons are accelerated from the cathode to the anode by the electric field in the tube.\n\nThe simplest vacuum tube, the diode (i.e. Fleming valve), invented in 1904 by John Ambrose Fleming, contains only a heated electron-emitting cathode and an anode. Electrons can only flow in one direction through the device\u2014from the cathode to the anode. Adding one or more control grids within the tube allows the current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grids.These devices became a key component of electronic circuits for the first half of the twentieth century. They were crucial to the development of radio, television, radar, sound recording and reproduction, long-distance telephone networks, and analog and early digital computers. Although some applications had used earlier technologies such as the spark gap transmitter for radio or mechanical computers for computing, it was the invention of the thermionic vacuum tube that made these technologies widespread and practical, and created the discipline of electronics.In the 1940s, the invention of semiconductor devices made it possible to produce solid-state devices, which are smaller, more efficient, reliable, durable, safer, and more economical than thermionic tubes. Beginning in the mid-1960s, thermionic tubes were being replaced by the transistor. However, the cathode-ray tube (CRT) remained the basis for television monitors and oscilloscopes until the early 21st century. \nThermionic tubes are still used in some applications, such as the magnetron used in microwave ovens, certain high-frequency amplifiers, amplifiers for electric musical instruments such as guitars, as well as high end audio amplifiers, which many audio enthusiasts prefer for their \"warmer\" tube sound.  \nNot all electronic circuit valves/electron tubes are vacuum tubes. Gas-filled tubes are similar devices, but containing a gas, typically at low pressure, which exploit phenomena related to electric discharge in gases, usually without a heater.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "In solid-state physics, the work function (sometimes spelled workfunction) is the minimum thermodynamic work (i.e., energy) needed to remove an electron from a solid to a point in the vacuum immediately outside the solid surface. Here \"immediately\" means that the final electron position is far from the surface on the atomic scale, but still too close to the solid to be influenced by ambient electric fields in the vacuum.\nThe work function is not a characteristic of a bulk material, but rather a property of the surface of the material (depending on crystal face and contamination).", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Lorenzo Arnone Sipari (born 10 October 1973) is an Italian nature writer and historian, author of many studies on the social and environmental history, especially on the origins and foundation of Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Vitaly Valentinovich Bianki (Russian: \u0412\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0301\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u0412\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0438\u0301\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0411\u0438\u0430\u0301\u043d\u043a\u0438; 11 February 1894, St. Petersburg \u2014 10 June 1959, Leningrad) \u2014 was a popular Russian children\u2019s writer and a prolific author of books on nature.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "J\u0101nis Brikmanis (25 February 1940 \u2013 18 April 2019) was a Latvian zoologist, environmental conservationist, radio and television presenter, and writer.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "John Aldridge \"Jack\" Collom (November 8, 1931 \u2013 July 2, 2017) was an American poet, essayist, and creative writing pedagogue. Included among the twenty-five books he published during his lifetime were Red Car Goes By: Selected Poems 1955\u20132000; Poetry Everywhere: Teaching Poetry Writing in School and in the Community; and Second Nature, which won the 2013 Colorado Book Award for Poetry. In the fields of education and creative writing, he was involved in eco-literature, ecopoetics, and writing instruction for children.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Loren Eiseley (September 3, 1907 \u2013 July 9, 1977) was an American anthropologist, educator, philosopher, and natural science writer, who taught and published books from the 1950s through the 1970s. He received many honorary degrees and was a fellow of multiple professional societies. At his death, he was Benjamin Franklin Professor of Anthropology and History of Science at the University of Pennsylvania.\nHe was a \"scholar and writer of imagination and grace,\" whose reputation and accomplishments extended far beyond the campus where he taught for 30 years. Publishers Weekly referred to him as \"the modern Thoreau.\" The broad scope of his writing reflected upon such topics as the mind of Sir Francis Bacon, the prehistoric origins of man, and the contributions of Charles Darwin.\nEiseley's reputation was established primarily through his books, including The Immense Journey (1957), Darwin's Century (1958), The Unexpected Universe (1969), The Night Country (1971), and his memoir, All the Strange Hours (1975). Science author Orville Prescott praised him as a scientist who \"can write with poetic sensibility and with a fine sense of wonder and of reverence before the mysteries of life and nature.\" Naturalist author Mary Ellen Pitts saw his combination of literary and nature writings as his \"quest, not simply for bringing together science and literature ... but a continuation of what the 18th and 19th century British naturalists and Thoreau had done.\" In praise of \"The Unexpected Universe\", Ray Bradbury remarked, \"[Eiseley] is every writer's writer, and every human's human ... One of us, yet most uncommon ...\"  \nAccording to his obituary in the New York Times, the feeling and philosophical motivation of the entire body of Eiseley's work was best expressed in one of his essays, The Enchanted Glass: \"The anthropologist wrote of the need for the contemplative naturalist, a man who, in a less frenzied era, had time to observe, to speculate, and to dream.\" Shortly before his death he received an award from the Boston Museum of Science for his \"outstanding contribution to the public understanding of science\" and another from the U.S. Humane Society for his \"significant contribution for the improvement of life and environment in this country.\"\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Janet Lembke (2 March 1933 \u2013 3 September 2013), n\u00e9e Janet Nutt, was an American author, essayist, naturalist, translator and scholar.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Clare Walker Leslie (born March 1, 1947) is a naturalist, artist, and writer. She is best known for her nature journals. She advocates their use by the wider public.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Faith McNulty (November 28, 1918 \u2013 April 10, 2005) was an American non-fiction author, probably best known for her 1980 literary journalism genre book The Burning Bed. She is also known for her authorship of wildlife pieces and books, including children's books.\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Rose Hamilton Moutray Read  (1870\u20131947) was a British author and horticulturist.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Nature writing is nonfiction or fiction prose or poetry about the natural environment. Nature writing encompasses a wide variety of works, ranging from those that place primary emphasis on natural history facts (such as field guides) to those in which philosophical interpretation predominate. It includes natural history essays, poetry, essays of solitude or escape, as well as travel and adventure writing.Nature writing often draws heavily on scientific information and facts about the natural world; at the same time, it is frequently written in the first person and incorporates personal observations of and philosophical reflections upon nature.\nModern nature writing traces its roots to the works of natural history that were popular in the second half of the 18th century and throughout the 19th. An important early figure was the \"parson-naturalist\" Gilbert White (1720\u20131793), a pioneering English naturalist and ornithologist. He is best known for his Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789).\nWilliam Bartram (1739\u20131823) is a significant early American pioneer naturalist who first work was published in 1791.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Yakov Isidorovich Perelman (Russian: \u042f\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0418\u0441\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u041f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430\u043d; 4 December [O.S. 22 November] 1882 \u2013 16 March 1942) was a Russian and Soviet science writer and author of many popular science books, including Physics Can Be Fun and Mathematics Can Be Fun (both translated from Russian into English).\n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Margaret Renkl (born October 1961) is an American writer and contributing opinion writer for the New York Times who lives in Nashville, Tennessee. Renkl is the author of Late Migrations: A Natural History of Love and Loss. Her weekly opinion columns focus on nature, politics, and culture. \n\n", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Erminio Sipari (1 December 1879 \u2013 28 January 1968) was an Italian politician and naturalist, author of studies on the preservation of nature and founder of Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo, which he chaired from 1922 to 1933.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Anna Tambour is an author of satire, fable and other strange and hard-to-categorize fiction and poetry.\nHer novel Crandolin was shortlisted for the 2013 World Fantasy Award. Tambour's collection Monterra's Deliciosa & Other Tales & was published in 2003, and Spotted Lily, a novel, in 2005. Ebook editions of both of these were published by infinity plus in 2011.", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Henry David Thoreau (July 12, 1817 \u2013 May 6, 1862) was an American naturalist, essayist, poet, and philosopher. A leading transcendentalist, he is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay \"Civil Disobedience\" (originally published as \"Resistance to Civil Government\"), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state.\nThoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry amount to more than 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions are his writings on natural history and philosophy, in which he anticipated the methods and findings of ecology and environmental history, two sources of modern-day environmentalism. His literary style interweaves close observation of nature, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, symbolic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical austerity, and attention to practical detail. He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and illusion in order to discover life's true essential needs.Thoreau was a lifelong abolitionist, delivering lectures that attacked the fugitive slave law while praising the writings of Wendell Phillips and defending the abolitionist John Brown. Thoreau's philosophy of civil disobedience later influenced the political thoughts and actions of such notable figures as Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr.Thoreau is sometimes referred to as an anarchist. In \"Civil Disobedience\", Thoreau wrote: \"I heartily accept the motto,\u2014'That government is best which governs least;' and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe,\u2014'That government is best which governs not at all;' and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have. ... But, to speak practically and as a cit\u00adi\u00adzen, unlike those who call themselves no-gov\u00adernment men, I ask for, not at once no gov\u00adernment, but at once a better government.\"", "label": "Nature"}, {"sentence": "Evolutionary theodicies are responses to the question of animal suffering as an aspect of the problem of evil. These theodicies assert that a universe which contains the beauty and complexity this one does could only come about by the natural processes of evolution, therefore, evolution is the only way the world we now have could have been created: the goodness of creation is, therefore, intrinsically linked to the pain and evil of the evolutionary processes by which such goodness is achieved. As John Polkinghorne argues, the randomness that is a necessary aspect of developing new forms of life is the characteristic which also creates the unintended suffering of those life forms. Natural suffering, then, is defined as an unavoidable and unintentional side effect of developing life. \nThe problem of animal suffering is presented in the form of a logical syllogism or an evidential argument. These theodicies include basic presumptions that evil cannot be defined simply as pain, that the assumed characteristics of the Divine are limited, and that the theory of evolution is factual. Evolutionary theodicists, such as Christopher Southgate, assert that God cares for, and suffers along with, all suffering creatures. Polkinghorne also asserts that human freewill is connected to quantum randomness.\nOpponents of evolutionary theodicies object to the use of eschatology as part of a theodicy, asking why God didn't just create Heaven where there is no suffering in the first place. They question God's purposes in creating a world that necessitates suffering, argue that there are values that do not require evolution in order to develop, and generally object to evolutionary theodicy's basic presuppositions which challenge traditional theology.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Guestbook Project is an international, non-profit housed at Boston College and directed by Richard Kearney and Sheila Gallagher. Its mission is to transform hostility into hospitality through conversation and conflict resolution.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Process thinking, also known as \"the process\", is a philosophy that emphasizes preparation and hard work over consideration of outcomes or results, and is particularly popular in professional sports. Practitioners of process thinking focus on the present instead of past events or future outcomes, and believe that all actions one takes in life, regardless of how trivial they may seem, affect the desired outcome. The philosophy was popularized by American football coach Nick Saban.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Sonic philosophy or the philosophy of sound is a philosophical theory that proposes thinking sonically instead of thinking about sound. It is applied in the investigation of being and the determination of what exists. The materialist sonic philosophy is considered part of aesthetic philosophy and traces the effect of sound on philosophy and draws from the notion that sound is a flux, event, and effect.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Although men have generally dominated philosophical discourse, women have been philosophers throughout the history of the discipline. Ancient examples include Maitreyi (1000 BCE), Gargi Vachaknavi (700 \nBCE), Hipparchia of Maroneia (active c.\u2009325 BCE) and Arete of Cyrene (active 5th\u20134th centuries BCE). Some women philosophers were accepted during the medieval and modern eras, but none became part of the Western canon until the 20th and 21st century, when some sources indicate that Susanne Langer, G.E.M. Anscombe,   Hannah Arendt and Simone de Beauvoir entered the canon.Despite women participating in philosophy throughout history, there exists a gender imbalance in academic philosophy.  This can be attributed to implicit biases against women.  Women have had to overcome workplace obstacles like sexual harassment.  Racial and ethnic minorities are underrepresented in the field of philosophy as well.  Minorities and Philosophy (MAP), the American Philosophical Association, and the Society for Women in Philosophy are all organizations trying to fix the gender imbalance in academic philosophy.\nIn the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and US began admitting women, producing more female academics. Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy, and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities. Women make up as little as 17% of philosophy faculty in some studies. In 2014, Inside Higher Education described the philosophy \"...discipline\u2019s own long history of misogyny and sexual harassment\" of women students and professors. Jennifer Saul, a professor of philosophy at the University of Sheffield, stated in 2015 that women are \"...leaving philosophy after being harassed, assaulted, or retaliated against.\"In the early 1990s, the Canadian Philosophical Association claimed that there is gender imbalance and gender bias in the academic field of philosophy. In June 2013, a US sociology professor stated that \"out of all recent citations in four prestigious philosophy journals, female authors comprise just 3.6 percent of the total.\" The editors of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy have raised concerns about the underrepresentation of women philosophers, and they require editors and writers to ensure they represent the contributions of women philosophers. According to Eugene Sun Park, \"[p]hilosophy is predominantly white and predominantly male. This homogeneity exists in almost all aspects and at all levels of the discipline.\" Susan Price argues that the philosophical \"...canon remains dominated by white males\u2014the discipline that...still hews to the myth that genius is tied to gender.\" According to Saul, \"[p]hilosophy, the oldest of the humanities, is also the malest (and the whitest).  While other areas of the humanities are at or near gender parity, philosophy is actually more overwhelmingly male than even mathematics.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A philosophical theory or philosophical position is a view that attempts to explain or account for a particular problem in philosophy. The use of the term \"theory\" is a statement of colloquial English and not reflective of the term theory. While any sort of thesis or opinion may be termed a position, in analytic philosophy it is thought best to reserve the word \"theory\" for systematic, comprehensive attempts to solve problems.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A priori (from the earlier) and a posteriori (from the later) are Latin phrases used in philosophy to distinguish types of knowledge, justification, or argument by their reliance on empirical evidence or experience. A priori knowledge is independent from current experience (e.g., as part of a new study). Examples include mathematics, tautologies, and deduction from pure reason. A posteriori knowledge depends on empirical evidence. Examples include most fields of science and aspects of personal knowledge.\nThe terms originate from the analytic methods found in Organon, a collection of works by Aristotle. Prior analytics (a priori ) is about deductive logic, which comes from definitions and first principles. Posterior analytics (a posteriori) is about inductive logic, which comes from observational evidence.\nBoth terms appear in Euclid's Elements and were popularized by Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, an influential work in the history of philosophy. Both terms are primarily used as modifiers to the noun \"knowledge\" (i.e. \"a priori knowledge\"). A priori can be used to modify other nouns such as \"truth\". Philosophers may use apriority, apriorist, and aprioricity as nouns referring to the quality of being a priori.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Agathism, from the Greek \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03cc\u03c2 agathos (good) is, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, \"The doctrine that all things tend towards ultimate good, as distinguished from optimism, which holds that all things are now for the best\". An agathist accepts that evil and misfortune will ultimately happen, but that the eventual outcome leads towards the good. In other words, an agathist may see the world as essentially good but a place in which bad things can and do happen to good people.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In the philosophical subdiscipline of ontology, animalism is a theory of personal identity that asserts that human persons are animals. The concept of animalism is advocated by philosophers Eric T. Olson, Peter Van Inwagen, Paul Snowdon, Stephan Blatti, David Hershenov and David Wiggins. The view stands in contrast to positions such as John Locke's psychological criterion for personal identity or various forms of mind\u2013body dualism, such as Richard Swinburne's account. Whilst the animalist is committed to something like the claim that human persons are essentially animals, the animalist is quite content to allow non-human persons, e.g., sufficiently advanced robots, aliens, or other animals.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Anthropocentrism (; from Ancient Greek  \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 (\u00e1nthr\u014dpos) 'human being', and  \u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd (k\u00e9ntron) 'center') is the belief that human beings are the central or most important entity in the universe. The term can be used interchangeably with humanocentrism, and some refer to the concept as human supremacy or human exceptionalism. From an anthropocentric perspective, humankind is seen as separate from nature and superior to it, and other entities (animals, plants, minerals, etc.) are viewed as resources for humans to use.Anthropocentrism interprets or regards the world in terms of human values and experiences. It is considered to be profoundly embedded in many modern human cultures and conscious acts. It is a major concept in the field of environmental ethics and environmental philosophy, where it is often considered to be the root cause of problems created by human action within the ecosphere.\nHowever, many proponents of anthropocentrism state that this is not necessarily the case: they argue that a sound long-term view acknowledges that the global environment must be made continually suitable for humans and that the real issue is shallow anthropocentrism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Archaic mother (primal mother or Ur-mutter) is the mother of earliest infancy, whose continuing influence is traced in psychoanalysis, and whose (repressed) presence is considered to underlie the horror film.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Armchair theorizing, armchair philosophizing, or armchair scholarship is an approach to providing new developments in a field that does not involve primary research and the collection of new information --  but instead analysis or synthesis of existent scholarship, and the term is typically pejorative, implying such scholarship is weak or frivolous.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Artificial philosophy is a philosophical branch conceived by author Louis Molnar to consider what a being bestowed with artificial intelligence (AI) might consider about its own existence once it reaches a higher state of consciousness. The author reasons in his dissertation that at some point, either through programming or organic self-development, robots will not see themselves as extensions of those that created them, and that their saying \"Who am I?\" will not lead them to think of themselves as one with humans. This concept was expressed in Molnar's article A Step Beyond AI: Artificial Philosophy, which was featured in the scientific journal \"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications\". Molnar directly references the statement of famous philosopher Ren\u00e9 Descartes in which he states \"I think, therefore I am\" where he attempts to answer the question of \"How can I prove that I exist?\" This philosophical concept is brought up so that Molnar can give context to the reader, and shine light on the contemplation process he undergoes when questioning the capability of advanced A.I to introspect and think for themselves.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Assemblage (from French: agencement, \"a collection of things which have been gathered together or assembled\") is a concept developed by Gilles Deleuze and F\u00e9lix Guattari, originally presented in their book A Thousand Plateaus (1980). Assemblage theory frames social complexity in the emphasis of fluidity, exchangeability, and the multiple functions through entities that create their connectivity. Assemblage theory asserts that, within a body, the relationships of component parts are not stable and fixed; rather, they can be displaced and replaced within and among other bodies, thus approaching systems through relations of exteriority.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Bagism is a satire of prejudice, where by living in a bag a person could not be judged on their bodily appearance. Bagism was created by John Lennon and Yoko Ono as part of their extensive peace campaign in the late 1960s. The intent of bagism was to satirize prejudice and stereotyping. Bagism involved wearing a bag over one's entire body. According to John and Yoko, by living in a bag, a person could not be judged by others on the basis of skin colour, gender, hair length, attire, age, or any other such attributes. It was presented as a form of total communication: instead of focusing on outward appearance, the listener would hear only the bagist's message.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Bear and the Gardener is a fable of eastern origin that warns against making foolish friendships. There are several variant versions, both literary and oral, across the world and its folk elements are classed as Aarne-Thompson-Uther type 1586. The La Fontaine version has been taken as demonstrating various philosophical lessons.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, being is the material or immaterial existence of a thing. Anything that exists is being. Ontology is the branch of philosophy that studies being. Being is a concept encompassing objective and subjective features of existence. Anything that partakes in being is also called a \"being\", though often this usage is limited to entities that have subjectivity (as in the expression \"human being\"). The notion of \"being\" has been elusive and controversial in the history of philosophy, beginning in Western philosophy with attempts among the pre-Socratics to deploy it intelligibly. The first effort to recognize and define the concept came from Parmenides, who famously said of it that \"what is-is\". Common words such as \"is\", \"are\", and \"am\" refer directly or indirectly to being.\nAs an example of efforts in recent times, the German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889\u20131976) (who himself drew on ancient Greek sources) adopted German terms like Dasein to articulate the topic. Several modern approaches build on such continental European exemplars as Heidegger and apply metaphysical results to the understanding of human psychology and the human condition generally (notably in the existentialist tradition). By contrast, in mainstream analytical philosophy the topic is more confined to abstract investigation, in the work of such influential theorists as W. V. O. Quine (1908\u20132000), to name one of many. One of the most fundamental questions that has been contemplated in various cultures and traditions (e.g., Native American) and continues to exercise philosophers was articulated thus by William James (1842\u20131910) in 1909: \"How comes the world to be here at all instead of the nonentity which might be imagined in its place? ... from nothing to being there is no logical bridge.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Bie-modern is a theory of social form and historical development elaborated by the Chinese philosopher and aesthetician Wang Jianjiang. Specifically, bie-modern theory is based on the difference between the western dynamical development model, which distinguishes three cut-period phases (namely pre-modern, modern and post-modern), and the coexistence model of pre-modern and post-modern in current China. The aim of bie-modern theory is to identify and further explore the specificity of China\u2019s cultural, artistic and aesthetic status, especially compared to the western scenario.\nBie-modern theory has produced an international discussion among scholars. Two research centres have been recently established, respectively the Chinese Bie-Modern Studies (CCBMS) at the Georgia Southwestern State University (2017) and the Bie-modern Research Centre at the University of Primorska (2019)", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Byzantinism, or Byzantism, is the political system and culture of the Byzantine Empire, and its spiritual successors  the Orthodox Christian Balkan countries of Greece and Bulgaria especially, and to a lesser extent Serbia and some other Orthodox countries in Eastern Europe like Belarus, Georgia, Russia and Ukraine. The term byzantinism itself was coined in the 19th century. The term has primarily negative associations, implying complexity and autocracy.This negative reputation stressed the confusing complexities of the Empire's ministries and the elaborateness of its court ceremonies. Likewise, the \"Byzantine system\" also suggests a penchant for intrigue, plots and assassinations and an overall unstable political state of affairs. The term has been criticized by modern scholars for being a generalization that is not very representative of the reality of the Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Casualism is the philosophical view that the universe, its creation and development, is solely based on randomness.The concept can be traced back to Epicurus (341 BC \u2013 270 BC), however most of the original sources dealing with the concept have been lost and most material today is based on Diogenes La\u00ebrtius's  work Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers (c. 3rd century AD), and copies plus developments by Lucretius (c. 99 BC \u2013 c. 55 BC) and Cicero (3 January 106 BC \u2013 7 December 43 BC).Casualism assumes the universe came into existence as a random event, and was not created by any omnipotent entity. Followers have therefore often been accused of atheism. Casualism has certain atheistic traits, but none of the ancient philosophers denied the existence of gods. Epicurus postulates that the gods simply stay out of the day-to-day running of the universe and are not even aware of the existence of man. The philosophy is based on observations of well-known natural phenomena, such as ocean waves or the random fall of rain drops. Casualism is the concept of randomness as a philosophy.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Chemism refers to forces of attraction or adhesion between entities.  It has uses in chemistry and philosophy.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Chronocentrism is the assumption that certain time periods (typically the present) are better, more important, or a more significant frame of reference than other time periods, either past or future. The perception of more positive attributes such as morality, technology, and sophistication to one's own time could lead an individual as a member of a collectivity to impose their forms of time on others and impede the efforts towards more homogeneous temporal commons.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Cosmicism is the literary philosophy developed and used by the American writer H. P. Lovecraft in his weird fiction. Lovecraft was a writer of philosophically intense horror stories that involve occult phenomena like astral possession and alien miscegenation, and the themes of his fiction over time contributed to the development of this philosophy.The philosophy of cosmicism states that \"there is no recognizable divine presence, such as a god, in the universe, and that humans are particularly insignificant in the larger scheme of intergalactic existence.\" The most prominent theme is humanity's fear of their insignificance in the face of an incomprehensibly large universe: a fear of the cosmic void.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Cultural schema theory holds that human beings employ classification to understand members of other cultures, and add new data to previously available categories.  Cultural schemas for social interaction are cognitive structures that contain knowledge for face-to-face interactions in a person's cultural environment. Schemas are generalized collections of knowledge of past experiences that are organized into related knowledge groups; they guide our behaviors in familiar situations. Cultural schemas do not differ from other schemas, except that they are shared by certain cultural groups rather than individuals (Garro, 2000). Schemas unique to individuals are created from personal experiences, whereas those shared by individuals are created from various types of common experiences (Garro, 2000). Cultural schema theory proposes that when we interact with members of the same culture in certain situations many times, or talk about certain information with them many times, cultural schemas are created and stored in our brain (Nishida, 1999).", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy and sociology, culturalism (new humanism or Znaniecki's humanism) is the central importance of culture as an organizing force in human affairs. It is also described as an ontological approach that seeks to eliminate simple binaries between seemingly opposing phenomena such as nature and culture.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Emergent evolution is the hypothesis that, in the course of evolution, some entirely new properties, such as mind and consciousness, appear at certain critical points, usually because of an unpredictable rearrangement of the already existing entities. The term was originated by the psychologist C. Lloyd Morgan in 1922 in his Gifford Lectures at St. Andrews, which would later be published as the 1923 book Emergent Evolution.The hypothesis has been widely criticized for providing no mechanism to how entirely new properties emerge, and for its historical roots in teleology.However, emergent properties in living systems are recognized by contemporary science, in particular by the science of complex systems.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Enactivism is a position in cognitive science that argues that cognition arises through a dynamic interaction between an acting organism and its environment. It claims that the environment of an organism is brought about, or enacted, by the active exercise of that organism's sensorimotor processes. \"The key point, then, is that the species brings forth and specifies its own domain of problems ...this domain does not exist \"out there\" in an environment that acts as a landing pad for organisms that somehow drop or parachute into the world. Instead, living beings and their environments stand in relation to each other through mutual specification or codetermination\" (p. 198).  \"Organisms do not passively receive information from their environments, which they then translate into internal representations. Natural cognitive systems...participate in the generation of meaning ...engaging in transformational and not merely informational interactions: they enact a world.\" These authors suggest that the increasing emphasis upon enactive terminology presages a new era in thinking about cognitive science. How the actions involved in enactivism relate to age-old questions about free will remains a topic of active debate.The term 'enactivism' is close in meaning to 'enaction', defined as \"the manner in which a subject of perception creatively matches its actions to the requirements of its situation\". The introduction of the term enaction in this context is attributed to  Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch in The Embodied Mind (1991), who proposed the name to \"emphasize the growing conviction that cognition is not the representation of a pre-given world by a pre-given mind but is rather the enactment of a world and a mind on the basis of a history of the variety of actions that a being in the world performs\". This was further developed by Thompson and others, to place emphasis upon the idea that experience of the world is a result of mutual interaction between the sensorimotor capacities of the organism and its environment. However, some writers maintain that there remains a need for some degree of the mediating function of representation in this new approach to the science of the mind.The initial emphasis of enactivism upon sensorimotor skills has been criticized as \"cognitively marginal\", but it has been extended to apply to higher level cognitive activities, such as social interactions. \"In the enactive view,... knowledge is constructed: it is constructed by an agent through its sensorimotor interactions with its environment, co-constructed between and within living species through their meaningful interaction with each other. In its most abstract form, knowledge is co-constructed between human individuals in socio-linguistic interactions...Science is a particular form of social knowledge construction...[that] allows us to perceive and predict events beyond our immediate cognitive grasp...and also to construct further, even more powerful scientific knowledge.\"Enactivism is closely related to situated cognition and embodied cognition, and is presented as an alternative to cognitivism, computationalism, and Cartesian dualism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Exclusivism is the practice of being exclusive; mentality characterized by the disregard for opinions and ideas which are different from one's own, or the practice of organizing entities into groups by excluding those entities which possess certain traits.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Godai (\u4e94\u5927, lit. \"five \u2013 great, large, physical, form\") are the five elements in Japanese Buddhist thought of earth (chi), water (sui), fire (ka), wind (fu), and void (ku). The concept is related to Buddhist Mah\u0101bh\u016bta and came over China from India.The Japanese Buddhist concept of gogyo, which stems from Chinese wuxing, is distinguishable from godai by the fact that the functional phases of wood and metal within gogyo are replaced by the formative elements of void and the wind (air) in godai. Godai is attributed to esoteric Japanese Buddhism during the eleventh century CE in relation to the idea of gorin (the \"five wheels\" or the \"five rings\"). Godai and gorin are also seen within the practice of ninjutsu, where these principles became an essential aspect of the esoteric ninja teachings (the ninpo-mikkyo); whereas the theory of gogyo moved into the functional theory of traditional Japanese medicine and exoteric Buddhism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The hierarchy of the sciences is a theory formulated by Auguste Comte in the 19th century. This theory states that science develops over time beginning with the simplest and most general scientific discipline, astronomy, which is the first to reach the \"positive stage\" (one of three in Comte's law of three stages). As one moves up the \"hierarchy\", this theory further states that sciences become more complex and less general, and that they will reach the positive stage later. Disciplines further up the hierarchy are said to depend more on the developments of their predecessors; the highest discipline on the hierarchy are the social sciences. According to this theory, there are higher levels of consensus and faster rates of advancement in physics and other natural sciences than there are in the social sciences.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Holism (from Ancient Greek  \u1f45\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 (h\u00f3los) 'all, whole, entire', and  -ism) is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts. The term \"holism\" was coined by Jan Smuts in his 1926 book Holism and Evolution.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially as held for reasons that are not purely epistemic, in which \"practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones.\" Formerly applied primarily to economic, political, or religious theories and policies, in a tradition going back to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, more recent use treats the term as mainly condemnatory.The term was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy, a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher, who conceived it in 1796 as the \"science of ideas\" to develop a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. In political science, the term is used in a descriptive sense to refer to political belief systems.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The internal measurement refers to the quantum measurement realized by the endo-observer. Quantum measurement represents the action of a measuring device on the measured system. When the measuring device is a part of measured system, the measurement proceeds internally in relation to the whole system. This theory was introduced by Koichiro Matsuno and developed by Yukio-Pegio Gunji. They further expanded the original ideas of Robert Rosen and Howard Pattee on the quantum measurement in living systems viewed as natural internal observers that belong to the same scale of the observed objects. According to Matsuno, the internal measurement is accompanied by the redistribution of probabilities that leave them entangled in accordance with the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics by Everett. However, this form of quantum entanglement does not survive in the external measurement in which the mapping to real numbers takes place and the result is revealed in the classical time-space as the Copenhagen interpretation suggests. This means that the internal measurement concept unifies the alternative interpretations of quantum mechanics.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings. In psychology, the process of introspection relies on the observation of one's mental state, while in a spiritual context it may refer to the examination of one's soul. Introspection is closely related to human self-reflection and self-discovery and is contrasted with external observation.\nIntrospection generally provides a privileged access to one's own mental states, not mediated by other sources of knowledge, so that individual experience of the mind is unique. Introspection can determine any number of mental states including: sensory, bodily, cognitive, emotional and so forth.Introspection has been a subject of philosophical discussion for thousands of years. The philosopher Plato asked, \"\u2026why should we not calmly and patiently review our own thoughts, and thoroughly examine and see what these appearances in us really are?\" While introspection is applicable to many facets of philosophical thought it is perhaps best known for its role in epistemology; in this context introspection is often compared with perception, reason, memory, and testimony as a source of knowledge.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Ironism (n. ironist; from Greek: eiron, eironeia) is a term coined by Richard Rorty, for the concept that allows rhetorical scholars to actively participate in political practices. It is described as a modernist literary intellectual's project of fashioning the best possible self through continual redescription. With this concept, Rorty argues for a contingency that rejects necessity and universality in relation to the ideas of language, self, and community.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Kantianism is the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher born in K\u00f6nigsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). The term Kantianism or Kantian is sometimes also used to describe contemporary positions in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and ethics.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Krausism is a doctrine named after the German philosopher Karl Christian Friedrich Krause (1781\u20131832) that advocates doctrinal tolerance and academic freedom from dogma. \nOne of the philosophers of identity, Krause endeavoured to reconcile the ideas of a monotheistic singular God (as understood by faith) with a pantheistic or empirical understanding of the world. According to Krause, divinity, which is intuitively known by conscience, is not a personality (because personality implies limitations), but an all-inclusive essence (Wesen), which contains the universe within itself. This cosmology and theory of the nature of God, known as panentheism, is a combination of monotheism and pantheism. Krause's theory of the world and of humanity is a form of philosophical idealism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The lexical hypothesis (also known as the fundamental lexical hypothesis, lexical approach, or sedimentation hypothesis) is a thesis, current primarily in early personality psychology, and subsequently subsumed by many later efforts in that subfield. Despite some variation in its definition and application, the hypothesis is generally defined by two postulates. The first states that those personality characteristics that are important to a group of people will eventually become a part of that group's language. The second follows from the first, stating that more important personality characteristics are more likely to be encoded into language as a single word. With origins in the late 19th century, use of the lexical hypothesis began to flourish in English and German psychology in the early 20th century. The lexical hypothesis is a major foundation of the Big Five personality traits, the HEXACO model of personality structure and the 16PF Questionnaire and has been used to study the structure of personality traits in a number of cultural and linguistic settings.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A person's life stance, or lifestance, is their relation with what they accept as being of ultimate importance. It involves the presuppositions and theories upon which such a stance could be made, a belief system, and a commitment to potentials working it out in one's life.It connotes an integrated perspective on reality as a whole and how to assign valuations, thus being a concept similar or equivalent to that of a worldview; with the latter word (derived from the German Weltanschauung) being generally a more common and comprehensive term. Like the term worldview, the term life stance is a shared label encompassing both religious perspectives (for instance: \"a Buddhist life stance\"  or \"a Christian life stance\" or \"a Pagan life stance\"), as well as non-religious spiritual or philosophical alternatives (for instance: \"a humanist life stance\" or \"a personist life stance\" or \"a Deep Ecology life stance\"), without discrimination in favour of any.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Philosophical schools of thought and philosophical movements.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Logos (UK: , US: ; Ancient Greek: \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, romanized: l\u00f3gos; from \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03c9, l\u00e9g\u014d, lit.\u2009''I say'') is a term in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion derived from a Greek word variously meaning \"ground\", \"plea\", \"opinion\", \"expectation\", \"word\", \"speech\", \"account\", \"reason\", \"proportion\", and \"discourse\".The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that Logos is \"frequently translated as some variation of \u2018logic or reasoning, but it originally referred to the actual content of a speech and how it was organized. Today, many people may discuss the logos qualities of a text to refer to how strong the logic or reasoning of the text is. But logos more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself. In this resource, logos means \u201ctext.\u201d\u201d", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Some Marxists posit what they deem to be Karl Marx's theory of human nature, which they accord an important place in his critique of capitalism, his conception of communism, and his 'materialist conception of history'. Marx, however, does not refer to human nature as such, but to Gattungswesen, which is generally translated as 'species-being' or 'species-essence'. According to a note from Marx in the Manuscripts of 1844, the term is derived from Ludwig Feuerbach's philosophy, in which it refers both to the nature of each human and of humanity as a whole.However, in the sixth Theses on Feuerbach (1845), Marx criticizes the traditional conception of human nature as a species which incarnates itself in each individual, instead arguing that human nature is formed by the totality of social relations. Thus, the whole of human nature is not understood, as in classical idealist philosophy, as permanent and universal: the species-being is always determined in a specific social and historical formation, with some aspects being biological. According to Professor Emeritus David Ruccio, a transhistorical concept of \"human nature\" would be eschewed by Marx who wouldn't accept any transhistorical or transcultural \"human nature.\" much in the same way as in Marxian critique of political economy.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A meme ( MEEM) is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads by means of imitation from person to person within a culture and often carries symbolic meaning representing a particular phenomenon or theme. A meme acts as a unit for carrying cultural ideas, symbols, or practices, that can be transmitted from one mind to another through writing, speech, gestures, rituals, or other imitable phenomena with a mimicked theme. Supporters of the concept regard memes as cultural analogues to genes in that they self-replicate, mutate, and respond to selective pressures. In popular language, a meme may refer to an Internet meme, typically an image, that is remixed, copied, and circulated in a shared cultural experience online.Proponents theorize that memes are a viral phenomenon that may evolve by natural selection in a manner analogous to that of biological evolution. Memes do this through the processes of variation, mutation, competition, and inheritance, each of which influences a meme's reproductive success. Memes spread through the behavior that they generate in their hosts. Memes that propagate less prolifically may become extinct, while others may survive, spread, and (for better or for worse) mutate. Memes that replicate most effectively enjoy more success, and some may replicate effectively even when they prove to be detrimental to the welfare of their hosts.A field of study called memetics arose in the 1990s to explore the concepts and transmission of memes in terms of an evolutionary model. Criticism from a variety of fronts has challenged the notion that academic study can examine memes empirically. However, developments in neuroimaging may make empirical study possible. Some commentators in the social sciences question the idea that one can meaningfully categorize culture in terms of discrete units, and are especially critical of the biological nature of the theory's underpinnings. Others have argued that this use of the term is the result of a misunderstanding of the original proposal.The word meme itself is a neologism coined by Richard Dawkins, originating from his 1976 book The Selfish Gene. Dawkins's own position is somewhat ambiguous. He welcomed N. K. Humphrey's suggestion that \"memes should be considered as living structures, not just metaphorically\" and proposed to regard memes as \"physically residing in the brain.\" Although Dawkins said his original intentions had been simpler, he approved Humphrey's opinion and he endorsed Susan Blackmore's 1999 project to give a scientific theory of memes, complete with predictions and empirical support.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Metafiction is a form of fiction which emphasises its own constructedness in a way that continually reminds the audience to be aware they are reading or viewing a fictional work. Metafiction is self-conscious about language, literary form, and story-telling, and works of metafiction directly or indirectly draw attention to their status as artifacts. Metafiction is frequently used as a form of parody or a tool to undermine literary conventions and explore the relationship between literature and reality, life, and art.Although metafiction is most commonly associated with postmodern literature that developed in the mid-20th century, its use can be traced back to much earlier works of fiction, such as The Canterbury Tales (Geoffrey Chaucer, 1387), Don Quixote (Miguel de Cervantes, 1605), The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (Laurence Sterne, 1759), Vanity Fair (William Makepeace Thackeray, 1847). \nMetafiction became particularly prominent in the 1960s, with works such as Lost in the Funhouse by John Barth, \"The Babysitter\" and \"The Magic Poker\" by Robert Coover,  Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut, The French Lieutenant's Woman by John Fowles, The Crying of Lot 49 by Thomas Pynchon, and Willie Master's Lonesome Wife by William H. Gass.\nSince the 1980s, contemporary Latino literature has an abundance of self-reflexive, metafictional works, including novels and short stories by Junot D\u00edaz (The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao), Sandra Cisneros (Caramelo), Salvador Plascencia (The People of Paper), Carmen Maria Machado (Her Body), Rita Indiana (Tentacle), and Valeria Luiselli (Lost Children Archive).", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Neo-Aristotelianism is a view of literature and rhetorical criticism propagated by the Chicago School \u2014 Ronald S. Crane, Elder Olson, Richard McKeon, Wayne Booth, and others \u2014 which means.\n\n\"A view of literature and criticism which takes a pluralistic attitude toward the history of literature and seeks to view literary works and critical theories intrinsically\"\n\nNeo-Aristotelianism was one of the first rhetorical methods of criticism. Its central features were first suggested in Herbert A. Wichelns' \"The Literary Criticism of Oratory\" in 1925. It focused on analyzing the methodology behind a speaker's ability to convey an idea to its audience. In 1943, Neo-Aristotelianism was further publicized, gaining popularity after William Norwood Brigance published A History and Criticism of American Public Address.Unlike rhetorical criticism, which concentrates on the study of speeches and the immediate effect of rhetoric on an audience, Neo-Aristotelianism \"led to the study of a single speaker because the sheer number of topics to cover relating to the rhetor and the speech made dealing with more than a single speaker virtually impossible. Thus, various speeches by different rhetors related by form of topic were not included in the scope of rhetorical criticism.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Neo-medievalism (or neomedievalism, new medievalism) is a term with a long history that has acquired specific technical senses in two branches of scholarship. In political theory about modern international relations, where the term is originally associated with Hedley Bull, it sees the political order of a globalized world as analogous to high-medieval Europe, where neither states nor the Church, nor other territorial powers, exercised full sovereignty, but instead participated in complex, overlapping and incomplete sovereignties.In literary theory regarding the use and abuse of texts and tropes from the Middle Ages in postmodernity, the term neomedieval was popularized by the Italian medievalist Umberto Eco in his 1986 essay \"Dreaming of the Middle Ages\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Obscurantism and obscurationism ( or ) describe the practice of deliberately presenting information in an imprecise, abstruse manner designed to limit further inquiry and understanding. There are two historical and intellectual denotations of obscurantism: (1) the deliberate restriction of knowledge\u2014opposition to disseminating knowledge; and (2) deliberate obscurity\u2014a recondite literary or artistic style, characterized by deliberate vagueness.The term obscurantism derives from the title of the 16th-century satire Epistol\u00e6 Obscurorum Virorum (Letters of Obscure Men, 1515\u20131519), which was based upon the intellectual dispute between the German humanist Johann Reuchlin and the monk Johannes Pfefferkorn of the Dominican Order, about whether or not all Jewish books should be burned as un-Christian heresy. Earlier, in 1509, the monk Pfefferkorn had obtained permission from Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (1486\u20131519), to burn all copies of the Talmud (Jewish law and Jewish ethics) known to be in the Holy Roman Empire (AD 926\u20131806); the Letters of Obscure Men satirized the Dominican arguments for burning un-Christian works.\nIn the 18th century, Enlightenment philosophers applied the term obscurantist to any enemy of intellectual enlightenment and the liberal diffusion of knowledge. In the 19th century, in distinguishing the varieties of obscurantism found in metaphysics and theology from the \"more subtle\" obscurantism of the critical philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and of modern philosophical skepticism, Friedrich Nietzsche said: \"The essential element in the black art of obscurantism is not that it wants to darken individual understanding, but that it wants to blacken our picture of the world, and darken our idea of existence.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Optimism is an attitude reflecting a belief or hope that the outcome of some specific endeavor, or outcomes in general, will be positive, favorable, and desirable. A common idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass filled with water to the halfway point: an optimist is said to see the glass as half full, while a pessimist sees the glass as half empty.\nThe term derives from the Latin optimum, meaning \"best\". Being optimistic, in the typical sense of the word, is defined as expecting the best possible outcome from any given situation. This is usually referred to in psychology as dispositional optimism. It thus reflects a belief that future conditions will work out for the best. For this reason, it is seen as a trait that fosters resilience in the face of stress.Theories of optimism include dispositional models and models of explanatory style. Methods to measure optimism have been developed within both of these theoretical approaches, such as various forms of the Life Orientation Test for the original dispositional definition of optimism and the Attributional Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism in terms of explanatory style.\nVariation in optimism and pessimism is somewhat heritable and reflects biological trait systems to some degree. It is also influenced by environmental factors, including family environment, with some suggesting it can be learned. Optimism may also be linked to health.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A paradigm shift, a concept brought into the common lexicon by the American physicist and philosopher Thomas Kuhn, is a fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline. Even though Kuhn restricted the use of the term to the natural sciences, the concept of a paradigm shift has also been used in numerous non-scientific contexts to describe a profound change in a fundamental model or perception of events.\nKuhn presented his notion of a paradigm shift in his influential book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962).\nKuhn contrasts paradigm shifts, which characterize a Scientific Revolution, to the activity of normal science, which he describes as scientific work done within a prevailing framework or paradigm. Paradigm shifts arise when the dominant paradigm under which normal science operates is rendered incompatible with new phenomena, facilitating the adoption of a new theory or paradigm.As one commentator summarizes:\n\nKuhn acknowledges having used the term \"paradigm\" in two different meanings. In the first one, \"paradigm\" designates what the members of a certain scientific community have in common, that is to say, the whole of techniques, patents and values shared by the members of the community. In the second sense, the paradigm is a single element of a whole, say for instance Newton\u2019s Principia, which, acting as a common model or an example... stands for the explicit rules and thus defines a coherent tradition of investigation. Thus the question is for Kuhn to investigate by means of the paradigm what makes possible the constitution of what he calls \"normal science\". That is to say, the science which can decide if a certain problem will be considered scientific or not. Normal science does not mean at all a science guided by a coherent system of rules, on the contrary, the rules can be derived from the paradigms, but the paradigms can guide the investigation also in the absence of rules. This is precisely the second meaning of the term \"paradigm\", which Kuhn considered the most new and profound, though it is in truth the oldest.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Part\u2013whole theory is the name of a loose collection of historical theories, all informal and nearly all unwitting, relating wholes to their parts via inclusion. Part\u2013whole theory has been overtaken by mereology.\nMetaphysics, especially ontology, has invoked part\u2013whole concepts ever since Aristotle founded the subject.\nHusserl (1970) (German original first published in 1901) was the first to consciously elaborate a part\u2013whole theory (on which see Tieszen 1995). However he employed no symbolism or logic, even though his doctorate was in mathematics and Georg Cantor was his friend and colleague; Husserl wrote only for his fellow philosophers.\n19th century mathematicians became dimly aware that they were invoking a part\u2013whole theory of sorts only after Cantor and Peano first articulated set theory. Before then, mathematicians often confused inclusion and set membership. Grattan-Guinness (2000) appears to have been the first to draw attention to this unwitting part\u2013whole theory.\nPeano was among the first to articulate clearly the distinction between an element of a given set, and being a subset of that set. A subset of a set is usually not also a member of that set. However, the members of a subset are all members of the set. In set theory, a singleton cannot be identified with its member. In part\u2013whole theory and mereology, this identification necessarily holds.\nThe Cantor\u2013Peano concept of set did not become canonical until about 1910, when the first volume of Principia Mathematica appeared, and right after Ernst Zermelo proposed the first axiomatization of set theory in 1908. \nStarting in 1916, and culminating in his 1929 Process and Reality, A. N. Whitehead published several books invoking part\u2013whole concepts of varying degrees of formality; see Whitehead's point-free geometry.\nPart\u2013whole theory has been superseded by a collection of fully formal theories called mereology, Stanislaw Lesniewski's term for a formal part\u2013whole theory he began expositing in 1912. Over the course of the 20th century, a number of Polish logicians and mathematicians contributed to this \"Polish mereology.\" Even though Polish mereology is now only of historical interest, the word \"mereology\" endures as the name of a collection of first order theories relating parts to their respective wholes. These theories, unlike set theory, can be proved sound and complete.\nNearly all work that has appeared since 1970 under the heading of mereology descends from the 1940 calculus of individuals of Henry Leonard and Nelson Goodman. Simons (1987) is a survey of mereology aimed at philosophers.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, a point of view is a specific attitude or manner through which a person thinks about something. This figurative usage of the expression dates back to 1760. \nIn this meaning, the usage is synonymous with one of the meanings of the term perspective (also epistemic perspective).The concept of the \"point of view\" is highly multifunctional and ambiguous. Many things may be judged from certain personal, traditional or moral points of view (as in \"beauty is in the eye of the beholder\"). Our knowledge about reality is often relative to a certain point of view.V\u00e1zquez Campos and Manuel Liz Gutierrez suggested to analyse the concept of \"point of view\" using two approaches: one based on the concept of \"propositional attitudes\", the other on the concepts of \"location\" and \"access\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Postanalytic philosophy describes a detachment from the mainstream philosophical movement of analytic philosophy, which is the predominant school of thought in English-speaking countries. Postanalytic philosophy derives mainly from contemporary American thought, especially from the works of philosophers Richard Rorty, Donald Davidson, Hilary Putnam, W. V. O. Quine, and Stanley Cavell. The term is closely associated with the much broader movement of contemporary American pragmatism, which advocates a detachment from the context-invariant variety of 'objective truth' promulgated by early modern philosophers such as Descartes. All or almost all philosophers associated with this detachment from analytic philosophy have been in some way influenced by the thought of the later Wittgenstein, who is often seen as pre-emptively dissolving the analytical approach from within. Postanalytic philosophers emphasize the contingency of human thought, convention, utility, social progress, and are generally hesitant to develop and defend positive theses.\nA relatively recent resurgence of interest in ordinary language philosophy, particularly due to the literature and teachings of Cavell, has also become a mainstay of what might be called postanalytic philosophy. Seeking to avoid the increasingly metaphysical and abstruse language found in mainstream analytic philosophy, posthumanism, and post-structuralism, a number of feminist philosophers have adopted the methods of ordinary language philosophy. Many of these philosophers were students or colleagues of Cavell. This approach may be compared and contrasted with neopragmatism, a tradition which owes much to Rorty, although Quine and Wilfrid Sellars may be thought of as precursors of this development.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Posthumanism or post-humanism (meaning \"after humanism\" or \"beyond humanism\") is a term with at least seven definitions according to philosopher Francesca Ferrando:\nAntihumanism: any theory that is critical of traditional humanism and traditional ideas about humanity and the human condition.\nCultural posthumanism: a branch of cultural theory critical of the foundational assumptions of humanism and its legacy that examines and questions the historical notions of \"human\" and \"human nature\", often challenging typical notions of human subjectivity and embodiment and strives to move beyond archaic concepts of \"human nature\" to develop ones which constantly adapt to contemporary technoscientific knowledge.\nPhilosophical posthumanism: a philosophical direction that draws on cultural posthumanism, the philosophical strand examines the ethical implications of expanding the circle of moral concern and extending subjectivities beyond the human species.\nPosthuman condition: the deconstruction of the human condition by critical theorists.\nPosthuman transhumanism: a transhuman ideology and movement which seeks to develop and make available technologies that eliminate aging, enable immortality and greatly enhance human intellectual, physical, and psychological capacities, in order to achieve a \"posthuman future\".\nAI takeover: A variant of transhumanism in which humans will not be enhanced, but rather eventually replaced by artificial intelligences. Some philosophers, including Nick Land, promote the view that humans should embrace and accept their eventual demise. This is related to the view of \"cosmism\", which supports the building of strong artificial intelligence even if it may entail the end of humanity, as in their view it \"would be a cosmic tragedy if humanity freezes evolution at the puny human level\".\nVoluntary Human Extinction, which seeks a \"posthuman future\" that in this case is a future without humans.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "\"Pragmaticism\" is a term used by Charles Sanders Peirce for his pragmatic philosophy starting in 1905, in order to distance himself and it from pragmatism, the original name, which had been used in a manner he did not approve of in the \"literary journals\". Peirce in 1905 announced his coinage \"pragmaticism\", saying that it was \"ugly enough to be safe from kidnappers\" (Collected Papers (CP) 5.414). Today, outside of philosophy, \"pragmatism\" is often taken to refer to a compromise of aims or principles, even a ruthless search for mercenary advantage. Peirce gave other or more specific reasons for the distinction in a surviving draft letter that year and in later writings. Peirce's pragmatism, that is, pragmaticism, differed in Peirce's view from other pragmatisms by its commitments to the spirit of strict logic, the immutability of truth, the reality of infinity, and the difference between (1) actively willing to control thought, to doubt, to weigh reasons, and (2) willing not to exert the will, willing to believe. In his view his pragmatism is, strictly speaking, not itself a whole philosophy, but instead a general method for the clarification of ideas. He first publicly formulated his pragmatism as an aspect of scientific logic along with principles of statistics and modes of inference in his \"Illustrations of the Logic of Science\" series of articles in 1877-8.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Pre-theoretical belief has been an important notion in some areas of linguistics and philosophy, especially phenomenology and older versions of \u201cordinary language\u201d philosophy. It is often assumed, rightly or wrongly, that language depends on mental concepts, and that certain concepts are innate. These innate concepts provide sources of very basic linguistic competency, available to any natural language speaker that enables more complex forms of language use, including philosophical, scientific, or other types of technical language. These basic concepts, in combination, may form basic propositional attitudes about things and events. Often \u201cpre-theoretical belief\u201d refers to these basic propositional attitudes. Also, \u201cpre-theoretical beliefs\u201d may refer to simple intuitions.\nPre-theoretic belief is a term used in philosophical arguments for and against libertarianism and determinism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In Christianity, providentialism is the belief that all events on Earth are controlled by God.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Ranking theory is a theory in formal epistemology that represents the agent's epistemic state by a ranking function. It could represent the qualitative and quantitative nature of belief.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Rationality is the quality or state of being rational \u2013 that is, being based on or agreeable to reason. Rationality implies the conformity of one's beliefs with one's reasons to believe, and of one's actions with one's reasons for action. \"Rationality\" has different specialized meanings in philosophy, economics, sociology, psychology, evolutionary biology, game theory and political science.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Reconstructivism is a philosophical theory holding that societies should continually reform themselves in order to establish better governments or social networks. This ideology involves recombining or recontextualizing the ideas arrived at by the philosophy of deconstruction, in which an existing system or medium is broken into its smallest meaningful elements and in which these elements are used to build a new system or medium  free from the strictures of the original.\nSome thinkers have attempted to ascribe the term Reconstructivism to the post-postmodern art movement. In an essay by Chris Sunami, (\"Art Essays: Reconstructivist Art\") \"reconstructivist art\" is described as follows:\nA reconstructivist art work builds upon prior, deconstructionist artworks and techniques, but adapts them to classic themes and structures, with the goal of creating works of genuine emotion and significance. In this way, reconstructivism (when it works) combines the vitality and originality of deconstructionism with the comforts, pleasures and rewards of classicism. The overall purpose of reconstructivism is to reawaken a sense of the Real in a world where everything has been demonstrated to be an illusion.\nOne of the examples Sunami provides of this technique is the way some modern music incorporates deconstructed samples of older music and combines and arranges the samples in a new way as part of a new composition.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Reflectivism is a broad umbrella label, used primarily in International Relations theory, for a range of theoretical approaches which oppose rational-choice accounts of social phenomena and, perhaps, positivism more generally.  The label was popularised by Robert Keohane in his presidential address to the International Studies Association in 1988. The address was entitled \"International Institutions: Two Approaches\", and contrasted two broad approaches to the study of international institutions (and international phenomena more generally).  One was \"rationalism\", the other what Keohane referred to as \"reflectivism\".  Rationalists \u2014 including realists, neo-realists, liberals, neo-liberals, and scholars using game-theoretic or expected-utility models \u2014 are theorists who adopt the broad theoretical and ontological commitments of rational-choice theory.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Relationalism is any theoretical position that gives importance to the relational nature of things. For relationalism, things exist and function only as relational entities. Relationalism may be contrasted with relationism, which tends to emphasize relations per se.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Russian cosmism, also cosmism, is a philosophical and cultural movement that emerged in Russia at the turn of the 19th century, and again, at the beginning of the 20th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, there was a burst of scientific investigation into interplanetary travel, largely driven by fiction writers such as Jules Verne and H. G. Wells as well as philosophical movements like the Russian cosmism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Anthropic Bias: Observation Selection Effects in Science and Philosophy (2002) is a book by philosopher Nick Bostrom. Bostrom investigates how to reason when one suspects that evidence is biased by \"observation selection effects\", in other words, when the evidence presented has been pre-filtered by the condition that there was some appropriately positioned observer to \"receive\" the evidence. This conundrum is sometimes called the \"anthropic principle,\" \"self-locating belief,\" or \"indexical information\". Discussed concepts include the self-sampling assumption and the self-indication assumption.\nAs of February 2020, digital copies of the text can be obtained for free on Bostrom's personal webpage.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Anthropic Bias: Observation Selection Effects in Science and Philosophy (2002) is a book by philosopher Nick Bostrom. Bostrom investigates how to reason when one suspects that evidence is biased by \"observation selection effects\", in other words, when the evidence presented has been pre-filtered by the condition that there was some appropriately positioned observer to \"receive\" the evidence. This conundrum is sometimes called the \"anthropic principle,\" \"self-locating belief,\" or \"indexical information\". Discussed concepts include the self-sampling assumption and the self-indication assumption.\nAs of February 2020, digital copies of the text can be obtained for free on Bostrom's personal webpage.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Social ecology is a philosophical theory about the relationship between ecological and social issues. Associated with the social theorist Murray Bookchin, it emerged from a time in the mid-1960s, under the emergence of both the global environmental and the American civil rights movements, and played a much more visible role from the upward movement against nuclear power by the late 1970s. It presents ecological problems as arising mainly from social problems, in particular from different forms of hierarchy and domination, and seeks to resolve them through the model of a society adapted to human development and the biosphere. It is a theory of radical political ecology based on communalism, which opposes the current capitalist system of production and consumption. It aims to set up a moral, decentralized, united society, guided by reason. While Bookchin distanced himself from anarchism later in his life, the philosophical theory of social ecology is often considered to be a form of eco-anarchism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Swami Vivekananda was a Hindu from India. His teachings and philosophy are a reinterpretation and synthesis of various strands of Hindu thought, most notably classical yoga and (Advanta) Vedanta, with western esotericism and Universalism. He blended religion with nationalism, and applied this reinterpretation to various aspect's of education, faith, character building as well as social issues pertaining to India. His influence extended also to the west, and he was instrumental in introducing Yoga to the west.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy and particularly political philosophy, theoreticism is the preference for theory over practice (or, more broadly, abstract knowledge over concrete action), or a philosophical position which would lead to such a preference.\nThe term is often used pejoratively.  In Marxist philosophy, for instance, theoreticism is often identified as a political error, valorizing the efforts of academic Marxism over those of revolutionary struggle.  Louis Althusser, for instance, criticized his own early work for theoreticism.  In phenomenology, theoreticism would be something closer to the over-valuing of knowledge at the cost of losing a proper appreciation of experience.  Martin Heidegger claimed this trend was begun by Plato, and that it continued in an \"intensification and hardening of 'theoreticism', the drive toward technical and objectifying modes of knowledge and, with it, the oblivion of any more primordial or more reverential kind of existence.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Transactionalism is a pragmatic philosophical approach; a process of social exchange considered a fundamental condition of human interaction. In this philosophy, human interactions are best understood as a set of simple to complex transactions. A transaction is a reciprocal and co-constitutive cycle of interchanges aimed at satisfying (or at least getting fit) in a specific condition of life like health, work, money, or career, among many others.\nA transactionalist approach demands an \"un-fractured observation\" of life as an organism that is influenced by and is influencing its environment and/or ecology. By considering one's self in a situation as if an organism inseparable from its environment, hyphenated as \"organism-environment,\" one begins to recognize that any outcome is \"determined by prior causes and articulated ends\" not merely the intention or the end goal of an individual. This philosophical approach has correlation to Hannah Arendt's notion of human being as \"political animal\" (\"Zoon Politikon\") that should attend to the \"labor, work, and action\" beyond merely articulating an aspiration or a goal.It is critical that an organism-environment keep in mind how \"consequences and outcomes\" determine the satisfaction of any human endeavor. We must take into account that we as a human being in transaction; we are embedded in and constituted by not only our intentions but by the specific condition of our biology, our narratives of exchange, and the social situation including tangible resources like tools and applications, intangible resources like time and place, and the human resources of others in transaction with us. \nBeyond one's conscious intention, three aspects of experience \u2014 the observer, the process of observing, and the thing observed in a situation\u2014 are all \"affected by whatever merits or defects [the situation in which an organism-environment is operating] may prove to have when it is judged\".A transactionalist holds that all human acts, including learning, are best understood as \"entities\" within a larger transactional whole. The transactional whole is shaped by our health as an organism as well as the health of others (e.g., our biology as a living organisms). It is shaped by language in transactional communication with others (e.g.,linguistic narratives). It is shaped and affected by one's fitness in satisfying certain needs through a social and ethical exchange of trans-actional  (rather than self-actional or inter-actional) behavior in conditions of life such as reputation, politics (small and large), and ethics, for example. \nHuman satisfaction is shaped by our body's well being inescapably linked to an ecology, shared and/or invented discourses and ideologies, and the fitness of our ability to trans-act: to make real the conditions for living a satisfying life in ever-changing societies and environments. Transactionalism functions as a means of \"controlled inquiry\" into the every-complex nature and interactions of daily life.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, transcendence is the basic ground concept from the word's literal meaning (from Latin), of climbing or going beyond, albeit with varying connotations in its different historical and cultural stages. It includes philosophies, systems, and approaches that describe the fundamental structures of being, not as an ontology (theory of being), but as the framework of emergence and validation of knowledge of being. \"Transcendental\" is a word derived from the scholastic, designating the extra-categorical attributes of beings.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Transcendental Humanism in philosophy considers humans as simultaneously the originator of meaning, and subject to a larger ultimate truth that exists beyond the human realm (transcendence). The philosophy suggests that the humanistic approach is guided by \u201caccuracy, truth, discovery, and objectivity\u201d that transcends or exists apart from subjectivity.\nThe term is associated predominantly with the work of philosopher Immanuel Kant and his theory Kant's Copernican. However, the theory is both heavily influenced by and reflected in the work of other well-known theorists, including Rousseau, Emerson, and HusserlTranscendental humanism can be largely traced back to Continental Rationalism and British Empiricism in the 17th and 18th centuries. This formed the basis of philosophical thought that inspired transcendental humanist thinking through the amalgamation of logical rationalism and psychological empiricism.Kant's theory of transcendental humanism has been subject to criticism by academics for its paradoxical position that has caused misinterpretation of the theory. In the world of academia, critiques have engaged in profound discussion and debate around the meaning, relevance and historical context of the philosophical theory. The ample discussion surrounding the topic branches from the broad nature of the theory that responds to the nature and origin of knowledge and the human cognition.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Western esotericism, also known as esotericism, esoterism, and sometimes the Western mystery tradition, is a term scholars use to categorise a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements that developed within Western society. These ideas and currents are united since they are largely distinct both from orthodox Judeo-Christian religion and Enlightenment rationalism. Esotericism has pervaded various forms of Western philosophy, religion, pseudoscience, art, literature, and music\u2014and continues to influence intellectual ideas and popular culture.\nThe idea of grouping a wide range of Western traditions and philosophies together under the term esotericism developed in Europe during the late seventeenth century. Various academics have debated various definitions of Western esotericism. One view adopts a definition from certain esotericist schools of thought themselves, treating \"esotericism\" as a perennial hidden  inner tradition. A second perspective sees esotericism as a category of movements that embrace an \"enchanted\" worldview in the face of increasing disenchantment. A third views Western esotericism as encompassing all of Western culture's \"rejected knowledge\" that is accepted neither by the scientific establishment nor orthodox religious authorities.\nThe earliest traditions that later analysis labelled as forms of Western esotericism emerged in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, where Hermetism, Gnosticism, and Neoplatonism developed as schools of thought distinct from what became mainstream Christianity. Renaissance Europe saw increasing interest in many of these older ideas, with various intellectuals combining \"pagan\" philosophies with the Kabbalah and Christian philosophy, resulting in the emergence of esoteric movements like Christian theosophy. The seventeenth century saw the development of initiatory societies professing esoteric knowledge such as Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry, while the Age of Enlightenment of the eighteenth century led to the development of new forms of esoteric thought. The nineteenth-century saw the emergence of new trends of esoteric thought now known as occultism. Prominent groups in this century included the Theosophical Society and the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Also important in this connexion is Martinus Thomsen's \"spiritual science\". Modern Paganism developed within occultism and includes religious movements such as Wicca. Esoteric ideas permeated the counterculture of the 1960s and later cultural tendencies, which led to the New Age phenomenon in the 1970s.\nThe idea that these varying movements could be categorised together under the rubric of \"Western esotericism\" developed in the late eighteenth century, but these esoteric currents were largely ignored as a subject of academic enquiry. The academic study of Western esotericism only emerged in the late twentieth century, pioneered by scholars like Frances Yates and Antoine Faivre. Esoteric ideas have meanwhile also exerted an influence on popular culture, appearing in art, literature, film, and music.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Wonderism is a term coined by French sinologist Terrien de Lacouperie (1845-1894) to differentiate the proto-Daoism of Jixia Academy from the philosophical Daoism of Laozi, although his ideas were received with skepticism at the time of assertion and have since been discredited by modern sinology.Lacouperie believed that Chinese civilization was influenced by early sea traders from the Erythraean Sea and Indian Ocean who established a settlement in East China circa 675 BCE. It was located in the Zhou Dynasty state of Qi \u9f4a (present day Shandong Province) at Langye \u7405\u740a (near Linyi) and Jimo \u5373\u58a8 (northeast and southwest of Jiaozhou Bay). In the history of Ancient Chinese coinage, Jimo was an important mint where large bronze knife money called \"Qi knives\" were manufactured.\nThese foreigners, Sabaeans, Syrians and Hindus introduced new notions, such as astrology and superstitions, and by their sailors' yarns awakened a curiosity for the wonderful. The social and political condition of the country was favourable to a movement of this sort. The Chinese princes were anxious of novelty to show their independence from the once respected and now disregarded suzerainty of the Kings of Chou. It was really an age of wonderism.\nAccording to Lacouperie, this school of thought combined with early philosophical Daoism to create religious Daoism. \n\nThe school of Wonderism, which had grown out of the influence of the trader-colonists of the Indian Ocean settled at Lang-ya and Tsih-Moh who had taught Astrology and an overrated conception of the transforming powers of nature, amalgamated with the pure Taoism of Lao-tze, and formed henceforth what may be called the Neo-Taoism or Tao-szeism, while Confucianism remained in opposition to it, such as his founder had conceived it against the encroachments of Wonderism, Taoism, and Shamanism. It was indeed the rising of Confucianism which led to the fusion of these various elements. \nThis terminology is outmoded. \"Taoszeism\" (from the French romanization tao-sze for daoshi \u9053\u58eb \"Daoist master, Daoist priest/priestess\") was used by L\u00e9on de Rosny in reference to religious Daoism. \"Neotaoism\" or \"Neodaoism\" usually refers to Xuanxue \u7384\u5b78 (lit. \"arcane studies\").", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Aristotle's views on women influenced later Western thinkers, who quoted him as an authority until the end of the Middle Ages, influencing women's history and misogyny.\nIn his Politics, Aristotle saw women as subject to men, but as higher than slaves, and lacking authority; he believed the husband should exert political rule over the wife. Among women's differences from men were that they were, in his view, more impulsive, more compassionate, more complaining, and more deceptive. He gave the same weight to women's happiness as to men's, and in his Rhetoric stated that society could not be happy unless women were happy too. Whereas Plato was open to the potential equality of men and women, stating both that women were not equal to men in terms of strength and virtue, but were equal to men in terms of rational and occupational capacity, and hence in the ideal Republic should be educated and allowed to work alongside men without differentiation, Aristotle appears to have disagreed.\nIn his theory of inheritance, Aristotle considered the mother to provide a passive material element to the child, while the father provided an active, ensouling element with the form of the human species.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Bracha Lichtenberg Ettinger (Hebrew: \u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d4 \u05d0\u05d8\u05d9\u05e0\u05d2\u05e8, \u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d4 \u05dc\u05d9\u05db\u05d8\u05e0\u05d1\u05e8\u05d2-\u05d0\u05d8\u05d9\u05e0\u05d2\u05e8) is an  Israeli artist, painter and writer, visual analyst, psychoanalyst and philosopher, living and working in Paris and Tel Aviv. She is regarded as a major French feminist theorist and prominent international artist in contemporary New European Painting, that invented the concept matrixial (matricial) space / espace matrixiel (matriciel). Ettinger is a professor at European Graduate School in Saas-Fee, Switzerland and at GCAS, Dublin.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Friedrich Nietzsche's views on women have attracted controversy, beginning during his life and continuing to the present.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The feminist philosophy journal Hypatia became involved in a dispute in April 2017 that led to the online shaming of one of its authors, Rebecca Tuvel, a tenure-track assistant professor of philosophy at Rhodes College in Memphis. The journal had published a peer-reviewed article by Tuvel in which she compared the situation of Caitlyn Jenner, a trans woman, to that of Rachel Dolezal, a white woman who identifies as black. When the article was criticized on social media, scholars associated with Hypatia joined in the criticism and urged the journal to retract it. The controversy exposed a rift within the journal's editorial team and more broadly within feminism and academic philosophy.In the article\u2014\"In Defense of Transracialism\", published in Hypatia's spring 2017 issue on 25 April\u2014Tuvel argued that \"since we should accept transgender individuals' decisions to change sexes, we should also accept transracial individuals' decisions to change races\". After a small group on Facebook and Twitter criticized the article and attacked Tuvel, an open letter began circulating, naming one of Hypatia's editorial board as its point of contact and urging the journal to retract the article. The article's publication had sent a message, the letter said, that \"white cis scholars may engage in speculative discussion of these themes\" without engaging \"theorists whose lives are most directly affected by transphobia and racism\".On 1 May the journal posted an apology on its Facebook page on behalf of \"a majority\" of Hypatia's associate editors. By the following day the open letter had 830 signatories, including scholars associated with Hypatia and two members of Tuvel's dissertation committee. Hypatia's editor-in-chief, Sally Scholz, and its board of directors stood by the article. When Scholz resigned in July 2017, the board suspended the associate editors' authority to appoint the next editor, in response to which eight associate editors resigned. The directors set up a task force to restructure the journal's governance. In February 2018 the directors themselves were replaced.The academic community responded with support for Tuvel. The affair exposed fault lines within philosophy about peer review, analytic versus continental philosophy, diversity within the profession, who is deemed qualified to write about people's lived experience, the pressures of social media, and how to preserve the free exchange of ideas.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Society for Women in Philosophy was created in 1972 to support and promote women in philosophy. Since that time the Society for Women in Philosophy or \"SWIP\" has expanded to many branches around the world, including in the US, Canada, Ireland, the UK, the Netherlands, Flanders, and Germany. SWIP organizations worldwide hold meetings and lectures that aim to support women in philosophy; some, such as SWIPshop, focus exclusively on feminist philosophy, while others, such as SWIP-Analytic, focus on women philosophers working in other areas. One of the founding members of the Society for Women in Philosophy was Alison Jaggar, who was also one of the first people to introduce feminist concerns into philosophy. Each year, one philosopher is named the Distinguished Woman Philosopher of the Year by the Society for Women in Philosophy.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Food for the Spirit (1971) is a performance art piece and self-portrait series by American conceptual artist Adrian Piper, which was conducted, performed and documented in the summer of 1971 in her New York loft as she isolated herself and entered a dissociative phase influenced by her constant reading of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Learning from the Germans: Race and the Memory of Evil is a 2019 non-fiction book by Susan Neiman, published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux in the United States and by Allen Lane in the United Kingdom. The author argues that German society has largely accepted responsibility for and learned from actions done by the country in the past, particularly in World War II, while the United States had not done the same, particularly for Jim Crow violations.Neiman stated that each country has its particular history but that studying the incidents in Germany shows that society can atone for past crimes and improve even though doing so is a difficult process. Neiman in particular believes that many Americans lack an understanding of the United States Civil War as well as the Jim Crow period, contributing to issues in American society present in 2019. She believes the United States would benefit from its own corresponding Vergangenheitsbew\u00e4ltigung.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of philosophy-related events in the 12th century. Philosophy at the time was influenced by the ongoing crusades.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of philosophy-related events in the 13th century.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of philosophy-related events in the 14th century.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of philosophy-related events in the 15th century.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "16th-century philosophy is generally regarded as the later part of Renaissance philosophy.\nEarly 16th-century philosophy is often called the High Renaissance and is considered to succeed the Renaissance philosophy era and precede the Age of Rationalism.  Notable philosophers from the time period include Desiderius Erasmus, Thomas More, Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli, Samuel von Pufendorf, Nicolaus Copernicus, and Michel de Montaigne and Joest Lipps.The 16th century is characterized by a mixture of humanist and scholastic traditions. Notable developments in vocabulary occurred, with the introduction of the words \u2018psychology\u2019 (coined by Marko Marulic) and \u2018anthropology\u2019 (first used by Magnus Helt). \u2018Psychology\u2019 in the 16th century context referred to discussions of the origin of the human soul. \u2018Anthropology\u2019 was used in a narrower context than we are used to today, in strict reference to the relationship between both the human soul and human anatomy as they both comprise human nature.Logic (as represented by the likes of John Mair) began to fall out of favor among most European countries around the early to mid 16th century, and a directional shift occurred towards Aristotelian interpretations.\nErasmus' work Antibarbarians was published in 1520, thirty years after he wrote it, defending the study of ancient philosophers and scholars, broadly referred to as 'classical education,' while conveying the belief that the study of philosophy is crucial in order to preserve the Christian faith.Academic skepticism had a growing influence, represented by people like Omar Talon and Cornelius Agribba von Nettesheim, who wrote On the Vanity and Uncertainty of the Arts and Sciences and the Excellence of God\u2019s Word.Overall, the writings of Aristotle were one of the most commonly used subjects of great philosophical commentary. One of the most influential aspects of Aristotle informing 16th century thought was that the soul could be viewed as belonging on two axes of sensitive-intellective (emotions and desires) and cognitive-appetitive (the will).\nJuan Luis Vives, a humanist considered to be \u2018the father of modern psychology,\u2019 was one of a few to attempt to explore an alternative to the Aristotelian psychological model, rejecting metaphysical approaches to understanding the soul and instead placing priority on understanding it through describing its functionality (although fails to successfully arrive at a fully formed alternative). His arguments centered around humanity's intellectual inability to completely understand what a soul is.The individual, in the 16th century, was understood only (again through an Aristotelian lens) through their political community or homeland, with the task of pursuing moral virtue. Humanity's tendency towards fostering political communities was seen as both a natural and entirely unique characteristic belonging to man.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "1000-Word Philosophy is an online philosophy anthology that publishes introductory 1000-word (or less) essays on philosophical topics.\nThe project was created in 2014 by Andrew D. Chapman, a philosophy lecturer at the University of Colorado, Boulder. Since 2018, the blog's editor-in-chief is Nathan Nobis, an associate professor of philosophy at Morehouse College. Many of the initial authors are graduates of the University of Colorado at Boulder's Ph.D. program in philosophy; now the contributors are from all over the globe. The essays include references or sources for more discussion of the essay's topic.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "1658 in philosophy", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "1743 in philosophy", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "1926 in philosophy", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "1983 in philosophy", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "1991 in philosophy", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "2016 in philosophy", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "2017 in philosophy", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The distinction between absolute and relative terms was introduced by Peter Unger in his 1971 paper A Defense of Skepticism and differentiates between terms that, in their most literal sense, don't admit of degrees (absolute terms) and those that do (relative terms). According to his account, the term \"flat\", for example, is an absolute term because a surface is either perfectly (or absolutely) flat or isn't flat at all. The terms \"bumpy\" or \"curved\", on the other hand, are relative terms because there is no such thing as \"absolute bumpiness\" or \"absolute curvedness\" (although in analytic geometry curvedness is quantified). A bumpy surface can always be made bumpier. A truly flat surface, however, can never be made flatter. Colloquially, he acknowledges, we do say things like \"surface A is flatter than surface B\", but this is just a shorter way of saying \"surface A is closer to being flat than surface B\". This paraphrasing, however, doesn't work for relative terms. Another important aspect of absolute terms, one that motivated this choice of terminology, is that they can always be modified by the term \"absolutely\". For example, it is quite natural to say \"this surface is absolutely flat\", but it would be very strange and barely even meaningful to say \"this surface is absolutely bumpy\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Abstractionism is the theory that the mind obtains some or all of its concepts by abstracting them from concepts it already has, or from experience. One may, for example, abstract 'green' from a set of experiences which involve green along with other properties. Also, for example, one may abstract a generic concept like 'vegetable' from the already possessed concepts of its instances (carrot, broccoli, onion, etc.) This view was criticized by George Berkeley and Peter Geach.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy and logic, accidental necessity, often stated in its Latin form, necessitas per accidens, refers to the necessity attributed to the past by certain views of time. It is a controversial concept: its supporters argue that it has intuitive validity while others contest it creates a contradiction in terms by positing such a thing as a \"contingent necessity.\" It is especially important in contemporary discussions of logical and theological fatalism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Actus primus, or first actuality, is a technical expression used in scholastic philosophy.The Latin word actus means determination, complement. In every being there are many actualities, which are subordinated. Thus existence supposes essence; power supposes existence; action supposes faculty. The first actuality (actus primus) begins a series; it supposes no other actuality preceding it in the same series, but calls for a further complement, namely, the second actuality (actus secundus).But as the same reality may be called \"actuality\" when viewed in the light of what precedes, and \"potentiality\" when viewed in the light of what follows (see actus et potentia), the meaning of the term \"first actuality\" may vary according to the view one takes, and the point where the series is made to begin. Primary matter (see matter and form) is a pure potentiality, and the substantial form is its first determination, its first actuality. The complete substance constituted by these two principles receives further determinations, which are, in that respect, second actualities. Yet these may also be conceived as first actualities. Thus the extensive quantity of a substance is a first actuality when compared to the shape. Power is a first actuality when compared to action.And this is the most frequent application of the terms actus primus and actus secundus. The former is the faculty; the latter, the exercise or function. To see in actu primo simply means to have the sense of vision; to see in actu secundo is to actually perform acts of vision. The modern distinction of potential and kinetic energy might serve as another illustration: the loaded gun, or the engine with steam buildup, represent first actualities; the bullet speeding to the mark, the engine flying over the rails, represent second actualities.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Ad nauseam is a Latin term for an argument or other discussion that has continued to the point of nausea. For example, \"this has been discussed ad nauseam\" indicates that the topic has been discussed extensively and those involved have grown sick of it.  The fallacy of dragging the conversation to an ad nauseam state in order to then assert one's position as correct due to it not having been contradicted is also called argumentum ad infinitum (to infinity) and argument from repetition.The term is defined by the American Heritage Dictionary as \"to a disgusting or ridiculous degree; to the point of nausea.\" Colloquially, it is sometimes used as \"until nobody cares to discuss it any more.\"\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Agathos kai sophos (Ancient Greek: \u1f00\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03cc\u03c2) is a phrase coined by Plato, which literally means \"good and wise\" in Greek.  The Athenians used this phrase to describe the qualities of an honest man.\nPlato apparently derived this phrase from an earlier kalos kagathos\u2014literally, \"beautiful and good\".  The Greeks believed that external beauty (kalos) was associated with inner beauty, morality and virtue, suggesting that a beautiful face was the outward expression of a beautiful soul.  To avoid this association, which often led to confusion, Plato reinvented the expression as agathos kai sophos, separating external beauty from the beauty of the soul.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Agent causation, or Agent causality, is an idea in philosophy which states that a being who is not an event\u2014namely an agent\u2014can cause events (particularly the agent's own actions). Agent causation contrasts with event causation, which occurs when an event causes another event. Whether agent causation as a concept is logically sound is itself a topic of philosophical debate.Defenders of this theory include Thomas Reid and Roderick Chisholm. Reid believed that agents are the only beings who have a will, and considered having a will to be a necessary condition of being considered the cause of an event.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Ahistoricism refers to a lack of concern for history, historical development, or tradition.Charges of ahistoricism are frequently critical, implying that the subject is historically inaccurate or ignorant (for example, an ahistorical attitude).  It can also describe a person's failure to frame an argument or issue in a historical context or to disregard historical fact or implication.The term can also describe a view that history has no relevance or importance in the decision making of modern life.In philosophy, some criticism has arisen because \"the dominant school of philosophy in the English speaking world, analytic philosophy... has been trenchantly ahistorical, and indeed anti-historical\". However, few view that to be a problem.A more abstract definition of ahistoricism is simply independence from time: removed from history.\nAn example is the idea that some concepts are not governed by what is learned or has happened, but they come from an ahistoric power that is independent of what has gone before.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Akan philosophy is a form of African philosophy based in the conceptual system of Akan people, a meta-ethnic group native to West Africa. In contemporary work, Akan philosophy has been most influential in metaphysical and ethical discussion of the concept of personhood. In common with other strands of African philosophy, Akan philosophers such as Kwasi Wiredu have developed the view that personhood exists in degrees such that \"personhood is something for a human to become to different degrees through individual achievement\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Amour de soi (French: [a.mu\u0281 d\u0259 swa]; lit.\u2009'self-love') is a concept in the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau that refers to the kind of self-love that humans share with brute animals and predates the appearance of society.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Amour-propre (French: [amu\u0281 p\u0281\u0254p\u0281]; lit.\u2009'self-love') is a French term that can be variously translated as \"self-love\", \"self-esteem\", or \"vanity\". In philosophy, it is a term used by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who contrasts it with another kind of self-love which he calls amour de soi. According to Rousseau, the difference between the two is that amour-propre assumes that self-esteem can only be found by gaining the approval of others, whereas amour de soi involves one's feelings for onself alone, without any intervening concerns about one is seen by others. According to Rousseau, amour de soi is more primitive and is compatible with wholeness and happiness, while amour-propre is a form of self-love that arose only with the appearance of society and individuals' consequent ability to compare themselves with one another. Rousseau thought that amour-propre was subject to corruption, thereby causing vice and misery. But in addition, by guiding us to seek others' approval and recognition, amour-propre can contribute positively to virtue.The term amour-propre predates Rousseau and is found in the writings of Blaise Pascal, La Rochefoucauld, Pierre Nicole, Jacques Abbadie, and many others. Pascal detested self-love, self-esteem, ego, vanity as well perhaps, which are interchangeable terms for him, because it puts the self in the place of God. He suggested it was unfair that we are born with the desire to be loved by others, but unavoidable due to the consequence of the Fall, or original sin. Christianity was the only true remedy to this wretched state of man known as amour-propre.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Ampliative (from Latin ampliare, \"to enlarge\"), a term used mainly in logic, meaning \"extending\" or \"adding to that which is already known\".There are Roman texts that refer to it as ampliatio. This terminology was often used by Medieval logicians in the analyses of the temporal content of their subject terms. There were three rules outlined in its usage: 1) common terms in a sentence only represent present things when they stand with a non-ampliating verb about the present; 2) a common term standing in a sentence with a verb about the past is able to stand for present and past things; and, 3) the common term standing with a verb about the future can indifferently stand for present and future things.In Norman law, an \"ampliation\" was a postponement of a sentence in order to obtain further evidence.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Anangeon (Greek: \u1f00\u03bd\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03bd, \"necessary\"), also known as dicaeologia (\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1, \"a plea in defense\"), is a specious method of argument, where the basis lies in inevitability or necessity. For example, \"Yes, I missed school today, but I was sick and wouldn't have learned anything anyway\"\u2014this argument ignores the need to go to school, mitigating the controversy of not going. Thus, it is often used to limit or contradict fault in a matter.\nAnangeon can be seen as a part of logos and is a type of non sequitur.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Anti-individualism (also known as content externalism) is an approach to linguistic meaning in philosophy, the philosophy of psychology, and linguistics.\nThe proponents arguing for anti-individualism in these areas have in common the view that what seems to be internal to the individual is to some degree dependent on the social environment, thus self-knowledge, intentions, reasoning and moral value may variously be seen as being determined by factors outside the person. The position has been supported by Sanford Goldberg and by other thinkers such as Hilary Putnam and Tyler Burge.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In the philosophy of consciousness, the anti-nesting principle states that one state of consciousness cannot exist within another.Proponents of the anti-nesting principle include Giulio Tononi and Hilary Putnam.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Apophantic (Greek: \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, \"declaratory\", from \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd apophainein, \"to show, to make known\") is a term Aristotle coined to mean a specific type of declaratory statement that can determine the truth or falsity of a logical proposition or phenomenon. It was adopted by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger as part of phenomenology. Herbert Marcuse defines it as \"the logic of judgment\".In Aristotle's usage, the Greek term \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 (apophantic speech) describes a statement that, by examining a proposition in itself, can determine what is true about a statement by establishing whether or not the predicate of a sentence may logically be attributed to its subject. For example, logical propositions may be divided into ones that are semantically determinate, as in the sentence \"All penguins are birds,\" and those that are semantically indeterminate, as in the sentence \"All bachelors are unhappy.\" In the first proposition, the subject is penguins and the predicate is birds, and the set of all birds is a category into which the subject of penguins should necessarily be put. In the second proposition, the subject is bachelors and the predicate is unhappy.  This is a subjective, contingent connection that does not necessarily follow. An apophantic conclusion would, by examining the two statements\u2014and not any evidence supporting or denying them\u2014make a judgment between them that identifies \"All penguins are birds\" as more truthful than \"All bachelors are unhappy.\" One would reach this conclusion simply because of the propositions' nature, and not because any penguins or bachelors had been consulted.\nIn phenomenology, Martin Heidegger argues that apophantic judgements are the least reliable means of obtaining truth, as they are cut from the original interpretive framework of relations to the subject. Before Heidegger, however, his former teacher Husserl had already centralized the role of apophantic judgment in his phenomenological 'transcendental logic', during the course lectures on passive synthesis in the mid 1920s.\nThe concept appears in the Arabic Aristotelian tradition as j\u00e2zim, or 'truth-apt'.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Arborescent (French: arborescent) is a term used by the French thinkers Deleuze and Guattari to characterize thinking marked by insistence on totalizing principles, binarism, and dualism. The term, first used (in western philosophy) in A Thousand Plateaus (1980) where it was opposed to the rhizome, comes from the way genealogy trees are drawn: unidirectional progress, with no possible retroactivity and continuous binary cuts (thus enforcing a dualist metaphysical conception, criticized by Deleuze). Rhizomes, on the contrary, mark a horizontal and non-hierarchical conception, where anything may be linked to anything else, with no respect whatsoever for specific species: rhizomes are heterogeneous links between things that have nothing to do between themselves (for example, Deleuze and Guattari linked together desire and machines to create the - most surprising - concept of desiring machines). Horizontal gene transfer is also an example of rhizomes, opposed to the arborescent evolutionism theory. Deleuze also criticizes the Chomsky hierarchy of formal languages, which he considers a perfect example of arborescent dualistic theory.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "\"Arche-writing\" (French: archi-\u00e9criture) is a term used by French philosopher Jacques Derrida in his attempt to re-orient the relationship between speech and writing. \nDerrida argued that as far back as Plato, speech had been always given priority over writing. In the West, phonetic writing was considered as a secondary imitation of speech, a poor copy of the immediate living act of speech. Derrida argued that in later centuries philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau and linguist Ferdinand de Saussure both gave writing a secondary or parasitic role. In Derrida's essay Plato's Pharmacy, he sought to question this prioritising by firstly complicating the two terms speech and writing.\nAccording to Derrida, this complication is visible in the Greek word \u03c6\u03ac\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd pharmakon, which meant both \"cure\" and \"poison\". Derrida noted that Plato argued that writing was \"poisonous\" to memory, since writing is a mere repetition, as compared to the living memory required for speech. Derrida points out however, that since both speech and writing rely upon repetition they cannot be completely distinguished.\nIn the neologism arche-writing, \"arche-\" meaning \"origin, principle, or telos\", attempts to go beyond the simple division of writing/speech. Arche-writing refers to a kind of writing that precedes both speech and writing. Derrida argued that arche-writing is, in a sense, language, in that it is already there before we use it, it already has a pregiven, yet malleable, structure/genesis, which is a semi-fixed set-up of different words and syntax. This fixedness is the writing to which Derrida refers, just such a 'writing' can even be seen in cultures that do not employ writing, it could be seen in notches on a rope or barrel, fixed customs, or placements around the living areas.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In linguistics, the autonomy of syntax is the assumption that  syntax is arbitrary and self-contained with respect to meaning, semantics, pragmatics, discourse function, and other factors external to language. The autonomy of syntax is advocated by linguistic formalists, and in particular by generative linguistics, whose approaches have hence been called autonomist linguistics. \nThe autonomy of syntax is at the center of the debates between formalist and functionalist linguistics, and since the 1980s research has been conducted on the syntax\u2013semantics interface within functionalist approaches, aimed at finding instances of semantically determined syntactic structures, to disprove the formalist argument of the autonomy of syntax.The principle of iconicity is contrasted, for some scenarios, with that of the autonomy of syntax. The weaker version of the argument for the autonomy of syntax (or that for the autonomy of grammar), includes only for the principle of arbitrariness, while the stronger version includes the claim of self-containedness. The principle of arbitrariedness of syntax is actually accepted by most functionalist linguist, and the real dispute between functionalist and generativists is on the claim of self-containedness of grammar or syntax.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Back to nature or return to nature is a philosophy or style of living which emphasises closeness to nature, rather than artifice and civilisation.  In this, the rustic customs and pastoralism of country life are preferred to urban fashion and sophistication.  A famous example is Henry David Thoreau who spent two years living a simple life in a log cabin at Walden Pond.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "For popular psychology, the belief\u2013desire\u2013intention (BDI) model of human practical reasoning was developed by Michael Bratman as a way of explaining future-directed intention.\nBDI is fundamentally reliant on folk psychology (the 'theory theory'), which is the notion that our mental models of the world are theories. It was used as a basis for developing the belief\u2013desire\u2013intention software model.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Biofacticity is a philosophical concept that allows to identify a living object as a so-called biofact, i.e. a semi-natural living entity which has been biotechnically interfered during its life-span such as transgenic plants or cloned organisms. In philosophy, sociology and the arts, a biofact stands in close relation to the anthropological concept of the human being a composite of nature and technology. Biofact was introduced to philosophy as a neologism in 2001 by the German philosopher Nicole C. Karafyllis and fuses the words artifact and the prefix \"bio\". One of Karafyllis' thesis is that a technical change in living objects, i.e. an increase in biofacticity, will shift the anthropological concept of hybridity towards a technological self-definition of the human.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Blockhead is the name of a theoretical computer system invented as part of a thought experiment by philosopher Ned Block, which appeared in a paper titled \"Psychologism and Behaviorism\". Block did not name the computer in the paper.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In the philosophy of mind, the Brainstorm machine is a thought experiment described by Daniel Dennett, to show that it is not possible to intersubjectively compare any two individuals' personal experiences, or qualia, even with perfect technology. It is based on a device described in the film Brainstorm, in which the visual experience of one individual is fed into the brain of another. According to Dennett in Quining Qualia:\n\nSuppose [that] there were some neuroscientific apparatus that fits on your head and feeds your visual experience into my brain. With eyes closed I accurately report everything you are looking at, except that I marvel at how the sky is yellow, the grass red, and so forth. Would this not confirm, empirically, that our qualia were different? But suppose the technician then pulls the plug on the connecting cable, inverts it 180 degrees and reinserts it in the socket. Now I report the sky is blue, the grass green, and so forth. Which is the \"right\" orientation of the plug? Designing and building such a device would require that its \"fidelity\" be tuned or calibrated by the normalization of the two subjects' reports--so we would be right back at our evidential starting point. The moral of this intuition pump is that no intersubjective comparison of qualia is possible, even with perfect technology.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Byzantine rhetoric refers to rhetorical theorizing and production during the time of the Byzantine Empire.  Byzantine rhetoric is significant in part because of the sheer volume of rhetorical works produced during this period.  Rhetoric was the most important and difficult topic studied in the Byzantine education system, beginning at the Pandidakterion in early fifth century Constantinople, where the school emphasized the study of rhetoric with eight teaching chairs, five in Greek and three in Latin.  The hard training of Byzantine rhetoric provided skills and credentials for citizens to attain public office in the imperial service, or posts of authority within the Church.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A Cambridge change occurs when a predicate P is true of object O at this moment (Chicago is north of me) but is not true of O the next moment (Chicago is south of me), not because O's bodily constitution is no longer the same, but because some difference in the constitution of an object G (I have moved from Atlanta to Toronto) makes logically necessary the passage of the original predicate from true to not true.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, the Canberra Plan is a contemporary program of methodology and analysis that answers questions about what the world is like according to physics. It is considered a naturalistic approach in metaphysics, which holds that metaphysics can explain the features of the world described by physics and what the different classes of everyday belief represent. A more detailed description of the plan refers to it as a family of doctrines that are grounded on a physicalist worldview as well as a priori philosophizing to explain our thoughts about our world as revealed by physics.The Canberra Plan arose in the 1990s at the Australian National University in Canberra, Australia. Its originators were David Lewis and Frank Jackson. An important question that it raises concerns what to say once \"it turns out that there is nothing of which the a priori theory is true.\"There are those who say that the Canberra Plan could prove insufficient and inconsistent to effectively pick out a feature of or relationship in the world.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The term canon derives from the Greek \u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03ce\u03bd (kanon), meaning \"rule\", and thence via Latin and Old French into English. The concept in English usage is very broad: in a general sense it refers to being one (adjectival) or a group (noun) of official, authentic or approved rules or laws, particularly ecclesiastical; or group of official, authentic, or approved literary or artistic works, such as the literature of a particular author, of a particular genre, or a particular group of religious scriptural texts; or similarly, one or a body of rules, principles, or standards accepted as axiomatic and universally binding in a religion, or a field of study or art.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Cardinal Mercier Prize for International Philosophy is a prize given to recognise the recipients contribution to international philosophy. It is awarded jointly by the Higher Institute of Philosophy at the Universit\u00e9 catholique de Louvain and the Institute of Philosophy at KU Leuven. The prize is named after the theologian Cardinal D\u00e9sir\u00e9-Joseph Mercier and has been won by Fulton J. Sheen in 1923, John F. Wippel in 1981, and Nicholas Rescher in 2005, and William Simpson in 2021.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, the Cartesian other, part of a thought experiment, is any other than the mind of the individual thinking about the experiment. The Other includes the individual's own body. According to the philosopher Descartes, there is a divide intrinsic to consciousness, such that you cannot ever bridge the space between your own consciousness and that of another.\nThis \"other\" is in essence theoretical, since one cannot ever be empirically shown such an \"other.\"\nPut differently, Descartes concluded cogito ergo sum, \"I think, therefore I am,\" that is, that the presence of a self of which to speak (an \"I\") proves its existence to oneself; however, according to his Wax Argument, one could never similarly demonstrate the existence of the \"other.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, the Cartesian Self, or Cartesian subject, a concept developed by Ren\u00e9 Descartes within Mind-body dualism , is the term provided for an individual's mind or for a human being both of these being given contrasting meanings by Descartes. In the simple view the self can be viewed as just the mind which is separate from the body as well as the outside world. The simple self, The mind, also stands to be capable of thinking about itself and its existence. The self when seen as a compound is when it can be interpreted as being a whole human being, body and mind, with the body being an extension of the mind.  It is distinct from the Cartesian Other, anything other than the Cartesian self, yet the human being version, union of body and mind, of the self is capable of interaction with the Cartesian other through extension. According to the philosopher Ren\u00e9 Descartes, there is a divide intrinsic to consciousness such that one Individual's self is the only thing they can know to certainly exist since you are not capable of knowing if other minds are able to think. Cartesian Self is a term coined in retrospect to Descartes actual endeavors into Mind-Body dualism and is never actually used by him in his own writings.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Castigat ridendo mores (Latin pronunciation: [ka\u02c8sti\u02d0\u0261at r\u026a\u02c8d\u025bndo\u02d0 \u02c8mo\u02d0re\u02d0s]; \"laughing corrects customs/manners\") is a Latin phrase that generally means \"one corrects customs by laughing at them,\" or \"he corrects customs by ridicule.\" Some commentators suggest that the phrase embodies the essence of satire; in other words, the best way to change things is to point out their absurdity and laugh at them. French New Latin poet Abb\u00e9 Jean de Santeul (1630\u20131697) allegedly coined the phrase.The phrase is often used to explain the idea of satire in works by Moli\u00e8re and Marivaux.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Causalism holds behavior and actions to be the result of previous mental states, such as beliefs, desires, or intentions, rather than from a present conscious will guiding one's actions.  Causalism is in accord with how most people have traditionally explained their actions, but critics point out that certain habitual actions such as scratching an itch are only noticed during or after the fact, if at all, making the causalist explanation that such behaviors have a mental antecedent that isn\u2019t  recalled seem ad hoc.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Chomsky\u2013Foucault debate was a debate about human nature, between Noam Chomsky and Michel Foucault at the Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands, on 22 October 1971 at 19:30. The debate was broadcast on 28 November 1971 at 21:30.\nChomsky and Foucault were invited by the Dutch philosopher Fons Elders to discuss an age-old question: \"is there such a thing as 'innate' human nature independent of our experiences and external influences?\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A claim is a statement that one subject, such as a person or organization, makes about a subject. A claim is a debatable statement that an author manifests in a text or theoretical construction, so that the reader accepts it, something that not everyone will accept. \nAn objective claim is a statement about a factual matter-one that can be proved true or false.  A subjective claim is not a factual matter; it is an expression of belief, opinion, or personal preference, and cannot be proved right or wrong by any generally accepted criteria.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In decision analysis, the clarity test (or clairvoyant test) is a test of how well a model element is defined. Although nothing (outside a formal system) can be completely defined, the clarity test allows the decision participants to determine whether such elements as variables, events, outcomes, and alternatives are sufficiently well defined to make the decision at hand. In general, a model element is well defined if a knowledgeable individual can answer questions about the model element without asking further clarifying questions.\nMore precisely, Howard defines the clarity test by saying that a quantity or event is clearly defined\u2014it passes the clarity test\u2014if a \"clairvoyant would be able to say whether or not the event in question occurred or, in the case of a variable, the value of the variable.\" Howard defines the clairvoyant as \"a person who knew the future, who had access to all future newspapers, readings of physical devices, or any other determinable quantity.\" In later teaching Howard more broadly defined the clairvoyant as a person with perfect knowledge of all events and measurable quantities, past present and future, but no judgment.\nThe concept of the clairvoyant is useful in decision analysis for ensuring clarity of thought, particularly when assessing uncertainty.\nThe wizard is another mythical character who can change the future, usually for a fee, provided he or she is given a well-defined request. The concept of the wizard is useful for assessing deterministic preferences by eliminating the complexity added by uncertainty.\n  Links to a good discussion in Morgan & Henrion.\n Ron Howard's 1988 article defining the test.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A closed concept is a concept where all the necessary and sufficient conditions required to include something within the concept can be listed. For example, the concept of a triangle is closed because it is a three-sided polygon, and only a three-sided polygon, is a triangle. All the conditions required to call something a triangle can be, and are, are listed.\nIts opposite is an \"open concept\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A co-premise is a premise in reasoning and informal logic which is not the main supporting reason for a contention or a lemma, but is logically necessary to ensure the validity of an argument. One premise by itself, or a group of co-premises can form a reason.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A commentary of a philosophical text is an analysis of a philosophical text that is undertaken from different angles and points of view, and that enables the study of its nature and characteristics.\nA large portion of the schools of thought was originated through the analysis that different commentators carried out on renowned philosophical texts, especially texts from Plato and Aristotle (see Commentaries on Plato and Commentaries on Aristotle). A significant portion of Thomas Aquinas's philosophical ideas were the result of commentaries to some of Aristotle's ideas.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Community youth development (CYD) is a philosophy emphasizing the symbiotic nature of youth development to community development by situating the two practices in a common framework. CYD combines the natural instincts of young people as they desire to create change in their surrounding environments by developing partnerships between youth-related organizations and community development agencies to create new opportunities for youth to serve their communities while developing their personal abilities.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Compossibility is a philosophical concept from Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. According to Leibniz, a complete individual thing (for example a person) is characterized by all its properties, and these determine its relations with other individuals. The existence of one individual may negate the possibility of the existence of another. A possible world is made up of individuals that are compossible\u2014that is, individuals that can exist together.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Conceptual necessity is a property of the certainty with which a state of affairs, as presented by a certain description, occurs: it occurs by conceptual necessity if and only if it occurs just by virtue of the meaning of the description. If someone is a bachelor, for instance, then he is bound to be unmarried by conceptual necessity, because the meaning of the word \"bachelor\" determines that he is.\nAlternatively, there is metaphysical necessity, which is a certainty determined, not by the meaning of a description, but instead by facts in the world described.\nHistorically, Baruch Spinoza was a subscriber to this belief.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A constructional system or a constitution system is a system of objects or concepts of a certain domain in which all objects or concepts of that domain can be logically constructed from a proper subset of those objects or concepts, called the basis of the system. The notion of constructional systems can be traced back to Bertrand Russell, who wrote in 1914  that \n\nThe supreme maxim in scientific philosophising is this: wherever possible logical constructions are to be substituted for inferred entities.\nGerman philosopher Rudolf Carnap in his Der logische Aufbau der Welt (1928) (referring to them as \"Konstitutionssystems\") and American philosopher Nelson Goodman in his The Structure of Appearance (1951) studied the structure of constructional systems.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In the philosophy of language, the context principle is a form of semantic holism holding that a philosopher should \"never ... ask for the meaning of a word in isolation, but only in the context of a proposition\" (Frege [1884/1980] x).", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Cratylism as a philosophical theory reflects the teachings of the Athenian Cratylus (Ancient Greek: \u039a\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03cd\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, also transliterated as Kratylos), fl. mid to late 5th century BCE. Cratylism holds that there is a natural relationship between words and what words designate.Cratylus is more popularly known as Socrates' antagonist in Plato's dialogue Cratylus.Cratylism is distinguished from linguisticity by the problematic status of style: in a natural language, where a perfect connection is found between word and things, variations of style are no longer conceivable.G\u00e9rard Genette divided the theory into primary and secondary Cratylism. The former is said to involve a general attempt to establish a motivated link between the signifier and the signified by inventing emotional values for certain sounds while the latter admits that language has fallen and that the signifier enjoys an arbitrary relation to the signified.Cratylism reaches similar conclusions about the nature of reality and communication that Taoism and Zen Buddhism also confronted: how can a mind in flux, in a flowing world, hold on to any solid \"truth\" and convey it to another mind? Pyrrhonism is also similar with respect to its \"undogmatic and relaxed use of words.\"A fellow-Greek sophist, Gorgias, expressed an equally ironic cul de sac conclusion about the nature of human epistemological understanding: \n\n\"Nothing exists. Even if something did exist, nothing can be known about it; and even if something can be known about it, knowledge about it cannot be communicated to others. And, finally, even if it can be communicated, it cannot be understood.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The critical philosophy (German: kritische Philosophie) movement, attributed to Immanuel Kant (1724\u20131804), sees the primary task of philosophy as criticism rather than justification of knowledge. Criticism, for Kant, meant judging as to the possibilities of knowledge before advancing to knowledge itself (from the Greek kritike (techne), or \"art of judgment\"). The basic task of philosophers, according to this view, is not to establish and demonstrate theories about reality, but rather to subject all theories\u2014including those about philosophy itself\u2014to critical review, and measure their validity by how well they withstand criticism.\n\"Critical philosophy\" is also used as another name for Kant's philosophy itself. Kant said that philosophy's proper inquiry is not about what is out there in reality, but rather about the character and foundations of experience itself. We must first judge how human reason works, and within what limits, so that we can afterwards correctly apply it to sense experience and determine whether it can be applied at all to metaphysical objects.\nThe principal three sources on which the critical philosophy is based are the three critiques, namely Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason and Critique of Judgement, published between 1781 and 1790 and mostly concerned, respectively, with metaphysics, ethics and aesthetics.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The philosophy of rationalism, understood as having first emerged in the writings of Francis Bacon and Ren\u00e9 Descartes, has received a variety of criticisms since its inception. These may entail a view that certain things are beyond rational understanding, that total rationality is insufficient to human life, or that people are not instinctively rational and progressive.The term irrationalism is a pejorative designation of such criticisms. While irrationalism is in this sense generally understood as an ambiguously-defined philosophical movement of the 19th and early-20th centuries, such criticisms \"do not share a philosophical tradition as much as a skeptical disposition toward the notion, common among modern thinkers, that there is only one standard of rationality or reasonableness, and that that one standard is or ought to be taken from the presuppositions, methods, and logic of the natural sciences.\"Ontological irrationalism, a position adopted by Arthur Schopenhauer, describes the world as not organized in a rational way. Since humans are born as bodies-manifestations of an irrational striving for meaning, they are vulnerable to pain and suffering.Oswald Spengler argued that the materialist vision of Karl Marx was based on nineteenth-century science, while the twentieth century would be the age of psychology:\n\"We no longer believe in the power of reason over life. We feel that it is life which dominates reason.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Czech philosophy, has often eschewed \"pure\" speculative philosophy, emerging rather in the course of intellectual debates in the fields of education (e.g. Jan Amos Komensk\u00fd), art (e.g. Karel Teige), literature (e.g. Milan Kundera), and especially politics (e.g. Tom\u00e1\u0161 Garrigue Masaryk, Karel Kos\u00edk, Ivan Svit\u00e1k, V\u00e1clav Havel). A source drawing from literature, however, distinguished the Czech national philosophy from the speculative tradition of German thought, citing that it emerged from folk wisdom and peasant reasoning.Masaryk is credited for introducing the epistemological problem into the modern Czech philosophy, which in turn influenced the discourse on symbol and symbolization. Czech philosophers have also played a central role in the development of phenomenology, whose German-speaking founder Edmund Husserl was born in the Czech lands. Czechs Jan Pato\u010dka and V\u00e1clav B\u011blohradsk\u00fd would later make important contributions to phenomenological thought.\nPositivism became an important and dominant trend of modern Czech philosophy, eclipsing herbatianism , in what is explained as a collective \"post-revolutionary\" thinking characterized by an attempt to open a window to Europe in order to eliminate traces of philosophical provincialism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Danish philosophy has a long tradition as part of Western philosophy.\nPerhaps the most influential Danish philosopher was S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard, the creator of Christian existentialism, which inspired the philosophical movement of Existentialism. Kierkegaard had a few Danish followers, including Harald H\u00f8ffding, who later in his life moved on to join the movement of positivism.  Among Kierkegaard's other followers include Jean-Paul Sartre who was impressed with Kierkegaard's views on the individual, and Rollo May, who helped create humanistic psychology.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "De se is Latin for \"of oneself\" and, in philosophy, it is a phrase used to delineate what some consider a category of ascription distinct from \"de dicto and de re\". Such ascriptions are found with propositional attitudes, mental states held by an agent toward a proposition. Such de se ascriptions occur when an agent holds a mental state towards a proposition about themselves, knowing that this proposition is about themselves.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Derech HaShem (The \"Way of the Name\") is a philosophical text written in the early 1740s by Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto. It is considered one of the quintessential handbooks of Jewish thought.\nThe text covers a vast gamut of philosophical topics in the vast spectrum of classical Judaism's outlook on the world. These topics include the purpose of creation, the Creator, human responsibility, the spiritual realms, providence, Israel and the nations, astrology, the human soul, theurgy, prophecy, the study of Torah, prayer, and the function of mitzvah observance. All these are brought in a clear flowing structure that builds on previous topics.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In epistemology, descriptive knowledge (also known as propositional knowledge, knowing-that, declarative knowledge, or constative knowledge) is knowledge that can be expressed in a declarative sentence or an indicative proposition. \"Knowing-that\" can be contrasted with \"knowing-how\" (also known as \"procedural knowledge\"), which is knowing how to perform some task, including knowing how to perform it skillfully.It can also be contrasted with \"knowing of\" (better known as \"knowledge by acquaintance\"), which is non-propositional knowledge of something which is constituted by familiarity with it or direct awareness of it. By definition, descriptive knowledge is knowledge of particular facts, as potentially expressed by our theories, concepts, principles, schemas, and ideas. The descriptive knowledge that a person possesses constitute their understanding of the world and the way that it works.The distinction between knowing-how and knowing-that was brought to prominence in epistemology by Gilbert Ryle who used it in his book The Concept of Mind. For Ryle, the former differs in its emphasis and purpose, since it is primarily practical knowledge, whereas the latter focuses on indicative or explanatory knowledge.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A distinction without a difference is a type of logical fallacy where an author or speaker attempts to describe a distinction between two things where no discernible difference exists.  It is particularly used when a word or phrase has connotations associated with it that one party to an argument prefers to avoid.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Divine freedom is the concept that God has free will.One argument advanced against the concept of divine freedom is that it may contradict the principle of omnibenevolence, by limiting God's choices to only actions with perfectly good consequences.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Dyad is a title used by the Pythagoreans for the number two, representing the principle of \"twoness\" or \"otherness\".\nNumenius of Apamea, a Neopythagorean philosopher in the latter 2nd century CE, said that Pythagoras gave the name of Monad to God, and the name of Dyad to matter. Aristotle equated matter as the formation of the elements (energies) into the material world as the static material was formed by the energies being acted upon by force or motion. Later Neoplatonic Philosophers and idealists like Plotinus treated the dyad as a second cause (demiurge), which was the divine mind (nous) that via a reflective nature (finiteness) causes matter to \"appear\" or become perceivable.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Earth immune system is a controversial proposal, claimed to be a consequence of  the Gaia hypothesis. The Gaia hypothesis holds that the entire earth may be considered a single organism (Gaia). As a self-maintaining organism, Earth would have an immune system of some sort in order to maintain its health.\nSome proponents of this speculative concept, for example, hold that humankind can be considered an \"infection\" of Gaia, and that AIDS is an attempt by this immune system to reject the infection. \n\"Cancer\" might be a more accurate term, as humans evolved within Gaia, and are not external invaders.\nAn opposite view is that humankind is Gaia's immune system itself, perhaps evolved to avert future catastrophes such as the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions of species.\nJames Lovelock's book \"The Revenge of Gaia\" suggests that Gaia has many mechanisms for eliminating civilizations that do harm through greenhouse gas emissions and global warming, but suggests that with increasing heat being received from the sun, Gaia's ability to \"bounce back\" as it did after the Permian and Cretaceous extinction events, may be increasingly compromised.\nPaul Hawken suggests in Blessed Unrest that when Earth is considered a living system then Earth's immune system is made up of the million or so organizations all around the globe that are working for social justice, the environment, and indigenous people's rights. Many of these groups are linked through the Internet and other means so there is a vast network of interconnected people and groups working to protect the planet, its people, and all beings. For example, one organization that serves to link groups working on sustainable energy is Inforse in Denmark.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Eidetic reduction is a technique in the study of essences in phenomenology whose goal is to identify the basic components of phenomena. Eidetic reduction requires that a phenomenologist examine the essence of a mental object, be it a simple mental act, or the unity of consciousness itself, with the intention of drawing out the absolutely necessary and invariable components that make the mental object what it is. This is achieved by the method known as eidetic variation. It involves imagining an object of the kind under investigation and varying its features. The changed feature is inessential to this kind if the object can survive its change, otherwise it belongs to the kind's essence.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The term eikas\u00eda (Ancient Greek: \u03b5\u1f30\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b1), meaning  imagination in Greek, was used by Plato to refer to a human way of dealing with appearances. Particularly, it is identified as the lower subsection of the visible segment and represents images, which Plato described as \"first shadows, then reflections in water and in all compacted, smooth, and shiny materials\". According to the philosopher, eikasia and pistis add up to doxa, which is concerned with genesis (becoming).Eikasia has several interpretations. For instance, it is the inability to perceive whether a perception is an image of something else. It therefore prevents us from perceiving that a dream or memory or a reflection in a mirror is not reality as such. Another variation posited by scholars such Yancey Dominick, explains that it is a way of understanding the originals that generate the objects that are considered as eikasia. This allows one to distinguish the image from reality such as the way one can avoid mistaking a reflection of a tree in a puddle for a tree.It is part of Plato's Analogy of the Divided Line.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In the philosophy of mind, emergent (or emergentist) materialism is a theory which asserts that the mind is irreducibly existent in some sense. However, the mind does not exist in the sense of being an ontological simple. Further, the study of mental phenomena is independent of other sciences. The theory primarily maintains that the human mind's evolution is a product of material nature and that it cannot exist without material basis.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Endoxa (Greek: \u1f14\u03bd\u03b4\u03bf\u03be\u03b1) is the plural of endoxon, deriving from the word doxa (\u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1, meaning \"Belief\", \"opinion\"). Plato referred to doxa as the level of apprehension attained when a mind's activity is directed to ta onta or \"things\" and that the process is independent of perception. Whereas Plato condemned doxa as a starting point from which to attain truth, Aristotle used the term endoxa \u2013 in the sense of \"commonplace\", \"everyday\", \"consensus\" \u2013 to identify a group or population's beliefs that had previously withstood debate and argument (and were, thereby, more stable than doxa).\nIn Aristotle's conceptualization, endoxa are opinions that one can agree with after a careful examination of arguments both for and against it, with the former emerging stronger. In the philosopher's explanation of the term in Topics I.1, endoxa was described as having five types: 1) the views of everyone; 2) the views of the preponderant majority; 3) the views of the recognized experts; 4) the views of all the experts; and, 5) the views of the most famous. It is said that endoxa may be plausible but this does not mean that they are true.Aside from those found in the Topics of the Organon, examples of Aristotle's use of endoxa may also be found in his Rhetoric. Otfried H\u00f6ffe, translated by Christine Salazar, offers a detailed discussion of the topic in \"Aristotle\" (2003; pp. 35\u201342).", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Entention is a neologism coined by biological anthropologist Terrence Deacon in his 2011 book Incomplete Nature. The term is deliberately similar to the term intention, which has a long history of use in philosophy of mind, but was designed to have a broader scope. \"Ententional\" is an adjective that applies to the class of objects and phenomena that refer to or are in some other way \"about\" something not present. This Wikipedia page is ententional because it refers to and is explicitly about an abstract concept which is not physically present in the page itself. Other paradigm examples of ententional objects are books, DNA strands, and tools. In contrast, rocks, stars, and electromagnetic radiation are not ententional.\nJeremy Sherman writes on ententionality, \"Deacon coins the term 'ententional,' to encompass the entire range of phenomena that must be explained, everything from the first evolvable function, to human social processes, everything traditionally called intentional but also everything merely functional, fitting and therefore representing its environment with normative (good or bad fit) consequences.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In hermeneutics, Arianna B\u00e9atrice Fabbricatore has used the term entropy, relying on the works of Umberto Eco, to identify and assess the loss of meaning between the verbal description of dance and the choreotext (the moving silk engaged by the dancer in enacting the choreographic writing) generated by inter-semiotic translation operations.This use is linked to the notions of logotext and choreotext. In the transition from logotext to choreotext it is possible to identify two typologies of entropy: the first, called \"natural\", is related to the uniqueness of the performative act and its ephemeral character. The second is caused by \"voids\" more or less important in the logotext (i.e. the verbal text that reflects the action danced).", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Epilogism, also known as epilogismos, is a style of inference used by the ancient Empiric school of medicine and Pyrrhonism. It is a theory-free method that looks at history through the accumulation of facts without major generalization and with consideration of the consequences of making causal claims. Epilogism is an inference which moves entirely within the domain of visible and evident things, it tries not to invoke unobservables.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Epiphany Philosophers was a group of philosophers, scientists and religious (priests, nuns and monks) who met regularly and published between 1950 and 2010. The focus of their endeavours was on the relationship between science and religion.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Equality of sacrifice is a term used in political theory and political philosophy to refer to the perceived fairness of a coercive policy.\nJohn Stuart Mill noticed that citizens often view taxation laws as being fair, as long as taxation is also applied equally to everyone else in society. Political theorist Margaret Levi applied the term to the perceived fairness of conscription in democracies, to which citizens may consent as long as conscription is enforced as a universal duty \u2013 as opposed to elitist and exceptionalist policies, as it will sometimes occur in partial mobilization.The term was also adopted by Lee Iacocca who, as the president of Chrysler, lowered his salary to less than a dollar a year before asking union members for radical wage cuts in order to deal with the company's financial difficulties. During the financial crisis of 2007\u20132010, Iacocca's example has often been mentioned in opposition to \"unconditional\" government bail-out of failing companies. In a letter to the leaders of the big three U.S. automakers, Senator Chuck Grassley said that before receiving a government bailout executives should follow the example of former Chrysler head Lee Iacocca and cut their own pay:\n\nLee Iacocca essentially worked for pennies to demonstrate leadership and forcefully prove to his colleagues that he was ready to make sacrifices to reinvigorate Chrysler [...] Today\u2019s executives could learn a lot from this example. They should take every step possible, including cutting executive salaries and bonuses, and exhaust all alternatives before coming to the taxpayers for tens of billions of dollars in help.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Eretrian school of philosophy was originally the School of Elis, where it had been founded by Phaedo of Elis; it was later transferred to Eretria by his pupil Menedemus. It can be referred to as the Elian-Eretrian School, on the assumption that the views of the two schools were similar. It died out after the time of Menedemus (3rd century BC), and, consequently, very little is known about its tenets. Phaedo had been a pupil of Socrates, and Plato named a dialogue, Phaedo, in his honor, but it is not possible to infer his doctrines from the dialogue. Menedemus was a pupil of Stilpo at Megara before becoming a pupil of Phaedo; in later times, the views of his school were often linked with those of the Megarian school. Menedemus' friend and colleague in the Eretrian school was Asclepiades of Phlius.\nLike the Megarians they seem to have believed in the individuality of \"the Good,\" the denial of the plurality of virtue, and of any real difference existing between the Good and the True. Cicero tells us that they placed all good in the mind, and in that acuteness of mind by which the truth is discerned. They denied that truth could be inferred by negative categorical propositions, and would only allow positive ones, and of these only simple ones.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Ethnophilosophy is the study of indigenous philosophical systems. The implicit concept is that a specific culture can have a philosophy that is not applicable and accessible to all peoples and cultures in the world; however, this concept is disputed by traditional philosophers.  An example of ethnophilosophy is African philosophy.\nThe term ethno-philosophy was first used by Kwame Nkrumah and was coined by Paulin J. Hountondji who viewed it as a combination of ethnography and philosophy. Ethno-philosophy is based on the works of ethnographers, sociologists and anthropologists who interpret collective world views of African people's, their myths and folklores as a constitutive part of African philosophy. \nEthno-philosophy is a study of ethnic Africans and their way of life. It has long been argued that Africans lack culture and history and are illiterates, in the sense that the Africans were exposed to education by the missionaries (Basel, Wesleyan or Catholic) and colonial settlers. \nThe study of ethno-philosophy aids Africans to know that they are rational thinkers and are not inferior as such arguments made by Westerners are false.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, euthymia (Greek: \u03b5\u1f50\u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03af\u03b1, \"gladness, good mood, serenity\", literally \"good thumos\") is, according to the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus, a basis of human life goals.\nDiogenes La\u00ebrtius records Democritus' view as follows: \"The chief good he asserts to be cheerfulness (euthymia); which, however, he does not consider the same as pleasure; as some people, who have misunderstood him, have fancied that he meant; but he understands by cheerfulness, a condition according to which the soul lives calmly and steadily, being disturbed by no fear, or superstition, or other passion.\"In Seneca\u2019s essay on tranquility, euthymia is defined as \u201cbelieving in yourself and trusting that you are on the right path, and not being in doubt by following the myriad footpaths of those wandering in every direction.\u201d", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Eutrapelia comes from the Greek for 'wittiness' (\u03b5\u1f50\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03b1) and refers to pleasantness in conversation, with ease and a good sense of humor. It is one of Aristotle's virtues, being the \"golden mean\" between boorishness (\u1f00\u03b3\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03af\u03b1) and buffoonery (\u03b2\u03c9\u03bc\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c7\u03af\u03b1). When construed narrowly, eutrapelia is associated with an emotion in the same manner modesty and righteousness are associated with emotion, while it is not tied to any particular emotion when construed in wider terms, and is classified with truthfulness, friendliness, and dignity in the category of mean-dispositions that cannot be called pathetikai mesotetes.For a while, eutrapelia mostly came to signify jokes that were obscene and coarse. The word appears only once in the New Testament, in Ephesians 5:4, where it is translated as, \"coarse jesting\", in the NIV.\nThe influential Medieval philosopher, Thomas Aquinas (1225\u20131274), viewed eutrapelia in a positive light, again, favoring the ancient Aristotelian notion that it is constituted by mental relaxation and honorable fun. In Summa Theologica, Aquinas made it the virtue of moderation in relation to jesting. By the second half of thirteenth century, the concept was considered a state of judicious pleasure and returned to being considered a virtue by commentators.The term, eutrapely, is derived from eutrapelia and, since 1596, shares the original meaning of wittiness in conversations.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The principle of evidential existentiality in philosophy is a principle that explains and gives value to the existence of entities. The principle states that the reality of an entity's existence gives greater value to prove its existence than would be given through any outward studies. The principle has become a backbone of the God argument, stating that because God is a self-evident entity, His existence can only be shared by humans, thus proof of God is unnecessary and moot.\nIt appears that the existence is primarily evident to the self only. The God or Supreme self is perceivable to the self. So evidentially self perception is followed by God perception and so on.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "An evolutionary debunking, sometimes referred to as an evolutionary debunking argument or evolutionary debunking thesis, is a philosophical argument which holds that, because humans (like all organisms) have an evolutionary origin, the principles of ethics and morality that humans have devised are invalid and cannot be considered objective knowledge. Proponents of such arguments argue that they refute, or at least cast doubt on, ethical realism, moral realism, and/or theism. However, critics have argued that these arguments are themselves invalid.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Existential phenomenology encompasses a wide range of thinkers who take up the view that philosophy must begin from experience like phenomenology, but argues for the temporality of personal existence as the framework for analysis of the human condition.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In any of several fields of study that treat the use of signs \u2014 for example, in linguistics, logic, mathematics, semantics, semiotics, and philosophy of language \u2014 an extensional context (or transparent context) is a syntactic environment in which a sub-sentential expression e can be replaced by an expression with the same extension and without affecting the truth-value of the sentence as a whole. Extensional contexts are contrasted with opaque contexts where truth-preserving substitutions are not possible. \nTake the case of Clark Kent, who is secretly Superman. Suppose that Lois Lane fell out of a window and Superman caught her. Thus the sentence \"Superman caught Lois Lane\" is true. Because this sentence is an extensional context, the sentence \"Clark Kent caught Lois Lane\" is also true. Anybody that Superman caught, Clark Kent caught.\nIn opposition to extensional contexts are intensional contexts (which can involve modal operators and modal logic), where terms cannot be substituted without potentially compromising the truth-value. Suppose that Lois Lane believes that Clark Kent will investigate a news story with her. Thus, the sentence \"Lois Lane believes that Clark Kent will investigate a news story with her\" is true. However, the statement, \"Lois Lane believes that Superman will investigate a news story with her,\" is false. This is because 'believes' typically induces an intensional context. Lois Lane doesn't believe that Superman is Clark Kent and the propositional attitude \"believe\" induces an intensional context, so the substitution alters the meaning of the original sentence.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Extensionalism, in the philosophy of language, in logic and semantics, is the view that all languages or at least all scientific languages should be extensional. It has been described as the default option for the scientism in the nineteenth century and the result of the application of empiricistic inductive methodology to the problem of semantics.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Ferens Chair in Philosophy, established in 1927, is one of the founding Chairs of the University of Hull and is supported by an endowment provided by the founder of the university Thomas Ferens. Previous occupants of the Chair include Thomas Jessop OBE, Alan R. White, Peter Lamarque and Kathleen Lennon. From 2013-14 the holder of the Ferens Chair is Nick Zangwill.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Foreknowledge is the concept of knowledge regarding future events.\nTypes of foreknowledge include:\n\nPrecognition or prior viewing of some likely future event\nKnowledge of predestination\nPrediction - Calculated, informed or uninformed guesses regarding future events\nPrognostication - Typically informed predictions about future events in a confined context\nProphecy - Religious concept of divine knowledge, often with a consideration of future trends or events, and to some degree regarding events of an imminent, or divinely planned nature.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Forrester's paradox, also known as the paradox of gentle murder, is a paradox of deontic logic attributed to James Forrester. It is a version of the Good Samaritan paradox.\nForrester's argument is that, starting from the statements that\n\nIt is obligatory (under the law) that Smith not murder Jones.\nIt is obligatory that, if Smith murders Jones, Smith murder Jones gently.it logically follows that:\n\nIf Smith murders Jones, it is obligatory, that Smith murder Jones gently.However, if it were actually the case that Smith murdered Jones, it can then be deduced that:\n\nIt is obligatory, that Smith murder Joneswhich contradicts the first statement, leading to a logical fallacy.A number of arguments have been advanced that Forrester's paradox is invalid, for example that it is the result of a confusion of scope, or a misuse of deduction rules.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In moral and legal philosophy, there exists a distinction between the concepts of freedom and license. The former deals with the rights of the individual; the latter covers the expressed permission (or lack thereof) for more than one individual to engage in an activity.\nAs a result, freedoms usually include rights which are usually recognized (often, not always, in an unconditional manner) by the government (and access to which is theoretically enforced against any and all interferences). Licenses, on the other hand, are distributed to individuals who make use of a specific item, expressing the permission to use the item or service under specified, conditional terms and boundaries of usage.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "\"Function and Concept\" (German: \"Funktion und Begriff\", \"Function and Concept\") is a lecture delivered by Gottlob Frege in 1891. The lecture involves a clarification of his earlier distinction between concepts and objects. It was first published as an article in 1962.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Graphocentrism or scriptism is a typically unconscious interpretative bias in which writing is privileged over speech.Biases in favor of the written or printed word are closely associated with the ranking of sight above sound, the eye above the ear, which has been called 'ocularcentrism'. It opposes phonocentrism, which is the bias in favor of speech.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Rationality Debate\u2014also called the Great Rationality Debate\u2014is the question of whether humans are rational or not. This issue is a topic in the study of cognition and is important in fields such as economics where it is relevant to the theories of market efficiency.\nMany studies in experimental psychology have shown that humans often reason in a way that is inaccurate or imperfect\u2014that they do not naturally chose the ideal method or solution. An example of a problem which causes difficulty and debate is the St. Petersburg paradox. This is a lottery which is constructed so that the expected value is infinite but unlikely so that most people will not pay a large fee to play. Gerd Gigerenzer explained that, in this case, mathematicians refined their formulae to model this pragmatic behaviour. Keith Stanovich characterizes this as a Panglossian position in the debate\u2014that humans are fundamentally rational and any variance between the normative position and empirical outcomes may be explained by such adjustments.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Gymnosophy (from Greek \u03b3\u03c5\u03bc\u03bd\u03cc\u03c2 gymn\u00f3s \"naked\" and \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1 soph\u00eda \"wisdom\") was a movement and a philosophy practiced in Europe and the US from the end of the 19th century to the mid 20th century.  The practice involved nudity, asceticism, and meditation.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Habermas\u2013Rawls debate is the exchange which took place between John Rawls and J\u00fcrgen Habermas in The Journal of Philosophy in 1995.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Henology (from Greek \u1f15\u03bd hen, \"one\") refers to the philosophical account or discourse on The One that appears most notably in the philosophy of Plotinus. Reiner Sch\u00fcrmann describes it as a \"metaphysics of radical transcendence\" that extends beyond being and intellection.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Hermeneutics of faith, the counterpart to hermeneutics of suspicion, is a manner in which a text may be read. It was the traditional or predominant way of reading the Bible for at least the first fifteen hundred years of Christian history. Both interpretive approaches combined are necessary for a complete knowledge of an object.:\u200a64\u200aHans-Georg Gadamer, in his 1960 magnum opus Truth and Method (Wahrheit und Methode), offers perhaps the most systematic survey of hermeneutics in the 20th century, its title referring to his dialogue between claims of \"truth\" on the one hand and processes of \"method\" on the other\u2014in brief, the hermeneutics of faith versus the hermeneutics of suspicion. Gadamer suggests that, ultimately, in our reading we must decide between one or the other.:\u200a106\u2013107\u200aAccording to Ruthellen Josselson, \"(Paul) Ric\u0153ur distinguishes between two forms of hermeneutics: a hermeneutics of faith, which aims to restore meaning to a text, and a hermeneutics of suspicion, which attempts to decode meanings that are disguised.\":\u200a1\u201328\u200a Rita Felski posits that Ric\u0153ur's hermeneutics of faith did not become fashionable because it appeared dismissive of the work of critique that defined an ascendant post-structuralism.:\u200a21\u200aIn his early essay \"The Universality of the Hermeneutical Problem\" and especially his Wahrheit und Methode (Truth and Method), conservative German philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer asserts that one is always deciding between a hermeneutics of faith (truth) or a hermeneutics of suspicion (method) when engaged in the act of reading.:\u200a106\u200a", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Greek term hesychia (\u1f21\u03c3\u03c5\u03c7\u03af\u03b1, Greek pronunciation: [isi\u02c8\u00e7ia]) is a concept that can be translated as \"stillness, rest, quiet, silence\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A heuristic argument is an argument that reasons from the value of a method or principle that has been shown experimentally (especially through trial-and-error) to be useful or convincing in learning, discovery and problem-solving, but whose line of reasoning involves key oversimplifications that make it not entirely rigorous. A widely used and important example of a heuristic argument is Occam's Razor.\nIt is a speculative, non-rigorous argument that relies on analogy or intuition, and that allows one to achieve a result or an approximation that is to be checked later with more rigor. Otherwise, the results are generally to be doubted. It is used as a hypothesis or a conjecture in an investigation, though it can also be used as a mnemonic as well.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Higher-order volitions (or higher-order desire), as opposed to action-determining volitions, are volitions about volitions. Higher-order volitions are potentially more often guided by long-term convictions and reasoning.\nA first-order volition is a desire about anything else, such as to own a new car, to meet the pope, or to drink alcohol.  Second-order volition are desires about desires, or to desire to change the process, the how, of desiring.     Examples would be desires to want to own a new car; to want to meet the pope; or to want to quit drinking alcohol permanently. A higher-order volition can go unfulfilled due to uncontrolled lower-order volitions.\nAn example for a failure to follow higher-order volitions is the drug addict who takes drugs even though they would like to quit taking drugs. According to Harry Frankfurt the drug addict has established free will when their higher-order volition to stop wanting drugs determines the precedence of their changing, action-determining desires either to take drugs or not to take drugs.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Homo faber (Latin for \"Man the Maker\") is the concept that human beings are able to control their fate and their environment as a result of the use of tools.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "I'm entitled to my opinion or I have a right to my opinion is an informal fallacy in which a person discredits any opposition by claiming that they are entitled to their opinion. The statement exemplifies a red herring or thought-terminating clich\u00e9. The logical fallacy is sometimes presented as \"Let's agree to disagree\". Whether one has a particular entitlement or right is irrelevant to whether one's assertion is true or false. Where an objection to a belief is made, the assertion of the right to an opinion side-steps the usual steps of discourse of either asserting a justification of that belief, or an argument against the validity of the objection. Such an assertion, however, can also be an assertion of one's own freedom from, or a refusal to participate in, the rules of argumentation and logic at hand.Philosopher Patrick Stokes has described the expression as problematic because it is often used to defend factually indefensible positions or to \"[imply] an equal right to be heard on a matter in which only one of the two parties has the relevant expertise\". Further elaborating on Stokes' argument, philosopher David Godden argued that the claim that one is entitled to a view gives rise to certain obligations, such as the obligation to provide reasons for the view and to submit those reasons to contestation; Godden called these the principles of rational entitlement and rational responsibility, and he developed a classroom exercise for teaching these principles.Philosopher Jos\u00e9 Ortega y Gasset wrote in his 1930 book The Revolt of the Masses:\n\nThe Fascist and Syndicalist species were characterized by the first appearance of a type of man who \"did not care to give reasons or even to be right\", but who was simply resolved to impose his opinions. That was the novelty: the right not to be right, not to be reasonable: \"the reason of unreason.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Ideal language philosophy is contrasted with ordinary language philosophy. From about 1910 to 1930, analytic philosophers like Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein emphasized creating an ideal language for philosophical analysis, which would be free from the ambiguities of natural language that, in their opinion, often made for philosophical error. During this phase, Russell and Wittgenstein sought to understand language (and hence philosophical problems) by using formal logic to formalize the way in which philosophical statements are made. Wittgenstein developed a comprehensive system of logical atomism in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (German: Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung, 1921). He thereby argued that the universe is the totality of facts and not things: actual states of affairs and that these states of affairs can be expressed by the language of first-order predicate logic. Thus a picture of the universe can be construed by means of expressing atomic facts in the form of atomic propositions, and linking them using logical operators. Wittgenstein's Tractatus was composed as an elaborate work of philosophical irony (\"nonsense\"). In other words, he was demonstrating how such a way of thinking is absurd.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Idealistic pluralism is a philosophical position that suggests while an individual's understanding of the world might be limited to only the ideas within his or her mind, it can be known in this way by more than one mind.\nIdealistic pluralism rejects the idea of solipsism, which would be an idealistic monism.  In the philosophy of George Berkeley, an idealistic pluralism is found in his assertion that many minds (each knowing the world though their own representations) exist, separate from each other, and from God.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "An id\u00e9e re\u00e7ue (pronounced [ide r\u0259sy]), plural id\u00e9es re\u00e7ues, a French phrase literally meaning a received (accepted) idea, is a generally held opinion or concept.  This term was used by Gustave Flaubert in his work Le Dictionnaire des id\u00e9es re\u00e7ues to refer to clich\u00e9s and platitudes, most of which are as insipid as they are banal.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Ideological repression refers to forceful activities against competing ideologies and philosophies.\nAlan Wolfe defines ideological repression as \"the attempt to manipulate people's consciousness so they accept the ruling ideology, and distrust and refuse to be moved by competing ideologies\".In the early days of the Soviet Union and in other countries, ideological repression was carried out by political repression of the carriers of competing ideologies.\nInstruments of ideological repression are propaganda and censorship. During the days of \"Marxism-Leninism\"  in the Soviet Union -around the early 1930s- students of this particular school of thought were given textbooks that encouraged one particular way of thinking (the Marxist way) as being paramount and the most scientific and true school of thought.\nThrough ideological repression and control of output information, the Soviet Union was attempting to keep social revolutions at bay.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Idios kosmos comes from Greek and means private world. It exists with, and is opposite to, koinos kosmos (shared world). Idios kosmos is the view of the world that is developed from personal experience and knowledge and is therefore unique; however, it can be difficult to tell the difference between it and koinos kosmos.\nThe two phrases come from the Diels-Kranz fragment B89 of Heraclitus: \u1f41 \u1f29\u03c1\u03ac\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c6\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f10\u03b3\u03c1\u03b7\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f15\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u1f78\u03bd \u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03c9\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd \u1f15\u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u1f34\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c6\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9  (\"Heraclitus said that the waking have one common world, but the sleeping turn aside each into a world of his own.\")\nThe idea of idios kosmos is an important part of Philip K. Dick's views on schizophrenia, as expressed in his 1964 essay \"Schizophrenia & 'The Book of Changes'\", drawing on personal experience with the I Ching.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Immanent evaluation is a philosophical concept used by Gilles Deleuze in his essay \"Qu'est-ce qu'un dispositif ?\" (1989), where it is seen as the opposite of transcendent judgment.\nDeleuze writes about Michel Foucault: \"Foucault ... makes allusion to 'aesthetic' criteria, which are understood as criteria for life and replace on each occasion the claims of transcendental  [sic] judgement [jugement transcendant] with an immanent evaluation [\u00e9valuation immanente]\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Immediacy is a philosophical concept related to time and temporal perspectives, both visual, and cognitive. Considerations of immediacy reflect on how we experience the world and what reality is. It implies a direct experience of an event or object bereft of any intervening medium. An example would be looking at a painting, losing awareness of the medium, and seeing the depiction as real. The medium is an important concept, and somewhat paradoxical, as it is both necessary and yet forgotten. Plato deals with a similar concept in the purity of experience. He tells us that speech is more immediate than writing, because the words emerge more directly from the speaker's mind. Immediacy also possesses characteristics of both of the homophonic heterographs 'immanent' and 'imminent', and what entails to both within ontology.\nImmediacy also relates to the philosophy of phenomenology, as they are schools of thought which both concern subjective perceptions of objects and time.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "An information hazard, or infohazard, is \"a risk that arises from the dissemination of (true) information that may cause harm or enable some agent to cause harm\", as defined by philosopher Nick Bostrom in 2011. One example would be instructions for creating a thermonuclear weapon.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Intellectual responsibility (also known as epistemic responsibility) is a philosophical concept related to that of epistemic justification. According to Frederick F. Schmitt, \"the conception of justified belief as epistemically responsible belief has been endorsed by a number of philosophers, including Roderick Chisholm (1977), Hilary Kornblith (1983), and Lorraine Code (1983).\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The  International Journal of the Asian Philosophical Association  (IJAPA) is a peer reviewed bi-annual online interdisciplinary journal of Asian philosophy founded in 2008. The journal is published by the Asian Philosophical Association.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The International Philosophical Bibliography (IPB), also known in French as R\u00e9pertoire bibliographique de la philosophie (RBP), is a bibliographic database covering publications on the history of philosophy and continental philosophy.The database comprises records of publications in over 30 languages. Annually, about 12,000 records are added. The indexes include, among other elements, over 84,000 names of authors, editors, translators, reviewers, and collaborators, as well as more than 3,000 commentaries on philosophical works, making it the world's most complete index in Philosophy.Since 1934, the IPB has been developed by the Higher Institute of Philosophy at the University of Louvain (UCLouvain), first in Leuven and since 1978 in Louvain-la-Neuve. The online version was launched by Peeters Publishers in 1997 and continues to be updated quarterly.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Interpretivism is a school of thought in contemporary jurisprudence and the philosophy of law.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In Continental philosophy, the term invagination is used to explain a special kind of metanarrative. It was first used by Maurice Merleau-Ponty (French: invagination) to describe the dynamic self-differentiation of the 'flesh'. It was later used by Rosalind E. Krauss and Jacques Derrida (\"The Law of Genre\", Glyph 7, 1980); for Derrida, an invaginated text is a narrative that folds upon itself, \"endlessly swapping outside for inside and thereby producing a structure en abyme\". He applies the term to such texts as Immanuel Kant's Critique of Judgment and Maurice Blanchot's La Folie du Jour. Invagination is an aspect of diff\u00e9rance, since according to Derrida it opens the \"inside\" to the \"other\" and denies both inside and outside a stable identity.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "An invincible error is, in Christian philosophy, a normally sinful action which is not considered sinful because it was committed through blameless ignorance that one's actions were harmful or otherwise prohibited.In the stated philosophy, a sin occurs when a person knowingly commits an evil act, meaning that they must know both:\n\nthat they are committing the act\nthat the act is evilIf a person is ignorant of one of these two facts, then the type of ignorance becomes important. If the person is intentionally or willfully ignorant, this is known as vincible ignorance, and the act is still considered a sin. If, however, the person is unintentionally ignorant of one of these two key facts, then they are considered invincibly ignorant, and have committed an invincible error.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, a phenomenon is governed by the principle of irreducibility when a complete account of an entity is not possible at lower levels of explanation because the phenomenon exhibits novel properties beyond prediction and explanation in terms of lower levels. Another way to state this is that Occam's razor requires the elimination of only those entities that are unnecessary, not as many entities as could conceivably be eliminated. \nIn hard irreducibility, such as materialist explanations of the human soul, it is a matter of legitimate dispute whether the (purportedly) emergent phenomenon (the soul) inheres in any way at the lower level of explanation (materialism). \nIn soft irreducibility, such as situating the entire theory of chemistry on top of the physics of the atom, the emergent phenomenon (chemistry) is believed to inhere in the underlying level of explanation (physics), but the complexity of going from one level to the other is so formidable as to force dealing with both levels on their own terms, in the majority of cases, even though one level, in principle, determines the other, in the example, as chemistry arising directly and entirely from physics.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Kallias-Briefen was a collection made by Schiller of his thoughts on beauty from his correspondence with his friend Christian Gottfried K\u00f6rner. He planned to turn them into a major treatise entitled Kallias oder \u00dcber die Sch\u00f6nheit but in the end did not have time to do so.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Kennisbank Filosofie in Nederland (KFN) is a database in which information can be found about philosophy, especially from the Netherlands. The bibliography consists of about 35.000 records of publications on philosophy in the Netherlands and Flanders. This database was based in the first place on Prof. Poortman's 4-vol. work.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The KK thesis or KK principle is a principle of epistemic logic which states that \"If you know that P is the case then you know that you know that P is the case.\" This means that one cannot know that P is, if one does not know whether one's knowledge of P is correct. Its application in science can be expressed in the way that it must not only justify its knowledge claims but it must also justify its method of justifying. The principle is also described as knowledge-reflexivity contention.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Latitudinarianism, in at least one area of contemporary philosophy, is a position concerning de dicto and de re (propositional)  attitudes.  Latitudinarians think that de re attitudes are not a category distinct from de dicto attitudes; the former are just a special case of the latter.\nThe term was introduced into discussions of de dicto and de re attitudes by Roderick Chisholm in his \"Knowledge and Belief: 'De Dicto' and 'De Re'\" (1976). Latitudinarianism has since also sometimes been called an \"unrestricted exportation\" view.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "League of peace (Latin: foedus pacificum) is an expression coined by Immanuel Kant in his work \"Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch\". The league of peace should be distinguished from a peace treaty (pactum pacis) because a peace treaty prevents or terminates only one war, while the league of peace seeks to end all wars forever. This league does not hold any power of the state, but only exists for \"the maintenance and security of the freedom of the state and of other states in league with it, without there being any need for them to submit to civil laws and their compulsion, as men in a state of nature must submit.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Leibniz Society of North America is a philosophical society whose purpose is to promote the study of the philosophy of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. The society publishes The Leibniz Review, organizes an annual conference, sponsors group sessions at meetings of the American Philosophical Association, holds an annual essay contest, and issues an annual newsletter.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Epicurus' Letter to Herodotus (not the historian) was written as an introduction to Epicurean philosophy and method of studying nature. It was so important that it was considered the \u201cLittle Epitome\u201d, and had to be studied initially by all serious students of Epicureanism.\nIt included the most complete detail of the ancient conversations that led to the development of atomist theory, a doctrine of innumerable worlds, and an explanation of the phenomenon of time that posits an early form of relativism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Epicurus' Epistle to Menoeceus is a summary of the ethical teachings of Epicurean philosophy written in the epistolary literary style, and addressed to a student. It addresses theology, the hierarchies of desires, how to carry choices and avoidances in order to achieve net pleasure, and other aspects of Epicurean ethics. It is the most important of the three surviving letters of Epicurus.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Linguistic film theory is a form of film theory that studies the aesthetics of films by investigating the concepts and practices that comprise the experience and interpretation of movies.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Linguistic philosophy is the view that many or all philosophical problems can be solved (or dissolved) by paying closer attention to language, either by reforming language or by understanding the everyday language that we presently use better. The former position is that of ideal language philosophy, one prominent example being logical atomism. The latter is the view defended in ordinary language philosophy.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Some philosophers have commonly used nicknames.  All the nicknames on this list have sources that attest to their use.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of phenomenologists\n\nEdmund Husserl\nMartin Heidegger\nEdith Stein\nMoritz Geiger\nAron Gurwitsch\nAlfred Sch\u00fctz\nFelix Kaufmann\nRoman Ingarden\nHerbert Spiegelberg\nMaurice Merleau-Ponty\nJean-Paul Sartre\nJacques Taminiaux\nMaurice Natanson\nHubert Dreyfus\nShaun Gallagher\nDan Zahavi\nFritz Kaufmann\nJohn Daniel Wild\nJames M. Edie\nKarol Wojty\u0142a\nEdward S. Casey\nBurt C. Hopkins\nAvshalom Elitzur", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In qualitative phenomenological research, lived experience refers to a representation of the experiences and choices of a given person, and the knowledge that they gain from these experiences and choices. It is a category of qualitative research together with those that focus on society and culture and those that focus on language and communication.In the philosophy of Wilhelm Dilthey, the human sciences are based on lived experience, which makes them fundamentally different from the natural sciences, which are considered to be based on scientific experiences. The concept can also be approached from the view that since every experience has both objective and subjective components, it is important for a researcher to understand all aspects of it.In phenomenological research, lived experiences are the main object of study, but the goal of such research is not to understand individuals' lived experiences as facts, but to determine the understandable meaning of such experiences. In addition lived experience is not about reflecting on an experience while living through it but is recollective, where experience is reflected on after it has passed or lived through.The term dates back to the 19th century, but its use has increased greatly in recent decades. The concept has been criticised as solipsistic and redundant.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Formal scientists have attempted to combine logic and dialectic through formalisation. These attempts include pre-formal and partially formal treatises on argument and dialectic, systems based on defeasible reasoning, and systems based on game semantics and dialogical logic.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In the philosophy of mind, logical behaviorism (also known as analytical behaviorism) is the thesis that mental concepts can be explained in terms of behavioral concepts.Logical behaviorism was first stated by the Vienna Circle, especially Rudolf Carnap. Other philosophers with sympathies for behaviorism included C. G. Hempel, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and W. V. O. Quine (1960). A more moderate form of analytical behaviorism was put forward by the Oxford philosopher Gilbert Ryle in his book The Concept of Mind (1949).", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The lottery of birth is a philosophical argument which states that since no one chooses the circumstances into which they are born, people should not be held responsible for them (being rich, being poor and so on).The lottery of birth argument has been used by philosophers such as John Locke, Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, but more modern day uses have been prompted by political theorists such as John Rawls, who explores the subject in depth in his book A Theory of Justice.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A meditation (derived from the  Latin  meditatio, from a verb meditari, meaning \"to think, contemplate, devise, ponder\") is a written work or a discourse intended to express its author's reflections, or to guide others in contemplation. Often they are an author's musings or extended thoughts on deeper philosophical or religious questions. In the case of Marcus Aurelius, writing was therapeutic. He would use writing as a form of therapy, often aiming to write short and memorable paragraphs.  Meditation, as form of writing, is a type of Reflective writing. Often, writings in this style are a form of meditation. Writing, just like meditation, is a form of interfering with one's mind for beneficial purposes. Just like meditation writing deliberately focuses one's mind on the task at hand, restructuring your conscious thoughts.  This idea can very clearly be viewed in Descartes' Meditations. In Meditations Descartes hopes to have his readers follow along in Meditational exercises. As such, he hopes to have readers read the entire Meditations, rather than just a part, explaining that he wants people reading it to be in serious deliberation. Descartes's Meditations offer particular insight into this style of writing, letting us know that meditations is meant to delve into the various aspects of self, and our ideas of ourselves. Often, he is seen as examining the seemingly unconscious ideas of the mind, and bringing them to consciousness. Thereby clarifying ideas in one's own head. Meditations, according to Descartes, are not meant to be an idle task but rather something that should go on to affect all aspects of life: from social interactions, to how we perceive ourselves. Despite the being Descartes perceptions of meditations there are other varieties. Some view meditations more like writing therapy, a way to vent out and deal with one's emotions, whereas Descartes and the stoics viewed meditations as a form of contemplation, as mentioned above. Examples of meditations are:\n\nThomas Traherne's Centuries of Meditations\nT.S. Eliot's Four Quartets\nMeditations a series of personal writings by Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor 161\u2013180 CE, setting forth his ideas on Stoic philosophy\nMeditations on First Philosophy by Ren\u00e9 Descartes", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Melayu Islam Beraja (abbreviated as MIB; Jawi: \u0645\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0648 \u0627\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645 \u0628\u0631\u0627\u062c; English: Malay Islamic Monarchy) was officially proclaimed as the national philosophy of Brunei on the day of its independence on 1 January 1984 by Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah.MIB is described as \"a blend of Malay language, culture, and Malay customs, the teaching of Islamic laws and values and the monarchy system which must be esteemed and practiced by all\". Islam is the official and state religion of Brunei; and MIB basically opposes the concept of secularism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Much of the study of memes focuses on groups of memes called meme complexes, or memeplexes. Like the gene complexes found in biology, memeplexes are groups of memes that are often found present in the same individual. Applying the theory of Universal Darwinism, memeplexes exist because memes copy themselves more successfully when they are \"teamed up\".\nExamples include:\n\nBelief Systems and Ideologies:\nReligions, philosophies, political alignments, worldviews.\nOrganizations and Groups:\nChurches, businesses, political parties, clubs.\nBehavioral Patterns:\nMusical practices, ceremonies, marriages, festivities, hunting techniques, sports.Compared to inherited gene complexes, memeplexes have comparatively less pressure to benefit the individuals expressing them in order to replicate. Because memes and memeplexes replicate virally (i.e., by horizontal transmission), they are not entirely dependent on the success of their hosts in order to succeed. Memes and memeplexes do not have to be useful or true, physically or mathematically, to replicate. For example, geocentrism was at one point an extremely successful idea (in terms of widespread acceptance), but is today not considered to be accurate, having been almost entirely replaced with more modern theories.\nPhilosopher Daniel C. Dennett, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, and consciousness researcher Susan Blackmore (author of The Meme Machine) are proponents of memetics.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Mental projection is a supposed or experienced form of consciousness/spirit/intelligence projection from the emotional/astral plane to the mental plane. Adepts say they are able to project first to the emotional/astral plane (or directly from it after death) and then onward to the mental plane by completely calming their emotional processes and withdrawing their emotional senses.  Like astral projection, mental projection is performed during sleep, between lives, during meditation-contemplation, or through 'psychic' (soulful) separation of the mental body from the emotional/astral body via the silver cord.  Planes beyond the mental are accessible through use of the 'gold cord'.  According to many esoteric philosophers, when projecting in these higher planes one has no humanoid shape and is just a lotus- or egg-shaped 'auric body' of consciousness.Certain philosophers consider the mental plane optimal for projection as it is divine enough to avoid black magic and 'lower psychism' yet also grounded enough to preserve a rational quality of experience (rational but not emotionally detached; mental encloses emotional).  Others think it is better to proceed beyond humanoid form to the causal and mental auras, as these reflections of yet higher formless consciousness also transcend deeper flaws of humanity (like 'egotistic self-identification') that cause the lower psychism.  These philosophers recommend striving to project into divine consciousness, not necessarily leaving one's lower consciousness, but becoming aware of spirit and divine will.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In the philosophy of mind, mentalism is the view that the mind and mental states exist as causally efficacious inner states of persons. The view should be distinguished from substance dualism, which is the view that the mind and the body (or brain) are two distinct kinds of things which nevertheless interact with one another. Although this dualistic view of the mind\u2013body connection entails mentalism, mentalism does not entail dualism. Jerry Fodor and Noam Chomsky have been two of mentalism's most ardent recent defenders.\nIn metaphysics, mentalism is the view that metaphysics is primarily concerned with entities in the mind (See also conceptualism), and denotes the general orientation beginning with William of Ockham and reaching a climax in the idea- or representation-first philosophers (what John Sergeant calls 'Ideism') common in the Early Modern period, including such philosophers as Ren\u00e9 Descartes, John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume, etc. who make the faculties of the mind and their activities the starting point for their philosophical projects.\nIn linguistics, mentalism represents rationalistic philosophy (as opposed to behaviouristic).", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Mentophobia or mentaphobia is a concept described by Donald Griffin, an American zoologist and the founder of cognitive ethology, to denote strong resistance from scientists to the idea that animals, other than humans, are conscious. Griffin argued that there is a taboo \"against scientific consideration of private, conscious, mental experiences\" that leads to the minimization of the significance of the consciousness of non-human animals, as well as human consciousness and asserted that this presents a significant barrier to scientific progress.Mentophobia has been likened to Frans de Waal's concept of anthropodenial: \"a blindness to the humanlike characteristics of other animals, or the animal-like characteristics of ourselves\". It has also been compared with an observation by Daniel Dennett that \"a curious asymmetry can be observed\" when it comes to the certainty of human consciousness not being required for moral certainty, but moral certainty is not applied when it comes to the experiences of other animals.David Chauvet in Contre la Mentaphobie (\"Against Mentaphobia\"), argues that the denial of the consciousness of animals alleviates the guilt that is associated with abuses directed towards them.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Metadiscourse is a term that is used in philosophy to denote a discussion about a discussion, as opposed to a simple discussion about a given topic.\nThe term metadiscourse is also used in writing to describe a word or phrase that comments on what is in the sentence, usually as an introductory adverbial clause.  It is any phrase that is included within a clause or sentence that goes beyond the subject itself, often to examine the purpose of the sentence or a response from the author. Metadiscourse includes phrases such as \"frankly,\" \"after all,\" \"on the other hand,\" \"to our surprise,\" and so on.\nBelow are some examples of metadiscourse in writing, denoting:\n\nthe writer's intentions: \"to sum up,\" \"candidly,\" \"I believe\"\nthe writer's confidence: \"may,\" \"perhaps,\" \"certainly,\" \"must\"\ndirections to the reader: \"note that,\" \"finally,\" \"therefore,\" \"however\"\nthe structure of the text: \"first,\" \"second,\" \"finally,\" \"therefore,\" \"however\"Most writing needs metadiscourse, but too much buries ideas. Technical, academic, and other non-fiction writers should use metadiscourse sparingly.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The metakosmia (Greek: \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03cc\u03c3\u03bc\u03b9\u03b1; Latin: intermundia), according to Epicurean philosophy were the relatively empty spaces in the infinite void where worlds had not been formed by the joining together of the atoms through their endless motion. Epicurus held that the metakosmia were the abode of the gods, whom he considered to be immortal and blissful living beings made of atoms.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Metarepresentation (shaped from the Greek preposition and prefix Meta meaning \"beyond\" and the word \"representation\") is the capacity of a mind to represent \u201ca higher-order representation with a lower-order representation embedded within\", as stated by Deirdre Wilson. In other words, it is the capacity to represent a representation. For example, a drawing is the representation of something and someone who looks at the drawing would represent it in his or her mind.Metarepresentation also allows to understand other's thoughts. Put simply, a person has thoughts in response to a statement and may interpret it in many ways. This forms many metarepresentations of the statement.Metarepresentation is also the ability to generate new knowledge or meaning through representing thoughts or concepts that are not noticed on a day-to-day basis. The ability to represent a representation of thoughts and concepts is the essence of reflection and higher-order thought. In this way, metarepresentation connects deeply with the theory of mind by giving the capacity to associate a statement to the diverging belief of another person. Someone without the capacities of the theory of mind would only have limited metarepresenting capacities. For example, some autistic people may have difficulty with metarepresentation stemming from possible challenges with the ability to link a person with a belief. Similarly, some children may lack the ability to link people with their beliefs. Without that, they can't have thoughts about the thoughts of someone else.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In the philosophy of language and metaphysics, metasemantics is the study of the foundations of natural language semantics (the philosophical study of meaning). Metasemantics searches for \"the proper understanding of compositionality, the object of truth-conditional analysis, metaphysics of reference, as well as, and most importantly, the scope of semantic theory itself\" and asks \"how it is that expressions become endowed with their semantic significance\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In theatre, methexis (Ancient Greek: \u03bc\u03ad\u03b8\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u03c2; also methectics), is \"group sharing\". Originating from Greek theatre, the audience participates, creates and improvises the action of the ritual.\nIn philosophy, methexis is the relation between a particular and a form (in Plato's sense), e.g. a beautiful object is said to partake of the form of beauty.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Method of focal objects is technique for problem solving or creative thinking and involves synthesizing the seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new.\nProfessor at the University of Berlin F. Kunze launched in 1926 with the first naming \n'Method of catalog'. Later in 1958 American scientist C. Whiting improved and named to 'Focal Objects Method'.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Milesian school () was a school of Pre-socratic Philosophy of the 6th century BC, based in the Ionian town of Miletus. It is generally considered to be the first school of thought of Ancient Greek and thus Western philosophy. It consisted of three philosophers: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, who were all primarily interested in cosmology, and the origin and substance of the world. They each believed the world to be made of a fundamental element, an arche, and their philosophies, though differing in a number of ways, were similar in that they were all characterized by material monism and hylozoism.\nThey introduced new opinions contrary to the prevailing belief of how the world was organized, in which natural phenomena were explained solely by the will of anthropomorphized gods. The Milesians conceived of nature in terms of methodologically observable entities, and as such was one of the first truly scientific philosophies.The Milesian school is not synonymous with the Ionian, which includes the philosophies of the Milesians plus distinctly different Ionian thinkers such as Heraclitus. The Ionian School contains the three philosophers that form the Milesian School as well as a few more who were added on during the 5th century, but the Ionian School looked more into the thought behind everything while the Milesian School was more focused on nature.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Modal fictionalism is a term used in philosophy, and more specifically in the metaphysics of modality, to describe the position that holds that modality can be analysed in terms of a fiction about possible worlds. The theory comes in two versions: Strong and Timid. Both positions were first exposed by Gideon Rosen starting from 1990.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Modern Project is a general name for the political and philosophical movement that gives rise to modernity, broadly understood. The modern project begins in the late Middle Ages or the Renaissance. Retrospectively philosophers, scientists, and other historical figures in Western culture can be seen during that period as displaying a greater proclivity to question the givenness of the world\u2014a givenness espoused in classical philosophy and Judeo-Christian revelation\u2014and to assert the centrality of the human mind as the basis for human power. Some ideated abstractions associated with the modern project include: individualism, liberalism, marxism, mechanism, rationalism, scientism, secularism, and subjectivism.\nNiccol\u00f2 Machiavelli, Francis Bacon, Ren\u00e9 Descartes, and Galileo Galilei can all be said to be important initiators of the modern project, however the conceptual shift that prepared the way for the modern project likely began even earlier with the writings of Duns Scotus and William of Ockham. The success of Newtonian mechanics marked a major victory of the modern project and is sometimes credited with beginning the Enlightenment.\nThe use of the word \"project\" in this case is related to Heidegger's use of Entwurf, often translated as project or projection, in Being and Time. \"An Entwurf in Heidegger's sense is not a particular plan or project; it is what makes any plan or project possible.\" The use of Entwurf is in direct response to German philosophers who saw the \"modern\" as a moment unfolding in history rather than as a condition of being. Heidegger's use of Entwurf thus moves the ground of the discussion from historicism to ontology.Leo Strauss says of the modern project that it no longer allows philosophy or science \"to be understood as essentially contemplative,\" but instead requires that those two disciplines actively seek to relieve man's estate. The purpose thereof is to promote ever greater prosperity, freedom, and justice.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Moral certainty is a concept of intuitive probability. It means a very high degree of probability, sufficient for action, but short of absolute or mathematical certainty.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "\"Nachgewahren\" (\"postdiscovering\") is a Husserlian term referring to the way a lived experience is grasped and retained immediately after it occurs. It is a key component of phenomenological description and analysis since it involves memory and intentionality.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, the natural order is the moral source from which natural law seeks to derive its authority.  Natural order encompasses the natural relations of beings to one another in the absence of law, which natural law attempts to reinforce. In contrast, divine law seeks authority from God, and positive law seeks authority from government. \nThe term is used by Hans-Hermann Hoppe in his book, Democracy: The God That Failed: The Economics and Politics of Monarchy, Democracy, and Natural Order, to defend anarcho-capitalism.The term is used by Friedrich Hayek in his writings.The Physiocrats, a group of 18th century Enlightenment French philosophers, had firm faith in the philosophy of natural order. According to them it is an ideal order given to them by God, which allowed human beings to live together in an ideal society. The natural laws are the expression of the will of God. Thus, men did not come together via a somewhat arbitrary \"social contract\". Rather, they had to discover the laws of the natural order that would allow them to live in a society without losing significant freedoms.\nNatural order aimed at securing pleasure to the people, and increasing the rights of the people without imposing any restrictions on their liberty. The physiocrats believed that natural order maintained equilibrium in nature. The concept of natural order produced certain important practical results. It implied that only under conditions of freedom, man can enjoy the maximum happiness and derive maximum advantage in economic matters.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Navya-Ny\u0101ya or Neo-Logical dar\u015bana (view, system, or school) of Indian logic and Indian philosophy was founded in the 13th century CE by the philosopher Gange\u015ba Up\u0101dhy\u0101ya of Mithila and continued by Raghunatha Siromani of Nabadwipa in Bengal.  It was a development of the classical Ny\u0101ya dar\u015bana. Other influences on Navya-Ny\u0101ya were the work of earlier philosophers V\u0101caspati Mi\u015bra (900\u2013980 CE) and Udayana (late 10th century). It remained active in India through to the 18th century.\nGange\u015ba's book Tattvacint\u0101ma\u1e47i (\"Thought-Jewel of Reality\") was written partly in response to \u015ar\u012bhar\u015ba's Khandanakhandakh\u0101dya, a defence of Advaita Ved\u0101nta, which had offered a set of thorough criticisms of Ny\u0101ya theories of thought and language.  In his book, Gange\u015ba both addressed some of those criticisms and \u2013 more important \u2013 critically examined the Ny\u0101ya dar\u015bana itself.  He held that, while \u015ar\u012bhar\u015ba had failed to successfully challenge the Ny\u0101ya realist ontology, his and Gange\u015ba's own criticisms brought out a need to improve and refine the logical and linguistic tools of Ny\u0101ya thought, to make them more rigorous and precise.\nTattvacint\u0101mani dealt with all the important aspects of Indian philosophy, logic, set theory, and especially epistemology, which Gange\u015ba examined rigorously, developing and improving the Ny\u0101ya scheme, and offering examples.  The results, especially his analysis of cognition, were taken up and used by other dar\u015banas.\nNavya-Ny\u0101ya developed a sophisticated language and conceptual scheme that allowed it to raise, analyse, and solve problems in logic and epistemology. It systematised all the Ny\u0101ya concepts into four main categories which are (sense-) perception (pratyak\u015fa), inference (anum\u0101na), comparison or similarity (upam\u0101na), and testimony (sound or word; \u015babda). Great stalwarts like Basudev Sarvabhauma, Raghunath Shiromani, Jagadish Tarkalankar, Gadadhar Bhattacharya and Mathuranatha Tarkavagisha have contributed further in the development of the subject. Prof John Vattanky has contributed significantly to the modern understanding of Navya-Ny\u0101ya.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Nemesis (Greek: \u03bd\u03ad\u03bc\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2) is a philosophical term first created by Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics. The term means one who feels pain caused by others' undeserved success. It is part of a trio of terms, with epikhairekakia (\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1\u03ba\u03af\u03b1 ) meaning one who takes pleasure in others' pain, similar to Schadenfreude, and phthonos (\u03c6\u03b8\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2) meaning one who feels pain caused by any pleasure, deserved or not, similar to envy.It is the opposite of pity, as pity is pain at undeserved misfortune.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Neuromantic is a philosophical concept defined by anthropologist Bradd Shore as the cybernetic frame of mind among excited computer enthusiasts. These emerge as these individuals experience what Michael Heim called \"the all-at-once simultaneity of totalizing presentness\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "\"Nomological danglers\" is a term used by Scottish-Australian philosopher J. J. C. Smart in his article \"Sensations and Brain Processes\". Smart credits the term to Herbert Feigl and his article \"The 'Mental' and the 'Physical'.\" A nomological dangler refers to the occurrence of something (in this case a sensation) that does not fit into the system of established laws. Smart believes that it is absurd that everything can be explained by the laws of physics except consciousness. He identifies consciousness with the broad term \"sensations\". In his example the nomological danglers would be sensations such that are not able to be explained by the scientific theory of brain processes. Some mental entities for example in a phenomenological field, are not able to be found (and do not behave in the way that is expected) in physics. In the context Smart uses it, he is criticising dualism and epiphenomenalism as philosophies of mind, and the concerns over physical and causal laws they raise. Smart puts forward his own theory in the form of materialism, claiming it is a better theory, in part because it is free from these nomological danglers, making it superior in accordance with Occam's razor. To add something that that operated according to a different \"law\" would effectively be to a new thing that is a law unto itself.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, specifically metaphysics, mereology is the study of parthood relationships. In mathematics and formal logic, wellfoundedness prohibits \n  \n    \n      \n        \u22ef\n        <\n        x\n        <\n        \u22ef\n        <\n        x\n        <\n        \u22ef\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\cdots <x<\\cdots <x<\\cdots }\n   for any x.\nThus non-wellfounded mereology treats topologically circular, cyclical, repetitive, or other eventual self-containment.\nMore formally, non-wellfounded partial orders may exhibit \n  \n    \n      \n        \u22ef\n        <\n        x\n        <\n        \u22ef\n        <\n        x\n        <\n        \u22ef\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\cdots <x<\\cdots <x<\\cdots }\n   for some x whereas well-founded orders prohibit that.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Noneism, also known as modal Meinongianism (named after Alexius Meinong), is a theory in logic and metaphysics. It holds that some things do not exist. It was first coined by Richard Routley in 1980 and appropriated again in 2005 by Graham Priest.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Open texture is a term in the philosophy of Friedrich Waismann, first introduced in his paper Verifiability to refer to the universal possibility of vagueness in empirical statements. It is an application of some of the ideas of posited by Ludwig Wittgenstein in Philosophical Investigations, particularly Section 80. The concept has become important in criticism of verificationism and has also found use in legal philosophy.  \nIn legal philosophy, open texture reinforces the notion that vagueness is an inevitable feature of legal languages. Legal philosophers who subscribe to Waismann's view believe that such \"vagueness\" solves the conceptual confusions of ordinary language. According to H.L.A. Hart, for instance, language in legal rules has open texture and that recognizing this view would lead to better policy outcomes.  Another interpretation also cited that open texture is closely related to the concept of \"unforeseen contingencies\" in the economic field.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Oratio obliqua (or indirect speech) is a topic in modern philosophy, considered to be a variety of the wider topic of metarepresentation. In recent years it has been made prominent by the works especially of the French philosopher Fran\u00e7ois Recanati.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "An organizing principle is a core assumption from which everything else by proximity can derive a classification or a value. It is like a central reference point that allows all other objects to be located, often used in a conceptual framework. Having an organizing principle might help one simplify and get a handle on a particularly complicated domain or phenomenon.  On the other hand, it might create a deceptive prism that colors one's judgment.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Orthotes (Greek: \u1f40\u03c1\u03b8\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \"rightness\") is a Greek philosophy concept which means approximately \"an eye's correctness\". In Plato's philosophy it is said to be the passage from the physical eyes to the eyes of the intellect.\nAt least this seems to be the interpretation of Martin Heidegger (as says Marilena Chaui in her philosophy classes at University of S\u00e3o Paulo) in his \"Plato's Doctrine of Truth\".In his essay, \"The End of Philosophy and the Task of Thinking,\" Heidegger distinguishes \"Orthotes\" from the similar Pre-Socratic concept, \"Aletheia\" (\"unconcealment\"), describing it as \"the correctness of representations and statements.\"  \n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Orthot\u0113s onomat\u014dn is a Platonic theory that investigates the correct usage of words and names.\nThe most common texts \"orthotes onomaton\" appears in are Plato's works Cratylus, Protagoras, and the Republic. In these, he criticizes the Sophists, namely Prodicus and Protagoras, for their misused language.\nPlato, Prodicus, and Protagoras stemmed from the same literary history of Ancient Greece; therefore, this issue of who is saying what correctly is innovative for the point in time that these texts were created. Plato\u2019s concern with the sophists' usage was that their words and phrases gave misleading impressions about reality and that, as highly revered intellectuals, the sophists should have utilized the most fitting descriptive words possible. He depicts these two in different lights.\nProdicus\u2019 concern with orthot\u0113s onomat\u014dn appears to be a problem with correctness, with terms that are very similar in meaning and relation but have different senses. \u201cIn Protagoras, for example, Prodicus is said to distinguish between the terms \u201cimpartial\u201d and \u201cundecided\u201d; \u201cdebate\u201d and \u201cdispute\u201d; \u201cesteem\u201d and \u201cpraise\u201d; \u201cenjoyment\u201d and \u201cpleasure\u201d; and \u201cwill\u201d and \u201cdesire\u201d.Plato depicts Protagoras as using distinctions between grander meanings and word genders. \u201cProtagoras is alleged to have faulted Homer for opening the Iliad with a command when the poet thought he was uttering a prayer.\u201dConsidering that the sophists were widely accepted as intellectuals of the time, Plato\u2019s criticisms of these sophists and their word usage, along with his criticisms of deific terms, were rejected.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "\"Ought implies can\" is an ethical formula ascribed to Immanuel Kant that claims an agent, if morally obliged to perform a certain action, must logically be able to perform it: For if the moral law commands that we ought to be better human beings now, it inescapably follows that we must be capable of being better human beings.\nThe action to which the \"ought\" applies must indeed be possible under natural conditions.\nKant believed this principle was a categorical freedom, bound only by the free will as opposed to the Humean hypothetical freedom (\"Free to do otherwise if I had so chosen\"). There are several ways of deriving the formula\u2014for example, the argument that it is wrong to blame people for things that they cannot control (essentially phrasing the formula as the contrapositive \"'cannot' implies 'has no duty to'\").This ethical formula can be expressed in deontic logic with the multimodal axiom: \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n        A\n        \u2192\n        \u25ca\n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle OA\\to \\Diamond A}\n  , where the deontic operator \n  \n    \n      \n        O\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle O}\n   means \"It's obligatory that...\" and the alethic operator \n  \n    \n      \n        \u25ca\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Diamond }\n   means \"It's possible that...\". However, in practical situations, obligations are usually assigned in anticipation of future events, in which case alethic possiblities can be hard to judge; Therefore, obligation assignments may be performed under the assumption of different conditions on different branches of timelines in the future, and past obligation assignments may be updated due to unforeseen developments that happened along the timeline.\n\"Ought implies can\" is logically equivalent to the formula \n  \n    \n      \n        \u25fb\n        \u00ac\n        A\n        \u2192\n        \u00ac\n        O\n        A\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\Box \\neg A\\to \\neg OA}\n  , which means \"impossible implies omissible\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Parable of the Invisible Gardener is a tale originally told by John Wisdom. It was later developed in the university debate by Antony Flew, who made several important alterations such as changing the gardeners to explorers and making the original \"long neglected garden\" a clearing in the jungle. It is often used to illustrate the perceived differences between assertions based on faith and assertions based on scientific evidence, and the problems associated with unfalsifiable beliefs. Flew's main claim in using the parable is that religious believers do not allow anybody to \"falsify\" their assertions, instead they simply change their beliefs to suit the questioner. Thus Flew concludes that religious believers cause God to \"die the death of a thousand qualifications\". In Flew's version, the tale runs as follows:\n\nOnce upon a time two explorers came upon a clearing in the jungle. In the clearing were growing many flowers and many weeds. One explorer says, \"Some gardener must tend this plot.\" The other disagrees, \"There is no gardener.\" So they pitch their tents and set a watch. No gardener is ever seen. \"But perhaps he is an invisible gardener.\" So they set up a barbed-wire fence. They electrify it. They patrol with bloodhounds. (For they remember how H. G. Well's The Invisible Man could be both smelt and touched though he could not be seen.) But no shrieks ever suggest that some intruder has received a shock. No movements of the wire ever betray an invisible climber. The bloodhounds never give cry. Yet still the Believer is not convinced. \"But there is a gardener, invisible, intangible, insensible to electric shocks, a gardener who has no scent and makes no sound, a gardener who comes secretly to look after the garden which he loves.\" At last the Skeptic despairs, \"But what remains of your original assertion? Just how does what you call an invisible, intangible, eternally elusive gardener differ from an imaginary gardener or even from no gardener at all?\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The pessimism controversy or pessimism dispute (German: Pessimismusstreit) is a largely forgotten intellectual controversy that occurred in Germany, starting in the 1860s and ending around the beginning of the First World War. Philosophers who took part included Friedrich Nietzsche, Eugen D\u00fchring, Eduard von Hartmann, neo-Kantians, Agnes Taubert, Olga Pl\u00fcmacher and critics of Hartmann. The controversy first arose as a response to Arthur Schopenhauer's growing posthumous public recognition in the 1860s. This led to the publication of a wide array of criticisms, attacking his pessimism. The publication of von Hartmann's Philosophy of the Unconscious, in 1869, which reaffirmed and further developed Schopenhauer's doctrine, reinvigorated the controversy. Hartmann published a great number of articles and four books in response to his critics, throughout the 1870s and 1880s. Agnes Taubert (Von Hartmann's wife) published Pessimism and Its Opponents, in 1873, in response to criticism of her husband, which had a strong influence on the controversy. The German-American philosopher Amalie J. Hathaway has been described as an unrecognised contributor to the controversy.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The phaneron (Greek \u03c6\u03b1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 [phaneros] \"visible, manifest\") is the subject matter of phenomenology, or of what Charles Sanders Peirce later called phaneroscopy. The term, which was introduced in 1905, is similar to the concept of the \"phenomenon\" in the way it meant \"whatever is present at any time to the mind in any way\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A philosophical garden is a garden whose design reflects the teachings and practices of a philosophical school. Zen gardens are both philosophical and religious.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Philosophy Bites is a podcast series featuring philosophers being interviewed for 15\u201320 minutes on a specific topic. The series, which has been running since 2007, is hosted by Nigel Warburton, freelance lecturer, and David Edmonds, and has featured interviews with guests including Barry C. Smith, Simon Blackburn, A. C. Grayling, Martha Nussbaum, Peter Singer, Kwame Anthony Appiah, Michael Dummett, Tzvetan Todorov, David Chalmers, and C. A. J. Coady. The podcast has been one of the top 20 most downloaded series in the United States and has over 34 million downloads.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Philosophy of dialogue is a type of philosophy based on the work of the Austrian-born Jewish philosopher Martin Buber best known through its classic presentation in his 1923 book I and Thou. For Buber, the fundamental fact of human existence, too readily overlooked by scientific rationalism and abstract philosophical thought, is \"man with man\", a dialogue which takes place in the \"sphere of between\" (\"das Zwischenmenschliche\").", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Phonemic imagery refers to the processing of thoughts as words rather than as symbols or other images.  It is sometimes referred to as the equivalent of inner speech or covert speech, and sometimes considered as a third phenomenon, separate from but similar to these other forms of internal speech.Phonemic imagery is a part of the philosophy of consciousness rather than linguistics as it is considered an internal phenomenon of consciousness observed through reflection rather than amenable to empirical observation.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Phren (Ancient Greek: \u03c6\u03c1\u03ae\u03bd, romanized: phr\u0113n, lit.\u2009'mind'; plural phrenes, \u03c6\u03c1\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2) is an Ancient Greek word for the location of thought or contemplation. Phren is used, for example, to describe where Achilles considered his sadness about losing Briseis and his duty to join the Greeks against Troy. According to Pythagoras it is one of the intellectual capacities that constitute the soul, along with nous (spirit or mind) and thymos (passion). The term is also used to refer to a general psychological agent to which moral blame and praise can be extended.Phren, however, is not exclusively applied to humans. Some thinkers maintained that it darts through the universe as effluences, in a manner similar to the mechanism of perception introduced by Theophrastus. It then steers and controls the cosmos in the process and is the measure of what is harmonious and what is fit to exist. It is said that it is strongest at the region found beyond the universe where strife reigns and is demonstrated by the status of aether in the Empedocles' system.The kind of mental activity conducted in the Phren involves what 20th and 21 Century Western thinkers consider both feeling and thinking; scholars have remarked that Ancient Greeks located this activity in the torso as opposed to the head.  Its Latinized form is \"fren\" and is found in English language words such as schizophrenia, phrenitis, phrenic nerve, phrenology, frenzy, frenetic.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A pluralist theory of truth is a theory of truth which posits that there may be more than one property that makes a proposition true.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Political philology  is \"an active mode of understanding\" texts. It does not simply take (religious) texts at face-value as religious texts without any connection to a social and political context, but situates them in a historical context, and is sensitive to the social and political implications and usages of a (religious) text.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Port-Royal Grammar (originally Grammaire g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et raisonn\u00e9e contenant les fondemens de l'art de parler, expliqu\u00e9s d'une mani\u00e8re claire et naturelle, \"General and Rational Grammar, containing the fundamentals of the art of speaking, explained in a clear and natural manner\") was a milestone in the analysis and philosophy of language. Published in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld and Claude Lancelot, it was the linguistic counterpart to the Port-Royal Logic (1662), both named after the Jansenist monastery of Port-Royal-des-Champs where their authors worked. The Port-Royal Grammar became used as a standard textbook in the study of language until the early nineteenth century, and it has been reproduced in several editions and translations. In the twentieth century, scholars including Edmund Husserl and Noam Chomsky maintained academic interest in the book. \nArnauld and Lancelot's approach to language is historical, comparative, and philosophical. Discussing the essence of French, they give examples from Latin, Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Spanish, Italian, and German. Their work is influenced by the Modistae Grammar of Thomas of Erfurt, and later grammars and textbooks authored by scholars including  Julius Caesar Scaliger, Sanctius, Petrus Ramus and Claude Favre de Vaugelas, Other influences include Andreas Helwig's etymology, Francis Bacon's universal language project, and works by philosophers including Ren\u00e9 Descartes, and Blaise Pascal.A core argument of Arnauld and Lancelot's general and rational grammar is that language reveals human thought structures which are based on the logic of predication. The notion is that all thought structures are based on logic and refrain from outside judgment. All languages are similar because there is only one logic. Their connection between logic and grammar has much to with the idea of the vocabulary concluding the logic of a statement, that arguments within arguments lead to an unsaid logical deduction. This idea was elaborated by Husserl in his treatise of  universal grammar in 1920. He published the first formulation of generative grammar, which he based on \"pure logic\". Husserl's aim was to provide a counter-argument to Wilhelm Wundt, who advocated a psychologistic and evolutionary view of language and logic. David Hilbert and Rudolph Carnap further developed Husserl's model, leading to the creation of Categorial Grammar in the 1930s through 1950s. More lately, phenomenologists criticized it for using simple predicates instead of modern complex ones.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In epistemology, a presupposition relates to a belief system, or Weltanschauung, that is required for the argument to make sense.  A variety of Christian apologetics, called presuppositional apologetics, argues that the existence or non-existence of God is the basic presupposition of all human thought, and that all people arrive at a worldview which is ultimately determined by the theology they presuppose.  Evidence and arguments are only developed after the fact in an attempt to justify the theological assumptions already made.  According to this view, it is impossible to demonstrate the existence of God unless one presupposes that God exists, with the stance that modern science relies on methodological naturalism, and thus is incapable of discovering the supernatural.  It thereby fashions a Procrustean bed which rejects any observation which would disprove the naturalistic assumption.  Apologetics argue that the resulting worldview is inconsistent with itself and therefore irrational (for example, via the Argument from morality or via the Transcendental argument for the existence of God).\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A prima facie right is a right that can be outweighed by other considerations. It stands in contrast with absolute rights, which cannot be outweighed by anything. Some authors consider an absolute right as a prima facie right, but one that cannot be outweighed in any possible situation. It is also maintained that all men always have a prima facie rights to liberty, security, and life but they do not constitute actual rights if there are stronger prima facie rights or moral considerations that supervene. An act may also be viewed as prima facie right but viewed in others as prima facie wrong.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Process of elimination is a logical method to identify an entity of interest among several ones by excluding all other entities. In educational testing, it is a process of deleting options whereby the possibility of an option being correct is close to zero or significantly lower compared to other options. This version of the process does not guarantee success, even if only one option remains, since it eliminates possibilities merely as improbable. The process of elimination can only narrow the possibilities down, and thus, if the correct option is not amongst the known options, it will not arrive at the truth.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Gotthard G\u00fcnther introduced the term proemial relation in his 1979 paper \"Cognition and Volition\". Meaning \"to pre-face\", it specifically refers to the intercoherence (prerequisite relation) of subject and object. According to G\u00fcnther, subject and object arise together. In fact, 'subject' is a mere abbreviation of 'Subject-superject' which is an 'actual entity' in Alfred North Whitehead's technical phraseology.The abstractions related are Subjectivity and Profundity. In Gotthard G\u00fcnther's mathematics, Subjectivity is called \"polycontexturality\".", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Professor of Logic and Rhetoric is a professorship at the University of Glasgow. The Nova Erectio of King James VI of Scotland shared the teaching of moral philosophy, logic and natural philosophy among the Regents.\nIn 1727, separate chairs were instituted, one of which was the Chair of Logic and Rhetoric.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Bertrand Russell Professorship of Philosophy is the senior professorship in philosophy at the University of Cambridge. \nIt was established in 1896 and was named the Bertrand Russell Professorship of Philosophy in 2010 after a successful fundraising appeal to endow the post. The incumbent Bertrand Russell Professor is Alexander Bird, who succeeded Huw Price in October 2020.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Proof by assertion, sometimes informally referred to as proof by repeated assertion, is an informal fallacy in which a proposition is repeatedly restated regardless of contradiction and refutation. The proposition can sometimes be repeated until any challenges or opposition cease, letting the proponent assert it as fact, and solely due to a lack of challengers (argumentum ad nauseam). In other cases, its repetition may be cited as evidence of its truth, in a variant of the appeal to authority or appeal to belief fallacies.This fallacy is sometimes used as a form of rhetoric by politicians, or during a debate as a filibuster. In its extreme form, it can also be a form of brainwashing.\nModern politics contains many examples of proofs by assertion. This practice can be observed in the use of political slogans, and the distribution of \"talking points\", which are collections of short phrases that are issued to members of modern political parties for recitation, and in order to achieve maximum message repetition. The technique is also sometimes used in advertising.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Pub Philosophy is a term sometimes used to describe organised gatherings in public houses for philosophical discussion. Several series of events in the United Kingdom and elsewhere offer pub philosophy in a variety of formats, typically involving an invited speaker and some degree of open discussion. Among the more long-standing of these are:\n\nBig Ideas (based in London, UK) https://web.archive.org/web/20100912055756/http://bigi.org.uk/\nKant's Cave (held in London, UK, by Philosophy For All)\nLiving Philosophy (based in Tintern, Wales UK)\nPhiloMadrid (based in Madrid, Spain)\nPhilosophy In Pubs (based in Liverpool, UK) http://www.philosophyinpubs.co.uk\nPIPS Brighton (based in Brighton, UK) http://www.pips-brighton.org.uk/\nThe Stoa (based in Faversham, Kent, UK)\nSkeptics in the Pub\nThinking While Drinking (based in San Diego, California) http://thinkingwhiledrinking.orgPub Philosophy groups, while often run by amateurs, have sometimes been recruited by more mainstream institutions to provide a distinctively participatory public forum. Such alliances have included Tate Liverpool and University of Chester working with Philosophy in Pubs, the Brighton Science Festival 2010 working with PIPS Brighton and the London School of Economics producing an event in collaboration with Big Ideas.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Pure practical reason (German: reine praktische Vernunft) is the opposite of impure (or sensibly-determined) practical reason and appears in Immanuel Kant's Critique of Practical Reason and Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals.\nIt is the reason that drives actions without any sense dependent incentives. Human reasoning chooses such actions simply because those actions are good in themselves; this is the nature of good will, which Kant argues is the only concept that is good without any justification, it is good in itself and is a derivative of a transcendental law which affects the way humans practically reason (see practical philosophy).", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Radical interpretation is interpretation of a speaker, including attributing beliefs and desires to them and meanings to their words, from scratch\u2014that is, without relying on translators, dictionaries, or specific prior knowledge of their mental states.  The term was introduced by American philosopher Donald Davidson (1973) and is meant to suggest important similarity to W. V. O. Quine's term radical translation, which occurs in his work on the indeterminacy of translation. Radical translation\nis translation of a speaker's language, without prior knowledge, by observing the speaker's use of the language in context.Even more so than radical translation did for Quine, radical interpretation plays an important role in Davidson's work, but the exact nature of this role is up for debate.  Some see Davidson as using radical interpretation directly in his arguments against conceptual relativism and the possibility of massive error--of most of our beliefs being false.  But Davidson seems to explicitly reject this reading in \"Radical Interpretation Interpreted\".There is also a more narrow and technical version of radical interpretation used by Davidson: given the speaker's attitudes of holding particular sentences true in particular circumstances, the speaker's hold-true attitudes, the radical interpreter is to infer a theory of meaning, a truth theory meeting a modified version of Alfred Tarski's Convention T, for the speaker's idiolect.  Ernest Lepore and Kirk Ludwig characterize this as inference from sentences of the form:\n\nCeteris paribus, S holds true s at t if and only if p.to corresponding T-sentences of the form\n\ns is true (S, t) if and only if qwhere s is a sentence in the idiolect of the speaker S, t is a time, and p and q are filled in with sentences in the metalanguage.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Radical Unintelligibility, a term coined by Bernard Lonergan, is the philosophical idea that we can act against our better judgment. We can refuse to choose what we know is worth choosing. It is the refusal to make a decision that one deems one ought to make.  Mortal sin is radically unintelligible: when we commit a mortal sin, we fully consent to do something despite knowing that it is wrong to do it.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Rationalist humanism, or rational humanism or rationalistic humanism, is one of the strands of Age of Enlightenment. It had its roots in Renaissance humanism, as a response to Middle Age religious integralism and obscurantism. Rationalist humanism tradition includes Tocqueville and Montesquieu, and in the 19th century, \u00c9lie Hal\u00e9vy.Other strands of the Enlightenment included scientific naturalism. In the mid 20th century, rational humanism represented also an alternative for those that did not embrace Sartre's existentialism. In the late 20th century, it has sided against the equiparation of human rights with rights to other animal species.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The term Realphilosophie was first introduced by Hegel.  His Jenaer Realphilosophie of 1805/6 contains lectures \"on the philosophy of nature and of the spirit\". Hegel confronts the material philosophy of pure logic: Realphilosophie (Material philosophy) is thus thinking on empirical basis. In his Realphilosophie, Hegel concerns himself, among other things, with phenomena found in astronomy and biology. However, Realphilosophie also includes social and cultural phenomena. It covers both natural philosophy and cultural philosophy. According to the German science journalist G\u00e1bor Pa\u00e1l the concept is congruent with the idea of the Third Culture.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Regimes of truth is a term coined by philosopher Michel Foucault, referring to a discourse that holds certain things to be \"truths\". Foucault sought to explore how knowledge and truth were produced by power structures of society.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, a relation is a type of fact that is true or false of two things. For instance, \"being taller than\" is a relation that is true of \"Shaquille O'Neal and Ross Perot\" and false of \"the Empire State building and Mt. Everest.\" Substances or things have properties (\"this spot is red\"). Relations on the other hand obtain between two substances (\"this spot is bigger than that spot\") or two properties (\"this red is a  darker shade than that red\"). \nThere are two major kinds of relations: ontological and epistemological.  Ontological relations are entities like \"father\", which is a person considered in his relation to a child. Epistemological relations are often logical connections that obtain between two concepts or ideas, like \"entailment.\" The fact that all men are mortal and that Socrates is a man entails that Socrates is mortal\u2014the relation between Socrates' mortality and the mortality of all men is an entailment relation.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Res extensa is one of the two substances described by Ren\u00e9 Descartes in his Cartesian ontology (often referred to as \"radical dualism\"), alongside res cogitans. Translated from Latin, \"res extensa\" means \"extended thing\" while the latter is described as \"a thinking and unextended thing\". Descartes often translated res extensa as \"corporeal substance\" but it is something that only God can create.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Rule egoism is the doctrine under which an individual evaluates the optimal set of rules according to whether conformity to those rules bring the most benefit to himself. An action, therefore, is right if it promotes his welfare at least as well as any alternative rule available to him. It is associated with foundational egoism, which maintains that normative factors must be grounded in consideration of the agent's well-being - something that rule egoism does but in a way that avoids factoral egoism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Sarva-darsana-siddhanta Sangraha, or simply Sarva-Siddh\u0101nta-Sa\u1e45graha\u1e25 (Sanskrit: \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0928\u094d\u0924-\u0938\u0919\u094d\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0903) is a work by Adi Shankaracharya written in 8th century CE, which sketches eleven major systems of thought of different Indian schools of philosophy during that period in the Indian sub-continent.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The School of Names (Chinese: \u540d\u5bb6; pinyin: M\u00edngji\u0101), sometimes called the School of Forms and Names (Chinese: \u5f62\u540d\u5bb6; pinyin: X\u00edngm\u00edngji\u0101; Wade\u2013Giles: Hsing2-ming2-chia1), was a school of Chinese philosophy that grew out of Mohism during the Warring States period in 479\u2013221 BCE. The followers of the School of Names were sometimes called the Logicians or Disputers.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A  school of thought, or intellectual tradition, is the perspective of a group of people who share common characteristics of opinion or outlook of a philosophy, discipline, belief, social movement, economics, cultural movement, or art movement.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Semicompatibilism is the view that causal determinism is compatible with moral responsibility, while making no assertions about the truth of determinism or free will. The term was coined by John Martin Fischer.\nProminent semicompatibilists include Sam Harris, and Harry Frankfurt.\nCriticisms of this view include the principle of alternative possibilities.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Situational logic (also situational analysis) is a concept advanced by Karl Popper in his The Poverty of Historicism. Situational logic is a process by which a social scientist tries to reconstruct the problem situation confronting an agent in order to understand that agent's choice.\nNoretta Koertge (1975) provides a helpful clarificatory summary.\nFirst provide a description of the situation:\n''Agent A was in a situation of type C''.\nThis situation is then analysed\n''In a situation of type C, the appropriate thing to do is X.''\nThe rationality principle may then be called upon:\n''agents always act appropriately to their situation''\nFinally we have the explanadum:\n''(therefore) A did X.''", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Social rights are those rights arising from the social contract. For example, James Madison advocated that a right such as trial by jury arose neither from nature nor from a constitution of government, but from reified implications of the social contract.C\u00e9cile Fabre argues that \"it is legitimate to constrain democratic majorities, by way of the constitution, to respect and promote those fundamental rights of ours that protect the secure exercise of our autonomy and enable us to achieve well-being. Insofar as, by virtue of Ch. 1, social rights are such fundamental rights, it follows that they should be constitutionalized.\"From a legal standpoint several approaches exercise and guarantee social rights; social rights under the constitution are rights of subjects or \"subject rights\". This assures that the public receives equal distribution of collective and private interests.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Socratici viri is a Latin phrase (coined by Cicero) which translates as \"Socrates' men\"\u2014though it is more usually used to mean \"disciples of Socrates\" or \"followers of Socrates\". These are those, usually Greeks, who owe much of their philosophical reasoning and method to Socrates. Sometimes the phrase just refers to those in the Socratic dialogues and especially Plato, though it may be extended to modern-day followers of Socrates.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Soft tyranny is an idea first developed by Alexis de Tocqueville in his 1835 work titled Democracy in America. It is described as the individualist preference for equality and its pleasures, requiring the state \u2013 as a tyrant majority or a benevolent authority \u2013 to step in and adjudicate. In this regime, political leaders operate under a blanket of restrictions and, while it retains the practical virtues of democracy, citizens influence policymaking through bureaucrats and non-governmental organizations. This is distinguished from despotism or tyranny (hard tyranny) in the sense that state of government in such democratic society is composed of guardians who hold immense and tutelary (protective) power.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Sortal is a concept that has been used by some philosophers in discussing issues of identity, persistence, and change. Sortal terms are considered a species of general term that are classified within the grammatical category of common or count nouns or count noun phrases. This is based on the claim that a perceptual link allows perceptual demonstrative thought if it enables sortal classification.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Spanish philosophy is the philosophical tradition of the people of territories that make up the modern day nation of Spain and of its citizens abroad.  Although Spanish philosophical thought had a profound influence on philosophical traditions throughout Latin America, political turmoil within Spain throughout the 20th century diminished the influence of Spanish philosophy in international contexts.  Within Spain during this period, fictional novels written with philosophical underpinnings were influential, leading to some of the first modernist European novels, such as the works of Miguel de Unamuno and P\u00edo Baroja.Despite writing his work in Latin, Francisco Su\u00e1rez was an influential Spanish philosopher, influencing philsopers such as Leibniz, Grotius, Samuel Pufendorf, Schopenhauer, and Martin Heidegger.[2] Like Su\u00e1rez, other notable philosophers at the time who studied at the University of Salamanca were Luis de Molina, Francisco de Vitoria, Domingo de Soto, and Mart\u00edn de Azpilcueta.\nAnother school of thought, the School of Madrid, founded by Jos\u00e9 Ortega y Gasset included thinkers like Manuel Garc\u00eda Morente, Joaquim Xirau, Xavier Zubiri, Jos\u00e9 Luis Aranguren, Francisco Ayala, Pedro La\u00edn Entralgo, Manuel Granell, Antonio Rodr\u00edguez Hu\u00e9scar and their most prominent disciple, Juli\u00e1n Mar\u00edas. [3][4] \nMore recently, Fernando Savater, Gustavo Bueno, and Antonio Escohotado have emerged as prominent philosophers.[5]", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A modern development and belief that the progress of knowledge is the result of distinct and independent spheres, and that knowledge in one discipline has little connection with knowledge in another discipline. Thus, specialists pursue their work in isolation from one another rather than as aspects of a unity or whole.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The state of affairs is the combination of circumstances applying within a society or group at a particular time. The current state of affairs may be considered acceptable by many observers, but not necessarily by all. The state of affairs may present a challenge, or be complicated, or contain a conflict of interest. The status quo represents the existing state of affairs. Unresolved difficulties or disagreements concerning the state of affairs can provoke a crisis. Dispute resolution is naturally desired, and naturally provided, by forms of inclusive social interaction, such as consensus decision-making, which adapt, but not conveniently,  from a family or tribal model to encompass a global scope.\nCurrent knowledge and discussion about the state of affairs is communicated through the media.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Staying with the Trouble: Making Kin in the Chthulucene is a 2016 book by Donna Haraway, published by Duke University Press. In a thesis statement, Haraway writes: \"Staying with the trouble means making oddkin; that is, we require each other in unexpected collaborations and combinations, in hot compost piles. We become - with each other or not at all.\" Both the imagery of the compost pile and the concept of oddkin are repeated motifs throughout the work. \nBy emphasizing connectedness, Staying with the Trouble can be thought of as a continuation of major themes from \"A Cyborg Manifesto\" and The Companion Species Manifesto. Haraway's book can also be thought of as a critique of the Anthropocene as a way of making sense of the present, de-emphasizing human exceptionalism in favor of multispecism.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Stone is the New York Times philosophy series, edited by the Times opinion editor Peter Catapano and moderated by Simon Critchley. It was established in May 2010 as a regular feature of The New York Times Opinion section, with the goal of providing argument and commentary informed by or with a focus on philosophy. \nThe series, as described on the Times website \"features the writing of contemporary philosophers and other thinkers on issues both timely and timeless.\" More than a dozen of the essays in the series have been chosen as winners of  the American Philosophical Association's public op-ed contests. Works from the series have been collected into two volumes \u2014 \"The Stone Reader: Modern Philosophy in 133 Arguments\" and \"Modern Ethics in 77 Arguments,\" both published by Liveright. \nOver the years, many essays published in the series have won the American Philosophical Association Public Philosophy Op-ed Prize, including four of the five winners in 2020. The New York Times announced in May of 2021 that the series would be ended, as part of a rebranding of the editorial page and a move away from labeled columns.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Strengths and weaknesses generally refer to a person's character.\nOften a strength can be a weakness, and vice versa, a weakness can be a strength. In Chinese philosophy, yin and yang (e.g., dark and light) are described as complementary opposites within a greater whole.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In alchemic and Hermetic traditions, suns () are used to symbolize a variety of concepts, much like the sun in astrology. Suns can correspond to gold, citrinitas, generative masculine principles, imagery of \"the king\", or Apollo, the fiery spirit or sulfur, the divine spark in man, nobility, or incorruptibility.  Recurring images of specific solar motifs can be found in the form of a \"Dark\" or \"Black Sun\", or a green lion devouring a sun.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The T-schema (\"truth schema\", not to be confused with \"Convention T\") is used to give an inductive definition of truth which lies at the heart of any realisation of Alfred Tarski's semantic theory of truth. Some authors refer to it as the \"Equivalence Schema\", a synonym introduced by Michael Dummett.The T-schema is often expressed in natural language, but it can be formalized in many-sorted predicate logic or modal logic; such a formalisation is called a \"T-theory.\" T-theories form the basis of much fundamental work in philosophical logic, where they are applied in several important controversies in analytic philosophy.\nAs expressed in semi-natural language (where 'S' is the name of the sentence abbreviated to S):\n'S' is true if and only if S.\nExample: 'snow is white' is true if and only if snow is white.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The Table of Opposites (Greek: \u03c3\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03af\u03b1 sustoichia) of Pythagoras is the oldest surviving of many such tables propounded by philosophers.  Aristotle is the main source of our knowledge of the Pythagorean table.\nHere follows a rough translation of the Table of Opposites, although like all translations the precise meaning does not necessarily carry over from the original Greek. For example, \"crooked\" has connotations in English that it may lack in the original.\n\nfinite, infinite\nodd, even\none, many\nmale, female\nright, left\nrest, motion\nstraight, crooked\nlight, darkness\ngood, evil\nsquare, oblongOf these ten opposites, many philosophers have seized on the third pair as one of the most profound questions in philosophy, like \"Is the universe one? Then how is it diverse? Is the universe many?  Then how is it unified?\" This has historically been known as the problem of the one and the many, about which no small amount of ink has been spilled.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Technological somnambulism is a concept used when talking about the philosophy of technology. The term was used by Langdon Winner in his essay Technology as forms of life. Winner puts forth the idea that we are simply in a state of sleepwalking in our mediations with technology. This sleepwalking is caused by a number of factors.  One of the primary causes is the way we view technology as tools, something that can be put down and picked up again.  Because of this view of objects as something we can easily separate ourselves from technology, and so we fail to look at the long term implications of using that object. A second factor is the separation of those who make the technology and those who use the technology. This division causes there to be little thought and research going into the effects of using/developing that technology. The third and most important idea is the way in which technology seems to create new worlds in which we live. These worlds are created by the restructuring of the common and seemingly everyday things around us. In most situations the changes take place with little attention or care from us because we are more focused on the menial aspects of the technology (Winner 105-107).The concept can be found in the earlier work of Marshall McLuhan, cf. Understanding Media, where he refers to a comment made by David Sarnoff expressing a socially deterministic view of \"value free\" technology whose value is solely defined by its usage as representing, \"...the voice of the current somnambulism\". Given that this piece by McLuhan has become standard reading in Media Theory it is reasonable to suspect that Winner encountered the concept there or elsewhere and then went on to develop it further.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, temporality refers to the idea of a linear progression of past, present, and future. The term is frequently used, however, in the context of critiques of commonly held ideas of linear time. In social sciences, temporality is studied with respect to the human perception of time and the social organization of time. The perception of time underwent significant changes in the three hundred years between the Middle Ages and modernity.Examples in continental philosophy of philosophers raising questions of temporality include Edmund Husserl's analysis of internal time consciousness, Martin Heidegger's Being and Time, J. M. E. McTaggart's article \"The Unreality of Time\", George Herbert Mead's Philosophy of the Present, and Jacques Derrida's criticisms of Husserl's analysis. \nTemporality is \"deeply intertwined with the rhetorical act of harnessing and subverting power in the unfolding struggle for justice.\" Temporalities, particularly in European settler colonialism, have been observed in critical theory as a tool for both subjugation and oppression of Indigenous communities, and Native resistance to that oppression.\n\n", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Transcendent truths are those unaffected by time or space. They define the world, but are not defined by the world. An example of a transcendent truth is \"God is good\", or \"there is no God\". Either way, how one looks at things contained by time and space is a result of the transcendent truth. One is true; both cannot be true at the same time.\nWorld views are made up of transcendent truths, things we believe are true before we question whether or not anything else is true.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, transcendental apperception is a term employed by Immanuel Kant and subsequent Kantian philosophers to designate that which makes experience possible. The term can also be used to refer to the junction at which the self and the world come together.Transcendental apperception is the uniting and building of coherent consciousness out of different elementary inner experiences (differing in both time and topic, but all belonging to self-consciousness). For example, the experience of \"passing of time\" relies on this transcendental unity of apperception, according to Kant.\nThere are six steps to transcendental apperception:\n\nAll experience is the succession of a variety of contents (an idea taken from David Hume).\nTo be experienced at all, the successive data must be combined or held together in a unity for consciousness.\nUnity of experience therefore implies a unity of self.\nThe unity of self is as much an object of experience as anything is.\nTherefore, experience both of the self and its objects rests on acts of synthesis that, because they are the conditions of any experience, are not themselves experienced.\nThese prior syntheses are made possible by the categories. Categories allow us to synthesize the self and the objects.One consequence of Kant's notion of transcendental apperception is that the \"self\" is only ever encountered as appearance, never as it is in itself.\nThe term was later adapted in psychology by Johann Friedrich Herbart (see Apperception).", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Transmodernity is a philosophical concept used by the Spanish philosopher and feminist Rosa Mar\u00eda Rodr\u00edguez Magda in her 1989 essay La sonrisa de Saturno: Hacia una teor\u00eda transmoderna, later developed in \"El modelo Frankenstein\" and finally fully expanded in \"Transmodernidad\". Her approach, based on Hegelian logic, views modernity, postmodernity, and transmodernity as a dialectic triad in which transmodernity is critical of both modernism and postmodernism, but incorporates elements of both.\nTransmodernism, as first identified in the philosophical work of Rodriguez (2004), is an umbrella term that connotes the emerging socio-cultural, economic, political and philosophical shift way beyond postmodernity (Ateljevic, 2013:200) which is much more wide, deep and radical than what dominant economists and politicians call globalization (Ghisi, 2010)\nOther interpretations on this term have been elaborated in conjunction with the cultural movement of transmodernism founded by Argentinian-Mexican philosopher Enrique Dussel. The concept of transmodernity has also been used to re-work the notion of postmodernity, highlighting its structural relation to globalization and informatisation.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Transworld Identity is the idea that objects exist in multiple possible worlds.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Trialism in philosophy was introduced by John Cottingham as an alternative interpretation of the mind\u2013body dualism of Descartes. Trialism keeps the two substances of mind and body, but introduces a third substance, sensation, belonging to the union of mind and body.  This allows animals, which do not think like humans, to be regarded as having sensations and not as being mere automata.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The ultimate end is a concept in the moral philosophy of Max Weber, in which individuals act in a faithful, rather than rational, manner.\n\"We must be clear about the fact that all ethically oriented conduct may be guided by one of two fundamentally differing and irreconcilably opposed maxims: conduct can be oriented to an \"ethic of ultimate ends\" or to an \"ethic of responsibility.\" This is not to say that an ethic of ultimate ends is identical with irresponsibility, or that an ethic of responsibility is identical with unprincipled opportunism. Naturally, nobody says that. However, there is an abysmal contrast between conduct that follows the maxim of an ethic of ultimate ends\u2014that, is in religious terms, \"the Christian does rightly and leaves the results with the Lord\"\u2014and conduct that follows the maxim of an ethic of responsibility, in which case one has to give an account of the foreseeable results of one's action.\" (From Politics as a Vocation, Max Weber, 1918).The \"ultimate end\" is out of the hands of the actor. So long as he/she acts in a moral manner, any bad results, or negative ends, are not the responsibility of the actor and ultimately a result of God's will or other forces.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "The principle of unicity explains that each event, each living being, each object, each person or each circumstance has the characteristic of its uniqueness, of its particularity. Other similar events, living beings, objects, persons or circumstances may exist, but never the same entity.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "According to some twentieth-century philosophers, unit-point atomism was the philosophy of the Pythagoreans, a conscious repudiation of Parmenides and the Eleatics. It stated that atoms were infinitesimally small (\"point\") yet possessed corporeality. It was a predecessor of Democritean atomism. Most recent students of presocratic philosophy, such as Kurt von Fritz, Walter Burkert, Gregory Vlastos, Jonathan Barnes, and Daniel W. Graham have rejected that any form of atomism can be applied to the early Pythagoreans (before Ecphantus of Syracuse).Unit-point atomism was invoked in order to make sense of a statement ascribed to Zeno of Elea in Plato's Parmenides: \"these writings of mine were meant to protect the arguments of Parmenides against those who make fun of him. . . My answer is addressed to the partisans of the many. . .\" The anti-Parmenidean pluralists were supposedly unit-point atomists whose philosophy was essentially a reaction against the Eleatics. This hypothesis, however, to explain Zeno's paradoxes, has been thoroughly discredited.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "A vanishing mediator is a concept that exists to mediate between two opposing ideas, as a transition occurs between them. This mediating concept exists just long enough to facilitate such an interaction: at the point where one idea has been replaced by the other, the concept is no longer required and thus vanishes.  In terms of Hegelian dialectics the conflict between the theoretical abstraction and its empirical negation (through trial and error) is resolved by a concretion of the two ideas, representing a theoretical abstraction taking into account the previous contradiction, whereupon the mediator vanishes.\nIn terms of psychoanalytic theory, when someone is caught in a dilemma they experience hysteria. A conceptual deadlock exists until the resulting hysteric breakdown precipitates some kind of resolution, therefore the Hysteria is a vanishing mediator in this case.In terms of political history, it refers to social movements, which operate in a particular way to influence politics, until they either are forgotten or change their purpose.Fredric Jameson introduced the term in a 1973 essay (\"The Vanishing Mediator: Narrative Structure in Max Weber,\" in New German Critique 1 [Winter, 1973]: 52-89). Alain Badiou uses a similar, but more explicitly post-structuralist term (\u2033terme \u00e9vanouissant\u2033 or \u2033vanishing term\u2033) in Th\u00e9orie du sujet.\nSince, this concept has been adopted by \u017di\u017eek in \"For They Know Not What They Do: Enjoyment as a Political factor\", where he uses it in a political sense, similar to Marx's Analysis of Revolution.Applications of this concept has been done in various fields, making it a viable framework in cultural studies, literature, and qualitative research among others (\"Developing the Vanishing Mediator as Theoretical Framework: Synthesis and Application,\" [Fall, 2019]). One used application is provided, for instance, by Balibar in his argument of Europe as a vanishing mediator.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "In philosophy, the Weyl's tile argument, introduced by Hermann Weyl in 1949, is an argument against the notion that physical space is \"discrete\", as if composed of a number of finite sized units or tiles. The argument purports to show a distance function approximating Pythagoras' theorem on a discrete space cannot be defined and, since the Pythagorean theorem has been confirmed to be approximately true in nature, physical space is not discrete. Academic debate on the topic continues, with counterarguments proposed in the literature.\n\nA demonstration of Weyl's argument proceeds by constructing a square tiling of the plane representing a discrete space. A discretized triangle, n units tall and n units long, can be constructed on the tiling. The hypotenuse of the resulting triangle will be n tiles long. However, by the Pythagorean theorem, a corresponding triangle in a continuous space\u2014a triangle whose height and length are n\u2014will have a hypotenuse measuring \n  \n    \n      \n        n\n        \n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle n{\\sqrt {2}}}\n   units long. To show that the former result does not converge to the latter for arbitrary values of n, one can examine the percent difference between the two results:  Since n cancels out, the two results never converge, even in the limit of large n. The argument can be constructed for more general triangles, but, in each case, the result is the same. Thus, a discrete space does not even approximate the Pythagorean theorem.\nIn response, Kris McDaniel has argued the Weyl tile argument depends on accepting a \"size thesis\" which posits that the distance between two points is given by the number of tiles between the two points. However, as McDaniel points out, the size thesis is not accepted for continuous spaces. Thus, we might have reason not to accept the size thesis for discrete spaces.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Wireless Philosophy or Wi-Phi is an open-access philosophy website that aims to \"introduce people to the practice of philosophy by making videos that are freely available in a form that is entertaining\".\nIts founder and executive director is Gaurav Vazirani, a PhD student at Yale University.\nAccording to Mel Thompson, Wireless Philosophy is \"a very good online resource for those coming new to philosophy, and for students from GCSE upwards.\"", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "Zozobra is a Spanish word for distress. The Mexican philosopher Emilio Uranga has used the term to describe a specific form of existential anxiety related to uncertainty and ambiguity, following its usage by the poet Ram\u00f3n L\u00f3pez Velarde.The term has been used to describe the feelings of uncertainty and distress in the United States due to the confluence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the political events of the Trump presidency and 2020 U.S. presidential election.", "label": "Philosophy"}, {"sentence": "This is a timeline of actions by the Official Irish Republican Army (Official IRA or OIRA), an Irish republican & Marxist-Leninist paramilitary group. Most of these actions took place as part of a Guerrilla campaign against the British Army & Royal Ulster Constabulary and internal Irish Republican feuds with the Provisional IRA & Irish National Liberation Army from the early 1970s - to the mid-1970s during the most violent phase of \"the Troubles\" in Northern Ireland.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "This is a timeline of events relating to the final years of Tony Blair's tenure as Leader of the Labour Party and Prime Minister and the leadership elections to find replacements for him and Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott, from his announcement that he would not lead Labour into a fourth general election, concluding with Gordon Brown becoming Prime Minister.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "This article outlines the events leading up to the 2014 Indian general election from 7 April to 12 May 2014, starting with the prior election in 2009.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "This article outlines the key events leading up to the 2019 Indian general election which was scheduled to take place from 11 April to 19 May 2019, starting with the prior election in 2014.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2020\u20132021 Belarusian protests were a series of political demonstrations and protests against the Belarusian government and President Alexander Lukashenko. The largest anti-government protests in the history of Belarus, the demonstrations began in the lead-up to and during the 2020 presidential election, in which Lukashenko sought his sixth term in office. In response to the demonstrations, a number of relatively small pro-government rallies were held.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The following is a timeline of the Premiership of John A. Macdonald, who served as the first Prime Minister of Canada from July 1, 1867 to November 5, 1873 and again from October 17, 1878 to June 6, 1891.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "This list of treaties contains known agreements, pacts, peaces, and major contracts between states, armies, governments, and tribal groups.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The breakup of Yugoslavia was a process in which the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was broken up into constituent republics, and over the course of which the Yugoslav wars started. The process generally began with the death of Josip Broz Tito on 4 May 1980 and formally ended when the last two remaining republics (SR Serbia and SR Montenegro) proclaimed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 27 April 1992. At that time the Yugoslav wars were still ongoing, and FR Yugoslavia continued to exist until 2003, when it was renamed and reformed as the state union of Serbia and Montenegro. This union lasted until 5 June 2006 when Montenegro proclaimed independence. The former Yugoslav autonomous province of Kosovo subsequently proclaimed independence from Serbia in February 2008.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Admiral of the Realm was a military and political title given to nobles in Denmark-Norway (Danish: Rigsadmiral), Sweden (Swedish: Riksamiral) and Holy Roman Empire (German: Reichsadmiral).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A Party Committee Secretary (Chinese: \u515a\u59d4\u4e66\u8bb0; pinyin: d\u01cengw\u011bi sh\u016bj\u00ec) is the leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organization in a province, city, village, or other administrative region. In most cases, it is the de facto highest political office of its area of jurisdiction. The term can also be used for the leadership position of CCP organizations in state-owned enterprises, private companies, foreign-owned companies, universities, hospitals, as well as other institutions of the state.Post-Cultural Revolution, the CCP is responsible for the formulation of policies and the government is responsible for its day-to-day execution. At every level of jurisdiction, a government leader serves alongside the party secretary. For example, in the case of a province, the provincial Party Secretary is the de facto highest office, but the government is headed by a government leader called a \"Governor\" (simplified Chinese: \u7701\u957f; traditional Chinese: \u7701\u9577; pinyin: sh\u011bng zh\u01ceng). The Governor is usually the second-highest-ranking official in the party's Provincial Committee, and holds the concurrent title of \"Deputy Party Committee Secretary\" (simplified Chinese: \u7701\u59d4\u526f\u4e66\u8bb0; traditional Chinese: \u7701\u59d4\u526f\u66f8\u8a18; pinyin: sh\u011bng w\u011bi f\u00f9 sh\u016b j\u00ec). A similar comparison can be made for municipal Party Secretaries and Mayors.\nThere have been rare instances where both Party Secretary and Governor (or Mayor) positions were held by the same person, though this is not the common practice since the end of the Cultural Revolution. The Party Secretary is usually assisted by numerous Deputy Party Secretaries.\nUntil the 1980s, the leading position of a local party organization was called the First Secretary, its deputy the \"Second Secretary\". The local party organizations each had its own Secretariat with numerous secretaries.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In modern Chinese politics, a Deputy Party Committee Secretary (simplified Chinese: \u515a\u59d4\u526f\u4e66\u8bb0; traditional Chinese: \u9ee8\u59d4\u526f\u66f8\u8a18; pinyin: d\u01cengw\u011bi f\u00f9sh\u016bj\u00ec; also translated as Deputy Party Secretary, deputy party chief, vice party chief) serves as the lieutenant to the Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary, and thus the deputy leader of the party committee, ranked immediately after the party chief.  The term is also use for leadership positions of Communist Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private companies, foreign-owned companies, universities, hospitals, as well as other institutions of the state.In most administrative jurisdictions, there are two deputy party chiefs. The first-ranked deputy party chief is also the head of government of that jurisdiction. The second-ranked deputy party chief assists the party chief primarily in party affairs.For example, in a province, the party chief is in charge of the overall work of the party committee, and in practice also determines the broad direction of government policy. However, the policies are then implemented and carried out by the provincial governor through specific measures, and it is the governor's job to oversee the details of the implementation. The governor is always concurrently the first-ranked Deputy Party Secretary. The second-ranked Deputy Secretary is also called zhuanzhi fushuji (\u4e13\u804c\u526f\u4e66\u8bb0; lit., \"full time deputy secretary\") or, more rarely changwu fushuji (\u5e38\u52a1\u526f\u4e66\u8bb0; i.e., \"executive deputy secretary\").The zhuanzhi deputy party chief is mainly in charge of party affairs; that is, keeping the party organization in line, spearheading party initiatives such as education campaigns and ideological indoctrination campaigns, and overseeing the work of the Party School in their area of jurisdiction. For example, since the 1990s, a provincial deputy party chief is almost always concurrently the head of the provincial Party School.\nThe zhuanzhi deputy party chief is an office that carries significant weight. Although administratively, they are half a level below the party chief and head of government (for example, a deputy provincial party chief is ranked at the sub-provincial level), they generally are seen as likely candidates to ascend to the position of head of government (and potentially, ascend even higher to party chief). Examples of this include Zhejiang governor Li Qiang, and Gansu governor Liu Weiping.\nIn the party centre, the position analogous to the deputy party chief is the executive secretary of the Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party.\nOther communist states may also have deputy party chiefs, but their organization may vary from the Chinese model.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A councillor is a member of a local government council in some countries.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Gothi or go\u00f0i (plural go\u00f0ar, fem. gy\u00f0ja; Old Norse: gu\u00fei) was a position of political and social prominence in the Icelandic Commonwealth. The term originally had a religious significance, referring to a pagan leader responsible for a religious structure and communal feasts, but the title is primarily known as a secular political title from medieval Iceland.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A lawspeaker or lawman (Swedish: lagman, Old Swedish: laghma\u00feer or laghman, Danish: lovsigemand, Norwegian: lagmann, Icelandic: l\u00f6g(s\u00f6gu)ma\u00f0ur [\u02c8l\u0153\u0263(\u02ccs\u0153\u02d0\u0263\u028f)\u02ccma\u02d0\u00f0\u028fr\u0325], Faroese: l\u00f8gma\u00f0ur, Finnish: laamanni, Greenlandic: inatsitinuk) is a unique Scandinavian legal office. It has its basis in a common Germanic oral tradition, where wise people were asked to recite the law, but it was only in Scandinavia that the function evolved into an office. At first, lawspeakers represented the people, and their duties and authority were connected to the assemblies (things). For most of the last thousand years, however, they were part of the king's administration.\nSnorri Sturluson (1179\u20131241) of Iceland was a famous lawspeaker. He wrote about an 11th-century lawspeaker named Torgny, but historians doubt the account.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Leader of the Opposition is a title traditionally held by the leader of the largest political party not in government, typical in countries utilizing the parliamentary system form of government. The leader of the opposition is typically seen as an alternative prime minister, premier, first minister, or chief minister to the incumbent; in the Westminster system, they head a rival alternative government known as the shadow cabinet or opposition front bench. The same term is also used to refer to the leader of the largest political party that is not in government in subnational state, provincial, and other regional and local legislatures.\nIn many Commonwealth realms, the full title for the Leader of the Opposition is the Leader of Her Majesty's Most Loyal Opposition.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Arabic title n\u0101\u1e93ir (\u0646\u0627\u0638\u0631, Turkish: naz\u0131r) refers to an overseer in a general sense. In Islam, it is the normal term for the administrator of a waqf (charitable endowment). The office or territory of a n\u0101\u1e93ir is a nazirate.According to al-Q\u0101bis\u012b, writing in the tenth century, the pagan ruler of Tadmakka appointed a superintendent, which al-Q\u0101bis\u012b calls a n\u0101\u1e93ir, from among the Muslims living in his land to oversee them. This was probably a common arrangement in the Sahara and Sahel regions.The title was used in Egypt for the heads of government departments and agencies before it adopted a modern cabinet system. It was synonymous with inspector, supervisor or controller. In Egypt it may also be used for the directors or managers of commercial enterprises.In the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, the title n\u0101\u1e93ir al-khu\u1e6d\u1e6d was used for the official in charge of a subdivision of a district. Usually he was a tribal head. N\u0101\u1e93ir \u02bfum\u016bm was a traditional and usually hereditary Sudanese title for the head of a tribal confederation. It was only infrequently recognised by the Anglo-Egyptian government, but it was used for lower-level salaried officials in the Jaz\u012bra. As a traditional Sudanese title, n\u0101\u1e93ir may be an Arabic rendering of the originally Funj titles m\u0101njil and manfona. One of the n\u0101\u1e93ir's duties was to administer uncultivated land (qif\u0101r) within the tribal homeland (d\u0101r).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Ronggo was an administrative title used by the Dutch in the Dutch East Indies in Indonesia (specifically Java and Borneo.)\nRonggo of \"Afdeeling\" Bandjarmasin was held by Kiahi Mas Djaja Samoedra (circa 1899) (EYD or \"advanced spelling\": Kiai Mas Jaya Samudera). The region saw much international trade with Asia and the Middle East. After a period of warfare dominated much of the late 1500s to mid 1600s, Portugal controlled the area for a short time.\nFollowing Portuguese control, the Dutch East India Company awarded a monopoly on trade and colonization in the area utilizing an exceptional financial backing, better organization, strategy, weapons and ships, but were still unable to completely dominate the Indonesian spice trade. In the 1800s, the Dutch East India Company dissolved due to bankruptcy and the Netherlands turned it into a nationalized colony.Bandjarmasi leadership structure:\n\nAssistant Resident: E.B. Masthoff\nPolice chief: C.W.H. Born\nRonggo: Kiahi Mas Djaja Samoedra\nChinese Lieutenants: Sin Yoe and Ang Lim Thay\nCaptain of Arabs: Hasan bin Said Al Habesi Idroes", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A veto is a legal power to unilaterally stop an official action. In the most typical case, a president or monarch vetoes a bill to stop it from becoming law. In many countries, veto powers are established in the country's constitution. Veto powers are also found at other levels of government, such as in state, provincial or local government, and in international bodies.\nSome vetoes can be overcome, often by a supermajority vote: in the United States, a two-thirds vote of the House and Senate can override a presidential veto. Some vetoes, however, are absolute and cannot be overridden. For example, in the United Nations Security Council, the permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) have an absolute veto over any Security Council resolution. \nIn many cases, the veto power can only be used to prevent changes to the status quo. But some veto powers also include the ability to make or propose changes. For example, the Indian president can use an amendatory veto to propose amendments to vetoed bills.\nThe executive power to veto legislation one of the main tools that the executive has in the legislative process, along with the proposal power. It is  most commonly found in presidential and semi-presidential systems. In parliamentary systems, the head of state often has either a weak veto power or none at all. But while some political systems do not contain a formal veto power, all political systems contain veto players, people or groups who can use social and political power to prevent policy change.The word \"veto\" comes from the Latin for \"I forbid\". The concept of a veto originated with the Roman offices of consul and tribune of the plebs. There were two consuls every year; either consul could block military or civil action by the other. The tribunes had the power to unilaterally block any action by a Roman magistrate or the decrees passed by the Roman Senate.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Bonus Bill of 1817 was legislation proposed by John C. Calhoun to earmark the revenue \"bonus,\" as well as future dividends, from the recently-established Second Bank of the United States for an internal improvements fund. Proponents of the bill stressed the nearly universally accepted need for improvements and brushed off strict constructionists with their own arguments in favor of \"implied powers.\" Although President James Madison approved of the need and stated goals of improvements, he vetoed the bill as unconstitutional because he found no expressed congressional power to fund roads and canals in Article I, Section 8, of the United States Constitution. His veto message represented an important explication by the \"Father of the Constitution.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998), is a legal case in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the line-item veto as granted in the Line Item Veto Act of 1996 violated the Presentment Clause of the United States Constitution because it impermissibly gave the President of the United States the power to unilaterally amend or repeal parts of statutes that had been duly passed by the United States Congress. The decision of the Court, in a six-to-three majority, was delivered by Justice John Paul Stevens.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A Frankenstein veto occurs when an American state Governor selectively deletes words from a bill, stitching together the remainder (\u00e0 la Victor Frankenstein) to form a new bill different from that passed by the legislature. \nIn 2008, the state Constitution of Wisconsin was amended to place certain restrictions on the Frankenstein veto. With those changes, the governor of Wisconsin still has far greater veto powers than any other governor in the United States of America.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, a heckler's veto is a situation in which a party who disagrees with a speaker's message is able to unilaterally trigger events that result in the speaker being silenced.\nIn the legal sense, a heckler's veto occurs when the speaker's right is curtailed or restricted by the government in order to prevent a reacting party's behavior. The common example is the termination of a speech or demonstration in the interest of maintaining the public peace based on the anticipated negative reaction of someone opposed to that speech or demonstration. \nThe term heckler's veto was coined by University of Chicago professor of law Harry Kalven. Colloquially, the concept is invoked in situations where hecklers or demonstrators silence a speaker without intervention of the law.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Homestead Act of 1860 in the United States would have made land available for 25 cents per acre. This act was passed by the United States Congress, but was ultimately vetoed by President James Buchanan.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha, 462 U.S. 919 (1983), was a United States Supreme Court case ruling in 1983 that the one-house legislative veto violated the constitutional separation of powers.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Jus exclusivae (Latin for \"right of exclusion\"; sometimes called the papal veto) was the right claimed by several Catholic monarchs of Europe to veto a candidate for the papacy. Although never formally recognized by the Catholic Church, the French monarch, the Spanish monarch, and the Holy Roman Emperor (which later became the Emperor of Austria) claimed this right at various times, making known to a papal conclave, through a crown-cardinal, that the monarch deemed a particular candidate for the papacy objectionable.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The legislative veto describes features of at least two different forms of government, monarchies and those based on the separation of powers, applied to the authority of the monarch in the first and to the authority of the legislature in the second.\nIn the case of monarchy, legislative veto describes the right of the ruler to nullify the actions of a legislative body, for example, the French monarch's claim to the right to veto actions of the National Assembly at the start of the French Revolution.In a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature, it refers to the authority of the upper chamber, like Canada's Senate, to reject legislation or certain prescribed categories of legislation.In the case of representative governments that divide their executive and legislative functions, legislative veto refers to the power of a legislature, or one house of a bicameral legislature, to nullify an action of the executive authority. The practice was common for several decades in the United States at the federal level until the Supreme Court ruled the practice unconstitutional in 1983 in Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha.In Germany, the term refers to the authority of the Bundesrat, which represents the German states, to nullify certain categories of legislation enacted by the Bundestag, the nation's legislature.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The legislative veto was a feature of dozens of statutes enacted by the United States federal government between approximately 1930 and 1980, until held unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1983. It is a provision whereby Congress passes a statute granting authority to the President and reserving for itself the ability to override, through simple majority vote, individual actions taken by the President pursuant to that authority.It has also been widely used by state governments.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The liberum veto (Latin for \"free veto\") was a parliamentary device in the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a form of unanimity voting rule that allowed any member of the Sejm (legislature) to force an immediate end to the current session and to nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session by shouting either Sisto activitatem! (Latin: \"I stop the activity!\") or Nie pozwalam! (Polish: \"I do not allow!\"). The rule was in place from the mid-17th century to the late 18th century in the Sejm's parliamentary deliberations. It was based on the premise that since all Polish noblemen were equal, every measure that came before the Sejm had to be passed unanimously. The liberum veto was a key part of the political system of the Commonwealth, strengthening democratic elements and checking royal power and went against the European-wide trend of having a strong executive (absolute monarchy).\nMany historians hold that the liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system, particularly in the 18th century, when foreign powers bribed Sejm members to paralyze its proceedings, and the Commonwealth's eventual destruction in the partitions of Poland and foreign occupation, dominance and manipulation of Poland. Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the \"liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy\". In the period of 1573\u20131763, about 150 sejms were held, about a third failing to pass any legislation, mostly because of the liberum veto. The expression Polish parliament in many European languages originated from the apparent paralysis.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Line Item Veto Act Pub.L. 104\u2013130 (text) (PDF) was a federal law of the United States that granted the President the power to line-item veto budget bills passed by Congress, but its effect was brief as the act was soon ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Clinton v. City of New York.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The line-item veto, also called the partial veto, is a special form of veto power that authorizes a chief executive to reject particular provisions of a bill enacted by a legislature without vetoing the entire bill. Many countries have different standards for invoking the line-item veto if it exists at all. Each country or state has its own particular requirement for overriding a line-item veto.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In United States government, the line-item veto, or partial veto, is the power of an executive authority to nullify or cancel specific provisions of a bill, usually a budget appropriations bill, without vetoing the entire legislative package. The line-item vetoes are usually subject to the possibility of legislative override as are traditional vetoes.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, the term \"veto\" is used to describe an action by which the president prevents an act passed by Congress from becoming law. This article provides a summary and details of the bills vetoed by presidents.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Maysville Road veto occurred on May 27, 1830, when United States President Andrew Jackson vetoed a bill that would allow the federal government to purchase stock in the Maysville, Washington, Paris, and Lexington Turnpike Road Company, which had been organized to construct a road linking Lexington, Kentucky, to Maysville on the Ohio River (Maysville being located approximately 66 miles/106 km northeast of Lexington), the entirety of which would be in the state of Kentucky. Its advocates regarded it as a part of the national Cumberland Road system. Congress passed a bill in 1830 providing federal funds to complete the project. Jackson vetoed the bill on the grounds that federal funding of intrastate projects of this nature was unconstitutional. He declared that such bills violated the principle that the federal government should not be involved in local economic affairs. Jackson also pointed out that funding for these kinds of projects interfered with paying off the national debt.Proponents of internal improvements, such as the development of roads and bridges, argued that the federal government had an obligation to harmonize the nation's diverse, and often conflicting, sectional interests into an \"American System.\" Jackson's decision was heavily influenced by his Secretary of State Martin Van Buren. Some authors have described the motives behind the veto decision as personal, rather than strictly political. The veto has been attributed to a personal grudge against Henry Clay, a political enemy and resident of Kentucky, as well as to preserve the trade monopoly of New York's Erie Canal, in Van Buren's case.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Ninetieth Minnesota State Senate v. Dayton, (903 N.W.2d 609), was a 2017 Minnesota Supreme Court case where the Court ruled that Governor Mark Dayton's line item vetoes of appropriations for the Minnesota Senate and Minnesota House of Representatives were a lawful exercise of his authority granted by the Minnesota Constitution. The Court also ruled that since the state legislature had access to other funding to continue operating as a fully functioning and independent branch of government, the governor's vetoes did not effectively abolish the legislature and thereby violate Article III of the state constitution. The Court also ruled that the judicial branch did not have the constitutional authority to order funding without a corresponding budgetary appropriation. The Supreme Court's ruling overturned an earlier ruling by a Ramsey County District Court judge. The case marked the first time in which the Minnesota Supreme Court was asked to resolve a lawsuit brought by one branch of government against another.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work  is a book written by political science professor George Tsebelis in 2002. It is a game theory analysis of political behavior. In this work Tsebelis uses the concept of the veto player as a tool for analysing the outcomes of political systems. His primary focus is on legislative behaviour and outcomes.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A pocket veto is a legislative maneuver that allows a president or other official with veto power to exercise that power over a bill by taking no action (keeping it in their pocket), thus effectively killing the bill without affirmatively vetoing it. This depends on the laws of each country; the common alternative is that if the president takes no action a bill automatically becomes law.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Pocket Veto Case (also known as Bands of the State of Washington v. United States and Okanogan, Methow, San Poelis, Nespelem, Colville, and Lake Indian Tribes v. United States), 279 U.S. 655 (1929), was a 1929 United States Supreme Court decision that interpreted the US Constitution's provisions on the pocket veto.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Rivers and Harbors Bill was a bill passed by Congress in 1846 to provide $500,000 to improve rivers and harbors. When the Senate passed the Rivers and Harbors Bill 34 to 16 on July 24, 1846, opponents lobbied for a presidential veto. It was vetoed by President James K. Polk on August 3. The bill would have provided for federally funded internal improvements on small harbors, many of them on the Great Lakes. Polk believed that this was unconstitutional because the bill unfairly favored particular areas, including that which had no foreign trade.\nPolk believed that these problems were local and not national. Polk feared that passing the Rivers and Harbors Bill would encourage legislators to compete for favors for their home districts, a type of political corruption that would spell doom to the virtue of the republic. In this regard he followed his hero, Andrew Jackson, who authored the Maysville Road veto in 1830 on similar grounds. Henry Clay and his Whig Party, by contrast, supported the bill because they believed the national government had a responsibility to promote trade commerce and economic modernization.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Scottish Militia Bill 1708 (known formerly as the Scotch Militia Bill) was a bill that was passed by the House of Commons and House of Lords of the Parliament of  Great Britain in early 1708. However, on 11 March 1708, Queen Anne withheld royal assent on the advice of her ministers for fear that the proposed militia would be disloyal. This was due to the sudden appearance of a Franco-Jacobite invasion fleet en route to Scotland which gave ministers second thoughts, at the last minute, about allowing it to reach the statute books. It was the last occasion on which the royal veto was used.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Smiley v. Holm, 285 U.S. 355 (1932), was a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States involving a governor's power to veto a congressional redistricting proposal passed by a state's legislature. In an opinion by Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes, the Court unanimously held that the U.S. Constitution did not prohibit Minnesota's governor from vetoing that state's redistricting map.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Texas Seed Bill was a 1887 United States federal law designed to send $10,000 to purchase seed grain for farmers after a horrendous drought happened in Texas.  The law was vetoed by President Grover Cleveland and his veto ultimately killed the law from ever being passed. In his veto message, Cleveland argued:\n\nI can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution, and I do not believe that the power and duty of the general government ought to be extended to the relief of individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit. A prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should, I think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that, though the people support the government, the government should not support the people.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The United Nations Security Council veto power is the power of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) to veto any \"substantive\" resolution. They also happen to be the nuclear-weapon states (NWS) under the terms of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). However, a permanent member's abstention or absence does not prevent a draft resolution from being adopted. This veto power does not apply to \"procedural\" votes, as determined by the permanent members themselves. A permanent member can also block the selection of a Secretary-General, although a formal veto is unnecessary since the vote is taken behind closed doors.\nThe veto power is controversial. Supporters regard it as a promoter of international stability, a check against military interventions, and a critical safeguard against United States domination. Critics say that the veto is the most undemocratic element of the UN, as well as the main cause of inaction on war crimes and crimes against humanity, as it effectively prevents UN action against the permanent members and their allies.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, the president can use the veto power to prevent a bill passed by the Congress from becoming law.  Congress can override the veto by a two-thirds vote of both chambers. \nAll state and territorial governors have a similar veto power, as do some mayors and county executives. In many states and territories the governor has additional veto powers, including line-item, amendatory and reduction vetoes. Veto powers also exist in some, but not all, tribal governments.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A vetocracy is a dysfunctional system of governance whereby no single entity can acquire enough power to make decisions and take effective charge. Coined by American political scientist Francis Fukuyama, the term points to an excessive ability or willingness to use the veto power within a government or institution (without an adequate means of any override). Such limitations may point to a lack of trust among members or hesitance to cede sovereignty.\nSome institutions which have been hampered by perceptions of vetocratic limitations (and even responsible for their downfall) include the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Articles of Confederation, the Confederate States of America, and the League of Nations. The present-day United Nations Security Council has been criticized for its inability to take decisive action due to the exclusive rights of veto power of permanent members. Fukuyama has argued that the United States was facing such a crisis under the republic's first constitution, the Articles of Confederation.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Wright v. United States  was the name of several US Supreme Court cases.\nThe most significant was the case of 1938 (302 U.S. 583), which partly overruled the court's earlier decision in the Pocket Veto Case.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1st Central Inspection Commission of the Workers' Party of North Korea (WPNK)(Korean: \uc81c1\ucc28 \ubd81\uc870\uc120\ub85c\ub3d9\ub2f9 \uc911\uc559\uc704\uc6d0\ud68c \uac80\uc5f4\uc704\uc6d0\ud68c) was elected at the 1st WPNK Congress held in August 1946. It consisted of 11 members, and remained active until the 2nd WPNK Congress when the 2nd Inspection Commission was elected.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1st Politburo of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 1975 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 1st Central Committee, in the immediate aftermath of the 1st Party Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1st Secretariat of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 1975 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 1st Central Committee in the immediate aftermath of the 1st Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1st Standing Committee of the Workers' Party of North Korea (WPNK) was elected at the 1st WPNK Congress held in August 1946. It consisted of 13 members and remained active until the election of the 2nd Standing Committee by the 1st Plenary Session of the 2nd Central Committee on 30 March 1948. In between sessions of the Standing Committee, the Political Committee met in its place.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2nd National Congress of the Kuomintang (Chinese: \u4e2d\u570b\u570b\u6c11\u9ee8\u7b2c\u4e8c\u6b21\u5168\u570b\u4ee3\u8868\u5927\u4f1a) was the second national congress of the Kuomintang, held in 1\u201319 January 1926 at Kwangchow, Kwangtung, Republic of China.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2nd Politburo of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 1980 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 2nd Central Committee, in the immediate aftermath of the 2nd Party Congress.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2nd Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP), officially the Political Bureau of the 2nd Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, was elected in 1972 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 2nd Central Committee, in the immediate aftermath of the 2nd National Congress.The 2nd Politburo witnessed dramatic debates on the topic of the transition to socialism, planned economic activity verus market relations and how to construct a people's democratic dictatorship. The Politburo was divideded between reformers such as Kaysone Phomvihane, who were influenced by economic reforms in China and Vietnam, and the followers of Nouhak Phoumsavan that wanted to strengthen state-control and supported a traditional planned economy based on the Soviet model.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2nd Secretariat of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 1980 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 2nd Central Committee in the immediate aftermath of the 2nd Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 3rd National Congress of the Kuomintang (Chinese: \u4e2d\u570b\u570b\u6c11\u9ee8\u7b2c\u4e09\u6b21\u5168\u570b\u4ee3\u8868\u5927\u4f1a) was the third national congress of the Kuomintang, held on 15\u201328 March 1929 at Nanking, Republic of China. This was the first KMT national congress after the Chinese reunification in 1928 after the northern expedition, thus it was located in the unified ROC capital Nanking.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 3rd Politburo of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 1986 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 3rd Central Committee, in the immediate aftermath of the 3rd Party Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 3rd Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP), officially the Political Bureau of the 3rd Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, was elected in 1982 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 3rd Central Committee, in the immediate aftermath of the 3rd National Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 3rd Secretariat of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 1986 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 3rd Central Committee in the immediate aftermath of the 3rd Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 4th National Congress of the Kuomintang (Chinese: \u4e2d\u570b\u570b\u6c11\u9ee8\u7b2c\u56db\u6b21\u5168\u570b\u4ee3\u8868\u5927\u4f1a) was the fourth national congress of the Kuomintang, held on 12\u201323 November 1931 at Nanking, Republic of China.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 4th Politburo of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 1991 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 4th Central Committee, in the immediate aftermath of the 4th Party Congress.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 5th Politburo of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 1997 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 5th Central Committee, in the immediate aftermath of the 5th Party Congress.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 5th Secretariat of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected on 4 July 2006 by the 5th Plenary Session of the 5th Central Committee.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 6th Central Auditing Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) was elected at the party's 6th Congress on 14 October 1980.Upon its renewal at the 3rd WPK Conference in 2010 it was composed of one chairman, one vice chair and 13 ordinary members. In 2012, at the 4th WPK Conference, members were recalled and elected to fill vacancies but the individuals in questions were not made public.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 6th National Congress of the Kuomintang (Chinese: \u4e2d\u570b\u570b\u6c11\u9ee8\u7b2c\u516d\u6b21\u5168\u570b\u4ee3\u8868\u5927\u4f1a) was the sixth national congress of the Kuomintang, held on 5 May 1945 at Chungking, Republic of China. This congress saw the first participation of Taiwan Province in the congress, represented by Hsieh Tung-min, despite Taiwan being under Japanese rule.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 6th National Congress of the Kuomintang (Chinese: \u4e2d\u570b\u570b\u6c11\u9ee8\u7b2c\u516d\u6b21\u5168\u570b\u4ee3\u8868\u5927\u4f1a) was held by Wang Jingwei and his followers from the Kuomintang in exile after he defected from Chiang Kai-shek to Japan, in Japanese-occupied Shanghai, on 28 August 1939. As he was a collaborator, this congress was not considered legitimate after the war. A \"central political conference\" was held in Nanjing later on 20 March 1940, establishing his new regime.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 6th Politburo of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 2011 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 6th Central Committee, in the immediate aftermath of the 6th Party Congress.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 6th Politburo of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), officially the Political Bureau of the 6th Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea, was elected by the 1st Plenary Session of the 6th Central Committee in the immediate aftermath of the 6th WPK Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 6th Secretariat of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 2011 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 6th Central Committee in the immediate aftermath of the 6th Party Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 7 October Movementa is a South Sudanese opposition group founded by Kerbino Wol Agok. Wol, a businessman and philanthropist, was detained by the National Security Service without a charge in April 2018. He started a riot in the National Security Headquarters, or Blue House, on October 7, 2018, from which the group gets its name, and was sentenced to 10 years in prison. However, he was pardoned by president Salva Kiir in January 2020. Wol announced that he had founded the movement on June 5, 2020, and at that time claimed to have 1,000 men in the rural areas of South Sudan. Wol claimed that many members of the movement fought under John Garang in the Second Sudanese Civil War, and also that many of them had been prisoners in the Blue House. The group is opposed to the current leadership, which the 7 October Movement believes have kept South Sudan in poverty, as well as the National Security Service and the current prison system, which the group believes is unjust.Less than two weeks after the movement was announced, on June 14, 2020, Kerbino Wol Agok was killed, leaving the future of the group uncertain. According to the South Sudan People's Defense Forces, Wol was killed in a clash at Ayen Mayar village in Rumbek East County in Lakes State along with three other 7 October Movement fighters. One civilian was also killed and two others were wounded in the clash.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 7th Central Auditing Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) was elected at the party's 7th Congress on 9 May 2016. In its 1st Plenary Session it elected Choe Sung-ho as Chair and Pak Myong-sun as Vice Chair.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 7th Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), officially the Central Military Commission of the 7th Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea, was elected at the 1st Plenary Session of the 7th WPK Central Committee in the immediate aftermath of the party's 7th Congress on 9  Mai 2016.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 7th Politburo of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 2016 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 7th Central Committee in the immediate aftermath of the 7th Party Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 7th Secretariat of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) was elected in 2016 by the 1st Plenary Session of the 7th Central Committee in the immediate aftermath of the 7th Party Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 8th Central Auditing Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) was elected at the party's 8th Congress on 10 January 2021. It is composed of one chairman, two vice chairmen and twelve ordinary members.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 8th Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), officially the Central Military Commission of the 8th Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea, was elected at the 1st Plenary Session of the 7th WPK Central Committee in the immediate aftermath of the party's 8th Congress on 10 January 2021. It is composed of one chairman, one vice chairmen and eleven ordinary members.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 8th Secretariat of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), officially the Secretariat of the 8th Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea, was elected by the 1st Plenary Session of the 8th Central Committee in the immediate aftermath of the 8th WPK Congress.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "270toWin is an American political website that projects who will win United States presidential elections and allows users to create their own electoral maps. It also tracks the results of United States presidential elections by state throughout the country's history.The website has information about elections and the political system, such as presidential electoral results dating back to 1789, pundit forecasts, voting history and trends by state, polling data, live updates during elections, and other information such as a lookup by zip code of elected representatives.The website is used by schools to teach about the electoral college process.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "314 Action is a nonprofit political action committee that seeks to elect scientists in the United States.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Pan-American Students Conference was a student conference held in Bogot\u00e1, Colombia, in April 1948. The conference was organized in opposition to the Pan-American Conference also held in Bogot\u00e1. The conference was attended by a young Fidel Castro.\nOn April 8 an organizational meeting in office of the Confederation of Workers of Colombia. A second meeting is claimed to have happened on April 9. Not long after that Gait\u00e1n was shot, leading to the Bogotazo.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of events in 1965 in politics.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1971 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, officially known as the I Commonwealth Heads Meeting, and commonly known as Singapore 1971, was the first Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations (formerly named the British Commonwealth). It was held from 14 to 22 January 1971 in Singapore, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Lee Kuan Yew.British prime minister Edward Heath advised Queen Elizabeth II not to attend the conference due to a row within the Commonwealth over Britain selling arms to South Africa. It would be the only CHOGM the Queen would miss until 2013.Ugandan president Milton Obote was overthrown by Idi Amin in a military coup, whilst he was attending the meeting.\nAt the meeting the Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles was agreed setting out the core political values that would form the main part of the Commonwealth's membership criteria. The final document was not ratified by Pakistan. Topics discussed at the meeting included Chinese representation at the United Nations, East-West relations, conflict in the Southeast Asia, Portuguese violations of Guinean sovereignty and situation in Portuguese colonies, and South African situation. Members also discussed the repercussions of future Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "On February 22, 1972 a faction loyal to Ange Diawara attempted a coup against President Marien Ngouabi. Joachim Yhombi-Opango was instrumental in ending the coup. The musician Franklin Boukaka was killed in the coup, as was former Minister \u00c9lie Th\u00e9ophile Itsihou.  After more than a year of evading capture Diawara was ambushed and killed in April 1973 by forces loyal to Ngouabi.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "These are some of the notable events relating to politics in 1973.\n\nAugust - Sixpence withdrawn from general use in the UK marking the end of the decimalisation period.\n24 September - Portuguese Guinea proclaims independence from Portugal as Guinea-Bissau.\n18 October - Trygve Bratteli replaces Lars Korvald as prime minister of Norway.\n18 December - Prime minister Anker J\u00f8rgensen of Denmark resigns and is replaced with Poul Hartling.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1975 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, officially known as the III Commonwealth Heads Meeting, and commonly known as Kingston 1975, was the third Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations.  It was held from 29 April to 6 May 1975 in Kingston, Jamaica, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Michael Manley. \nAmong the topics discussed were nuclear disarmament, the situation in Rhodesia, South Africa and decolonization in Southern Africa, the Turkish invasion and occupation of northern Cyprus, the end of the Vietnam War, the aftermath of the war between Bangladesh and Pakistan and other regional issues.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1975 Constitution of the People's Republic of China was promulgated by the 4th National People's Congress. The offices of President and Vice-President were officially scrapped under the Constitution.\nThis Constitution reduced the total number of articles to just thirty, compared to 106 of articles in the 1954 Constitution of the People's Republic of China.\nThe 1975 Constitution witnessed an integration (in part) of the State Constitution (the PRC Constitution) and the Chinese Communist Party. The Constitution states that the People's Liberation Army, the armed services of the PRC, is to be controlled by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party. Such linkage between party and state would no longer be seen in later Constitutions, particularly after 1982. The most significant link, however, came in Article 2, which stated that the Chinese Communist Party was the leading force of the Chinese people.\nThe 1975 Constitution remained in effect for about three years, the shortest-lived constitution in the history of the People's Republic of China.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1977 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, officially known as the IV Commonwealth Heads Meeting, and commonly known as London 1977, was the fourth Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations. It was held in London, United Kingdom, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, James Callaghan. President Idi Amin of Uganda did not attend, and on the eve of the meeting President James Mancham of the Seychelles was overthrown in a coup d'\u00e9tat and the country was not represented.Issues discussed at the conference included the situation in Southern Africa, relations between rich and poorer nations, Cyprus, Belize, Uganda, and the issue of sporting contacts with South Africa. The Gleneagles Agreement on sporting contacts was reached at the meeting's retreat, in Gleneagles, Scotland.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "National referendum  was called on December 16\u201317, 1977 where the majority of the voters voted that President Ferdinand Marcos should continue in office as incumbent President and Prime Minister after the organization of the Interim Batasang Pambansa.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1979 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the fifth Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations. 39 countries attended the meeting. It was held in Lusaka, Zambia, between 1 August 1979 and 7 August 1979, and was hosted by that country's President, Kenneth Kaunda.\nIssues discussed at the conference included the situation in Rhodesia, the armed conflicts in Indo-China, the global growth of the refugee problem, the situation in Cyprus and Southern Africa. Sir Shridath Ramphal was reappointed as Commonwealth Secretary-General during the meeting. The Lusaka Declaration of the Commonwealth on Racism and Racial Prejudice was issued at the end of the CHOGM, including a special declaration condemning apartheid.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In 1980, an International Conference of Marxist\u2013Leninist Parties and Organisations was organized by communist groups dissatisfied with the new leadership in China after the death of Mao Zedong and the overthrow of the Gang of Four. Participants were:\n\nCeylon Communist Party (Maoist)\nLeninist Group of Senegal\nGroup for the Defense of Marxism\u2013Leninism (Spain)\nMao Tse-Tung Circle (Denmark)\nMarxist\u2013Leninist Collective (Britain)\nMarxist\u2013Leninist Proletarian Communist Organization (Italy)\nRevolutionary Communist Party of Chile\nReorganisation Committee CPI(ML)\nFor the Proletarian International (France)\nRevolutionary Communist Party, USA\nRevolutionary Communist Union (Dominican Republic)The conference constituted a 'Revolutionary International Committee' (precursor to the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1981 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the sixth Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations.  It was held in Melbourne, Victoria, between 30 September 1981 and 7 October 1981, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Malcolm Fraser.\nAt the meeting the Melbourne Declaration was agreed which \"clarifies and extends the Commonwealth commitment to a fair international economic and financial system, and support for struggling poor countries.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1983 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the seventh Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations. It was held in New Delhi, India, between 23 and 29 November 1983, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. The retreat was held in Goa. Discussions were held on three major topics \u2013 the American Invasion of Grenada, the occupation of Namibia by South African and Cuban troops and the nuclear rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1985 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the eighth Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations.  It was held in Nassau, The Bahamas, between 16 October 1985 and 22 October 1985, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Sir Lynden Pindling.\nThe Nassau Accord was agreed to calling on the government of South Africa to dismantle its apartheid policy, enter into negotiations with the country's black majority and end its occupation of Namibia. The Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group was appointed to investigate the South African issue and report back with recommendations ahead of the special 1986 CHOGM in London.\nOnce released from prison, Nelson Mandela visited the Bahamas and thanked Sir Lynden Pindling for his role in opposing apartheid. Thabo Mbeki also visited the Bahamas when he became president of South Africa.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1986 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the ninth Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations.  It was held in London, the United Kingdom, between 3 August 1986 and 5 August 1986, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher. This was a special meeting held in between the biennial CHOGMs in order to consider the recommendations of the Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group regarding economic sanctions against South Africa due to its policies of apartheid. British prime minister Margaret Thatcher's refusal to support mandatory sanctions resulted in an acrimonious meeting and almost led to a split in the Commonwealth.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1987 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the tenth Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations.  It was held in Vancouver, Canada, between 13 October 1987 and 17 October 1987, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Brian Mulroney.\nThe meeting was marked by a confrontation between most Commonwealth leaders, including conference chair Mulroney, and Britain's Margaret Thatcher over the issue of economic sanctions against South Africa with Thatcher opposing sanctions and most other leaders being for sanctions.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1989 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the 11th Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations.  It was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, between 18 October 1989 and 24 October 1989, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Mahathir Mohamad.\nIt was dominated by the issue of sanctions on South Africa, with Britain (represented by Foreign Secretary John Major) being the only country to oppose them, on the grounds that they would end up hurting poorer South Africans far more than the apartheid regime at which they were aimed. The summit ended acrimoniously, with British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher controversially and against established precedent issuing a second final communiqu\u00e9 stating Britain's opposition to sanctions.The Langkawi Declaration on the Environment was agreed and issued at the CHOGM.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1991 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the 12th Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations.  It was held in Harare, Zimbabwe, between 16 October 1991 and 21 October 1991, and was hosted by that country's President, Robert Mugabe.\nThe Harare Declaration was issued at the CHOGM setting out the Commonwealth's core principles and values and its membership criteria, reaffirming and expanding upon the Singapore Declaration which had been issued twenty years earlier.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1993 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the 13th Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations.  It was held in Limassol, Cyprus, between 21 October 1993 and 25 October 1993, and was hosted by that country's President, Glafcos Clerides.The communique issued by Commonwealth leaders reiterated the organization's \"support for the independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity,\nunity and non-aligned status of the Republic of Cyprus\" and urged compliance with United Nations Resolutions on Cyprus and the need for Turkish forces and settlers to withdraw from Northern Cyprus. The meeting also agreed to lift economic sanctions against South Africa in light of moves by the government to end apartheid and grant voting rights to the non-white majority but also agreed to continue its arms embargo until a new non-racial government was elected. The leaders agreed to conditionally accept Cameroon as a member due to improvements in its human rights situation with the proviso that it fully comply with the Harare Declaration on pluralism and human rights by 1995. Commitments were also sought from Sierra Leone's military government for quick elections and a return to democracy. While the country's foreign minister reiterated its intention to hold elections within three years the government did not commit to a date. The summit also agreed that global free trade was desirable and agreed to send a five country delegation to represent the Commonwealth at the current round of talks on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Finally, while the Commonwealth Secretariat had said that a goal of the summit would be the development of a declaration of a 'global humanitarian order', no agreement was reached on specifics of conflict resolution and human rights and a group was appointed instead to study the problem.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1995 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the 14th Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations.  It was held in Auckland, New Zealand, between 10 November 1995 and 13 November 1995, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Jim Bolger.\nThe Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme was agreed and announced at the CHOGM. The programme sets out the basic political membership criteria of the Commonwealth and introduces compulsory adherence to the Harare principles, providing incentives for members to adhere to democratic principles, good governance and the rule of law with bilateral and multilateral penalties for intransigent members up to and including expulsion from the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group was established to monitor and enforce adherence to the agreement.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Amendment 42 was a ballot initiative, adopted by Colorado voters in November 2006, that amended Article XVIII of the Colorado Constitution to impose a minimum wage of $6.85 per hour, to be adjusted annually for inflation after 2007. The amendment was approved by 53.3% of voters.The minimum wage in Colorado at the time of the election was $5.15 per hour.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2007 Swazi general strike has been ongoing since 25 July 2007, led by the Swaziland Federation of Trade Unions, the Swaziland Federation of Labour and the Swaziland National Association of Teachers. They plan to stage a two-hour full stoppage of public life every month until the incumbent absolute monarch Mswati III gives in to their demands: multi-party elections in October 2008, that benefits cease to be taxed and an end to absolute monarchy.The first two-day stoppage occurred on 25 July in Manzini and on 26 July in Mbabane, when tens of thousands of workers demonstrated on the streets. The demonstrations constituted Swaziland's biggest civil movement for over a decade, since the last large-scale protests in 1996.Government spokespersons denied the unions' and strikers' claims, stating that they should not demonstrate, but rather lobby the parliament, as only parliament has the power to change the constitution to allow multi-party elections.On 2 August 2007, union representatives threatened further strikes if the government was not willing to listen, and also raised labour issues in addition to their political demands.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "These are some of the notable events relating to politics in 2010.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2017 draft Libyan constitution is a draft of a constitution for Libya prepared by the Constitution Drafting Assembly of 60 people elected from around Libya in the 2014 Libyan Constitutional Assembly election.Status: The new draft constitution was not adopted.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "On 12 July 2020, around 19 members of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly, as claimed by the then Deputy Chief Minister of Rajasthan Sachin Pilot, flew to Delhi after disputes over different offices between rival factions of the Rajasthan Pradesh Congress Committee, starting a governmental crisis in the state of Rajasthan.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In law and philosophy, accommodationism is the co-existence of religion with rationalism or irreligion. It may be applied to government practice or to society more broadly. Accommodationist policies are common in liberal democracies as a method of guaranteeing freedom of religion, and these policies may include options for religious education, official recognition of certain religious practices, and tolerance of religious expression in public spaces. It contrasts with separationist secularism and fundamentalism.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Addis Ababa Agreement, also known as the Addis Ababa Accord, was a set of compromises within a 1972 treaty that ended the First Sudanese Civil War  (1955\u20131972) fighting in Sudan. The Addis Ababa accords were incorporated in the Constitution of Sudan.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Addis Ababa Agreement was a settlement reached at the 1993 Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "During the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later, adlecti, or allecti were those who were chosen to fill up a vacancy in any office or collegium, and especially those who were chosen to fill up the proper number of the senate. As these would be generally equites, Festus defines the adlecti to be equites added to the senate: and he appears in this passage to make a distinction between the adlecti and the conscripti.  This distinction is supported by the summons form used to call the senate which reads pares and conscripti beginning in 509 BC. Others argue that they were the same; for in another passage, Festus gives the same definition of the conscripti as he had done of the adlecti, and Livy (ii.1) says conscriptos in novum senatum appellabant lectos.\nThe adelecti were also those persons under the empire who were admitted to the privileges and honours of the praetorship, quaestorship, aedileship, and other public offices, without having any duties to perform (Historia Augusta, \"Helvius Pertinax\", 6). In inscriptions we constantly find, adlectus inter tribunos, inter quaestores, inter praetores, etc.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The term administration, as used in the context of government, differs according to the jurisdiction under which it operates. In general terms, administration can be described as a decision making body.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Aid for the Elderly in Government Institutions (AEGIS) was a British pressure group that campaigned to improve the care of older people in long-stay wards of National Health Service psychiatric hospitals. The group was founded by Barbara Robb in 1965, and was active until Robb's death in 1976.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Albright-Gambari Commission, formally known as the Commission on Global Security, Justice & Governance, is a commission that was formed by the Hague Institute for Global Justice and the Stimson Center to consider new frameworks for collective action on issues such as state fragility, climate change, and the cyber\u2010economy. It is co-chaired by former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright and former Nigerian Foreign Minister and UN Under-Secretary-General Professor Ibrahim A. Gambari.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The algorithmic radicalization (or radicalization pipeline) hypothesis is the concept that algorithms on popular social media sites such as YouTube and Facebook drive users toward progressively more extreme content over time, leading to them becoming radicalized to extremist political views.As of 2021, research is ongoing to discover whether this is a real, measurable phenomenon.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Anarchopanda (French pronunciation: \u200b[ana\u0281kop\u0251\u0303da]) is a giant panda and the unofficial mascot of the 2012 Quebec student protests, known for hugging both students and police officers. His first appearance was at a protest on May 8, 2012. He was portrayed by philosophy professor Julien Villeneuve at Montreal CEGEP Coll\u00e8ge de Maisonneuve.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Anchalik Gana Morcha is an regional Indian political party, launched in June 2020 in Assam. It is led by former Rajya Sabha MP Ajit Kumar Bhuyan. It is part of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) and contested the 2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election as a part of the Mahajot (Grand Alliance) under the leadership of the Indian National Congress (INC). It is the only party from opposition to have a seat in Rajya Sabha from Assam.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Antagonistic contradiction (Chinese language: \u77db\u76fe) is the notion that compromise between different social classes is impossible, and their relations must be of class struggle. The term is most often applied in Maoist theory, which holds that differences between the two primary classes, the working class/proletariat and the bourgeoisie are so great that there is no way to bring about a reconciliation of their views. Because the groups involved have diametrically opposed concerns, their objectives are so dissimilar and contradictory that no mutually acceptable resolution can be found. Nonantagonistic contradictions may be resolved through mere debate, but antagonistic contradictions can only be resolved through struggle.\nThe term is usually attributed to Vladimir Lenin, although he may never have actually used the term in any of his written works.\nIn Maoism, the antagonistic contradiction was usually that between the peasantry and the landowning class. Mao Zedong expressed his views on the policy in his famous February 1957 speech \"On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People.\"\nThe Chinese term derives from the Han Feizi: \"There was once a man in the state of Chu, who was selling shields and lances. He was praising them saying: \u201cMy shields are so firm, that there is nothing that can pierce them.\u201d He praised his lances saying: \u201cMy lances are so sharp, that there is nothing that they cannot pierce.\u201d Someone asked: \u201cWhat if you used your lances to pierce your shields?\u201d The man could not answer. A shield that cannot be pierced and a lance that can pierce everything cannot exist in the same world.\" (see: Irresistible force paradox)", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Anti-Austrian sentiment (also known as Austrophobia) refers to hostile sentiment toward the nation of Austria and/or its people.\nIn the English-speaking world,  Anti-Austrian sentiment is sometimes associated with an Anti-German sentiment. Articles in the Daily Mail regularly advocated anti-German sentiments throughout the 20th century, telling their readers to refuse service at restaurants by Austrian or German waiters on the claim that they were spies. The newspaper also told its readers that if a German-sounding waiter claimed to be Swiss, then they should demand to see the waiter's passport.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1965 Arab League Summit (Arabic: \u0645\u0624\u062a\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0644\u062b) was a secret summit held from September 13 to 17 in Casablanca, Morocco. It was the third meeting of the Council of Heads of Member States of the Arab League. The summit was boycotted by Tunisia over disagreements with Egypt.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1974 Arab League summit was a meeting of Arab leaders held in Rabat, Morocco in October 1974. Leaders to twenty Arab countries were present, including King Hussein of Jordan and Anwar Sadat of Egypt, together with representatives of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). A unanimous resolution was passed which, for the first time, declared the PLO to be the \"sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people.\" Furthermore, the Arab League resolved that the \"oil-rich Arab states ... [provide] multi-annual financial aid to the [states in confrontation with Israel] and the PLO.\"The summit shaped the future of the conflict in several ways.  First, it forced King Hussein to relinquish his claim to be able to speak for the Palestinians and to acknowledge that a future Palestinian state would have to be independent of Jordan.  Second, it \"weakened the American position.  [U.S. Secretary of State Henry] Kissinger agreed with the Israelis that it was preferable to negotiate with Hussein rather than with the PLO.\"A Fatah plot to assassinate Hussein upon his arrival to the summit was uncovered by Moroccan authorities.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1978 Arab League summit was meeting held between Arab leaders on 2 November in Baghdad as the 9th Arab League Summit. The summit came in the aftermath of the Egypt's Anwar Sadat's unilateral peace treaty with Israel. On 31 March 1979, five days after the ratification of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, Arab leaders again convened in Baghdad in the absence of Egypt and decided to expel it from the Arab League. Consequently, the secretariat of the League was moved out of its Cairo headquarters to Tunis. This decision was slowly reversed in the 1980s after president Hosni Mubarak ascended to power.  Egypt, which regained strong influence in the region as rival nation Syria was suffering setbacks during the Lebanon Civil War, returned to the Arab League on 23 May 1989 and the headquarters, which never saw completed construction in Tunis, return to Cairo on 12 March 1990.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2006 Arab League Summit took place in Khartoum, Sudan, on March 28\u201330 2006. While speakers at the summit called for increased Arab sovereignty and stronger alliances between Arab states, it did not lead to any plans for action to those ends, and Qatari media outlet Al-Jazeera called it a \"nadir\" in the history of League summits.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2008 Arab League summit was held in Damascus on March 29, 2008. The summit was marred by inter-Arab differences, mainly over the political deadlock in Lebanon, with relations between Syria and the Saudi-Egypt coalition reaching an all-time low. Saudi Arabia and Egypt snubbed the summit by sending low-level representatives. Lebanon's majority government boycotted the summit\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2009 Arab League summit was held in Doha, Qatar on March 30, 2009. The Arab League defied the International Criminal Court by giving a \"warm welcome\" to Sudanese President Omar Hassan al-Bashir, whom the Court placed on warrant of arrest for war crimes in the Darfur genocide.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Arab League 22nd Summit was held in Sirte, in Libya on 27 March 2010.\nItalian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi spoke at the summit, stressing that Israel should return the Golan Heights to Syria.Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas rejected pressure from Syria and Libya to quit the peace process.  His senior aide Nabil Abu Rdeneh said: \"We are ready for any Arab option. If they want to go to war let them declare that and mobilize their armies and their people and we will follow suit.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2013 Arab League Summit was held in Doha, Qatar from 21 to 27 March 2013.\n\nOn 26 March, the League recognised the \nNational Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, as the legitimate representatives of the Syrian people. The National Coalition was henceforth granted Damascus' seat at the summit. This act of recognition was opposed by Algeria, Iraq & Lebanon.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2018 Arab League Summit (also known as the Dhahran Summit or Dammam Summit or Jerusalem summit) was the Arab League's 29th summit held in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia on Sunday, 15 April 2018. The Summit was initially expected to be held in Riyadh. A preparatory meeting was held in Riyadh on Thursday, 12 April 2018 which was presided over by the Saudi Minister of Foreign Affairs Adel al-Jubeir. Foreign Ministers of the 22 countries attended the meeting.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Arab\u2013Israeli normalization refers to the peace efforts and treaties between the member states of the Arab League and Israel, ending the Arab\u2013Israeli conflict. Since the 1970s, there has been a parallel effort made to find terms upon which peace can be agreed to in the Arab\u2013Israeli conflict and also specifically the Israeli\u2013Palestinian conflict. Over the years numerous Arab League countries have signed peace and normalization treaties with Israel, beginning with the Egypt\u2013Israel peace treaty (1979). Despite the failure to implement the Israeli-Lebanese peace accords (1983), more treaties continued with the Israeli-Palestinian peace process (1991-present), the Jordan\u2013Israel peace treaty (1994), the Abraham Accords normalizing relations between Israel-United Arab Emirates and Israel-Bahrain (2020), the Israel\u2013Sudan normalization agreement (2020) and the Israel\u2013Morocco normalization agreement (2020). Moreover, numerous Arab League members established semi-official relations with Israel.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Armed Forces for a Federal Republic (FARF) were a rebel group in Chad in the 1990s.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Artificial Intelligence Act (AI Act) is a proposed regulation by the European Commission which aims to introduce a common regulatory and legal framework for artificial intelligence. Its scope encompasses all sectors (except for military), and to all types of artificial intelligence. As a piece of product regulation, the proposal does not confer rights on individuals, but regulates the providers of artificial intelligence systems, and entities making use of them in a professional capacity.\nThe proposed regulation classifies artificial intelligence applications by risk, and regulates them accordingly. Low-risk applications are not regulated at all, with Member States largely precluded via maximum harmonisation from regulating them further and existing national laws relating to the regulation of design or use of such systems disapplied. A voluntary code of conduct scheme for such low risk systems is envisaged, although not present from the outset. Medium and high-risk systems would require compulsory conformity assessment, undertaken as self-assessment by the provider, before being put on the market. Some especially critical applications which already require conformity assessment to be supervised under existing EU law, for example for medical devices, would the provider's self-assessment under AI Act requirements to be considered by the notified body conducting the assessment under that regulation, such as the Medical Devices Regulation.\nThe proposal also would place prohibitions on certain types of applications, namely remote biometric recognition, applications that subliminally manipulate persons, applications that exploit vulnerabilities of certain groups in a harmful way, and social credit scoring. For the first three, an authorisation regime context of law enforcement is proposed, but social scoring would be banned completely.The act also proposes the introduction of a European Artificial Intelligence Board which will encourage national cooperation and ensure that the regulation is respected.Like the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), the AI Act could become a global standard. It is already having impact beyond Europe; in September 2021, Brazil\u2019s Congress passed a bill that creates a legal framework for artificial intelligence.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "See Arusha (disambiguation).\nThe Arusha Agreement was a treaty signed on 24 September 1969 in Arusha, Tanzania, between the European Community and the three East African states of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. The agreement entered into force on 1 January 1971, concomitant with the second Yaound\u00e9 Convention, with the aim of establishing better economic relations between the EC and the African states. At the end of their validity time, the Lom\u00e9 Convention was signed which substituted the previous agreements and enlarged them to 46 ACP countries.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Asia Pacific Democrat Union (APDU) is an international regional association of member parties, associated to the International Democrat Union. Sri Lankan President Ranil Wickramasinghe is the current chairperson of the Asia Pacific Democrat Union. It aims to promote freedom and free enterprise by considering matters of political organization and policy of interest to member parties.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Astrakhan Declaration is a Russian-brokered humanitarian agreement between Armenia and Azerbaijan, signed on October 27, 2010 in the Russian city of Astrakhan. Concerning the post-war situation in Nagorno-Karabakh, the declaration envisages the exchange of prisoners of war and the return of the bodies of killed servicemen with the assistance of the OSCE Minsk Group co-chairmen and the International Committee of the Red Cross. The First Deputy Chairman of the State Duma International Affairs Committee Leonid Slutsky assessed the declaration as \"a small advancement in geopolitical sense\", which in fact has \"a great political significance in the case of Nagorno-Karabakh problem\".In his statement, the then French Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner said, that \"the measures set out in the resolution adopted in Astrakhan can help to reduce tension and violations of the ceasefire, which have become frequent in past months\" and \"therefore, France expects them to be executed immediately\". At a press briefing in Washington U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Philip J. Crowley welcomed the signing of Astrakhan Declaration as a \"positive development\": \"We appreciate President Medvedev\u2019s personal efforts to reach this agreement, which aims to build confidence between the parties and to strengthen the 1994 ceasefire\".", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Australian Freedom League (AFL) was an anti-conscription organisation founded in Australia in 1912.  Growing out of an earlier organisation called the \"Anti-Military Service League\", it was initially based in Adelaide, although by 1914 there were branches in every state except Western Australia.  It was active in producing pamphlets and other material to promote its views that military training would have a negative and corrupting effect on young men and boys.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Austro-Russian Alliance refers to the treaty signed by the Austrian Empire and the Russian Empire in May\u2013June 1781. Russia was previously allied with Prussia (Russo-Prussian Alliance). However, with time, Russia's attention was increasingly drawn towards the south, and the Ottoman Empire.  Advocated by Grigory Potemkin, the new direction reduced the strategic value of Prussia as an ally to Russia and made Austria once again a more appealing candidate. The Russo-Prussian Alliance was once again extended in 1777, but at the imperial court in Saint Petersburg, Nikita Ivanovich Panin's pro-Prussian faction had its influence eclipsed by the Potemkin's pro-Austrian faction.After the death of Maria Theresa of Austria, Joseph II of Austria wanted to improve relations with Russia, and secret negotiations begun in early 1781 and resulted in an Austro-Russian alliance being formed around May and June 1781. The Russo-Prussian alliance existed formally until 1788 but lost most of its significance upon the declaration of the Austro\u2013Russian alliance, which isolated Prussia on the international scene. The most notable consequences of the Austro-Russian alliance were the Austro-Turkish War (1788\u20131791) and the Russo-Turkish War (1787\u20131792). In 1790, the alliance was strained since Russia informed Austria that it has no desire to interfere in a possible conflict erupting between Austria and Prussia.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Authenticit\u00e9 was the name given to the Chadian president Fran\u00e7ois (Ngarta) Tombalbaye's attempt to remove foreign influence and promote southern Chadian culture throughout Chad during the 1970s. One of its most unpopular requirements was that civil servants underwent the yondo initiation rites common only amongst Tombalbaye's own subgroup of Sara people in southern Chad.\nA similar concept, also called authenticit\u00e9, was introduced by Mobutu Sese Seko in Za\u00efre.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Bannu Resolution (Pashto: \u062f \u0628\u0646\u0648 \u0641\u06cc\u0635\u0644\u0647), or the Pashtunistan Resolution (Pashto: \u062f \u067e\u069a\u062a\u0648\u0646\u0633\u062a\u0627\u0646 \u0642\u0631\u0627\u0631\u062f\u0627\u062f), was a formal political statement adopted by Pashtun nationalists on 21 June 1947 in Bannu in the North-West Frontier Province of British India (in present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan). The resolution demanded the British to offer the option of independence for Pashtunistan, comprising all Pashtun territories in British India, rather than choosing between the independent dominions of India and Pakistan. The British, however, refused the request and the North-West Frontier Province voted in favour of joining Pakistan in the July 1947 NWFP referendum. However, Bacha Khan, his elder brother and then Chief Minister Dr Khan Sahib, and the Khudai Khidmatgars boycotted the referendum in response, citing that it did not have the options of the NWFP becoming independent or joining Afghanistan.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Bhagidari Parivartan Morcha is a Political Alliance of All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen, Jan Adhikar Party of Babu Singh Kushwaha, Rashtriya Parivartan Morcha of Waman Meshram, Bahujan Mukti Party, Bhartiya Vanchit Samaj Party and Janata Kranti Party for 2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election. Morcha had promised Two Chief Ministers and Three Deputy Chief Ministers if they come to power. Morcha decided to support Candidates of Peace Party of India in February 2022.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Bombard The Headquarters \u2013 My Big-Character Poster (Chinese: \u70ae\u6253\u53f8\u4ee4\u90e8\u2014\u2014\u6211\u7684\u4e00\u5f20\u5927\u5b57\u62a5; pinyin: P\u00e0o d\u01ce s\u012bl\u00ecng b\u00f9\u2014\u2014w\u01d2 de y\u012b zh\u0101ng d\u00e0z\u00ec b\u00e0o) was a short document written by Chairman Mao Zedong on August 5, 1966, during the 11th Plenary Session of the 8th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, and published in the Communist Party's official newspaper People's Daily a year later, on August 5, 1967.\nIt is commonly believed that this \"big-character poster\" directly targeted Chinese President Liu Shaoqi and senior leader Deng Xiaoping, who were then in charge of the Chinese government's daily affairs and who tried to cool down the mass movement which had been coming into shape in several universities in Beijing since the May 16 Notice, through which Mao officially launched the Cultural Revolution, was issued.\nMany larger-scale mass persecutions followed the publication of this big-character poster, resulting in turmoil throughout the country and the death of thousands of \"class enemies\", including President Liu Shaoqi.\nThe original text of the poster was:\n\n\u5168\u56fd\u7b2c\u4e00\u5f20\u9a6c\u5217\u4e3b\u4e49\u7684\u5927\u5b57\u62a5\u548c\u4eba\u6c11\u65e5\u62a5\u8bc4\u8bba\u5458\u7684\u8bc4\u8bba\uff0c\u5199\u5f97\u4f55\u7b49\u597d\u5475\uff01\u8bf7\u540c\u5fd7\u4eec\u91cd\u8bfb\u8fd9\u4e00\u5f20\u5927\u5b57\u62a5\u548c\u8fd9\u4e2a\u8bc4\u8bba\u3002\u53ef\u662f\u572850\u591a\u5929\u91cc\uff0c\u4ece\u4e2d\u592e\u5230\u5730\u65b9\u7684\u67d0\u4e9b\u9886\u5bfc\u540c\u5fd7\uff0c\u5374\u53cd\u5176\u9053\u800c\u884c\u4e4b\uff0c\u7ad9\u5728\u53cd\u52a8\u7684\u8d44\u4ea7\u9636\u7ea7\u7acb\u573a\u4e0a\uff0c\u5b9e\u884c\u8d44\u4ea7\u9636\u7ea7\u4e13\u653f\uff0c\u5c06\u65e0\u4ea7\u9636\u7ea7\u8f70\u8f70\u70c8\u70c8\u7684\u6587\u5316\u5927\u9769\u547d\u8fd0\u52a8\u6253\u4e0b\u53bb\uff0c\u98a0\u5012\u662f\u975e\uff0c\u6df7\u6dc6\u9ed1\u767d\uff0c\u56f4\u527f\u9769\u547d\u6d3e\uff0c\u538b\u5236\u4e0d\u540c\u610f\u89c1\uff0c\u5b9e\u884c\u767d\u8272\u6050\u6016\uff0c\u81ea\u4ee5\u4e3a\u5f97\u610f\uff0c\u957f\u8d44\u4ea7\u9636\u7ea7\u7684\u5a01\u98ce\uff0c\u706d\u65e0\u4ea7\u9636\u7ea7\u7684\u5fd7\u6c14\uff0c\u53c8\u4f55\u5176\u6bd2\u4e5f\uff01\u8054\u60f3\u52301962\u5e74\u7684\u53f3\u503e\u548c1964\u5e74\u5f62\u201c\u5de6\u201d\u5b9e\u53f3\u7684\u9519\u8bef\u503e\u5411\uff0c\u5c82\u4e0d\u662f\u53ef\u4ee5\u53d1\u4eba\u6df1\u9192\u7684\u5417\uff1f\nEnglish translation:\n\nChina's first Marxist-Leninist big-character poster and Commentator's article on it in People's Daily are indeed superbly written! Comrades, please read them again. But in the last fifty days or so some leading comrades from the central down to the local levels have acted in a diametrically opposite way. Adopting the reactionary stand of the bourgeoisie, they have enforced a bourgeois dictatorship and struck down the surging movement of the Great Cultural Revolution of the proletariat. They have stood facts on their head and juggled black and white, encircled and suppressed revolutionaries, stifled opinions differing from their own, imposed a white terror, and felt very pleased with themselves. They have puffed up the arrogance of the bourgeoisie and deflated the morale of the proletariat. How poisonous! Viewed in connection with the Right deviation in 1962 and the wrong tendency of 1964 which was 'Left' in form but Right in essence, shouldn't this make one wide awake?", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Boren family is a prominent American political family from Oklahoma. The family has been described as \"Democratic party royalty in Oklahoma\" and \"a mainstay of Oklahoma and national politics.\"The family is one of the most notable in Oklahoma, producing Democratic politicians including Lyle Boren (1909\u20131992), U.S. Representative for Oklahoma's 4th district from  1937 to 1947, his son David Boren (born 1941), Governor of Oklahoma from 1975 to 1979, U.S. Senator from 1979 to 1994, and President of the University of Oklahoma 1994 to 2018, his grandson Dan Boren (born 1973), a Blue Dog who was the U.S. representative for Oklahoma's 2nd district from 2005 to 2013, and his nephew Jim Boren who was political operative, humorist, and author.\nLyle Boren's sister was Mae Boren Axton, a notable composer who worked with Elvis Presley, Mel Tillis, Reba McEntire, Willie Nelson, Eddy Arnold, Tanya Tucker, Johnny Tillotson, and Blake Shelton and the mother of folk singer and actor Hoyt Axton. Janna Ryan, wife of the 2012 Republican vice-presidential nominee and former Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Paul Ryan, is niece by marriage of David Boren. In addition, Dan Boren's wife, Andrea, is the sister of the former quarterback of the University of Oklahoma, Josh Heupel, who won the national championship with the team in 2000.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "\"Boris, you are wrong\" (Russian: \u0411\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441, \u0442\u044b \u043d\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432) is a political catchphrase, originally said by Yegor Ligachev to Boris Yeltsin on 1 July 1988 to tackle Yeltsin's split from Soviet politics.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Bourgeois socialism or conservative socialism was a term used by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in various pieces, including in The Communist Manifesto. Conservative socialism was used as a rebuke by Marx for certain strains of socialism, but it has also been used by proponents of such a system. Conservative socialism and right wing socialism are also used as a descriptor, and in some cases as a pejorative, by free-market conservative and right-libertarian movements and politicians to describe more economically interventionist strands of conservatism.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Bratislava Declaration was the result of the conference held in Bratislava on 3 August 1968 by the representatives of the Communist and Worker's parties of Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, the USSR, and Czechoslovakia. The declaration was a response to the Prague Spring. It affirmed an unshakable fidelity to Marxism\u2013Leninism and proletarian internationalism, and declared an implacable struggle against \"bourgeois\" ideology and all \"anti-socialist\" forces. The Soviet Union also expressed its intention to intervene in any Warsaw Pact country if a \"bourgeois\" system\u2014a pluralist system of several political parties\u2014were ever established.The Bratislava Declaration and Roadmap of 2016 is an unrelated document that was the outcome of an informal meeting of the 27 heads of state or government of European Union countries in Bratislava on September 16, 2016, chaired by Donald Tusk.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Operation Bridger is a nationwide police protection security programme in the United Kingdom designed to offer Members of Parliament (MPs) access to extra security in their homes and constituency offices. It was established in 2016 in the wake of the murder of Labour MP Jo Cox, who was killed at a constituency surgery.In October 2021, following the murder of Conservative MP Sir David Amess, the National Police Chiefs' Council confirmed that every MP in the UK would be contacted by the chief constable of their local police force to discuss security arrangements as part of a wider review of MPs security.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1975 Brussels summit was the third NATO summit bringing the leaders of member nations together at the same time.  The formal sessions and informal meetings in Brussels, Belgium took place on 29\u201330 May 1975.  This event was only the third meeting of the NATO heads of state following the ceremonial signing of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1994 Brussels summit was the 13th NATO summit bringing the leaders of member nations together at the same time.  The formal sessions and informal meetings in Brussels, Belgium took place on 10\u201311 January 1994.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In the United States the Buffer Initiative was an initiative led by the Natural Resources Conservation Service, with numerous partners, and started in 1997 to enroll 2 million miles (up to 7 million acres (28,000 km2)) in conservation buffers by 2002, using the Conservation Reserve Program's continuous enrollment option, and drawing on the resources of several other agricultural conservation programs, including EQIP, Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program, Wetlands Reserve Program, and Emergency Watershed Protection Program.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Build Back Better World (B3W) is an intended economic initiative by the USA and pre announced in the context of the Group of Seven (G7) in June 2021. This US initiative is designed to provide an alternative to China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) for the infrastructure development of low- and middle-income countries. President Biden is still to launch the Initiative officially in the course of 2022.\nLed by the United States, the initiative seeks address the $40 trillion worth of infrastructure needed by developing countries by 2035. The initiative aims to catalyze funding for quality infrastructure from the private sector and will encourage private-sector investments that support \"climate, health and health security, digital technology, and gender equity and equality\". The initiative builds on the Blue Dot Network, a co-opted collaboration that aims to build a global network through lending-based financing to build roads, bridges, airports, ports, power plants.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Bwacha is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers part of Kabwe District in Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Bweengwa is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers Bweengwa in the Monze District of Southern Province, and was originally known as Monze West.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A cabinet crisis or government crisis is a situation when the government is challenged before the mandate period expires because it threatens to resign over a proposal, or it is at risk at being dismissed after a motion of no confidence, a conflict between the parties in a coalition government or a coup d'\u00e9tat. It may also be the result of there being no clear majority willing to work together to form a government. During this period a caretaker government with a limited mandate may take care of the day-to-day affairs of the state, while waiting for a snap election.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Cartagena Manifesto was written by Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar during the Colombian and Venezuelan War of Independence, after the fall of the First Republic, explaining what he believed to be the causes of this loss. It was written in Cartagena de Indias, on 15 December 1812. This is the first of Bol\u00edvar's public documents, which due to his later fame as the \"Liberator of five nations,\" have become quite well known. The document contained the conceptual framework of his new agenda, which he then acted out in the field.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A Carthaginian peace is the imposition of a very brutal \"peace\" intended to permanently cripple the losing side. The term derives from the peace terms imposed on the Carthaginian Empire by the Roman Republic following the Punic Wars. After the Second Punic War, Carthage lost all its colonies, was forced to demilitarize, paid a constant tribute to Rome and was barred from waging war without Rome's permission. At the end of the Third Punic War, the Romans systematically burned Carthage to the ground and enslaved its population.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Catalist is a for-profit corporation based in Washington, D.C., that operates a voter database and works for progressive causes.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A caucus revolt occurs when enough members of a political party pressure its leadership to step down or to remove planned bills, legislation or policies from its platform.  A caucus revolt generally concludes with the party leader resigning their position as such a revolt is usually seen to show poor leadership skills.  Often the mere appearance of a revolt in the caucus maybe enough to force a leader to step down.\nIn Westminster style governments, if the party suffering from a caucus revolt is the current government, often an interim leader will be appointed by the party until a leadership convention can be held to elect a new leader, or a general election can be called should the party leader find a way to survive the revolt.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Central American Defense Council (Spanish: Consejo de Defensa Centroamericana or Condeca) was an alliance of Central American countries (El Salvador, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama). It was created by a treaty signed on December 14, 1963 in Guatemala City Closely linked to SOUTHCOM, for the common purpose of quelling the various left-wing guerrilla movements that threatened stability in the region during the Cold War. Costa Rica, which had no standing armed forces, participated as a member.  It is now defunct.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Central Auditing Commission (CAC) of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) is the highest control body in the party between sessions of the party congress. The organ has been in existence since the 2nd Party Congress in 1948.The CAC was until the 8th WPK Congress elected by the delegates of the party congress but a rule change in 2021 transferred the election rights to the WPK Central Committee. The 8th WPK Congress abolished the WPK Inspection Commission on 10 Januar 2021 and transferred its duties to the CAC.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Central Committee of the Communist Party of Korea (CPK) was elected by the party congress on 14 September 1945, and remained in session until the formation the Workers' Party of South Korea and its Central Committee on 24 November 1946. In between party congresses the Central Committee was the highest decision-making institution in the CPK. The Central Committee was not a permanent institution and delegated day-to-day work to elected bodies, such as the Politburo, Secretariat and the Organisational Bureau in the case of this Central Committee. It convened meetings, known as \"Plenary Session of the [term] Central Committee\", to discuss major policies. A plenary session could be attended by non-members. These meetings were known as \"Enlarged Plenary Session\".When the North Korean Branch Bureau declared independence from the CPK under the name Communist Party of North Korea, the CPK changed its name as well, into the Communist Party of South Korea.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Central Committee of the Workers' Party of South Korea (WPSK) was elected by the party congress on 24 November 1946 through the merger of the Communist Party of South Korea, New People's Party of Korea and a faction of the People's Party of Korea, and remained in session until the merger of the WPSK with the Workers' Party of North Korea on 24 June 1949. In between party congresses the Central Committee was the highest decision-making institution in the WPSK. The Central Committee was not a permanent institution and delegated day-to-day work to elected bodies, such as the Political Committee and the Standing Committee in the case of this Central Committee. It convened meetings, known as \"Plenary Session of the [term] Central Committee\", to discuss major policies. A plenary session could be attended by non-members. These meetings were known as \"Enlarged Plenary Session\".\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1st Central Inspection Commission of the Workers' Party of South Korea (WPSK) was elected at the 1st WPSK Congress held in November 1946. It consisted of 11 members and remained active until the merger of WPSK and the Workers' Party of North Korea on 30 June 1949.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Chan Wing-chan, BBS (born 7 July 1935) was the member of the Legislative Council in 1991\u201395 for the Hotels and Catering and 1998\u20132000 for Labour and also Provisional Legislative Council (1996\u201398). He was born in Jiangmen, Guangdong, China.\nChan was the chairman of the Eating Establishment Employees General Union under the Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions. He worked closely with Beijing before the handover of Hong Kong and joined the Selection Committee which oversaw the last phrase of the transition of sovereignty and elected the first Chief Executive and Provisional Legislative Council in 1996.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Chisamba is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers Chisamba in Chisamba District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Chitambo is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers Amoni Mukando, Cement Luanshika Kaliaba Shamboko, Kanchule Chisenga, Lasalo Mumba, Namilika Kawa, Musonda, Namutoya and Oka Kamwendo in Chitambo District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Christian Liberation Movement (Spanish: Movimiento Cristiano Liberaci\u00f3n or simply MCL) is a Cuban dissident party advocating political change in Cuba. MCL was founded in 1987 by a group of secular Catholics belonging to the Parish of Cerro, in Havana. From the movement's founding and until his death, it was led by Oswaldo Pay\u00e1.  At present (2018), it is led by Eduardo Cardet. \nMCL has urged the governments, parliaments, citizens of the European Union to support \"in a public and sustained manner the release of those jailed in Cuba for defending, promoting and exercising peacefully their human rights; the dialogue between Cubans as a path toward achieving the changes the Cuban people desire and national reconciliation; and our demands for changes in the laws so that the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights of all Cubans are respected\".The Christian Liberation Movement is a member of the Centrist Democrat International, the international organization promoting Christian democracy.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "'Church in Danger' was a political slogan used by the Tory party, and particularly by High Tories in elections during Queen Anne's reign.'Church in Danger' was a rallying call for many Anglicans in England who feared that the established Church of England was under attack by the policies of the Whigs, particularly the Toleration Act 1688. The Act allowed freedom of worship to Nonconformists i.e., Protestants who dissented from the Church of England such as Baptists and Congregationalists but not to Catholics. Nonconformists were allowed their own places of worship and their own teachers, if they accepted certain oaths of allegiance.\nTo Tory supporters and High Church Anglicans such as Dr. Henry Sacheverell, such toleration would ultimately undermine the established Church of England through reducing attendance and allowing sedition to be preached in England. The slogan proved to be effective and featured heavily in Tory election campaigns, particularly during the 1705 English general election which occurred in the midst of the Tackers controversy and the 1710 British general election where, in the context of the trial of Henry Sacheverell and the subsequent Sacheverell riots, the slogan contributed to a Tory landslide victory and enabled the passage of the Occasional Conformity Act 1711 to lock out non-conformists, though the act was repealed by the Whigs when they returned to power in  1719.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Churn and burn refers to a tactic used by large anti-union businesses with high turnover in order to bust an already-existent union in a given workplace.  \"Churning\" refers to the management practice of filtering new workers based on their support of unionism.  In a large business with poorly paid, entry-level workers with a high rate of turnover, support for a union can be gradually reduced by making sure during the hiring process that only anti-union workers are hired.  Eventually, support drops low enough to \"burn\" the union through decertification.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Civiqs is an online opinion polling and data analytics company founded by Daily Kos founder Markos Moulitsas in March 2018. It is a division of Kos Media, which Moulitsas also founded. The director of Civiqs is Drew Linzer. It is distinguished from other online polling firms by the large number of respondents to its polls, which it has recruited from across the United States through an online panel and asks questions on a daily basis. This allows Civiqs to monitor trends in public opinion over short periods of time, as well as across different demographic and geographic categories.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Comandos Aut\u00f3nomos Anticapitalistas (CAA or CCAA) (Basque: Komando Autonomo Antikapitalistak; \"Autonomous Anticapitalist Commandos\") were a Basque armed group in Spain with Autonomist Marxist politics, defined as an anarchistic breakaway of ETA.\nThe group was very active in the 1970s and 1980s. The most important attack was the assassination of Spanish Socialist Workers Party Senator Enrique Casas in 1984, which was rejected by all the political spectrum including ETA, which at the time, rejected violence against politicians. The commandos who killed Casas were called Mendeku (revenge in Basque language). Soon after, one of the few operating CAA commandos was ambushed by the Guardia Civil at the bay of Pasaia, killing four \u2013 all but one.\nThe police tried to link another group the called Mendeku to the CAA, after an attack against the headquarters of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party in Portugalete in 1987 where two people died.\nThe ambush at Pasaia is dealt with in a documentary film called \"Pasaiako Badia\". Pasaiako Badia In this film, witnesses, relatives and others recount the arrest of Rosa Jimeno by the Spanish police, her torture and the trap set for the CAA, which included Rosa being tied up and a rendezvous with the members of CAA arranged. She was forced to set a date with CAA members near the harbor at Pasaia in March 1984.  Once the CAA members arrived in the harbor the armed police, shot Pelu and Pelitxo, killing both, and arrested two, \u2018Txapas' and \u2018Kurro', who were tortured and killed. Joseba Merino and Rosa survived. The G.A.L. a paramilitary group including former Francoist officers which used public funds and participated in the Spanish state's war on terrorism was allegedly involved in the ambush.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Command-and-control management is categorised by systems thinkers as the dominant method of management in the Western world. Key influences are said to include Alfred P. Sloan, Henry Ford, James McKinsey of the eponymous accounting firm, and Frederick Winslow Taylor. A well-known modern exponent is Michael Barber, himself a partner in McKinsey & Company.\nIt is characterised by some systems thinkers according to the following attributes:\nPerspective: Top-down and hierarchicalDesign: Organisations divided into (ostensibly) independent functional silos. A practice propagated by Alfred Sloan and James McKinseyDecision-making: Separated from work. A separation spearheaded by Frederick Winslow TaylorMeasures: Arbitrary targets analysed by binary comparisonEthos: Control of staffChange: Plans delivered by Prince II methodologyMotivation: Control-by-seduction (carrot) and control-by-fear (stick)Attitude to suppliers and customers: Contractual.\nKey critics of the command-and-control management ethos and techniques include members of the systems-thinking community and associated thinkers, including W. Edwards Deming, John Seddon, K\u014dnosuke Matsushita, Taiichi Ohno, Russell L. Ackoff, Donella Meadows, Alfie Kohn, and the outspoken Vanguard Method practitioner John Little. In the 21st century John Seddon in particular has been deeply critical of successive UK governments' propagation of command-and-control thinking in the NHS, local authorities, and other public services.\nOrganisations credited with having moved away from the command-and-control paradigm to a systems-thinking philosophy include Harley Davidson and Aviva, in addition to many Japanese companies, such as Toyota, Honda, and Panasonic.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Committees on Arms Export Controls (formerly the Quadripartite Committee) is the name for the concurrent meeting of four House of Commons select committees, comprising the International Trade Select Committee, the Defence Select Committee, the Foreign Affairs Select Committee, and the International Development Select Committee.\nThe remit of the committee is to examine the Government's expenditure, administration and policy on strategic exports (licensing of arms exports and other controlled goods).\nIn 2015 to 2016 the committee did not meet for over 9 months after the chairman Sir John Stanley retired as an MP, because of a long delay in appointing new members.  Chris White was elected chair in February 2016. In March 2016 an inquiry into the use of UK-manufactured weapons in Yemen was launched.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In politics, a common front is an alliance between different groups, forces, or interests in pursuit of a common goal or in opposition to a common enemy. Other words that may be used are \"alliance\" or \"coalition\", though the term \"common front\" is often used when groups want to emphasize that their alliance is of a temporary nature and that individual groups within the front maintain their independence and do not consider themselves subservient to a collective leadership.\nThe practice of uniting with anyone against a common enemy is called frontism. Historically, it has been a practice of Marxist\u2013Leninist parties to unite with non-communist forces in revolution. In left-wing politics, there are two main types of common fronts: the popular front and the united front.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Deputy Secretary-General of the Commonwealth assists the Secretary-General in managing the operations of the Commonwealth Secretariat, which is the central institution of the Commonwealth. The current Deputy Secretary-General is Dr Arjoon Suddhoo of Mauritius. Dr Suddhoo's appointment was announced in February 2019 after an open and competitive process, and he took up the post in April 2019.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference was the fourth meeting of the Heads of government of the Commonwealth of Nations. It was held in the United Kingdom in April 1949 and was hosted by that country's prime minister, Clement Attlee.\nThe principal topic of the conference was the relationship of India, which was intending to become a republic, to the Commonwealth, which, hitherto, had been an association of Britain and British dominions united by sharing a constitutional link by sharing the British sovereign as their head of state, in particular whether a Commonwealth state could become a republic and remain in the Commonwealth, if so, whether it had the same status in the Commonwealth as the dominions who had the British sovereign as their head of state. The Canadian government feared that if India was not permitted to remain in the Commonwealth as an autonomous republic then Pakistan, Ceylon, and South Africa would soon leave as well, resulting in the Commonwealth's collapse. Australian prime minister Ben Chifley was on one pole during the conference, arguing for maintaining a strong British connection, while South Africa's newly elected nationalist prime minister, D. F. Malan, was on the other pole arguing for complete independence.\nIn the London Declaration, Commonwealth prime ministers agreed to India's continued membership in the Commonwealth as a republic and that the King would have a new role in the Commonwealth not as a joint head of state but as \"the symbol of the free association of its member nations, and as such Head of the Commonwealth.\"\nFour days before the Conference met, Ireland formally declared itself a republic. The other members of the Commonwealth chose to regard that declaration as terminating Ireland's membership of the Commonwealth. Ireland had not participated in Commonwealth affairs since the 1930s but this was the first conference to be held after Ireland's membership was regarded as terminated.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1951 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference was the fifth Meeting of the Heads of Government of the British Commonwealth. It was held in the United Kingdom in January 1951, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Clement Attlee.\nThe principal topic of the conference was the Korean War with the summit issuing a declaration, proposed by Australian prime minister Robert Menzies, stating that the Commonwealth prime ministers \"would welcome any feasible arrangement for a frank exchange of views with Stalin and Mao Tse-tung.\" The Commonwealth leaders also called for peace treaty negotiations with Japan to be concluded as soon as possible (see Treaty of San Francisco).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1953 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference was the sixth Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations. It was held in the United Kingdom in June 1953 on the occasion of the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill.\nThe meeting was held prior to a Three Powers conference between Churchill, US President Dwight Eisenhower, and French Prime Minister Joseph Laniel in Bermuda, which Commonwealth leaders hoped would lead to a Four Powers summit with the Soviet Union. Armistice talks to conclude the Korean War were also discussed. Concerns about the security of the Suez Canal and the importance of maintaining British military installations were also discussed (see Suez War) as were the economic situation and the objectives for development and strengthening of the Pound sterling area set out at the 1952 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Economic Conference.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1955 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference was the seventh Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations. It was held in the United Kingdom in January 1955 and was hosted by that country's Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill.\nA sense of international crisis loomed over the conference which occurred during which the First Taiwan Strait Crisis as were other international developments such as the sudden resignation of Soviet Premier Georgy Malenkov and the fall of French prime minister Pierre Mend\u00e8s France, all of which were discussed. Atomic energy for peaceful purposes, disarmament, and trade and economic development in the Sterling area, and regional defence were also discussed, in particular the defence of South East Asia, the formation of SEATO and in particular the ongoing insurgency in Malaya.Pakistan informed the meeting that it was to become a republic and the meeting affirmed that Pakistan would be welcome to remain in the Commonwealth.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Computational politics is the intersection between computer science and political science. The area involves the usage of computational methods, such as analysis tools and prediction methods, to present the solutions to political sciences questions. Researchers in this area use large sets of data to study user behavior. Common examples of such works are building a classifier to predict users' political bias in social media or finding political bias in the news. This discipline is closely related with digital sociology. However, the main focus of computational politics is on political related problems and analysis.\nComputational politics is often used in political campaigns to target individuals for advertising purposes.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Concordat of 1928 was signed between the Colombian government and the Vatican on 5 May 1928. The concordat was registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on 3 August 1928.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A consensus government is one in which the cabinet is appointed by the legislature without reference to political parties. It is generally found as part of a consensus or non-partisan democracy.\nConsensus government chiefly arises in non-partisan democracies and similar systems in which a majority of politicians are independent. Many former British territories with large indigenous populations use consensus government to fuse traditional tribal leadership with the Westminster system. Consensus government in Canada is used in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, as well as the autonomous Nunatsiavut region, and similar systems have arisen in the Pacific island nations of Fiji, Tuvalu and Vanuatu, as well as the ancient Tynwald of the Isle of Man and the sui generis Council of the Isles of Scilly.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Constitution of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic of 15 April 1978 was the fundamental law of the Moldovan SSR, adopted in 1978.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Constitution of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1941) was the fundamental law of the Moldovan SSR, adopted in 1941.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Cookie-cutter campaigns are political campaigns, engineered by political consultants who run virtually identical campaigns in different jurisdictions. The typical hallmarks of such a campaign are direct mail advertisements using identical layouts and stock photographs. The term is typically used derisively, often by local political activists frustrated with the lack of attention to local public issues and lack of understanding of local political and governmental nuances.\nThe rise of cookie-cutter campaigns is due in large measure to the rise of political consulting. Where political consultants once were limited mostly to national and statewide elections, they are now employed down to the levels of city council and school board elections. Taking on many clients, they employ standardized materials and strategies for different campaigns.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The C\u00f3rdoba Agreement was an agreement between the governments of Spain, the United Kingdom and Gibraltar to establish a tripartite forum for co-operation on Gibraltar. It was signed by Spanish Foreign Minister Miguel \u00c1ngel Moratinos, UK Minister for Europe Geoff Hoon and Gibraltar's Chief Minister Peter Caruana. in C\u00f3rdoba.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Corruption in North Korea is a widespread and growing problem in North Korean society. North Korea is ranked 174 out of 180 countries in Transparency International's 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index (tied with Yemen and Afghanistan). The 180 countries of the Index are ranked according to the perceived corruption in the public sector; the country whose public sector is perceived to be most corrupt is ranked 180th. Strict rules and draconian punishments imposed by the regime, for example, against accessing foreign media or for modifying radio or television receivers to access foreign media, are commonly evaded by offering bribes to the police. Informing on colleagues and family members has become less common.North Korea's state media admitted widespread corruption in North Korea, when laying out the accusations against Jang Song-thaek after his execution in December 2013. The statement mentions bribery, deviation of materials, selling resources and land, securing funds and squandering money for private use by organizations under his control.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "\"Criminalization of politics\" is a political buzzword in the United States used in the media, by commentators, bloggers as well as by defenders of high-ranking government officials who have been indicted or have faced criminal or ethical investigations.\nMost recently, the term has been applied to proceedings against President George W. Bush's advisers and the Republican Party leadership in Congress, including Tom DeLay, Bill Frist, and Karl Rove (see Plame affair). The position of their defenders, who include Robert Novak, William Kristol and Rush Limbaugh, is that the accusations against these officials lack substance and Democratic partisans seek to weaken them for political reasons, perhaps to the point of retaking Congress in 2006.\nThe position of many Democrats is that the number of investigations is the result of a \"culture of corruption\" established by the Republicans in power, and that anyone who has broken laws or rules must face the consequences. The opponents also point out that some of the politicians denouncing the current pursuit of alleged Republican misconduct have in the past called for vigorous pursuit of alleged Democratic misconduct.\nThe phrase was previously used by supporters of President Bill Clinton in reference to legal action against members of his administration, including Henry Cisneros. During the Watergate scandal, supporters of Richard Nixon claimed that he was guilty of nothing more than \"hard-ball politics.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Crypto-communism is a secret support for, or admiration of, communism. Individuals and groups have been labelled as crypto-communists, often as a result of being associated with, or influenced by communists. Crypto-communism among political leaders aided the sovietization of the Baltic states.In 1947, Winston Churchill described a crypto-communist as, \"one who has not the moral courage to explain the destination for which he is making\".In 1949, shortly before his death, George Orwell compiled a list for the Information Research Department of the British Foreign Office of thirty-eight journalists and writers who in his opinion were crypto-communists.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Culture11, also stylized Culture 11, was a short-lived right-leaning American online magazine active from August 27, 2008 until January 27, 2009. It portrayed itself as a \"center-right Slate\", with a focus on cultural and media criticism. It was founded by William Bennett and run by David Kuo. Despite rumors that the site had enough funding to last through 2010, it shut down on January 27, 2009 after running out of the money it had raised, and after its investors also lost considerable assets due to the financial crisis of 2007\u20132008. Among the alumni of Culture11 are Conor Friedersdorf, who served as its features editor, Peter Suderman, who was its arts editor, and James Poulos, who served as its political editor and went on to become the managing editor of Ricochet.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Danube Institute is a conservative think tank founded in 2013 and based in Budapest, Hungary. The Institute is financed by Fidesz government through the Batthy\u00e1ny Foundation (BLA). (BLA was originally established in 1991 by the Association of Friends of MDF \u201cto support Hungarian public life based on common Christian values and democratic, representative governance,\u201d but lost its funding. In 2010, Fidesz returned to power and the Hungarian government donated became its benefactor. In \"2019, BLA received 3.5 billion forints (about $12 million) from the propaganda ministry.\")The Danube Institute's president is John O'Sullivan. People associated with the Danube Institute include the Hungarian politician J\u00e1nos Martonyi and Polish politician Ryszard Legutko. A fellow as of 2021 is right-wing writer Rod Dreher.In 2019, a video of remarks made by Tim Montgomerie at a meeting hosted by the Danube Institute was published, creating a controversy regarding his views on the Hungarian government. Other politicians who have spoken at Danube Institute meetings include the Australian politicians Tony Abbott and Kevin Andrews. In 2021, the French polemist \u00c9ric Zemmour gave an interview to the Institute.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Data Act is a European Union legislative proposal that aims to create a framework which will encourage data sharing. The European Commission was expected to formally present the act in the fourth quarter of 2021. Notwithstanding, the proposal was formally issued on 23 February 2022.European (harmonised) standards may be drafted by the European Standardization Organizations (ESOs) following standardisation requests from the European Commission in order to support the application of the requirement that 'products shall be designed and manufactured, and related services shall be provided, in such a manner that data generated by their use are, by default, easily, securely and, where relevant and appropriate, directly accessible to the user'. In addition, European standards and technical specifications in the meaning of Article II of Regulation (EU) 1025/2012 on European Standardisation may also support the issuing of \"standard\" contracts or transparency on how data will be used.A draft of the proposed act had earlier been leaked on 2 February 2022, and was swiftly opposed by industry.If implemented in its proposed form the Act would impact on data rights current under Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases (the Database Directive).:\u200aChapter X\u200a The European Data Act will not apply to the financial sector in Switzerland.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Data Governance Act (DGA) is a legislative proposal of the European Commission that aims to create a framework which will facilitate data-sharing. The proposal was first announced within the 2020 European strategy for data and was officially presented by Margrethe Vestager in 25 November 2020. The DGA covers the data of public bodies, private companies, and citizens. Its main aims are to safely enable the sharing of sensitive data held by public bodies, to regulate data sharing by private actors.  On 30 November 2021, the EU Parliament and Council reached an agreement on the wording of the DGA.  Formal approval by those bodies is still required but that should be procedural.The proposed legislation has been analyzed by independent parties.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The dead cat stategy, also known as deadcatting, is the political strategy of deliberately making a shocking announcement to divert media attention away from problems or failures in other areas. The present name for the strategy has been associated with British prime minister Boris Johnson's political strategist Lynton Crosby.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A Dear Colleague letter is a letter sent by one member of a legislative body to all fellow members, usually describing a new bill and asking for cosponsors or seeking to influence the recipients' votes on an issue. They can also be used for administrative matters, such as announcing elevator repairs, or informing colleagues of events connected with congressional business, or to set or modify procedures.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The December 1989 NATO summit was a summit held for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The summit was held in Brussels, Belgium. This summit was the tenth NATO summit to bring world leaders from NATO together, which marked the 40th anniversary of the formation of NATO. Manfred W\u00f6rner headed the summit, and there were sixteen NATO members when the summit was held.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "There have been a number of documents designated as the Declaration of Interdependence since at least the 1930s.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Democratic Conviction (Albanian: Partia Bindja Demokratike, BD) is a political party in Albania that was registered on April 23, 2019, belongs to the center-right political spectrum. Its coordinator is Astrit Patozi.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Democratic Marxism is a term employed to emphasise the compatibility between democracy and Marxism. According to Kenneth Megill in his book The New Democratic Theory:\nDemocratic Marxism is authentic Marxism\u2014the Marxism which emphasizes the necessity for revolutionary action. Loyalty to the movement, not loyalty to any particular doctrine, is characteristic of the orthodox democratic Marxist.\nIn his book Chile's Democratic Road to Socialism, Michael H. Fleet also uses the term democratic Marxism to describe the nature of the Chilean government at the time of Salvador Allende's presidency:\n\nDuring at least two of the three years of democratic Marxist government, however, Chile faced severe economic and political crises.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Demokratia (Greek: \u03b4\u03b7\u03bc\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b1 d\u0113mokrat\u00eda) is a direct democracy, as opposed to the modern representative democracy.\nIt was used in ancient Greece, most notably Athens, and began its use around 500 BCE. In a participant government, citizens who wish to have a say in government can participate in it. Demokratia excluded women, foreigners, and slaves. It barred between 80 and 90 percent of the population from political rights.The word demokratia comes from \u03b4\u1fc6\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 d\u00eamos \"people\" and \u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 kr\u00e1tos \"power\": \"the people hold power.\" Demos, including the lower classes, had political equality and not while respecting laws and institutions, was given full and absolute control of power and government.\"In some languages, including Finnish and Italian, Demokratia is a word simply meaning democracy.\nQuoted from MODERN AMERICA AND THE RELIGION OF DEMOCRACY (Internet archive) by Loren J Samons II:\n\nIn classical Athens, religion suffused every aspect of public life, from the theater to the military to the political assembly. The state (that is, the citizens) sponsored religious festivals and actively participated in the propitiation and worship of the gods. This fact well illustrates the way the various aspects of Athenian society \u2014 religious, political, economic, and social \u2014 overlapped with and affected one another, and the way every Athenian found himself set firmly within a matrix of duties to the gods, to his family, and to his fellow citizens. The principle of necessary duties (especially to protect the family, to serve the polis, and to propitiate the gods) formed the basic structure of Athenian society, and gave meaning to each religious, economic, military, and political act. In such an environment, it was impossible for the Athenians abjectly to worship a form of government, demokratia, even after they had made it a goddess. The idea that the \"freedom to make choices\" or \"diversity\" were absolute goods and thus could serve as goals or ideals (on a level with, much less above, family, gods, or polis) contradicted the very premises of Athenian society. Thus while democratic practices ultimately had a marked and deleterious effect on Athenian national strength and public morale and arguably contributed to the loss of Athenian independence, Athenian society managed to stave off the most harmful aspects of democratic theory. Even after they lost their democracy and autonomy, there is little evidence that the Athenians completely lost their fundamental conception of a society based on the principle of duties.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Development Loan Fund (DLF) was the lending arm of the United States International Cooperation Administration. It was established in 1957 as part of a revision of the Mutual Security Act. Its main purpose was extending loans to foreign nations, mostly for capital projects, repayable in the local currency of the borrower. In 1961, it merged into the United States Agency for International Development.At its creation, its legislative mandate ordered that it not \"compete\" with \"private investment capital\", the Export-Import Bank or the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Diaspora politics is the political behavior of transnational ethnic diasporas, their relationship with their ethnic homelands and their host states, and their prominent role in ethnic conflicts. The study of diaspora politics is part of the broader field of diaspora studies.\nTo understand a diaspora's politics, one must first understand its historical context and attachments. A diaspora is a transnational community that defined itself as a singular ethnic group based upon its shared identity. Diasporas result from historical emigration from an original homeland. In modern cases, this migration can be historically documented, and the diaspora associated with a certain territory. Whether this territory is in fact the homeland of a specific ethnic group, is a political matter. The older the migration, the less evidence there is for the event: in the case of the Romani people the migration, the homeland, and the migration route have not yet been accurately determined. A claim to a homeland always has political connotations and is often disputed. \nSelf-identified diasporas place great importance on their homeland, because of their ethnic and cultural association with it, especially if it has been 'lost' or 'conquered'. That has led ethnic nationalist movements within several diasporas, often resulting in the establishment of a sovereign homeland. However, even when they are established, it is rare for the complete diaspora population to return to the homeland, and the remaining diaspora community typically retains significant emotional attachment to the homeland, and the co-ethnic population there.\nEthnic diaspora communities are now recognized by scholars as \"inevitable\" and \"endemic\" features of the international system, writes Yossi Shain and Tamara Cofman Wittes, for the following reasons:\n\nFirst, within each of a diaspora's host states, resident members can organize domestically to maximize their political clout.\nSecond, a diaspora can exert significant pressure in its homeland's domestic political arena regarding issues of diaspora concern.\nLately, a diaspora's transnational community can engage directly with third-party states and international organizations, in effect bypassing its homeland and host state governments.Diasporas are thus perceived as transnational political entities, operating on \"behalf of their entire people\" and capable of acting independently from any individual state (their homeland or their host states).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "\u0110ilasism refers to the Yugoslav communist politics of the influence of Yugoslav Communist Milovan \u0110ilas.\u0110ilasism arose as a break from Titoism pursued by the Yugoslav government of Josip Broz Tito. The word was often used as pejorative, including by Tito, while \u0110ilas himself personally denied that such an ideology existed.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Direct election is a system of choosing political officeholders in which the voters directly cast ballots for the persons or political party that they desire to see elected. The method by which the winner or winners of a direct election are chosen depends upon the electoral system used. The most commonly used systems are the plurality system and the two-round system for single-winner elections, such as a presidential election, and party-list proportional representation for the election of a legislature.\nBy contrast, in an indirect election, the voters elect a body which in turn elects the officeholder in question.In a double direct election, the elected representative serves on two councils, typically a lower-tier municipality and an upper-tier regional district or municipality.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Discourse on Pisa (Italian: Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa)  is a 1499 work by Italian Renaissance historian and political scientist Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli about the history of Pisa.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "EA WorldView is a website specializing in news coverage and analysis of Iran, Syria and the wider Middle East.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Tenth East Asia Summit was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on November 21\u201322, 2015. The East Asia Summit is an annual meeting of national leaders from the East Asian region and adjoining countries.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Eleventh East Asia Summit was held in Vientiane, Laos on September 6\u20138, 2016. The East Asia Summit is an annual meeting of national leaders from the East Asian region and adjoining countries.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The East Turkestan Information Center (\u0634\u06d5\u0631\u0642\u0649\u064a \u062a\u06c8\u0631\u0643\u0649\u0633\u062a\u0627\u0646 \u0626\u0649\u0646\u0641\u0648\u0631\u0645\u0627\u062a\u0633\u0649\u064a\u0648\u0646, \u0448\u04d9\u0440\u049b\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u04af\u0440\u043a\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0441\u0438\u0439\u043e\u043d, Sherqiy T\u00fcrkistan Informatsiyon; abbreviated ETIC) is a group affiliated with the East Turkestan independence movement. It was founded in Munich, Germany in 1996, and has an office in Washington, D.C.The ETIC publishes reports on human rights violations and abuses by the Chinese government towards China's ethnic Uyghur population.On December 15 2003, the ETIC was designated as a terrorist organization by the Ministry of Public Security of the People's Republic of China, which Oxford Analytica says could be an excuse for repression of the Uyghur population.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Edinburgh Declaration was a declaration by the heads of government of the Commonwealth of Nations concerning the organisation's membership criteria. Part of the final communiqu\u00e9 issued at the end of the fifteenth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), the Declaration was an endorsement of the report of the Inter-Governmental Group on Criteria for Commonwealth Membership (IGCCM). It was issued on 27 October 1997, in Edinburgh, the United Kingdom.\nThe report of the IGCCM consolidated all the membership criteria of the organisation, developed over two-thirds of a century, since the Statute of Westminster 1931, into a single document, beginning the process of codification. Primarily, it was decided that the admission of Mozambique, in 1995, was a unique occurrence, in recognition of Mozambique's support for the Commonwealth's policies towards South Africa and Rhodesia during the Apartheid era; any future members would have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member.In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements, which remain the same today, are that members must:\n\naccept and comply with the Harare principles.\nbe fully sovereign states.\nrecognise the Queen as the Head of the Commonwealth.\naccept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication.\nrespect the wishes of the general population vis-\u00e0-vis Commonwealth membership.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Eight Musts (Chinese: \u516b\u4e2a\u5fc5\u987b) are a policy set by the General Secretary Xi Jinping administration regarding the role of the Chinese Communist Party in Chinese society.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Electoral Headhunter (international) or Koppensneller (Dutch) is a special type of Voting Advice Application (VAA), providing a voting advice for several elections such as province and national elections in the Netherlands, the 2014 Dutch European Parliament Elections and for the Presidential elections of 2012 in the USA.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "National security has a number of component elements which, when individually satisfied, provide a nation with security of its values, interests and freedom to choose policy. These are listed differently by various authorities. Besides the military aspect of security, the aspects of politics, society, environment, energy and natural resources, and, economics are commonly listed. The elements of national security correlate closely to the concept of the elements of national power.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in United Arab Emirates (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064f\u062a\u062d\u062f\u0629) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in UAE. It is located in Abu Dhabi.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Jordan (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u062f\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Jordan. It is located in Amman.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Iraq (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0627\u0642) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Iraq. It is located in Baghdad.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Azerbaijan (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0623\u0630\u0631\u0628\u064a\u062c\u0627\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Azerbaijan. It is located in Baku.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in China (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u064a\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the State of Palestine in China. It is located in Sanlitun in Beijing.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Mission of the State of Palestine in the Federal Republic of Germany (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0623\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0627) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Germany in the absence of fully normalized relations. It is located in Berlin. The German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) recognized the State of Palestine in 1988 prior to the German reunification in 1990 with West Germany. It was only recently upgraded to a diplomatic mission from a representative office as part of the normalization of relations between the two countries", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Hungary (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u0631) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Hungary. It is located in Budapest.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Syria (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0633\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0627) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Syria. It is located in Murshid Khater St. in Damascus.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Qatar (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0642\u0637\u0631) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Qatar. It is located in Doha.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Vietnam (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0641\u064a\u062a\u0646\u0627\u0645) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Vietnam. It is located in \u0110\u1ed1ng \u0110a District in Hanoi.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine to the Holy See (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u062d\u0627\u0636\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0627\u062a\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in the Vatican. It was opened on 14 January 2017. It is located in an office building overlooking Vatican City.\nThe Palestinian ambassador to the Holy See is Issa Kassissieh.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Embassy of the State of Palestine in Sudan (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0648\u062f\u0627\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Sudan. It is located in Khartoum.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Malaysia (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0632\u064a\u0627) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Malaysia. It is located in Kuala Lumpur.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Kuwait (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u064a\u062a) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Kuwait. It is located in Bayan area in Hawalli.Embassy of the State of Palestine in Kuwait re-opened in 2013, and Rami Tahboub considered the first Palestinian ambassador of in Kuwait after Invasion of Kuwait in 1990, when Palestine Liberation Organization accused of supporting Saddam Hussein.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Maldives (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u062c\u0632\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0641) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Maldives. The Palestinian ambassador in Malaysia consider same Palestinian ambassador in Philippines.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Bahrain (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Bahrain. It is located in Manama.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Philippines (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Philippines.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Oman (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0633\u0644\u0637\u0646\u0629 \u0639\u0645\u0627\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Oman. It is located in Muscat.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in India (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0646\u062f) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in India. It is located in Chanakyapuri in New Delhi.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Kazakhstan (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0643\u0627\u0632\u062e\u0633\u062a\u0627\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of Palestine in Kazakhstan. It is located in Nur-Sultan, formerly Astana.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in France (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u0627) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in France. It is located in 14, Rue du Commandant L\u00e9andri in Paris.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Embassy of the State of Palestine in Morocco (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u063a\u0631\u0628) is the diplomatic mission of Palestine in Morocco. It is located in Rabat.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Saudi Arabia (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0639\u0648\u062f\u064a\u0629) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Saudi Arabia. It is located in Riyadh.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Yemen (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0645\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Yemen. It is located in Sana'a.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Uzbekistan (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0623\u0648\u0632\u0628\u0643\u0633\u062a\u0627\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Uzbekistan. It is located in Tashkent.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Iran (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0625\u064a\u0631\u0627\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Iran managed by the Palestine Liberation Organization. It is located in Palestine Street in Tehran.From 1948 to 1979, this diplomatic mission was known as the Embassy of the State of Israel in Tehran (Hebrew: \u05e9\u05d2\u05e8\u05d9\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea \u05de\u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05ea \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc \u05d8\u05d4\u05e8\u05d0\u05df; Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0633\u0631\u0627\u0626\u064a\u0644 \u0637\u0647\u0631\u0627\u0646) when Iran and Israel had diplomatic relations until the Iranian Revolution.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The General Mission of Palestine in Japan (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0627\u0628\u0627\u0646) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestinian Authority in Japan. It is located in Chiyoda in Tokyo.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Libya (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0644\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0627) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Libya. It is located in Ben Achour area in Tripoli.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Embassy of the State of Palestine in Tunisia (Arabic: \u0633\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u062a\u0648\u0646\u0633) is the diplomatic mission of the Palestine in Tunisia. It is located in Hakim Conseil Street in Tunis.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Equal Time is an American political talk and debate television show that was broadcast from 1993 to 2000.  It premiered on CNBC on May 24, 1993 and ran until 1998. The show then moved to MSNBC until being cancelled in 2000. One of the main hooks of the show originally was its aim to include more female voices in the typically male-dominated world of Beltway politics. Throughout the show's early run, both co-hosts were female, starting in 1993 with Republican strategist Mary Matalin as the conservative co-presenter and journalist Jane Wallace as her liberal counterpart. Wallace left the show in 1995 and was replaced by the former White House Press Secretary Dee Dee Myers. Matalin in turn left in 1996 and was replaced by Bay Buchanan. In 1997, Myers was replaced by the comedian Stephanie Miller. (A rotation of liberal co-hosts faced off with Buchanan between the time that Myers left the show and Miller was officially hired as her replacement some months later.)\nThe show Moved to MSNBC in 1998 and the hosts eventually became Oliver North and Paul Begala.  It was cancelled in December 2000.During its seven and a half year run, the show eventually morphed from a softball interview format into a more hard-hitting political forum, not unlike Crossfire.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Equality Statute between Brazil and Portugal (or Estatuto da Igualdade entre Brasil e Portugal in Portuguese) is an agreement signed between Brazil and Portugal in Bras\u00edlia on September 7, 1971, which guarantees the Portuguese in Brazil and the Brazilians in Portugal equal rights and duties with their respective nationals.\nSubsequently, the provision was repeated in the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Consultation between the Federative Republic of Brazil and the Portuguese Republic, signed in Porto Seguro on April 21, 2000, on the anniversary of the 500th anniversary of the Discovery of Brazil.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Eurasian Observatory for Democracy and Elections (EODE) is a Russia-based Eurasianist non-governmental organization which on its website claims that it monitors elections.\nAccording to its website, it specializes in the \"self-proclaimed republics\" (Abkhazia, Transdnistria, Nagorno-Karabakh).\nIt is led by the Belgian activist Luc Michel  and Jean-Pierre Vandersmissen. Both Michel and Vandermissen are followers of the Belgian Neo-Nazi politician Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Thiriart.Oliver Bullough, writing for The New Republic, reported in 2014 that the organization stated on its website that it shared the values of \"the current Russian leadership and V. V. Putin.\" The organization states that is committed to a multi-polar world and is critical of what it sees as a unipolar world dominated in the twenty-first century by the United States and NATO. It is opposed to the imposition of western values and the identification of the western-style parliamentary system of democracy as a universal norm not open to criticism.EODE visited Crimea during the 2014 Crimean referendum and claimed that the referendum was conducted in a legitimate manner.The organization has offices in Moscow, Paris, Brussels, Sochi and Chi\u0219in\u0103u.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Delegation for Relations with South Africa (D-ZA) is a delegation of the European Parliament. Its current chair is the Dutch politician Hans van Baalen (VVD).\nIt was created by the European Parliament in 1994 after inter-parliamentary relations with South Africa were frozen during the apartheid years. The EP Delegation is responsible for the Parliament's EU-South Africa relations, and it provides political dialogue with a parliamentary dimension.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The European Security Strategy is the document in which the European Union clarifies its security strategy which is aimed at achieving a secure Europe in a better world, identifying the threats facing the Union, defining its strategic objectives and setting out the political implications for Europe. The European security strategy was drawn up in 2003 under the authority of the EU's High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy, Javier Solana, and adopted by the Brussels European Council of 12 and 13 December 2003.\nThe strategy was replaced in 2016 by the European Union Global Strategy.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Executive Order on Combating Anti-Semitism is an executive order announced by U.S. President Donald Trump on December 10, 2019, and signed the next day. The purpose of the order was said to be to prevent antisemitism by making it easier to use laws prohibiting institutional discrimination against people based on race, color or national origin to punish discrimination against Jewish people, including opposition to Israel uniquely as a Jewish nationstate (the right of a Jewish country to exist) without opposition to other nation-states.CNN claimed that a White House official had indicated that the order would define Judaism as a nationality instead of a religion in the United States, though the order ultimately released did not state this.The order set off a firestorm of criticism among many Jewish and Palestinian leaders. Some American Jews praised the order, while others objected to defining Judaism as a nationality (as the order was initially indicated to do, though it ultimately did not), claiming that \"Trump's reclassification of Judaism mirrored sentiments used by white nationalists and Nazi Germany\" and that \"the move appears to question whether Jews are really American\". Some decried the order as a political stunt, and called on Trump to more directly address the threat of white nationalism. Groups such as the Anti-Defamation League, the Republican Jewish Coalition, and the Orthodox Union were supportive of the order.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "An executive president is the head of state who exercises authority over the governance of that state, and can be found in presidential, semi-presidential, and parliamentary systems.\nThey contrast with figurehead presidents, common in most parliamentary republics, in which the president serves symbolic, nonpolitical roles (and often is appointed to office by parliament) while the prime minister holds all relevant executive power.  A small number of nations, like South Africa and Botswana, have both an executive presidency and a system of governance that is parliamentary in character, with the President elected by and dependent on the confidence of the legislature.  In these states, the offices of president and prime minister (as both head of state and head of government respectively) might be said to be combined.\nThe above examples notwithstanding, executive presidencies are found in presidential systems and semi-presidential systems.\nIn order to prevent the abuse of power, checks and balances are implemented through the legislative and judiciary bodies. For example, in the United States one method is impeachment whereby the president can be held accountable if others deem their actions unconstitutional, with the most recent example being the impeachment trials of President Donald Trump.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A farewell speech or farewell address is a speech given by an individual leaving a position or place. They are often used by public figures such as politicians as a capstone to the preceding career, or as statements delivered by persons relating to reasons for their leaving. The term is often used as a euphemism for \"retirement speech,\" though it is broader in that it may include geographical or even biological conclusion.\nIn the Classics, a term for a dignified and poetic farewell speech is apobaterion (\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b2\u03b1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd), standing opposed to the epibaterion, the corresponding speech made upon arrival.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A fault line war is one that takes place between two or more identity groups (usually religious or ethnic) from different civilizations. It is a communal conflict between states or groups from different civilizations that has become violent. These wars may take place between states, between nongovernmental groups, or between states and nongovernmental groups. Most often, the issue in a fault line war is often over territory, but it could also be over the control of people. Such wars within states may involve groups that are predominantly located in different territories or groups that are intermixed. In the latter, violence often erupts periodically.The issue at stake in a fault line war is very symbolic for at least one of the groups involved.  Because the issue is one of fundamental identity, these wars are longer and more difficult to resolve than conventional warfare. And even when agreements are reached, the groups are rarely fully satisfied, and often the hatred is only dissolved through genocide.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The First Nawaz Sharif provincial cabinet was formed by Nawaz Sharif in April 1985 to begin a new government following the 1985 Pakistani general election. It was dissolved on 30 May 1988.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The First Shehbaz Sharif provincial cabinet was formed by Shehbaz Sharif in 1997 to begin a new government following the 1997 Pakistani general election.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Five-point electoral law, of five-adjectives election is a concept used in Polish political science referring to the elections that are:\n\nuniversal\ndirect\nequal\nproportional\nanonymous (secret ballot).A similar concept is used in elections to the Israeli Knesset, with a sixth adjective, \"national (No constituencies)\", added, and \"general\" used instead of \"universal\".", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The term flamingant, in both Dutch and French, refers to an adherent of the Flemish Movement. Originating as a pejorative term use by Belgian nationalists, it may be equally used as an adjective or substantive and the term flamingantisme is sometimes used to designate their ideology. The term may be derived from Flamins, the Walloon word for Flemings. The word wallingant is similarly used to describe adherents of the Walloon Movement which also gives rise to the comparable term wallingantisme.\nThe flamingant movement was originally initiated by the priests in Flanders under the French occupation after 1792. The secular republic invaded the Austrian Netherlands three years later, retaining them until 1815. This was very badly received in the Catholic provinces, alarming the clergy and damaging those economic sectors which were in competition with metropolitan France. Thus all the Walloon vineyards were ruined and the textile sector in Flanders went into decay. The French language, which had been the language of the leisured classes under feudalism, was imposed throughout the administration.\nWith the fall of the French Empire in 1815, the movement became dormant. In 1830, Belgians of the north, alongside those of the south, overthrew Dutch rule uniting behind their common Roman Catholic religion and distrust of the Dutch government. The choice of the French language for the young Belgian nation seemed natural, as French-speaking citizens formed the majority of the revolutionaries and was a language spoken by the aristocracy across the country. The word flamingant remains a loaded term. For example, see the song Les Flamingants by Jacques Brel criticizing the flamingants.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Fraternal delegates are official delegates, who attend major assemblies of a friendly body as a formal expression of the fraternal bonds.\nIn politics, that is customary among fraternal parties.\nIn religion, it happens between churches engaged in an ecumenical process. Thus the Holy See invited to Rome for the Roman Catholic Church's 14th Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops in October 2015, on family, 'fraternal' delegates from Orthodox churches (Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, Russian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church, Romanian Orthodox Church, Albanian Orthodox Church, Coptic Orthodox Church, Syriac Orthodox Church) and Protestant churches (Anglican Communion, World Lutheran Federation, Ecumenical Council of Churches, World Evangelical Alliance, World Methodist Council, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and World Baptist Alliance).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Free and Equal (Spanish: Libres e Iguales) is a Spanish civic organisation born as a reaction against Catalan nationalism. According to the movement, its aims are \"defending democratic principles, mobilising Spanish society against Catalan independence, and delegitimising nationalism\".The organisation's name alludes to article 1 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (\"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions can be founded only on the common good.\") as well as the first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (\"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood\").\nIt was launched on the 15th July 2014 outside the Congreso de los Diputados with headline manifesto promises of \"reclaiming the 1978 Spanish constitution\", rejecting the \"breakup\" of the national sovereignty of Spanish people, and a search for a pact of major Spanish political parties against secessionism.Following the 2015 local and regional elections, the group called for PP, PSOE, UPyD and C's to create a pact against populism, with the objective of \"preventing populist contamination from lethally eroding the institutions and fundamental bases of Spanish democracy\".", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "\"A free homeland and a happy people\" (Arabic: \u0648\u0637\u0646 \u062d\u0631 \u0648\u0634\u0639\u0628 \u0633\u0639\u064a\u062f watanun hurrun wa sha'bun sa'id) is an Arabic communist slogan. It was the slogan of the Syrian-Lebanese Communist Party, first adopted at the first conference of the Political Committee of the party (which also put Khalid Bakdash at the helm of the party). The slogan was adopted by the Iraqi Communist Party at its clandestine first national conference held in March 1944.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Furen Literary Society, also known as the Chinese Patriotic Mutual Improvement Association, or the 'Furen Cultural Society Restoration Association (Foo Yan Man Ser Kwong Fook Hui)', was founded in Colonial Hong Kong in 1892.\nIt was founded by Yeung Ku-wan, together with Tse Tsan-tai and others, with Yeung as their leader.   The guiding principles of the society were: \"Open up the people's minds\" (\u958b\u901a\u6c11\u667a) and \"Ducit Amor Patriae\" (\u76e1\u5fc3\u611b\u570b, \"Love your country with all your heart\").  Other tenets were:\n\nTo purify the character in the highest possible degree\nTo prohibit indulgences in the vices of the world\nTo set an example for future young Chinese\nTo improve in all possible ways Chinese and foreign knowledge both in a civil and a military point of view\nTo obtain a good knowledge of western science and learning: and\nTo learn how to be and act as a patriot and how to wipe out the unjust wrong our country has suffered.The society met in Pak Tsz Lane, Central, Hong Kong.\nIn November 1894, Sun Yat-sen founded the Revive China Society in Honolulu, Hawaii, and, in 1895, the Furen Literary Society was merged into the Hong Kong chapter of the Revive China Society, with help from Yau Lit.   Yeung Kui-wan and Sun became respectively President and Secretary of the Revive China Society.\nA memorial park (Pak Tsz Lane Park) to the early revolutionists of the Furen Literary was opened in May, 2011 - just in time for the centenary anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution, which realised the dreams of the members of the Furen Literary Society.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Fuzzy math is a catch phrase used often by American politicians to describe numbers, particularly in regard to government spending, that they claim do not add up correctly. It is frequently used by politicians who are dismissing another politician's numbers as doubtful or otherwise inaccurate.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "President Ashraf Ghani's cabinet was the cabinet of Afghanistan from 29 September 2014 until 15 August 2021.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Good Law Project is a United Kingdom-based political non-profit company. Founded by Jolyon Maugham, the Good Law Project states that its mission is to achieve change through the law.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A goodwill tour is a tour by someone or something famous to a series of places, with the purpose of expressing benevolent interest or concern for a group of people or a region, improving or maintaining a relationship between parties, and exhibiting the item or person to places visited.\nGoodwill tours are meant to be friendly; however, in some cases, they may be intimidating to the people or the government at the place visited. At the same time, a visit by a goodwill tour might be used as a way of \u201creminding\u201d the place and government visited of a friendship previously established or assumed.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Government-House analogy refers to rhetoric in political economic discourse that compares the finances of a federal government to those of a household. The analogy has frequently been made in debates about government debt, with critics of government debt arguing that greater government debt is equivalent to a household taking on more debt.The analogy has been characterized by economists as misleading and false, as the functions and constraints of governments and households are vastly dissimilar. Differences include that governments can print money, interest rates on government borrowing may be cheaper than individual borrowing, governments can increase their budgets through taxation, governments have indefinite planning horizons, national debt may be held primarily domestically (the equivalent of household members owing each other), governments typically have greater collateral for borrowing, and contractions in government spending can cause or prolong economic crises and increase the debt of the government. For governments, the main risks of overspending may revolve around inflation rather than the size of the debt per se.\nAccording to economist and Nobel laureate William Vickrey,This fallacy seems to stem from a false analogy to borrowing by individuals. Current reality is almost the exact opposite. Deficits add to the net disposable income of individuals, to the extent that government disbursements that constitute income to recipients exceed that abstracted from disposable income in taxes, fees, and other charges. This added purchasing power, when spent, provides markets for private production, inducing producers to invest in additional plant capacity, which will form part of the real heritage left to the future. This is in addition to whatever public investment takes place in infrastructure, education, research, and the like. Larger deficits, sufficient to recycle savings out of a growing gross domestic product (GDP) in excess of what can be recycled by profit-seeking private investment, are not an economic sin but an economic necessity. Deficits in excess of a gap growing as a result of the maximum feasible growth in real output might indeed cause problems, but we are nowhere near that level. Even the analogy itself is faulty. If General Motors, AT&T, and individual households had been required to balance their budgets in the manner being applied to the Federal government, there would be no corporate bonds, no mortgages, no bank loans, and many fewer automobiles, telephones, and houses.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Graft, as understood in American English, is a form of political corruption defined as the unscrupulous use of a politician's authority for personal gain. Political graft occurs when funds intended for public projects are intentionally misdirected in order to maximize the benefits to private interests. \nPolitical graft functions when the public officer is directed to purchase goods or services from a specific private interest at a cost far above regular market rates. The private interest then siphons some of the gratuitous profits to government officials who are able to ensure that future government spending continues in the same fashion so that this lucrative relationship continues. A member of a government may misappropriate directly from government funds, but they may also make decisions benefiting their own private economic interests by using inside knowledge of upcoming government decisions to their benefit, in a manner similar to insider trading.\nAlthough the conflict between public and private interests is common to all forms of corruption, the term \"graft\" is specific to the intentional misdirection of official funds. Although not the original usage of the term, graft in the modern context is commonly used as a blanket term for political embezzlement, influence peddling, or other forms of corruption. While embezzlement and influence peddling are elements sometimes present in graft, the relationship is not deterministic.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A Gran maestro was the unofficial head of state in the Italian city-states. The role could depend on holding a particular office, military power or a general subversion of the constitution.\nThe Scaliger family in Verona converted their control of the office of podest\u00e0 into a permanent lordship as early as 1226. The Sforza dynasty rose from condottieri to be dukes of Milan in 1447. The Medici relied on financial power and control of the selection process for office to establish their own dominance in Florence, although it took them until 1532 to acquire the formal title of Duke of Florence and abolish all vestiges of the republic.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "GrassrootsPA was a political news website centered on the politics of Pennsylvania. It was founded in 2004 by then law student Chris Lilik, a Pat Toomey supporter and became a \"must-click resource\" for Pennsylvania's conservative community. Even though Toomey lost that race, the website continued as a gathering place for conservatives and Specter's foes. The website also gained mainstream media attention as a source of breaking political news. Political commentator Chris Bravacos noted that GrassrootsPA attracted significantly higher readership than the official websites for the two major political parties.During the public outcry following the 2005 Pennsylvania legislative pay raise, GrassrootsPA served as a focal point for reform activists. The American Spectator called GrassrootsPA a \"flashpoint of this conservative revolution\" in Pennsylvania.  In 2010, Politics Magazine described GrassrootsPA as \"Pennsylvania's Drudge Report.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The term green left refers primarily to a political affiliation that combines elements of green politics and left-wing politics in countries where the term is used. It is primarily a social justice and human rights oriented ideology, with an expansion in focus to the rights of other species. It is often used in contrast with center-left green parties, that attempt to reconcile their environmental goals with a capitalistic framework, and, rarely, center-right green parties (like the Latvian Green Party and Ecologist Green Party of Mexico), that hold anti-feminist views.\nExamples of \"green left\" parties include GroenLinks in the Netherlands, the Green Party of the United States, the Left-Green Movement in Iceland, and the Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand.\nThe name \"Green Left\" is also used by a variety of organisations which espouse socialist or Marxist principles, but with a greater emphasis on environmental preservation than previous iterations of socialism and communism.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Green Papers is a website that follows the results of United States presidential elections. It was created by Richard Berg-Andersson and Tony Roza in 1999. It has become particularly known for covering the results of presidential primaries. It was one of the first websites to monitor election results. During the 2016 presidential election, many journalists began paying attention to the site's delegate counts, and Quoctrung Bui of The New York Times noted that the site \"...does something very few media organizations are willing to do: accurately and independently tabulate delegates in real time.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Peace and Democracy Group (Spanish: Grupo Paz y Democracia) is a Honduran non-governmental organization. Headed by Martha Diaz and funded by USAID, it publicly backed the 2009 Honduran coup d'\u00e9tat, terming the coup a \"transition\" to democracy in response to an \"illegal quest\" by deposed president Manuel Zelaya to change the constitution's laws on presidential term limits.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Gulagu.net is a Russian anti-corruption website. It was founded in 2011 by Russian human rights activist Vladimir Osechkin.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Herstel-NL (English: \"Recovery-NL\", also written as Herstel.NL and Herstel NL) is a Dutch organization that presented a plan in February 2021 to reopen Dutch society instead of continuing the hard lockdown that was introduced in December as a measure to combat the COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands. Herstel-NL was created as a result of an April 2020 article by economist and political scientist Robin Fransman about the costs and benefits of the coronavirus crisis measures in the magazine Economisch Statistische Berichten.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The High National Election Commission is a body created in Libya for organising elections following the 2011 Libyan Civil War, starting in 2012.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The High Speed Rail (West Midlands - Crewe) Act 2021 is an Act of Parliament passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed on 11 February 2021 to give the legislative framework for the first stage of High Speed 2 between the West Midlands and Crewe, Cheshire.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Highcliffe and Walkford is a ward in Christchurch, Dorset. Since 2019, the ward has elected 2 councillors to Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole Council.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Himanta Biswa Sarma was sworn in as Chief Minister of Assam on 10 May 2021, which led to the formation of his ministry and the current Government of Assam. He succeeded his colleague Sarbananda Sonowal. He was administered the oath by Governor Jagdish Mukhi. Himanta Biswa Sarma became the 15th Chief Minister of Assam. BJP national president JP Nadda and other leaders were also present at the ceremony.\nSeveral Chief Ministers of northeastern states attended the swearing-in ceremony of Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma.Those present included Chief Minister of Tripura Biplab Deb, Meghalaya's Conrad Sangma, Manipur's N. Biren Singh, and Nagaland's Neiphiu Rio. Several other dignataries were also present including the former Chief Minister Sarbananda Sonowal was also present.\nHimanta Biswa Sarma was elected unanimously by the Bharatiya Janata Party Legislature Party, which met in Guwahati on Sunday 9 May 2021.The newly-elected Chief Minister began his day by offering prayers at Doul Gobinda Temple and Kamakhya Temple and sought the blessings of the people of his constituency Jalukbari. \nAfter that, he headed for the swearing-in ceremony. Known to have played a pivotal role in the BJP's growing footprint in the Northeast, Sarma left the Congress in 2015 despite being close to Chief Minister Tarun Gogoi as he felt sidelined. The minister's popularity has been key in the National Democratic Alliance's victory in the Assembly polls in Assam with the alliance returning to power overcoming the stiff challenge posed by the Congress-led alliance.The Bharatiya Janata Party-led NDA secured a comfortable majority in Assam winning 75 seats of the total 126 constituencies. While BJP secured 60 seats, about 48 percent, its allies Asom Gana Parishad and United People's Party Liberal bagged 9 and 6 seats respectively.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Historic Compromise (Italian: Compromesso storico), called also Third Phase (Italian: Terza Fase) or Democratic Alternative (Italian: Alternativa Democratica), was a historical political accommodation between the Christian Democracy (DC) and the Italian Communist Party (PCI) in the 1970s.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Environment and Water (Hungarian: K\u00f6rnyezetv\u00e9delmi \u00e9s V\u00edz\u00fcgyi Miniszt\u00e9rium, KVVM) was a government ministry of Hungary from 1988 to 1990, and again from 2002 to 2011. Between 1990 and 2002 the water functions were under the Ministry of Transport, Communication and Water; environmental responsibilies continued under the Ministry for Environment Protection, then from October 1990 to 1998 as the Ministry of Environment and Regional Development, then from 1998 to 2002 as the Ministry of Environment Protection.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Husakism (Czech: hus\u00e1kismus; Slovak: hus\u00e1kizmus) is an ideology connected with the politician Gust\u00e1v Hus\u00e1k of Communist Czechoslovakia which has two different meanings and it was first used by Karol Bac\u00edlek to denounce the alleged \"bourgeois nationalism\" of Hus\u00e1k in 1950s. The later and more frequent use is for the ideology of Hus\u00e1k's \"normalization\" and federalism, the state ideology of Czechoslovakia from about 1969 to about 1989, formulated by Hus\u00e1k, Vasil Bi\u013eak and others. Hus\u00e1k's regime has also been described as neo-Stalinist.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A hyphenated ethnicity (or rarely hyphenated identity) is a reference to an ethnicity, pan-ethnicity, national origin, or national identity combined with the demonym of a country of citizenship-nationality, another national identity, or in some cases country of residency or country of upbringing. The term is an extension of the term \"hyphenated American\". The term refers to the use of a hyphen between the name of an ethnicity and the name of the country in compound nouns: Irish-American, etc., although modern English language style guides recommend dropping the hyphen: \"Irish American\". \nThe concept should not be confused with that of mixed ethnicity and multiraciality, i.e., the ethnicity or race of a person whose parents have different ethnicities/races, which can also be written in a hyphenated way.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Ideological repression refers to forceful activities against competing ideologies and philosophies.\nAlan Wolfe defines ideological repression as \"the attempt to manipulate people's consciousness so they accept the ruling ideology, and distrust and refuse to be moved by competing ideologies\".In the early days of the Soviet Union and in other countries, ideological repression was carried out by political repression of the carriers of competing ideologies.\nInstruments of ideological repression are propaganda and censorship. During the days of \"Marxism-Leninism\"  in the Soviet Union -around the early 1930s- students of this particular school of thought were given textbooks that encouraged one particular way of thinking (the Marxist way) as being paramount and the most scientific and true school of thought.\nThrough ideological repression and control of output information, the Soviet Union was attempting to keep social revolutions at bay.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Immigration reform is change to the current immigration policy of a country. In its strict definition, reform means \"to change into an improved form or condition, by amending or removing faults or abuses\". In the political sense, \"immigration reform\" may include promoted, expanded, or open immigration, as well as reduced or eliminated immigration.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Imperial commissioner is an ambivalent English language term, used to render foreign language titles of various \u2013 mostly gubernatorial \u2013 officers whose 'commission' was in the gift of an Emperor, including China, the Russian Empire and the Holy Roman Empire.\n\nThe German title, in both the German Empire (1871-1918) and Nazi Germany (1933-45), was usually Reichskommissar.\nHowever, Imperial Commissioner can also be used to render Kaiserlicher Kommissar, which in German etymology refers to the Emperor, not to the Empire. This was notably the case for a gubernatorial style in the colonial possession of Jaluit (in the South sea, presently in the Marshall Islands), which were administered, after a single Kommissar ('Commissioner'; 1885 - 1886,  Gustav von Oertzen,  b. 18.. - d. 1911), by the following Kaiserliche Kommissare :\n1886 - 5 October 1887  Wilhelm Knappe  (b. 1855 - d. 1910)\n5 October 1887 - 29 March 1889  Franz Leopold Sonnenschein  (acting to 14 April 1888)   (b. 1857 - d. 1897)\n29 March 1889 - 14 April 1890  Eugen Brandeis (acting) (b. 1846 - d. 1919)  (1st time)\n14 April 1890 - February 1892  Friedrich Louis Max Biermann   (b. 1856 - d. 1929)\nFeb 1892 - 1893  Eugen Brandeis (acting)  (2nd time)\n1893 - 1894     Ernst Schmidt-Dargitz    (b. 1859 - d. 1924); thereafter by Landeshauptleute", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Industrial Groups were groups formed by the Australian Labor Party (ALP) in the late 1940s, to replace Communist Party influence in the trade unions with groups controlled by B. A. Santamaria's \"Movement\" which had infiltrated the ALP in 1944. In the late 1930s and early 1940s, there was a belief among some people, notably within the Catholic Church, that the Communist Party of Australia was trying to infiltrate trade unions in Australia. In response, the Labor party set up \"industrial groups\" within trade unions to counter the perceived Communist threat.In 1941, the Italian-Australian political scientist and anti-Communist activist B. A. Santamaria founded the Catholic Social Studies Movement (\"The Movement\") in Victoria, with the support of Victoria's Roman Catholic Archbishop, Daniel Mannix to impact on the postwar labour movement. \"The Movement\" quickly gained a large influence in the Industrial Groups. Members of these groups were informally called \"Groupers\".\"The Movement\" and the \"Groupers\" were opposed not only to the Communist Party, but to those elements within the Labor Party whom they reportedly considered to be insufficiently opposed to communism. Alleging that the \"Groupers\" were exercising disproportionate influence within the ALP, the party leader, H. V. Evatt, turned against them following the 1954 federal election, precipitating the 1955 split in the Labor Party. \nThis resulted in many \"Groupers\" resigning or being expelled from the ALP, and the disaffiliation of several unions, and the formation of the Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist), in 1957 becoming the Democratic Labor Party.While the Movement and its Groupers achieved some success in the ALP and unions, the split in the ALP they caused and the preferencing of the Liberal Party by The Democratic Labor Party was instrumental in keeping the ALP out of power in Australia for almost 30 years.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Info-14 was a neo-Nazi website, started as a newspaper and published in paper form from April 1995 until May 2000, when it was turned into a website. The paper was started as a binding factor within the National Alliance with Robert Vesterlund, earlier member of the Sweden Democrats and chairman of Sweden Democratic Youth (SDU), as editor. According to the ten year chronicle in May 2005 the first editions were produced at the party headquarters of the Sweden Democrats in Stockholm, where the production was done on a copying machine. The number 14 in the paper name comes from David Lane's Fourteen Words.\nWhen the National Alliance was disbanded after Christopher Rangne left his post, Robert Vesterlund continued his work on Info-14, now as an independent paper.  The paper claimed one police killing in Malexander and a car bomb in Nacka in 1999, leading the paper's editor, Vesterlund, to be sentenced to eighteen months in prison for incitement to racial hatred, threats against an officer, and aggravated incitement. The paper is synonymous with the Salem Foundation which organizes \"Salem Marches\" (salemmarschen or folkets marchen). A number of \"independent nationalists\" are gathered around Info-14.In 1998, Hampus Hellekant murdered syndicalist union member Bj\u00f6rn S\u00f6derberg after S\u00f6derberg exposed the ideology of Vesterlund in the workplace. The case also became the focus of an important debate over privacy and medical ethics.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The inside/outside model of political reform is the organizing method/philosophy being used by the Progressive Democrats of America in its efforts to change the Democratic Party but also to foster a broad grass-roots progressive social and political movement.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (IPCS), was founded in 1996 as an independent think-tank to develop an alternative framework for Peace and Security in South Asia through independent research and analysis. It continues to be one of the leading independent institutes in the region with no affiliation to a particular institution and/or ideology. The core research of IPCS focuses on internal security, nuclear issues and regional conflicts. Since its founding, IPCS has been the cradle of the next generation of strategic thinkers.  This focus on youth is reflected both in its faculty and its strong internship programme focussed on building up the next generation of thought leaders.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Intensity of preference, also known as intensity preference,  is a term popularized by the work of the economist Kenneth Arrow, who was a co-recipient of the 1972 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics.   This term is used in reference to models for aggregating ordinal rankings.\nThis term is used in economics, politics, marketing, management science and other areas in which methods to derive the consensus ranking are developed.In an analysis of voting, for example, the intensity of preference is a measure of an individual voter's (or group of voters') willingness to incur the costs or inconvenience of the act of officially registering a preferential choice at the time and place required, not the vote itself.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Interallied Mission to Poland was a diplomatic mission launched by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George on 21 July 1920, at the height of the Polish-Soviet War, weeks before the decisive Battle of Warsaw. The purpose of this mission was to send a number of high level personages from Britain and France to Poland in an attempt to influence Polish policy, possibly through effecting a change in government.\nThe mission members included French diplomat, Jean Jules Jusserand, general Maxime Weygand, chief of staff to Marshal Ferdinand Foch (the Supreme Commander of the victorious Entente), and the British diplomat, Lord Edgar Vincent D'Abernon. The crucial battle of Warsaw was won in the early days of August, before the mission could achieve anything of importance. The only tangible result was the installation of Weygand as an advisor to the Polish General Staff, where his role was negligible.  Nevertheless, soon after the battle and for various political reasons, a myth arose that Weygand was the author of the Polish victory in the battle of Warsaw.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation, also known as the Hague Code of Conduct (HCOC), was established on 25 November 2002 as an arrangement to prevent the proliferation of ballistic missiles.\nThe HCOC is the result of international efforts to regulate access to ballistic missiles which can potentially deliver weapons of mass destruction. The HCOC is the only multilateral code in the area of disarmament which has been adopted over the last years.  It is the only normative instrument to verify the spread of ballistic missiles. The HCOC does not ban ballistic missiles, but it does call for restraint in their production, testing, and export.\nAs agreed by the conference in The Hague, Austria serves as the Immediate Central Contact (Executive Secretariat) and therefore coordinates the information exchange of the HCOC. \nTo create a link between the UN and the HCOC, which was not negotiated in the context of the UN, a Resolution regarding the HCOC was tabled in the course of the 59th as well as the 60th and 63rd sessions of the General Assembly in New York City.\nSince the HCOC's entry into force, sixteen Conferences of Subscribing States of the HCOC have been held. The 16th Regular Meeting of Subscribing States of the HCOC took place from 6\u20137 June 2017 under the chairmanship of Ambassador Marek Szczygie\u0142 from Poland.\nIndia joined the HCOC on 1 June 2016.While the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) has a similar mission, it is an export group with only 35 members.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The International Socialist Congress was held at Skodsborg Spa Hotel just north of Copenhagen, Denmark, from 28 August to 3 September 1910. It was the eighth congress of the Second International. Eight hundred and eighty seven delegates attended, representing countries in Europe, North and South America, South Africa and Australia. The Second International Conference of Socialist Women, held prior to opening of Congress, set International Women's Day for March 8 every year.The agenda for the International Congress at Copenhagen was the following:\nRelations between Co-operative Organisations and Political Parties\nUnemployment\nArbitration and Disarmament\nInternational results of Labour Legislation\nInternational Protest against Capital Punishment\nSteps to ensure the Carrying Out of Resolutions of Congress\nOrganisation of International Solidarity\nResolutions on other questions.Five committees were set up for preliminary discussion and drafting of resolutions on various questions: co-operatives, trade unions, international solidarity, and unity of the trade union movement in Austria; the struggle against war; labour legislation and unemployment; miscellaneous, including socialist unity, capital punishment, Finland, Argentina, Persia, etc.\nThe resolution on the struggle against war \u2014 \u201cArbitration Courts and Disarmament\u201d \u2014 confirmed the resolution of the Stuttgart Congress of 1907 on \u201cMilitarism and International Conflicts\u201d, which included the amendments motioned by Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, calling on the socialists of all countries to make use of the economic and political crisis caused by war to overthrow the bourgeoisie. The resolution of the Copenhagen Congress also bound the socialist parties and their representatives in parliaments to demand that their governments reduce armaments, and settle conflicts between states through arbitration courts, and urged the workers of all countries to stage protests against the threat of war.A significant discussion was the terms under which the affiliated parties would collaborate with co-operatives.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "International Socialist Labor Congress, the second congress of the Second International met in Brussels, Belgium from August 16\u201322, 1891 at the Maison du Peuple, the headquarters of the Belgian Workers Party.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Interpellation is a formal request of a parliament to the respective government. It is distinguished from question time in that it often involves a separate procedure.  In many parliaments, each individual member of parliament has the right to submit questions (possibly a limited amount during a certain period) to a member of the government. The respective minister or secretary is then required to respond and to justify government policy. Interpellation thus allows the parliament to supervise the government's activity. In this sense, it is closer to a motion of censure. In English, the parliamentary questioning sense of \"interpellation\" dates from the late 19th century.  It has been adopted from French constitutional discourse.\nIn some countries, for example Finland and Slovenia, interpellations are more or less synonymous with a motion of no confidence because they are automatically connected with a vote of confidence and their express purpose is to determine the confidence enjoyed by the government or a minister. In Finland, the government must reply to an interpellation in a plenary session within 15 days. After receiving the reply to the interpellation, parliament debates the matter and proceeds to vote on whether the government or a particular minister enjoys the confidence of Parliament.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Interstitial revolution is a theoretical means of societal transformation through progressively and strategically enlarging spaces of social empowerment. Interstitial revolution (or transformation) builds on the concept of prefigurative politics which has a long history in anti-capitalist thinking, going back nearly two hundred years in the anarchist tradition. Prefigurativism is neatly summed up by the early twentieth century Constitution of the Industrial Workers of the World which declared: \"By organizing industrially we are forming the structure of the new society within the old.\"This has classically been the approach recommended by several theorists of social anarchism, including Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Gustav Landauer, Paul Goodman, and Murray Bookchin. In recent years, prominent analytical Marxists (including John Holloway and Erik Olin Wright) have called attention to the lack of strategy for greater systemic change within prefigurativism and have attempted to construct models of societal transformation utilizing interstitial devices as an alternative to the traditional Marxist theory of revolution.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Iroijlaplap (Marshallese: irooj\u013cap\u013cap [ir\u02e0o\u02d0z\u02b2(e)l\u02e0\u0251b\u02b2(\u025b)l\u02e0\u0251p\u02b2]; feminine: Leroijlaplap, lerooj\u013cap\u013cap [l\u02b2e\u02d0r\u02e0o\u02d0z\u02b2(e)l\u02e0\u0251b\u02b2(\u025b)l\u02e0\u0251p\u02b2]) are the traditional paramount chiefs in the Marshall Islands. Ordinary chiefs bear the title of Iroij (feminine: Leroij); -\u013cap\u013cap is a superlative suffix.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1999 Istanbul Summit was the 6th Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) summit and was held in Istanbul, Turkey from November 18 until November 19, resulting in the adoption of the Istanbul Summit Declaration and the signing of the Charter for European Security. Also in Istanbul, 30 OSCE states signed the Agreement on the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, which amended the 1990 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe to reflect the changes since the end of the Cold War. There was a verbal clash between Russia and the West concerning NATO intervention in the Kosovo Conflict and the beginning of the Second Chechen War.\nThe Transnistria conflict, the Abkhaz\u2013Georgian conflict and the Georgian\u2013Ossetian conflict were also discussed. In the summit, Russia promised to have withdrawn its military forces from Moldova and Georgia by 31 December 2002, which did not happen.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Itezhi-Tezhi is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers the towns of Itezhi-Tezhi, Kaliwa, Mashie, Musungwa and Shezongo in Itezhi-Tezhi District of Southern Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Jewish conservatism is political and social conservatism rooted in or inspired by Judaism and specifically Jewish concerns.\nIn a 2015 essay for Mosaic, Eric Cohen identified three planks of Jewish conservatism: Jewish ideas about traditional family, hawkish foreign policy, and economic liberalism.Neoconservatism is an American political movement that formed in opposition to the New Left. Many American Jewish conservatives either identify personally or have been categorized as Neoconservative; though the term in general post-Bush Administration has taken on a negative connotation (Neocon or Neo-Con is usually derogatory) and will nowadays find few American conservatives actually espousing to be Neoconservative. Many Neoconservatives were Jews disillusioned by leftist anti-Zionism.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A jugate consists of two portraits side by side to suggest, to the viewer, the closeness of each to the other. The word comes from the Latin, jugatus, meaning joined. On coins, it is commonly used for married couples, brothers or a father and son.\nOften this would be a presidential and vice presidential candidates although sometimes a state or local candidate is included with a presidential candidate. Jugates may be seen on medals, pinbacks, buttons, posters or other campaign items. If a third figure appears on the item, it is called a trigate.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Kabwe Central is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Kangaroo closure is a measure coined as early as 1911 reserved for parliamentary procedure wherein the chairman or speaker selects certain amendments for discussion and excludes others. The unselected amendments are each voted on without debate.  It was first used in the United Kingdom House of Commons in the battle over the 1909 finance bill. The term is used because the chairman, in essence, \"leaps\" over certain amendments for discussion.The practice is now codified in the UK House of Commons by Standing Order No. 32.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Kapiri Mposhi is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers the town of Kapiri Mposhi in Kapiri Mposhi District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Kasparov.ru (titled, but not actually addressed, in Russian as \u041a\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432.Ru) is a Russian-language website (\u0441reated on 27 May 2005), critical of Vladimir Putin, operated by Garry Kasparov. As of March 2013 it was the 816th most popular website in Russia, but it has fallen down to 4,098 by September 2015.The website has been a target of DDoS attacks in the past. The site was censored in Russia in early 2014.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Katuba is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers the rural area to the north-west of Lusaka in the Chibombo District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Keembe is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers part of Chibombo District in Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "KHAM (hindi: \u0916\u093e\u092e) stands for Koli Kshatriya, Harijan, Adivasi and Muslim. Here Kshatriya is taken to include the Kolis. In the KHAM combine, Kolis were the largest caste represented at different levels of politics, and Madhavsinh Solanki increased the reservation quota for Other Backward Classes in Gujarat. The theory was propounded by Madhavsinh Solanki in 1980s in Gujarat to create vote bank for Indian National Congress and prepared by Jhinabhai Darji. Using the formula, Congress was able to capture 149 seats in the 182-member Assembly. However the formula alienated  Patels permanently from Congress. during the Kham alliance, castes such as Bania, Patidar and Brahmins lost their importance in the state, so they propounded the Anti reservation agitation in 1981 and 1985 in Gujarat to get rid of the power of OBC castes.Bharatsinh Solanki, state Congress president and the son of Madhavsinh Solanki, attempted to revise his father's formula by coming up with KHAMP (Kshatriya, Harijan, Adivasi, Muslim, and Patel) in 2017. While Congress was able to increase its seat count by 16, it ultimately failed to receive majority. The Congress was able to get Hardik Patel, the leader of the  Patidar reservation agitation to campaign for it.An article by Deepal Trivedi in 2019 suggests the combination OPT (OBC, Patidar, Tribals) is the new winning combination in Gujarat. It suggests these numbers for the major caste groups in Gujarat: OBC 43%, Patidar 12.6%, Tribals 15%, Muslims 10%, Scheduled castes 8%. The forward castes are Rajputs 6%, Brahmins 2%, Bania 2%, Jain 1%.  OBC (Other backward class) refer to a group of castes, as determined by the state government for affirmative action.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Kinson is a ward in Bournemouth, Dorset. Since 2019, the ward has elected 3 councillors to Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole Council.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Komite internazionalistak is an internationalist organisation based in the Basque Country. It was founded to support the Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua. It has promoted brigades to various countries to help popular movements and extend their message in the European society. It has been very active in the movement against the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the following occupation. It has also denounced alleged human rights violations in Palestine.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Kremlin.ru is the official website of the President of the Russian Federation. It was launched in January 2000. Content of the website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Kuwait has been frequently accused of supporting terrorism financing within its borders. Kuwait has been described as the world's biggest source of terrorism funding, particularly for ISIS and Al-Qaeda. In 2014, David S. Cohen, then Under Secretary of the Treasury for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence, accused the Kuwaiti government of supporting terrorism. Since the early 1990s, accusations of Kuwait funding terrorism have been very common and come from a wide variety of sources including intelligence reports, government officials, scholarly research, and renowned journalists. Kuwait is listed as sources of militant money in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Kuwait is described as a \"source of funds and a key transit point\" for al-Qaeda and other militant groups.On 26 June 2015, a suicide bombing took place at a Shia mosque in Kuwait City, consequently 27 people died. ISIS claimed responsibility for the attack. It was the largest terrorism attack in Kuwait's history. In the aftermath, a lawsuit was filed accusing the Kuwaiti government of negligence and direct responsibility for the terror attack.The Kuwait-based Society of the Revival of Islamic Heritage (RIHS) is globally famous for supporting Islamic terrorism and appears on the United States State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations. The branches in Pakistan and Afghanistan allegedly became corrupted by members of al-Qaeda; those two branches were embargoed on 9 January 2002 by the United States. The government of Russia has banned RIHS from operating anywhere in Russia and has deemed the society to be a terrorist organisation.A release from the Treasury's Press Office alleged that the Pakistan office, under the direction of Abd al-Muhsin al-Libi, had inflated the number of orphans under its care. The United States has the organization listed on the OFAC SDN list (as Administration of the Revival of Islamic Heritage Society Committee), thus prohibiting U.S. citizens and permanent residents from doing business with the Kuwaiti organization.\nAccording to the Spanish intelligence agency CNI, Kuwait provided funding and aid to Islamic associations and congregations in Spain through its subsidiary branch of RIHS. Kuwait this way funded mosques in Reus and Torredembarra who spread an ideology contrary to the integration of Muslims into Spanish society and fostering hatred of non-Muslims.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The \"Langtang Mafia\" is a rumored clique of military men from Langtang, Plateau State who hold or have held positions of power in the Nigerian government. The term is often used in reference to the 1985 \u2013 1993 Babangida junta. Purported members have included Lt Gen Joshua Nimyel Dogonyaro (retired, deceased), Lt Gen Jeremiah Useni (retired), Lt Gen Domkat Bali (retired) and Brig Gen John Nanzip Shagaya (retired and former Senator, deceased), and Lt Gen Muhammad A. Najib (retired) as well.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Russian political term leaderism (Russian: \u0432\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0438\u0437\u043c, vozhdism) means \"a policy directed at the affirmation/confirmation of one person in the role of an indisputable or infallible leader\". Vozhdism is widespread in totalitarian and authoritarian r\u00e9gimes. Manifestations of vozhdism include clientelism, nepotism, tribalism, and messianism.Ancient Greek tyranny, as described in  the  Politics  by Aristotle,\nrepresents an early form of leaderism. Forms of leaderism include Italian Fascism, F\u00fchrerprinzip, Stalinism, Maoism, and Juche. According to Nikolai Berdyaev (1874-1948), Leninism represented a new type of leaderism, featuring a leader of masses having dictatorship powers, while Joseph Stalin as vozhd exemplifies an ultimate type of such a Supreme leader.In communist phraseology the term \"leaderism\" occurs as a pejorative, in opposition to the officially proclaimed \"principle of collective leadership\".Some modern Russian authors have implied that the r\u00e9gimes of Mikheil Saakashvili, Islamic leaders, and Vladimir Putin\nrepresent types of leaderist societies.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Leaktivism is defined as the action of distributing confidential documents to the public in an attempt to directly impact the socio-economic and political spheres. The term Leaktivism was popularized by Micah White, the co-founder of the Occupy movement, in relation to the Panama Papers.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The legislatures of communist states included:\n\nCongress of Soviets and Supreme Soviet in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics\nPeople's Chamber and Chamber of States in the German Democratic Republic\nGreat National Assembly in the People's Republic of Romania and the Socialist Republic of Romania\nFederal Assembly in the Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia and Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\nPeople's Great Khural in the People's Republic of Mongolia\nNational Assembly of People's Power in the Republic of Cuba\nNational Assembly of Vietnam in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam\nNational People's Congress in the People's Republic of China\nNational Assembly in the Democratic People's Republic of Laos\nKampuchean People's Representative Assembly in Democratic Kampuchea\nNational Assembly in the People's Republic of Kampuchea\nPeople's Assembly of Albania in the People's Republic of Albania and Socialist People's Republic of Albania\nSejm in the Polish People's Republic\nNational Assembly in the People's Republic of Bulgaria\nParliament in the People's Republic of Hungary\nNational Assembly and Federal Assembly in the Republic of Czechoslovakia and the Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia\nSupreme People's Council in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen\nPeople's National Assembly in the People's Republic of the Congo\nPeople's Assembly in the People's Republic of Mozambique\nNational Assembly in the People's Republic of Angola\nRevolutionary National Assembly in the People's Republic of Benin\nSupreme Revolutionary Council and People's Assembly in the Democratic Republic of Somalia\nNational Shengo in the People's Democratic Republic of EthiopiaDue to their vanguard status, Communist parties were either the sole party represented in these legislatures, or held permanent majorities. In the latter case, the Communist parties were the dominant partners in popular fronts that were the sole organizations allowed to contest elections. The minor parties in these fronts were subservient to the Communist party, and had to accept the party's \"leading role\" as a condition of their continued existence.\nThe legislatures were vested with great lawmaking powers on paper, and in most cases all other government institutions were nominally subordinated to them. In practice, the doctrine of democratic centralism resulted in the legislatures being rubber stamps which held very little real power. They did little more than give legal sanction to decisions already made at the highest levels of the Communist parties. Legislative sessions were infrequent, usually only once or twice a year, and consequently legislative power was often vested in some form of standing committee elected by the legislature, usually titled presidium or state council, between its sessions.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A liberation movement is an organization or political movement leading a rebellion, or a non-violent social movement, against a colonial power or national government, often seeking independence based on a nationalist identity and an anti-imperialist outlook.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Libyan League for Human Rights (LLHR) is a human rights organization in the Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network. LLHR was established on 2 March 1989 by Soliman Bouchuiguir, Hussein Raiani, Mohammad Zayyan, and Mansour Kikhia. According to the League's website, \"Mansour Kikhia, former Libyan ambassador to the United Nations, had defected to the US in 1980 and, in December 1993, was kidnapped in Egypt and subsequently transported to Libya, where he is believed to have been executed.\"As of 2001, LLHR was headquartered from Geneva, Switzerland, with branches in Bornheim, Germany and in England. Since then, it has opened operations in North America.The group opposes the death penalty in Libya and throughout the world. Since the beginning of the 2011 Libyan civil war, LLHR has issued statements condemning the violent crackdown on protesters and Gaddafi's use of rape, torture, and abduction as instruments of war . It has also addressed the UN Human Rights Council and European Union on human rights violations during the civil war. LLHR played a role in raising awareness surrounding the detention of American citizen Abdelgader Gibani in February 2011 and in encouraging Americans to call the State Department to facilitate his release. Gibani was released on 2 March 2011. On January 27, 2012, the Libyan League for Human Rights opened an investigation into all interactions between Libyans and US law enforcement agencies and related bodies (including the FBI, CIA, local law enforcement, TSA, and CBP, as well as the Department of Homeland Security and State Department) since February 2011. LLHR cited evidence that the FBI and other US law enforcement agencies had targeted Libyan-American citizens in their homes and workplaces as well as at US-Canada border crossings and airports throughout the US. In its statement regarding the investigation, LLHR indicated that two American citizens of Libyan origin were currently being prevented from entering the US. LLHR highlighted that these actions \"directly undermine Articles 9 through 12 of the Universal Declaration for Human Rights (UDHR), which protect all human beings from arbitrary arrest, detention, and exile, and arbitrary interference with privacy,\" as well as \"the rights of these individuals to freedom of movement and to return to their country of citizenship, as affirmed in Article 13 of the UDHR.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Light of Faith (Kyrgyz: \u042b\u0439\u043c\u0430\u043d \u043d\u0443\u0440\u0443, romanized: Iyman nuru), officially the Political Party for Justice and Development \"Light of Faith\" (Kyrgyz: \u201c\u042b\u0439\u043c\u0430\u043d \u041d\u0443\u0440\u0443\u201d \u0410\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0435\u0442\u04af\u04af\u043b\u04af\u043a \u0436\u0430\u043d\u0430 \u04e9\u043d\u04af\u0433\u04af\u04af \u0441\u0430\u044f\u0441\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f\u0441\u044b; Russian: \u041f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u044f \u0441\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0434\u043b\u0438\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u044f \u00ab\u042b\u0439\u043c\u0430\u043d \u041d\u0443\u0440\u0443\u00bb) and sometimes translated as Beam of Conscience or Ray of Faith, is a political party in Kyrgyzstan. The party participated in the 2020 parliamentary elections, in which they garnered 66,747 votes (3.1%), which was below the 7% electoral threshold. In elections in 2021 for which the threshold was reduced to 5%, the party performed better, obtaining a 5.98% stake and five seats.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Lille Congress was the twelfth national congress of the French Socialist Party (Parti socialiste or PS). It took place from 3 to 5 April 1987.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of mayors that served the city of Miskolc, Hungary.\n\n1990\u20131993 \u2013  Tam\u00e1s Csoba\n1993\u20131994 \u2013  Ildik\u00f3 T. Asztalos\n1994\u20132002 \u2013 Tam\u00e1s Kobold\n2002\u20132010 \u2013  S\u00e1ndor K\u00e1li\nSince 2010 \u2013  \u00c1kos Kriza", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of mayors that served the city of Soltvadkert, Hungary.\n\n??\u2013?? \u2013  Gyula Havasi\n??\u20131990 \u2013 K\u00e1roly Nagy\n1990\u20132006 \u2013  L\u00e1szl\u00f3 Berkecz\nSince 2006 \u2013  Ferencz Lehoczki", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Chairmen of the Chamber of the People\nBelow is a list of office-holders:", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of United States governors who died in office.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Littledown and Iford is a ward in Bournemouth, Dorset. Since 2019, the ward has elected 2 councillors to Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole Council.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A local people's court is a court at local level of the People's Republic of China. According to the Organic Law of the People's Courts, the local people's courts includes:\n\nHigh people's courts\nIntermediate people's courts\nPrimary people's courtsDuring the 1940s and 1950s, people's courts were village meetings in which peasants would engage in airing grievances about their landlords. These were known as \u8bc9\u82e6\u4f1a s\u00f9k\u01d4hu\u00ec \u201cspeak bitterness meetings\u201d and were often organized by Communist militants for the denunciation of landlords. They have been described as a form of kangaroo court.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1977 London summit was the 4th NATO summit bringing the leaders of member nations together at the same time. The formal sessions and informal meetings in London took place on 10\u201311 May 1977. This event was only the fifth meeting of the NATO heads of state following the ceremonial signing of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Lufubu is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers a large rural area in the Ngabwe District of Central Province. It was created in 2016.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A maiden speech is the first speech given by a newly elected or appointed member of a legislature or parliament.\nTraditions surrounding maiden speeches vary from country to country. In many Westminster system governments, there is a convention that maiden speeches should be relatively uncontroversial, often consisting of a general statement of the politician's beliefs and background rather than a partisan comment on a current topic.This convention is not always followed, however. For example, the maiden speeches of Pauline Hanson in the Australian House of Representatives in 1996, and Richard Nixon in the United States House of Representatives in 1947, broke the tradition. Margaret Thatcher's maiden speech in the House of Commons in 1959 included the successful introduction of the bill which became the Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act 1960.\nThere is also a strong convention in some countries, such as in the Netherlands, that maiden speeches should not be subjected to interruption or interjection and should not be attacked or dismissed by subsequent speakers. Another convention in the British House of Commons is that a Member of Parliament will include tribute in a maiden speech to previous incumbents of their seat.Some countries, notably Australia, no longer formally describe a politician's first speech as a 'maiden' speech, referring only to it as a 'first' speech. The Australian Parliament website and Hansard records no longer use 'maiden' as a term; the word remains common in discourse and colloquial use.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A majority government is a government by one or more governing parties that hold an absolute majority of seats in a legislature. This is as opposed to a minority government, where the largest party in a legislature only has a plurality of seats. A government majority determines the balance of power.A majority government is usually assured of having its legislation passed and rarely, if ever, has to fear being defeated in parliament, a state also known as a working majority.  In contrast, a minority government must constantly bargain for support from other parties in order to pass legislation and avoid being defeated on motions of no confidence. Single-party majority governments tend be formed in the aftermath of strong election performances.\nThe term \"majority government\" may also be used for a stable coalition of two or more parties to form an absolute majority. One example of such an electoral coalition is in Australia, where the Liberal and National parties have run as an electoral bloc for decades.\nAnother example was the 2010\u20132015 coalition government in the United Kingdom, which was composed of the Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties. The Conservatives won the most seats of any single party in the 2010 election, but fell short of an absolute majority. However, by combining with the Liberal Democrats a solid majority in the House of Commons was created. This was the first true coalition government in the UK since World War II.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Man of Korea (Korean: \ub0a8\uc131\uc5f0\ub300; literally Solidarity for Men) is a non-profit masculist organization in South Korea. It was founded in 2008, and first leader was Sung Jae-gi.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Managing the news is the deliberate influencing of the presentation of information within the news media. The expression managing the news is often used in a negative sense. For example, people or organizations that wish to lessen the publicity concerning bad news may choose to release the information late on a Friday, giving journalists less time to pursue the story. Staying \"on message\" is a technique intended to limit questions and attention to a narrow scope favorable to the subject.\nAn example cited by the Communication, Cultural and Media Studies infobase regards a February 1996 Scott Report on arms sales to Iraq. In the United Kingdom, the report was given early to certain officials.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Marrakech Accords is a set of agreements reached at the 7th Conference of the Parties (COP7) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in 2001, on the rules of meeting the targets set out in the Kyoto Protocol.\nThe separate Marrakech Declaration of 15 April 1994, manifesting the Uruguay Round trade agreements and establishing the World Trade Organization, was also concluded and signed in Marrakech, Morocco.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A mass movement denotes a political party or movement which is supported by large segments of a population. Political movements that typically advocate the creation of a mass movement include the ideologies of communism, fascism, and liberalism. Both communists and fascists typically support the creation of mass movements as a means to overthrow a government and create their own government, the mass movement then being used afterwards to protect the government from being overthrown itself; whereas liberals seek mass participation in the state apparatus of representative democracy.\nThe social scientific study of mass movements focuses on such elements as charisma, leadership, active minorities, cults and sects, followers, mass man and mass society, alienation, brainwashing and indoctrination,  authoritarianism and totalitarianism. The field emerged from crowd or mass psychology (Le Bon, Tarde a.o.), which had gradually widened its scope from mobs to social movements and opinion currents, and then to mass and media society. \nOne influential early text was the double essay on the herd instinct (1908) by British surgeon Wilfred Trotter. It also influenced the key concepts of the superego and identification in Massenpsychologie (1921) by Sigmund Freud, misleadingly translated as Group psychology. They are linked to ideas on sexual repression leading to rigid personalities, in the original Mass psychology of fascism (1933) by Freudo-Marxist Wilhelm Reich (not to be confused with its totally revised 1946 American version). This then rejoined ideas formulated by the Frankfurt School and Theodor Adorno, ultimately leading to a major American study of the authoritarian personality (1950), as a basis for xenophobia and anti-Semitism.\nAnother early theme was the relationship between masses and elites, both outside and within such movements (Gaetano Mosca, Vilfredo Pareto, Robert Michels, Moisey Ostrogorski).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The means of labor (also called instruments of labor)  is a concept in Marxist political economy that refers to \"all those things with the aid of which man acts upon the subject of his labor, and transforms it.\" (Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., 1957) Means of labor include tools, machinery, buildings and land used for production, and infrastructure such as roads, telecommunications networks, and so forth. Labor, itself, defines \"work, especially hard physical work.\"The means of labor are one of three basic factors of production (Marx, 1967, p. 174), along with human labor and the subject of labor (the material worked on).The means of labor and the subject of labor compromise the means of production of society.In some formulations, the means of labor and human labor (including the activity itself as well as the laborer's skills and knowledge used in production) comprise the productive forces of society (e.g., Sheptulin, 1978). Other formulations define productive forces more narrowly as the union of instruments of production and the laborers who wield them (e.g., Institute of Economics, 1957), thereby excluding invested capital.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "MediaTransparency was a project begun in 1999 which monitored the financial ties of conservative think tanks to conservative foundations in the United States.  Its database tracked over 50,000 grants awarded since 1985, which total more than US$3.2 billion.  It was run by Cursor, Inc. before being acquired by Media Matters for America in 2008.Cursor.org was dedicated to \"news, opinion, analysis and investigative data related to links between conservative philanthropies and the organizations and people they fund, and their influence in the media.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Melayu Islam Beraja (abbreviated as MIB; Jawi: \u0645\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0648 \u0627\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645 \u0628\u0631\u0627\u062c; English: Malay Islamic Monarchy) was officially proclaimed as the national philosophy of Brunei on the day of its independence on 1 January 1984 by Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah.MIB is described as \"a blend of Malay language, culture, and Malay customs, the teaching of Islamic laws and values and the monarchy system which must be esteemed and practiced by all\". Islam is the official and state religion of Brunei; and MIB basically opposes the concept of secularism.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A meme hack is changing a meme to express a point of view not intended or inherent in the original image, or even opposite to the original. The meme can be thoughts, concepts, ideas, theories, opinions, beliefs, practices, habits, songs, or icons. Distortions of corporate logos are also referred to as subvertising. Another definition is: \"Intentionally altering a concept or phrase, or using it in a different context, so as to subvert the meaning.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Royal Commission into Victoria's Mental Health System, more widely known as the Mental Health Royal Commission, is a royal commission in Victoria, Australia. It was established on 22 February 2019 to investigate deficiencies in the state's mental health system and the broader prevalence of mental illnesses and suicides in the state. The commission published and delivered its interim report to the Governor on 27 November 2019 and tabled in Parliament on the same day. The Commission delivered its final report on 3 February 2021 and it was tabled on 2 March 2021, prior to an historic joint sitting of the Victorian Parliament held on this date at the Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Merchandization is a critical term coined by the anti-globalization movement to designate the process of change in viewpoint of individuals or society towards an object, service or substance. Things that were formerly thought of as \"simply being there\", are now being thought of as commodities for sale and corporate profit.  This change in viewpoint is called merchandization of an object.\nFor example, anti-globalization and anti-capitalism activists claim that in today's society, many things, including health care, culture, and education, are becoming mere merchandise.\nMarx discussed this \"fetishism of commodities\" in the nineteenth century.\nPolitical Economy has indeed analysed, however incompletely,  value and its magnitude, and has discovered what lies beneath these forms. But it has never once asked the question why labour is represented by the value of its product and labour time by the magnitude of that value.  These formul\u00e6, which bear it stamped upon them in unmistakable letters that they belong to a state of society, in which the process of production has the mastery over man, instead of being controlled by him, such formul\u00e6 appear to the bourgeois intellect to be as much a self-evident necessity imposed by Nature as productive labour itself. Hence forms of social production that preceded the bourgeois form, are treated by the bourgeoisie in much the same way as the Fathers of the Church treated pre-Christian religions. . . . . Could commodities themselves speak, they would say: Our use value may be a thing that interests men. It is no part of us as objects. What, however, does belong to us as objects, is our value. Our natural intercourse as commodities proves it. In the eyes of each other we are nothing but exchange values.\nIn other words, something may have usefulness, but it has no value unless it can be exchanged in the marketplace for something else considered to have value. That value may come because it fills a need through consumption or being further exchanged. In this way, labor, time, and natural resources have come to serve the market instead of the other way around.\nThe slogan of ATTAC is \"the World is not Merchandise\" (le monde n'est pas une marchandise).\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Michigan model is a theory of voter choice, based primarily on sociological and party identification factors. Originally proposed by political scientists, beginning with an investigation of the 1952 Presidential election, at the University of Michigan's Survey Research Centre. These scholars developed and refined an approach to voting behaviour in terms of a voter's psychological attachment to a political party,  acknowledging cleavages on a group level, which would be continued over the next two decades.\nThe initial research saw three major factors to voting behaviour: Personal identification with one of the political parties, concern with issues of national government policy and personal attraction to the presidential candidates. Later, their analysis saw that party identification and attachment was the most common factor. Furthermore, according to the model, this party attachment is generally stable, formulated by outside social influences, including parents, family members and others in one's sociological spectrum. Two sets of data were used in the model's construction. The 1964 and 1968 national, cross-sectional survey of the presidential election. They were designed as representative samples of those, with private households, voting in the US. However, in recent years, the model has been challenged by spatial and valence models, forcing proponents to reconsider the long term implications of party attachment. In some ways the Michigan model and spatial model are opposite ends of the spectrum, with the Michigan model arguing voting is purely partisan and the spatial model arguing voting is based on ideological proximity to the candidates. In spatial voting theories there is no role for partisanship in voting. Furthermore, critics claim that the Michigan model exaggerates the assumption that party identification is cemented by circumstances, but rather that party identification can change in light of a party's performance or other circumstances. The model is only applicable to American \"winner-take-all\" systems, as lack of choice contributes to small chances for Partisan ID to change.  The model most famously appeared in The American Voter.\nThe funnel of causality:\nThe model relies heavily on early attachment to parties, through the funnel of causality. This shows long term effects such as: Sociological Characteristics (Race, ethnicity, gender and sexual orientation), Social Status Characteristics (Social class & Occupation), and Parental Characteristics (Values and Partisanship). These factors go on to create party Identification which is largely static within individual voters. And it is through an individuals partisan identification that short term choices, such as Candidate Evaluation and Issue Perceptions are created.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA) was a quarterly, peer-reviewed,  journal on Middle East issues founded by the late Barry Rubin and edited by Dr. Jonathan Spyer. The journal is no longer active; the last published issue was Vol. 21, No. 3 (Fall/Winter 2017). MERIA was published by the Rubin Center for Research in International Affairs formerly known as Global Research in International Affairs Center (GLORIA) of the Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) in Herzliya, Israel.\nThe Rubin Center for Research in International Affairs also published MERIA News, a monthly magazine on Middle East studies; MERIA Research Guides; and MERIABooks, collections of articles from the journal and other sources.  According to Rubin's website for MERIA, the mission of the publication is \"to advance research on the Middle East and [to] foster scholarly communication and cooperation,\" and MERIA is a \"non-partisan publication involving people across the geographical and political spectrum.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Military security implies the capability of a nation-state to defend itself, and/or deter military aggression. Alternatively, military security implies the capability of a nation-state to enforce its policy choices by use of military force. The term \"military security\" is considered synonymous with \"security\" in much of its usage. One of the definitions of security given in the Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, may be considered a definition of \"military security\":This is traditionally, the earliest recognised form of national security.:\u200a67\u200a The scope of military security has expanded from conventional forms of conflict between nation-states to fourth-generation warfare between a state and non-state actors.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A mining referendum is a direct and universal vote in which an entire electorate is invited to vote on a mining proposal. Mining referendums have been held in Tambo Grande, Peru in 2002 and in Chubut, Argentina in the 2000s. In both these cases the local community rejected the establishment of new mines in their territory.In Cuenca, Ecuador, a mining referendum took place in conjunction with the 2021 Ecuadorian general election on February 7, with preliminary results showing a 80.9% of voters voting in favor of prohibiting mining activity in the area.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Minister Mentor was a position in the Cabinet of Singapore created in 2004 as part of a transition in political leadership. The only person to hold the post, between 2004 and 2011, was Lee Kuan Yew.\nOn 12 August 2004, when Lee Hsien Loong succeeded Goh Chok Tong and became Singapore's third prime minister, he announced the position of minister mentor when naming his Cabinet on 12 August 2004. \nBefore his appointment as minister mentor, Lee Kuan Yew was senior minister between 1990 and 2004 in Goh Chok Tong's Cabinet. Goh became Senior Minister in Lee Hsien Loong's first Cabinet.\nOn 14 May 2011, following the general election that took place seven days earlier, Lee Kuan Yew and Goh Chok Tong announced their retirement from the Cabinet.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Ministers of Mental Health are specific Government Ministers with a responsibility over mental health.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Minister of State for Home Affairs is a mid-level position in the Home Office in the British government. It is currently held by Baroness Williams of Trafford, who took the office on 17 July 2016.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Ministry of Justice of the German Democratic Republic (German: Justizministerium der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik) was established in 1949 in East Germany and dissolved in 1990. Its duties were subsequently taken up by the federal Ministry of Justice of the united Germany, and the justice ministries of the six new federal states. The Ministry was housed at 93 Dorothea Street (Dorotheenstra\u00dfe 93), the former offices of the Weimar and Nazi Interior Ministry. It published the journal Neue Justiz.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Mkushi North is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers the towns of Chikoloma, Miloso, Mkushi, Mulungwe and Ngosa in Mkushi District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Mkushi South is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers the towns of Chafung, Chingobe and Mboroma in Luano District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Moldovan Constitution of 1994 is the supreme law of the country, since 27 August 1994.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation was released on 7 October 2013 by the leaders of a number of organizations involved in coordinating the Internet's global technical infrastructure. The statement was signed by the heads of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the Internet Engineering Task Force, the Internet Architecture Board, the World Wide Web Consortium, the Internet Society, and the five regional Internet address registries (African Network Information Center, American Registry for Internet Numbers, Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre, Latin America and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry, and R\u00e9seaux IP Europ\u00e9ens Network Coordination Centre). In large part, the statement is seen as a response to the ongoing NSA surveillance scandal. The leaders made four main points:\nThey reinforced the importance of globally coherent Internet operations, and warned against Internet fragmentation at a national level. They expressed strong concern over the undermining of the trust and confidence of Internet users globally due to recent revelations of pervasive monitoring and surveillance.\nThey identified the need for ongoing effort to address Internet Governance challenges, and agreed to catalyze community-wide efforts towards the evolution of global multistakeholder Internet cooperation.\nThey called for accelerating the globalization of ICANN and IANA functions, towards an environment in which all stakeholders, including all governments, participate on an equal footing.\nThey also called for the transition to IPv6 to remain a top priority globally. In particular Internet content providers must serve content with both IPv4 and IPv6 services, in order to be fully reachable on the global Internet.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Moordown is a ward in Bournemouth, Dorset. Since 2019, the ward has elected 2 councillors to Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole Council.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) was a rebel group in Liberia that became active in March 2003, launching attacks from Ivory Coast. MODEL was based on the Force Sp\u00e9ciale pour la Lib\u00e9ration du Monde Africain (LIMA) militia formed in September 2002 to help Laurent Gbagbo's government against insurgents backed by Liberia's president Charles Taylor. After fighting off the imminent threat, parts of LIMA crossed the border to Liberia to continue the war there. With Taylor's forces already pressed against the larger Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), MODEL achieved rapid territorial gains. While it was initially thought that MODEL was a splinter group of LURD, this was not the case. While the initial leadership of MODEL came from LURD, the majority of MODEL fighters were mobilized from Ivorian and Ghanaian refugee camps to which many Liberians from the country's Southeast had fled to.The relationship between the rebel groups too was strained, with politicians from both movements trying to make certain that cooperation would remain difficult. MODEL was backed by the Ivorian government as a way of staking a claim in Liberian politics during the turmoil of that country's civil war, or as retaliation for the Liberian government's alleged support for rebels in Ivory Coast. Its political leader, Thomas Nimely, was named as Liberia's foreign minister in the transitional government that was appointed on October 14, 2003, following the resignation and exile of Taylor.  The group may have exported timber from regions of southern Liberia under its control, which would have been a violation of United Nations sanctions. By 2004 MODEL in effect ceased to exist.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Muchinga is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers the towns of Chibale, Chisomo, Katota, Mukopa, Musoro, Nakosa and Sekeleti in Serenje District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Mudeford, Stanpit and West Highcliffe is a ward in Christchurch, Dorset. Since 2019, the ward has elected 2 councillors to Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole Council.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Mumbwa is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers Mumbwa and several other towns in Mumbwa District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Muslim Reform Movement is a U.S.-based organization dedicated to reform in Islam based on values of peace, human rights, and secular governance.\nThe organization was founded on December 4, 2015, when the founders read a \"Declaration of Reform\" at the National Press Club in Washington, D.C. The founders then went to the Saudi-affiliated Islamic Center of Washington and posted the Declaration of Reform on the doors of mosque \"denouncing violent jihad, rejecting Islamic statism and opposing the 'ideology of violent Islamic extremism.'\" Founding signatories of the Muslim Reform Movement are Asra Nomani, Tahir Aslam Gora, Tawfik Hamid, Usama Hasan, Arif Humayun, Farahnaz Ispahani, Zuhdi Jasser, Naser Khader, Courtney Lonergan, Hasan Mahmud, Raheel Raza, Sohail Raza, and Salma Siddiqui.Announcing the founding of the Muslim Reform Movement on NBC's Meet the Press on December 6, 2015, Asra Nomani said,\n\n... we are opposing a very real interpretation of Islam that espouses violence, social injustice, and political Islam ... The problem is sitting in the birthplace of Islam, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, where this interpretation of Islam has gone out into the world over the last four decades, creating militancy groups from Indonesia, to now, San Bernardino, California, vicious attack. We have to take back the faith. And we have to take it back with the principles of peace, social justice, and human rights, women's rights, and secularize governance ... we've had enough.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Mwandi is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers Mwandi District in Western Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Mwembeshi is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers Muteli and Nampundwe in Shibuyunji District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Nabakrushna Choudhury Centre for Development Studies is a public policy think-tank of the state of Odisha. It conducts research in the disciplines of Economics, Sociology and Social Anthropology. It is jointly funded by the Government of India and the Government of Odisha.  It assists the Odisha Government in research, planning, training.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Namatanai Open Seat is an Electorate in the New Ireland Province of Papua New Guinea. The Member of Parliament representing this seat is Walter Schnaubelt. Former Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea Sir Julius Chan represented this electorate from 1968 to 1997. Ephraim Apelis became the second Member for Namatanai from 1997 to 2002. Byron Chan became Member for Namatanai in 2002-2017 until his subsequent defeat to his cousin Walter Schnaubelt in the 2017 National Elections.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In politics, name recognition is the ability a voter has to identify a candidate's name due to a certain amount of previous exposure through various campaigning methods. It can be described as the awareness voters have about specific candidates resulting from various forms of campaign advertising. Some of the advertising methods used by candidates running for various offices are creating posters, making yard signs, bumper stickers and attempting to get media exposure, are a few examples of how they achieve this. Though candidates can achieve high name recognition and exposure, this does not necessarily mean that the average voter has a good understanding of their ideologies, positions and stances on political issues.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Nancy Program was the party platform for the Nationalist Socialist Party in France in 1889.\nIt was written by Maurice Barr\u00e8s, an elected deputy from the town of Nancy (in Lorraine), and is valuable as a representative statement of the outlook of the new Right in France at the turn of the 20th century. In The Nancy Program, Barr\u00e8s advocates The New Right, supporting nationalism and socialism. The document exemplifies the xenophobia and anti-semitism that was rampant in France at the time.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Nangoma is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers Kasula, Namukumbo and Nangoma in Mumbwa District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Napol\u00e9on le Petit (French; literally \"Napoleon the Small\") was an influential political pamphlet by Victor Hugo, published in 1852. It criticised the rule of Napoleon III and the politics of the Second French Empire for which he left Belgium, and later was expelled of Jersey. Hugo lived in exile in Guernsey for most of Napoleon III's reign and his criticism was significant because he was one of the most prominent Frenchmen of the time and widely respected. \nThe work was the first to use the adage that 2 + 2 = 5 as a denial of truth by authority, a notion later used by George Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four.\nVolumes were smuggled into France (e.g. in bales of hay, and between metal sheets as a tin of sardines), read at secret meetings, and hand-copied.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The National Assembly, formerly known as the Chamber of Deputies, is the unicameral legislative branch of the government of Djibouti.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The National Commission on the Observance of International Women's Year was a presidential commission created by Gerald Ford on January 9, 1975 to promote the national observance in the United States of International Women's Year. The commission was tasked with \"encouraging cooperative activity in the field of women's rights and responsibilities\" in conjunction with International Women's Year, which had been declared by the United Nations in 1972. It was established by Executive Order 11832 and originally composed of 35 private citizens appointed by the president.The Commission was extended by congressional statute by HR 9924 beyond 1975 to March 31, 1978. The Commission enjoyed continued support by President Jimmy Carter after his assumption of office in January 1977, culminating in the organizing of the 1977 National Women's Conference and its 1978 report, The Spirit of Houston, which was a summary of the 26 planks adopted as the National Plan of Action at the conference.\nAfter the commission's expiry in March 1978, Carter established the National Advisory Committee for Women by executive order.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "National Movement of Servants of the Masses (French: Mouvement national des serviteurs des masses) is a Marxist political party in Senegal, founded on March 12, 1998 in Diourbel. The party is led by Aliou Seck.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The National Peace Keeping Council (NPKC) (Thai: \u0e04\u0e13\u0e30\u0e23\u0e31\u0e01\u0e29\u0e32\u0e04\u0e27\u0e32\u0e21\u0e2a\u0e07\u0e1a\u0e40\u0e23\u0e35\u0e22\u0e1a\u0e23\u0e49\u0e2d\u0e22\u0e41\u0e2b\u0e48\u0e07\u0e0a\u0e32\u0e15\u0e34) was the name assumed by a Thai military junta that overthrew the elected civilian government of Chatichai Choonhavan in 1991. It was led by Army Commander Suchinda Kraprayoon, Supreme Commander Sunthorn Kongsompong, Air Force Commander Kaset Rojananil, and members of the fifth class of Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy. After the March 1992 general election, General Suchinda was appointed prime minister. He resigned following a public uprising and pressure from King Bhumibol Adulyadej.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "National power is defined as the sum of all resources available to a nation in the pursuit of national objectives. Assessing the national power of political entities was already a matter of relevance during the classical antiquity, the middle ages and the renaissance and today.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In 1980, the NBC Parent Participation TV Workshop held the first National Student/Parent Mock Election. Through its success, the National Student/Parent Mock Election became a separate nonprofit, nonpartisan organization in 1982. The 1982 Mock Election had over 250,000 participants. This grew to 3.5 million participants in 1988, and as many as 5 million in 1992. In 1996 and 1998, the National Student/Parent Mock Election was also conducted on Votelink.com Results from Secretary of State offices were linked to an interactive map of all 50 states on Votelink.com", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The National Transition Council of Congo (French Conseil national de transition) was a political body in the Republic of the Congo that was involved in the composition of the 1997 General Sassou Nguesso's government, setting up a 75-member body in the place of the parliament.\nThe National Transitional Council adopted a new Constitution of Congo in May 2001. The new Constitution enabled the government to choose the date of presidential, parliament and local elections.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2005 NATO Headquarters summit was a NATO summit held in the NATO Headquarters, Brussels, Belgium on 22 February 2005. During this summit, NATO leaders reaffirmed their support for building stability in the Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq, and commit to strengthening the partnership between NATO and the European Union.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Ndola City Council is a metropolitan city representative of the city of Ndola. It was formed in 1942 and serves as the sole service delivery supplier of the city of Ndola.The council serves all residential areas in Ndola. However, it has been marred in corruption cases with residents claiming unfair allocation of city land.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Necessary International Initiative, often shortened to NII, was a Trotskyist international grouping formed in March 1976 by groups considered to the left of the Fourth International, which the NII characterised as \"centrism sui generis\", although the British section disagreed with this analysis. It consisted of the FMR, Spartacusbund (BRD) and two Austrian groups which become the IKL. The British International-Communist League joined in September 1976. The group was based on common agreement over positions of other Trotskyist internationals on the Portuguese revolution of 1974/5. One of the groups that came out of them was Workers Power (Germany) which is now a member of the League for a Fifth International, as is part of the British section which split in 1976.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Negative selection is a political process that occurs especially in rigid hierarchies, most notably dictatorships, but also to lesser degrees in such settings as corporations or electoral politics.\nThe person(s) on the top of the hierarchy, wishing to remain in power forever, chooses his associates with the prime criterion of incompetence \u2013 they must not be competent enough to remove him/her/them from power.  Since subordinates often mimic their leader, these associates do the same with those below them in the hierarchy, and the hierarchy becomes progressively filled over time with more and more incompetent people.\nIf the dictator sees that he/she is threatened nonetheless, he/she will remove those that threaten him/her from their positions \u2013 \"purge\" the hierarchy. Emptied positions in the hierarchy are normally filled with people from below \u2013 those who were less competent than their previous leaders. So, over the course of time, the hierarchy turns less and less effective. Once the dictator dies \u2013 or is removed by some external force \u2013 what remains is a grossly ineffective hierarchy.\nIn a famous anecdote from Herodotus's Histories, a messenger from Periander asks Thrasybulus for advice on ruling. Thrasybulus, instead of responding, takes the messenger for a walk in a field of wheat, where he proceeds to cut off all of the best and tallest ears of wheat. The message, correctly interpreted by Periander, was that a wise ruler would preempt challenges to his rule by \"removing\" those prominent men who might be powerful enough to challenge him.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Neo-Trotskyism refers to the political thought of Marxists who followed Leon Trotsky, but replaced some of his positions and views with their own, especially with regard to the nature of the Soviet Union and the theory of permanent revolution. Examples of neo-Trotskyists would be Tony Cliff and Max Shachtman (who eventually no longer referred to Trotskyism).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Nepal Rastriya Dalit Mukti Sangathan (Nepali: \u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932 \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0926\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928) is a Nepalese Dalit movement, linked to Janamorcha Nepal. Ahuti is the general secretary of the organisation. Ranendra Baraili is the president of the organisation.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "New Korea Party of Hope (NKPH, Huimangui Sinhanguk Dang) was a small political party in South Korea. It participated in the 2000 elections in South Korea, winning one seat. It has been described as conservative.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Nicaraguan fourth ballot box or Nicaraguan cuarta urna is a referendum or plebiscite proposed by Nicaraguan president Daniel Ortega as part of a project to pressure for and effect a change to Nicaraguan constitutional law regarding term limits imposed on the presidency.  This follows in the wake of similar efforts by fellow Central American president Manuel Zelaya to propose a fourth ballot box in Honduras.Ortega recently gained a victory towards defeating presidential term limits when the Nicaraguan Supreme Court decided a constitutional ban on re-election did not apply to him. Ortega is seeking to run again for the presidency in 2011. Nicaraguan lawmakers continue to oppose Ortega's re-election plans.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Nickel Project is a nickname for a transportation funding package enacted in 2003 by the Washington State Legislature. The slogan for the package is \"It\u2019s your Nickel, Watch it Work.\"\nThe $3.9 billion program is funded by the following:\n\n5 cents per gallon gas tax increase\n15% increase in gross weight fees on heavy trucks\n0.3% increase in the sales tax on motor vehiclesThere are 158 projects over a 10-year period. The largest portion of the project is congestion relief with $2.6 billion allocated.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Nigeria Governors' forum is a non-partisan platform that was created to enhance collaboration among the executive governors of Nigeria.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Nihilist Communism: A Critique of Optimism \u2014 the Religious Dogma that states there will be an Ultimate Triumph of Good over Evil \u2014 in the Far Left is a collection of anti-authoritarian, anti-political, anti-organizational communist perspectives cardinally developed by two anglophone authors using the pen names Fr\u00e8re and Le Gar\u00e7on. Since at least 2001, according to the dates of various letters and writings in the book, they have written collaboratively as Monsieur Dupont.Nihilist Communism aims to level \"a critique of optimism in the far left\". Rather than attempting to establish new and popular sets of positions, it is counterpoised against, among many other things, the \"religious\" dogma of the Marxist and anarchist milieus. It attempts to disencumber itself of its content in order to explore new concepts and ideas. \n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Hashtag Initiative or simply # Initiative (Albanian: Nisma Thurje, NTH) is a centrist anti-corruptionist political movement in Albania was founded after the student protests of 2018, by a group of young intellectuals, and is led by a young lecturer and activist, Dr. Endrit Shabani. In 2019 leaders of Nisma, Dr. Shabani, Panajot Soko, Erion Kristo and Mirush Kabashi toured the country demanding a series of constitutional amendments discussed in Charter 2020. Following its success in changing the Electoral code in 2020, they registered in the Parliamentary Election of 2021, becoming as the most popular anti-establishment political group in the country. Their political Manifesto (Charter 2020) is underpinned by three pillars: 1) equal opportunities for progress 2) participatory democracy 3) national solidarity", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Niz Goenkar Revolution Front is a political party in Goa, India. It was created in 2016 in light of the 2017 Goa Legislative Assembly election.It advocates for special status for Goa.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "North American Committee to Aid Spanish Democracy was an American organization established in 1936. It was an umbrella organization for ethnic groups and trade unions. The ethnic groups and trade unions donated money, medical necessities and food to Spain through the North American Committee to Aid Spanish Democracy. These donations were sent to Republicans during the Spanish Civil War.North American Committee to Aid Spanish Democracy was identified as a Communist front linked to the Communist Party USA. Historian Peter N. Carroll describes this organization as a \"Popular Front organization that attracted Communists and Christians alike.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "North Korea Uncovered is a comprehensive set of mappings of North Korea. It includes in-depth coverage of thousands of buildings, monuments, missile-storage facilities, mass graves, secret labor camps, palaces, restaurants, tourist sites, and main roads of the country, and even includes the entrance to the country's subterranean nuclear test base, the Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center.\nThe mapping was the result of a two-year effort by doctoral student Curtis Melvin and other volunteers, who pored over hundreds of news reports, images, accounts, books, and maps in order to identify the geographic and political sites. The result has been called one of the most detailed maps of North Korea available to the public in 2009. It is available as a small KMZ file, viewable with Google Earth. Between April 2007 and April 2012, the data file was downloaded more than 270,000 times.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Northerners (Korean: \ubd81\uc778; Hanja: \u5317\u4eba; RR: buk-in; lit. \"North people\") were a political faction of the Joseon Dynasty. It was created after the split of the Easterners in 1591 by Yi Sanhae and his supporters. In 1606, during the reign of Queen Inmok, the Northerners divided into Greater Northerners (led by Heo Gyun) and Smaller Northerners. In 1613, the Greater Northerners split further into Flesh Northerners, Bone Northerners and Middle Northerners. The Smaller Northerners allied with the Westerners and Southerners.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "\"Nothing About Us Without Us\" (Latin: \"Nihil de nobis, sine nobis\") is a slogan used to communicate the idea that no policy should be decided by any representative without the full and direct participation of members of the group(s) affected by that policy. In its modern form, this often involves national, ethnic, disability-based, or other groups that are often marginalized from political, social, and economic opportunities.\nThe saying has its origins in Central European political traditions. It was the political motto that helped establish\u2014and, loosely translated into Latin, provided the name for\u2014Poland's 1505 constitutional legislation, Nihil novi, which first transferred governing authority from the monarch to the parliament. It subsequently became a byword for democratic norms. In this use, it is closely analogous to one of the most familiar slogans of the American Revolutionary War, 'No taxation without representation'.\nIt is also a long-standing principle of Hungarian law and foreign policy, and was a cornerstone of the foreign policy of interwar Poland.The term in its English form came into use in disability activism during the 1990s. James Charlton relates that he first heard the term used in talks by South African disability activists Michael Masutha and William Rowland, who had in turn heard the phrase used by an unnamed East European activist at an earlier international disability rights conference. In 1998, Charlton used the saying as title for a book on disability rights. Disability rights activist David Werner used the same title for another book, also published in 1998. In 2004, the United Nations used the phrase as the theme of International Day of Persons with Disabilities and it is also associated with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.Use of this slogan has expanded beyond the disability rights community to other interest groups and movements.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "NUST SRC is the legal student representative body of the Namibia University of Science and Technology students in Namibia. Based on Windhoek, it was formed in 1995 and represents 19 000 students of the university's student population.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Offshore balancing is a strategic concept used in realist analysis in international relations. It describes a strategy in which a great power uses favored regional powers to check the rise of potentially-hostile powers. This strategy stands in contrast to the dominant grand strategy in the United States, liberal hegemony. Offshore balancing calls for a great power to withdraw from onshore positions and focus its offshore capabilities on the three key geopolitical regions of the world: Europe, the Persian Gulf, and Northeast Asia.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Oil imperialism theories assert that direct and indirect control of world petroleum reserves is a root factor in current international politics.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Open Turn debate took place in 1991 within the Militant tendency of the British Labour Party. The debate was the result of disagreement over whether, in the changed political situation of the time, the organisation would best be able to win support for their form of Trotskyism (for them Marxism) amongst the working class as entryists within the Labour Party, or as an independent political party.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "An opposition day is a day in a legislature using the Westminster system in which an opposition party sets the agenda. Most days the parliamentary agenda is set by the government; opposition days allow the smaller parties to choose the subject for debate. The number of days varies between parliaments. In Canada there are twenty-two opposition days per parliamentary session. The days are divided among opposition parties with the Official Opposition allotted the most. Canadian opposition parties are allocated days, which are also called \"allotted\" or \"supply\" days, in proportion to their membership in the House. There are no opposition days in Australian jurisdictions. In India, the Parliament does not have an opposition day, but one day every week (Friday) during a session is devoted to private members' bills and resolutions.\nOriginally, opposition days were associated with debates over supply and held prior to the estimates and the budget and were created so that opposition parties could advance ideas for what should and should not be funded. In modern politics, opposition days are most often used to bring up issues that the government would rather ignore. Typically, governments seek to amend opposition day motions to support their own policy.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Oppressors\u2013oppressed distinction or dominant\u2013dominated opposition is a political concept. One of the first theorists to use it was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who wrote in his 1802 The German Constitution: \"The Catholics had been in the position of oppressors, and the Protestants of the oppressed.\" Karl Marx made the concept very influential, and it is often considered a fundamental element of Marxist analysis. Some have judged it simplistic. Many authors have adapted it to other contexts, including Marx, Friedrich Engels,  Vladimir Lenin, Antonio Gramsci, Simone Weil, Paulo Freire, and others. It has been used in a variety of contexts, including discussions of the bourgeoisie and proletariat, imperialism, and self-determination.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Outside agitator is a term that has been used to discount political unrest as being driven by outsiders, rather than by internal discontent. The term was popularized during the early stages of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, when Southern authorities discounted African-American protests as being driven by Northern white radicals, rather than being legitimate expressions of grievances.The term gained further prominence during the George Floyd protests, with local officials in Minneapolis claiming that most protesters were not from the city, despite jail records and social media indicating otherwise. The term was also used during the Ferguson unrest in 2014.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A Pacifist organization promotes the pacifist principle of renouncing war and violence for political ends.  They are distinguished from organizations concerned only with removing nuclear weapons from war, though those organization may call for suspension of hostilities as well.  Other organizations include those that deal with other concerns, but have a strong pacifist element.\nPacifist organizations:\n\nAnglican Pacifist Fellowship\nCentral Committee for Conscientious Objectors\nChristian Peacemaker Teams\nFellowship of Reconciliation\nMennonites\nPeace Brigades International\nPeace Pledge Union\nReligious Society of Friends (Quakers)\nSoka University of America\nWar Resisters' International\nWar Resisters League\"Nuclear pacifist\" organizations :\n\nCND\nPugwashOrganizations that cite pacifism as an aim :\n\nGreenpeace", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Pandering is the act of expressing one's views in accordance with the likes of a group to which one is attempting to appeal. The term is most notably associated with politics. In pandering, the views one is expressing are merely for the purpose of drawing support up to and including votes and do not necessarily reflect one's personal values.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Paris Conference on Passports & Customs Formalities and Through Tickets was a conference organised by the League of Nations in 1920 which agreed, for the first time, on a set of standards for all passports issued by members of the League. Prior to that time, there were no internationally agreed standards for passports because they were not generally required for travel until World War I.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "List of speakers of the Parliament of South Ossetia.\nBelow is a list of office-holders:", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Parliament of South Ossetia is the unicameral legislature of the partially recognized Republic of South Ossetia. The 34 members of parliament are elected using a mixed system of Party-list proportional representation (17) and single-member districts (17). South Ossetia has a multi-party system, and currently 5 political parties are represented in parliament and has 6 independent MPs elected through single-member districts. The parliament is headed by a speaker, who is elected from among the members. The current speaker is Alan Tadtaev, member of parliament for United Ossetia.\nThe parliament of South Ossetia meets in the capital Tskhinvali. The parliament building, built in 1937, was heavily damaged in the 2008 South Ossetia war.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A party organizer or local party organizer is a position in some political parties in charge of the establishing a party organization in a certain locality.\nHerbert Ames wrote in his 1911 article \"Organization of Political Parties in Canada\" :\n\nIt is the aim of the party to have every county in Canada come under the supervision of some permanent organization. <...> A central office <...> is created for such a group. Here is installed a salaried official, party organizer. His duty is to revive existing local political organizations throughout the constituencies, to assist their members by correspondence and occasional visits, and, where there is as yet no political club, to gather together the sympathetic, and aid in forming a working combination. The main objective of the party organizer is to create the machinery whereby a truly representative convention may be convened, and acceptable candidate chosen, and the organization for securing success at the polls brought into being. \n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In politics, a party secretary is a senior official within a political party with responsibility for the organizational and daily political work. In most parties, the party secretary is second in rank to the party leader (or party chairman). In some parties, especially the communist parties, the General Secretary is the leader.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A party-line vote in a deliberative assembly (such as a constituent assembly, parliament, or legislature) is a vote in which a substantial majority of members of a political party vote the same way (usually in opposition to the other political party(ies) whose members vote the opposite way).\nSources vary on what proportion of party members must adhere to the party line in order for the vote to constitute a \"party-line\" vote. For example, in the United States, the Congressional Record has stated: \"A party-line vote is one on which a majority of Republicans vote one way and a majority of Democrats vote another. 2. A bipartisan vote is one in which a majority of Republicans and a majority of Democrats vote the same way\". Another source defined this event for purposes of classifying votes for research purposes as \"one where 90 percent of the majority party votes against 90 percent of the minority party\". Party-line votes are also noted to reflect the degree to which the division of power requires parties to retain cohesion in order to implement its goals:\n\nWhether a party-line vote appears on an issue reflects incentives presented by majority rule. In a house where the two parties are nearly evenly balanced, a few defections will be very costly to the (slim) majority party, and party-line votes may prevail. If, in contrast, one party has a substantial majority, some position-taking defections can be permitted.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Pashtun nationalism (Pashto: \u067e\u069a\u062a\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u0644\u062a\u067e\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0647) generally refers to the idea that Pashtuns must always be united to preserve their culture and defend their homeland against any oppressor. It propagates the view that Muslims are not a nation and that ethnic loyalty must surpass religious loyalty. Those who strongly advocate Pashtun nationalism favor the idea of a \"Greater Afghanistan\", which includes Pashtunkhaw and Balochistan, and be ruled directly under Pashtun principles. Therefore, the concept of Pashtun nationalism overlaps with Afghan nationalism as Afghanistan is rich in resources and ruled under Pashtun principles.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A peace conference is a diplomatic meeting where representatives of certain states, armies, or other warring parties converge to end hostilities and sign a peace treaty.\nSignificant international peace conferences in the past include the following:\n\nSt. Petersburg Declaration of 1868\nAlgeciras Conference (1905)\nHague Conventions of 1899 and 1907\nVersailles (1919)\nGood Friday Agreement (1998)", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "\"Pens\u00e9e unique\" (French for \"single thought\") is a pejorative expression for mainstream ideological conformism of any kind, almost always opposed to that of the speaker. Originally, it is a French expression and referred to claims that neoliberalism is the only correct way to structure society. The phrase implies that mainstream discussion is limited by ideological assumptions of what is possible. One example of pens\u00e9e unique given by critics was the motto of Margaret Thatcher (former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom): TINA (\"There is no alternative\").\nThe expression was coined by Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Kahn, editor-in-chief of L'\u00c9v\u00e9nement du Jeudi, in an editorial in January 1992. The phrase pens\u00e9e unique is often used by political parties and organisations and in criticism.\nThe term has been used regarding prohibitionism of marijuana, with some commenters saying that pens\u00e9e unique is a barrier to legalization.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A pensioner is a person who receives a pension, most commonly because of retirement from the workforce. This is a term typically used in the United Kingdom (along with OAP, initialism of old-age pensioner), Ireland and Australia where someone of pensionable age may also be referred to as an 'old age pensioner'. In the United States, the term retiree is more common, and in New Zealand, the term superannuitant is commonly used. In many countries, increasing life expectancy has led to an expansion of the numbers of pensioners, and they are a growing political force.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "People's joint association(also Manmingongdonghue(\ub9cc\ubbfc\uacf5\ub3d9\ud68c) and Kwanmingongdonghoe(\uad00\ubbfc\uacf5\ub3d9\ud68c)) was a civic group and congress of mass people in Korean Empire, 1897. a  subordinate office of Independence Club.\nfirst People's joint association was congress was held by Independence Club. and latter part congress was Korean peoples autonomy. founder of Seo Jae-pil, Yun Chi-ho, Lee Sang-jae.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The People's Political Movement was a political party in Saint Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla. The party contested the 1961 general elections, receiving 11.1% of the vote, but failed to win a seat. They did not contest any further elections.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Pillbox affair, also known as the Pillbox incident, was a military and political episode which occurred in Britain between November 1939 and January 1940 during the Second World War. The British War Minister, Leslie Hore-Belisha, visited France and the positions of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in mid-November.Hore-Belisha and the commander of the BEF, General, later Field Marshal, John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort, did not get along well together; Gort disliked Hore-Belisha for his colourful personality and unorthodox manner of conducting matters relating to the British Army, and the Minister rapidly came to recognise that.During his visit, Hore-Belisha oversaw the placement of the troops of the BEF, not the defences being constructed. On his return to Britain, he complained to the War Cabinet and the Army Council that too few pillbox defences were being built for the BEF.Gort and colleagues friendly to him were greatly angered by what they saw as this unjust and ill-founded criticism and began a campaign against Hore-Belisha, which culminated in January 1940 in Hore-Belisha's being dismissed from the post of War Minister. This campaign succeeded in large part due to antisemitism and class prejudice in both the Army and Parliament.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "\"Piss on Pity\" is a slogan coined by musician Johnny Crescendo (Alan Holdsworth) in 1990 to protest stereotypes of disabled people. It was first deployed during the 1990 and 1992 Block Telethon protests outside of ITV Studios in the United Kingdom. The slogan was printed on t-shirts and thousands were sold.\"Piss On Pity\" is a rallying cry for those in the disability-inclusive circles of world politics. According to its proponents, the implication of the slogan is that pity, while seeming to be a positive, helpful emotion, actually is derogatory. According to them, it is based in conscious or unconscious aversion to disabled people and the ableism that that aversion consciously or unconsciously represents. According to Barbara Lisicki, an organizer of the Block Telethon protests, on the BBC show Network in 1989, \"If you make a disabled person an object of charity, you're not going to see them as your equal.\"Activists using the slogan will often explain that their ultimate goal in a militant, provocative slogan of this type is to get across the message that, like anti-racism and anti-sexism, they want to purge pity from worldwide social discourse on disability, at both the governmental and cultural levels, and instead foster disability-inclusive practices and equal power politics.\n\u201dPiss on Pity\u201d was the title of an exhibition by disabled artists, that took place in Wakefield, UK, in 2019. Their artwork reflected the antipathy of the disabled people's movement towards charity. The exhibition showed disabled artists challenging the widespread idea that charity is a force wholly for good.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Platforms, in European politics, are openly organized political factions within left-wing political parties. Examples include the Republican Communist Network, the Workers Unity Platform and the Solidarity Tendency, platforms within the Scottish Socialist Party; the Socialist Workers Platform and the Committee for a Workers' International (International Socialists) platform, both Trotskyist platforms formerly within the Scottish Socialist Party and now part of Solidarity (Scotland); and the \"plateformes\" 1 through 4 of the Revolutionary Communist League (Ligue communiste r\u00e9volutionnaire - LCR) in France.\nSuch groups in American left-wing political organizations are usually called tendencies or caucuses.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A political player is a participant in politics who has or is perceived to have influence or power, although usually on a smaller level than a global power elite. The phrase may refer to an individual who is a candidate or elected or appointed official, but more commonly refers to someone who is not in office but still wields power or influence, such as a lobbyist, a fundraiser or contributor, a whistleblower, a political consultant, a labor union or labor leader, a corporation, or even an entire industry. More recently, with the rise of the Internet, web-based groups such as Moveon.org and online organizations, like ActBlue, have become political players as well.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A pluralist democracy describes a political system where there is more than one center of power. Modern democracies are by definition pluralist as democracies allow freedom of association. However, pluralism may exist without democracy.\nIn a democratic society, individuals achieve positions of formal political authority by forming successful electoral coalitions. Such coalitions are formed through a process of bargaining among political leaders and subleaders of the various organizations within the community. It is necessary to form electoral coalitions; this gives the organizational leaders the ability to present demands and articulate the viewpoints of their membership.  Hamed Kazemzadeh, a new generation pluralist from Canada, believes that Pluralist democracy means a multitude of groups, not the people as a whole, can govern, direct, lead, and manage societies as an ethic of respect for diversity.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Political Achievements of the Earl of Dalkeith was a political pamphlet that was published and circulated in Edinburgh during the 1880 United Kingdom general election.  It was well presented but inside the neatly printed cover there were just thirty-two blank pages, making it an early empty book.\nThe publication was thought to be an effective attack on William Montagu Douglas Scott, 6th Duke of Buccleuch. He was the MP for the Midlothian constituency, and lost the seat to Gladstone by 211 votes.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Political security is one of five sectors of analysis under the framework of the Copenhagen School of security studies.Within policy circles political security is part of a human security agenda. The 1994 Human Development Report (HDR) set out the definition and parameters of political security. Produced by Mhbob Ul Haq, a Pakistani, in fewer than 400 words. It was defined as the prevention of government repression, systematic violation of human rights and threats from militarization. This established an agenda that would protect people against states that continued to practice political repression, systematic torture, ill treatment and disappearance", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Political structure is a commonly used term in political science. In a general sense, it refers to institutions or  even groups and their relations to each other, their  patterns of interaction within political systems and to political regulations, laws and the norms present in political systems in such a way that they constitute the political landscape. also of the political entity. In the social domain, its counterpart is social structure. Political structure also refers to the way in which a government is run.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A political transition team is used when there is a change of political leadership, to enable an orderly and peaceful transfer of power.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The political trilemma of the world economy is a concept created by economist Dani Rodrik to capture the trade-offs that governments faced in their responses to globalization. The trilemma holds that \"democracy, national sovereignty and global economic integration are mutually incompatible: we can combine any two of the three, but never have all three simultaneously and in full.\" According to Rodrik, states embraced globalization and national autonomy in the late 19th century, but sacrificed democratic decision-making. In the post-World War II period, states sacrificed globalization while embracing democracy at home and national autonomy. The trilemma suggests that the backlash against globalization in the last few decades is rooted in a desire to reclaim democracy and national autonomy, even if it undermines economic integration. Rodrik first presented the trilemma in a 2000 paper.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Politics of Artsakh takes place within the constraints of a written constitution, approved by a popular vote, that recognises three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch of government is exercised within a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Artsakh is both the head of state and the head of government. The legislative branch of government is composed of both the Government and the National Assembly. Elections to the National Assembly are on the basis of a multi-party system. As of 2009, the American-based non-governmental organisation, Freedom House, ranks Artsakh above both Armenia and Azerbaijan in terms of political and civil rights.  The republic is de facto independent and de jure a part of Azerbaijan. None of the elections in Artsakh are recognised by international bodies such as the OSCE Minsk Group, the European Union or the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Both Azerbaijan and Turkey have condemned the elections and called them a source of increased tensions.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Politics.ie is an Irish internet discussion forum. It was founded by David Cochrane. The site was owned by Pie Media Ltd. David Cochrane resigned as director in August 2012. Pie Media Limited dissolved with the company closing on Wednesday the 22nd of April 2015.Most contributors are anonymous.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Popular Resistance (Arabic: \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0648\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a\u0629 Al-Muqawamat ash-Sha'abiyah), also known as \"popular resistance committees\", are armed groups that have been established in several Yemeni provinces during the Yemeni Civil War, after the Houthi takeover in Yemen. They fight alongside the Yemeni army loyal to president Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, and the Popular committees. They are currently fighting against the Houthi fighters, and forces loyal to former president, Ali Abdullah Saleh. In some provinces, they have united with the People's Committees to fight against AQAP.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Portuguese\u2013Turkish relations are foreign relations between Portugal and Turkey. Portugal has an embassy in Ankara. Turkey has an embassy in Lisbon. Both countries are full members of NATO. Also Portugal is an EU member and Turkey is an EU candidate.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Power resource theory is a political theory proposing that variations among welfare states is largely attributable to differing distributions of power between economic classes. It argues that \"working class power achieved through organisation by labor unions or left parties, produces more egalitarian distributional outcomes\".Pioneered in the 1970s and 1980s by a school of Scandinavian researchers closely associated with Walter Korpi, G\u00f8sta Esping-Andersen, and John Stephens, power resource theory is an empirical approach to examining the development, characteristics and effects of social policies in advanced industrialized nations. It attempts to account for the various approaches to social policy adopted by different nations, focusing primarily on the role and strength of labor mobilization. Its major conclusion is that social welfare provisions are larger and income inequality lower in countries where working-class people are more politically organized.While power resource theory became the dominant paradigm among scholars in the 1990s for explaining variations between welfare states in advanced democracies, there are criticisms that point out the lack of accountability for factors such as variations in \u201ccoverage, extension, and generosity among welfare states\u201d in addition to not accounting for the importance of political mobilization based on social class. Competing theories have also challenged power resource theory with alternative explanations for the varying levels of welfare development such as the importance of employers and cross-class alliances that exist in coordinated market societies.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The President of the Republic of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Respublikos Prezidentas) is the head of state of Lithuania. The officeholder has been Gitanas Naus\u0117da since 12 July 2019.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The President of the Council of Ministers (sometimes titled Chairman of the Council of Ministers) is the most senior member of the cabinet in the executive branch of government in some countries. Some Presidents of the Council of Ministers are the heads of government, and thus are informally referred to as a Prime Minister or Premier.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The official title president of the council of state, or chairman of the council of state is used to describe the head of state of North Korea, and formerly used to describe the head of the state in Cuba and of the former communist states in the Democratic Republic of Germany, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Cambodia and Vietnam.\n\nPresident of the State Affairs Commission of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea\nPresident of the Council of State of Republic of Cuba\nChairman of the Council of State of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam\nChairman of the State Council of the German Democratic Republic\nChairman of the Council of State of the Polish People's Republic\nPresident of the State Council of the Socialist Republic of Romania\nChairman of the State Council of the People's Republic of Bulgaria\nChairman of the Council of State of the People's Republic of Kampuchea", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A president pro tempore or speaker pro tempore is a constitutionally recognized officer of a legislative body who presides over the chamber in the absence of the normal presiding officer. The phrase pro tempore is Latin \"for the time being\".In Argentina, a similar role is carried by the Provisional President of the Argentine Senate in the absence of the Vice President of Argentina. By the 1994 amendment to the 1853 Constitution, the Vice President is designated as the Senate President.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A president-in-office or chair(man)-in-office (PiO or CiO; French: pr\u00e9sident en exercice) is the ambassador, foreign minister, or other official of the member state holding the presidency of an international organization, who is the individual actually chairing the meeting of the representatives from member states.\nThe head of government of the host nation of each biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) becomes the Chair-in-Office of the Commonwealth of Nations until the next meeting.  His or her main responsibility is to chair the CHOGM itself, but the role may be expanded over the following two years as required.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "This article lists the presidents of the Assembly of North Macedonia, from the establishment of ASNOM in 1944 to the present day.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Price Increase and Famine Resistance Committee was a mass movement in West Bengal, India, formed in late 1958 by the Communist Party of India and other left groups, in response to the ongoing food crisis. The PIFRC led one of the most massive and militant political campaigns in the history of West Bengal. The PIFRC demanded total price controls, immediate redistribution of state lands and confiscations without compensation of excessive private lands owned by landlords. The tactics of PIFRC included scouting for hidden rice storages and forced sales of confiscated rice.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A tactic for gauging political candidates' familiarity with the lives of ordinary voters in the United States and the United Kingdom is to ask them to name the price of everyday items such as bread and especially milk. Noted politicians who have admitted ignorance on such questions include George H. W. Bush, David Cameron and Scott Morrison. Former prime minister of Spain, Jos\u00e9 Luis Rodr\u00edguez Zapatero, incorrectly answered on national television when asked the cost for a cup of coffee. Zapatero instead answered with the price at the Congress's cafeteria, which is cheaper than market price. Former Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Hariri incorrectly answered that the price of a bag of bread was 1,000 L.L. after he was asked by a child on TV, when the real price was 1,500 L.L. at the time.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The prime minister of Dominica is the head of government in the Commonwealth of Dominica. Nominally, the position was created on November 3, 1978 when Dominica gained independence from the United Kingdom. Hitherto, the position existed de facto as Premier.\nRoosevelt Skerrit is the incumbent prime minister. He took office on 8 January 2004\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Prime Minister of Kenya was a post in the Kenyan government. The first Prime Minister of Kenya was Jomo Kenyatta, who became Prime Minister in 1963. In 1964, Kenya became a republic; the post of Prime Minister was abolished and Jomo Kenyatta assumed the position of President. Following a power-sharing agreement in February 2008, the post of Prime Minister was recreated that April. The position was again abolished by the 2010 Constitution after the 2013 elections.\nThe last Prime Minister, Raila Odinga, was sworn in on 17 April 2008. He was Kenya's second Prime Minister.\nThe proposed 2021 constitutional referendum would have decided whether to reestablish the office.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Private International Law (Implementation of Agreements) Act 2020 puts gives primary legislative effect to the  1996, 2005 and 2007 Hauge Conventions as signed at The Hague. Section 2 of the Act allows the Government to implement other international agreements relating to private international law through secondary legislation.It received royal assent on 14 December 2020.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Privatization of public toilets is an ongoing process in the United States and other countries. Police (e.g. in Los Angeles) have sometimes supported their privatization, claiming that public toilets are \"crime scenes\" that attract illegal activity.A criticism of toilet privatization is that it results in the denial of a basic service to the urban poor.  In southern California in the 1980s, authorities consciously reduced the number of public toilets to make certain areas less attractive to \"undesirables\".In some cases, partial privatization of the toilet system takes place in the form of vendors supplying the service in exchange for advertising rights. Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg described such a deal as a \"unique opportunity to...creat[e] a vibrant and aesthetically pleasing streetscape\u2026without the burden of public investment.\"John Stossel points out that private property may be better taken care of than public property: \"Think about shared public property, like public toilets. They're often gross...Compare dirty public toilets to privately run toilets. They're common in Europe, and cleaner, because their owners \u2013 selfishly seeking a profit \u2013 work at keeping them clean.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Procedural democracy or proceduralist democracy or proceduralism is a term used to denote the particular procedures, such as regular elections based on universal suffrage, that produce an electorally-legitimated government. Procedural democracy, with its centering of electoral processes as the basis of democratic legitimacy, is often contrasted with substantive or participatory democracy, which centers the equal participation of all groups in society in the political process as the basis of legitimacy.The term is often used to denote an artificial appearance of democracy through the existence of democratic procedures like elections when in reality power is held by a small group of elites who manipulate democratic processes to make themselves appear democratically legitimate.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba won a majority government in the 1977 provincial election, winning thirty-three of fifty-seven seats.  Many of the party's candidates have their own biography pages; information about others may be found here.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Proletarian Military Policy was a policy adopted by the Fourth International in response to World War II. It was an attempt to apply  transitional demands such as trade union control of military training and the election of officers to transform what it characterised as an imperialist war into a revolutionary struggle against Nazism. The policy provoked controversy within the Trotskyist movement with some seeing it as a concession to social patriotism.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Communist propaganda played an important role in the Polish People's Republic, one of the largest and most important satellite states of the Soviet Union following WWII. Together with the use of force and terror it was instrumental in keeping the country's communist government in power and was designed to shape Polish society into a communist one.The language of Poland's communist propaganda was extremely violent, as with many others like in communist nations. All those who disagreed with the voice of the Polish United Workers' Party were dubbed as \"fascists\" and \"reactionary thugs\". For example, already towards the end of World War II, political officers (similar to Soviet political commissars in the Soviet Red Army) in the Soviet-backed Polish Army received specific guidelines for the training of their soldiers, ordering them to refer to all anti-Nazi resistance on Polish lands \u2013 other than those they allied with or similarly communist \u2013 as the \"bastards of the NSZ and AK,\" and \"Hitler\u2019s emulators\". The insurgents of anti-German uprisings (such as at Warsaw and in the city's Jewish ghetto) became synonymous with \"bandits,\", \"traitors,\", \"anti-Semites\" and \"Jew-killers.\" Since 1944, the Polish communist propaganda campaigns were usually followed by jarring abuses of human rights and the application of physical, mental and psychological torture in the communist legal system.Starting from the 1970s, Polish propaganda was significantly altered and then dominated by the form known as \"propaganda of success\".\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Protocol originally (in Late Middle English, c. 15th century) meant the minutes or logbook taken at a meeting, upon which an agreement was based. The term now commonly refers to an agreement resulting from a meeting, or more generally to any established procedure in an organisation or group, such as a laboratory protocol in scientific research, or a data transfer protocol in computing, or etiquette in diplomacy.In international law, a treaty that supplements or adds to a pre-existing treaty is often called a \"protocol\". For example, the Kyoto Protocol was supplemental to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; Protocol I, Protocol II, and Protocol III supplement the 1949 Geneva Conventions; and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women is supplemented by an Optional Protocol.\nThe most notorious example of a forged logbook is \"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion\".", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Provincial Government of East Pakistan governed the East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) province and was centered in its provincial capital Dhaka. The head of the province was the Governor, who was nominated by the President of Pakistan. While the head of the province of East Pakistan was the Chief Minister who was elected by the East Pakistan Assembly.\nThe East Pakistani government was dominated by the Awami League. It was succeeded by the Government of Bangladesh following the province's secession in 1971.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A provisional constitution, interim constitution or transitional constitution is a constitution intended to serve during a transitional period until a permanent constitution is adopted. The following countries currently have, or have had in the past, such a constitution.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Purple People (Italian: Il Popolo Viola) was an Italian mass protest movement who, among other things, called for the resignation of now former Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi. The movement was disaffected with mainstream Italian politics, and identified themselves at demonstrations and rallies by wearing items of the colour purple, chosen because it was not associated with any major Italian political party. The group originated in October 2009 when a group of bloggers, gravitating around the anonymous figure of \"San Precario\" (English: \"Saint Precarious\"), an activist from Catania, Sicily, organised demonstrations using word of mouth, Twitter and Facebook.\nIn October, 2009, they launched the Facebook page \"Una Manifestazione Nazionale per Chiedere le Dimissioni di Berlusconi\",  (English: \"A National Demonstration to Ask for Berlusconi\u2019s Resignation\"), announcing a demonstration to take place in Rome on 5 December 2009. The page immediately reached an unexpected consensus. Only a few weeks after, more than 300,000 users had joined the page and had announced via Facebook their presence at the event, which would be called \"No Berlusconi Day\". Contemporaneously, hundreds of local groups sprung joining the initiative, both inside and outside Italy. Thousands of young Italians, forced by a high level of youth unemployment to leave the Country and move abroad, planned parallel campaigns in cities such as London, New York City, Paris, Sydney, and many others. Since then, thousands of people have attended several subsequent rallies.The movement declined after the successful campaign of the referendum of 15 June 2011, but, as of May 2016, its Facebook page is still active, counting more than 420,000 users. In 2021-2022 the Purple People, together with members of the Sardines movement, organized some rallies against the candidacy of Silvio Berlusconi in the 2022 Italian Presidential election, though the protests were small and poorly attended.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "\"Question authority\" is a popular slogan often used on bumper stickers, T-shirts and as graffiti. The slogan was popularized by controversial psychologist Timothy Leary, although some people have suggested that the idea behind the slogan can be traced back to the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. One of the most influential icons in the counterculture movement which formed in the late 1960s out of opposition to the Vietnam War's escalation, Leary gained influence among much of the youth by advocating the use of LSD \u2013 which was criminalized in the United States in 1966 \u2013  as a way to escape from the burdens of society.  Following the Watergate Scandal, which resulted in the resignation of US President Richard Nixon and the conviction of several officials in the Nixon administration, the slogan became arguably the most accepted form of ideology among baby boomers.It is intended to encourage people to avoid fallacious appeals to authority.  The term has always symbolized the necessity of paying attention to the rules and regulations promulgated by a government unto its citizenry.  However, psychologists have also criticized Leary's method of questioning authority and have argued that it resulted in widespread dysfunctionality.  In their book Question Authority, Think For Yourself, psychologists Beverly Potter and Mark Estren alleged that the practice of Leary's philosophy enhances a person's self-interest and greatly weakens the ability to cooperate with others.\nHowever, Leary's philosophy was foreseen in concept by C. Wright Mills in his 1956 book, The Power Elite.\n\nAuthority formally resides 'in the people', but the power of initiation is in fact held by small circles of men. That is why the standard strategy of manipulation is to make it appear that the people, or at least a large group of them, \"really made the decision\". That is why even when authority is available, men with access to it may still prefer the secret, quieter ways of manipulation.Mills noted earlier that \"It is in this mixed case \u2014 as in the intermediate reality of the American today \u2014 that manipulation is a prime way of exercising power.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The first Question Hour to the President of the European Commission was held in the European Parliament sitting in Strasbourg on 20 October 2009 with President of the European Commission Jos\u00e9 Manuel Barroso taking questions. From then on, it was held monthly whenever the Parliament sat in Strasbourg.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Racial nationalism is an ideology that advocates a racial definition of national identity. Racial nationalism seeks to preserve \"racial purity\" of a nation through policies such as banning race mixing and the immigration of other races. It order to create a justification for such policies, racial nationalism often promotes eugenics, and advocates political and legislative solutions based on eugenic and other racial theories.Racial nationalism should not be confused with ethnic nationalism. A transitional form between racial and ethnic nationalism is also known as V\u00f6lkisch nationalism.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Ranney Index is a way to measure a state's competition between the two major political parties in the United States, created by Austin Ranney, a prominent political scientist and expert on political parties. A Ranney Score ranges from 0\u20131, with a 0.0 signifying complete Republican control and a 1.0 signifying complete Democratic control.1 It is calculated as follows \n\nThe Ranney Index Averages three indicators of party success during a particular time period: the percentage of the popular vote for the parties' gubernatorial candidates, the percentage of seats held by the parties in the state legislature, and the length of time plus the percentage of the time that the parties held both the governorship and a majority in the state legislature", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The rationality theorem is a theory introduced by political scientist Graham Allison in his book Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis.\nAllison defined the rationality theorem like this:\n\nThere exists no pattern of activity for which an imaginative analyst cannot write a large number of objective functions such that the pattern of activity maximizes each function.He used the theorem to attack any social science analysis that assumes a measure of rationality on the part of the actors.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Red Alert Politics is an American conservative news and opinion website based in Washington, D.C. It was owned by MediaDC, a subsidiary of Clarity Media Group, which is owned by the Anschutz Corporation.\nThe site focuses on targeting younger and millennial readers, producing an annual \"30 under 30\" list of influential conservatives under 30.On November 1, 2017, the site was merged to become a section of The Washington Examiner focusing on campus and millennial coverage.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Red Shirts (Thai: \u0e40\u0e2a\u0e37\u0e49\u0e2d\u0e41\u0e14\u0e07, romanized: Suea Daeng) are a political movement in Thailand, formed following the 2006 coup d'\u00e9tat which deposed then-Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. Originally synonymous with the United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship (UDD), a group formed to protest the coup and resulting military government, the movement subsequently expanded to include various groups with diverse political priorities. Its members range from left-wing and/or liberal activists and academics to the large number of Thaksin's rural and working-class supporters. The movement emerged as the result of socioeconomic changes in Northeast Thailand in the 1990s and 2000s, including a growing middle class, rising aspirations, and an increasing awareness of the extreme inequality and of the fundamentally weak democracy in Thailand, typified by Thailand's primate city problem. Red Shirts group dynamics center on frustrated economic and political aspirations to improve democracy and overcome inequality, which contributed to the 2009 Thai political unrest and the 2010 Thai political protests, as well as shared suffering at the hand of the ruling class hegemony. As with other minorities, the Red Shirts have been dehumanized and demonized, with insults such as \"Red Buffalo\" (Thai: \u0e04\u0e27\u0e32\u0e22\u0e41\u0e14\u0e07, romanized: khwai daeng; khwai, 'buffalo', is a common insult in Thai meaning a stupid person), since reclaimed by some of its targets. Their claims for transitional justice following the 2010 Thai military crackdown have been subverted by the Thai state.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In politics, a red\u2013red coalition is a coalition government composed of social-democratic parties allying themselves with more radical democratic socialist or socialist parties, a coalition that spans the centre-left to the left or far left.\nA specific example of a red-red coalition comes from the politics of Germany, formed from the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and The Left party or its predecessor, the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS). Red\u2013red coalitions form state-level governments in Brandenburg, and historically have governed Berlin (2001\u20132011), Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (1998\u20132006) and (as a SPD minority government tolerated by the PDS) Saxony-Anhalt (1994\u20132002).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Refrain Club (\uc790\uc81c\ub2e8) was a Korean civic group and self-governing body club, founder of Park Jung-yang and Yun Phil-oh, Lee Chin-ho. It was founded by the Anti-March 1st Movement. Refrain club's Korean spelling is Chachedan and Chache Club (\uc790\uc81c\ub2e8, \uc790\uc81c\ud68c).In March 1919, Japan ruled Korea. Korean independence movements such as March 1st Movement resisted the occupation. The Refrain group opposed the effort, including all violence. The club disbanded in December 1919.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A regidor (plural: regidores) is a member of a council of municipalities in Spain and Latin America. Portugal also used to have the same office of regedor.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Republican Sena (translation: Republican Army; abbr. RS) is a political party in India. It founded by Anandraj Ambedkar on 21 November 1998. Anandraj Ambedkar is son of Yashwant Ambedkar and grandson of B. R. Ambedkar. This party is based on ideology of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar i.e. Ambedkarism. The party is primarily based in Maharashtra state. Republican Sena's supporters occupied the Indu Mill land at Dadar, Mumbai in 2011 to highlight the long-pending demand for the Statue of Equality or the Bharatratna Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Memorial. The party has also worked with the Vanchit Bahujan Aaghadi, headed by Prakash Yashwant Ambedkar.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Resett, also known as Resett.no, is a Norwegian online newspaper, which publishes news and op-ed content. The website was launched in 2017 with Helge Lur\u00e5s as editor-in-chief. Resett aims to \"present cases from a different angle than established mass media, and to cover news that other media do not want to cover\". Many therefore describe Resett as an alternative to mainstream media.\nIn March 2021 Resett claimed to have 560,000 unique readers per month. In July 2018, the newspaper claimed around 30,000 unique readers per day.In June 2022, Maria Z\u00e4hler became the editor-in-chief after Helge Lur\u00e5s. When she was appointed, she declared that she wants to make Resett to \"a center-right, realpolitik newspaper, with common sense as a guiding principle\" and \"to establish a decent newspaper on the right of Norwegian center\".Maria Z\u00e4hler is transgender, and has written about  her transgender experience.Resett's editorial board also includes Shurika Hansen, who has a background from Somalia and came to Norway as a refugee when she was 12 years old. \nBefore Resett was established, Editor-in-chief Helge Lur\u00e5s was a critic of Norwegian military campaigns abroad. His scepticism is also expressed in Resett in their published analysis of NRK's coverage of the civil war in Libya.Resett states that it follows the Ethical Code of Practice for the Norwegian Press, but its application for membership in the established media organizations in Norway has been rejected.The editorial board also follows its own ethical code of conduct, which states that \"Resett will work for democracy and a liberal society based on the best in Western cultural history\" and \"Resett shall dare to take on difficult and taboo debates and give the public a platform for discussion.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Restrictions on political parties have existed in many countries at various times. In Uganda, for instance, political parties were restricted in their activities from 1986; in the non-party \"Movement\" system instituted by President Yoweri Museveni, political parties continued to exist but could not campaign in elections or field candidates directly (although electoral candidates could belong to political parties). A constitutional referendum cancelled this 19-year ban on multi-party politics in July 2005.\nEgypt has been criticized for restricting political party activity. In Europe; Germany, Italy, Turkey, and France have laws allowing the government to ban extremist groups, especially far-right and/or neo-nazi organizations.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Retrenchment (French: retrenchment, an old form of retranchement, from retrancher, to cut down, cut short) is an act of cutting down or reduction, particularly of public expenditure.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A revolution from above refers to major political and social changes that are imposed by an elite on the population it dominates. It usually occurs in urban areas in the capital city. By contrast, the plain term revolution suggests that pressure from below is a major driving force in events, even if other social groups cooperate with\u2014or ultimately capture\u2014the movement. The phrase was coined by the Spanish writer Joaqu\u00edn Costa in the 19th century.In contrast, a \"revolution from below\" refers to a grassroots campaign against elites.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In Mao Zedong's original formulation of the military strategy of people's war, a revolutionary base area (Chinese: \u9769\u547d\u6839\u636e\u5730 g\u00e9m\u00ecng g\u0113nj\u00f9d\u00ec), or simply base area, is a local stronghold that the revolutionary force conducting the people's war should attempt to establish, starting from a remote area with mountainous or forested terrain in which its enemy is weak.\nThis kind of base helps the revolutionary conducting force to exploit the few advantages that a small revolutionary movement has\u2014broad-based popular support, especially in a localized area, can be one of them\u2014against a state power with a large and well-equipped army. To overcome a lack of supplies, revolutionaries in a base area may storm isolated outposts or other vulnerable supply caches controlled by the forces of an opponent.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In Marxist terminology, a revolutionary situation is a political situation indicative of a possibility of a revolution. The concept was introduced by Vladimir Lenin in 1913, in his article \"\u041c\u0430\u0451\u0432\u043a\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0430\" (Mayovka of the Revolutionary Proletariat). In the article two conditions for a revolutionary situation were described, which were later succinctly phrased as \"the bottoms don't want and the tops cannot live in the old way\". In later works Lenin postulated a third condition: high political activity of the working masses, their readiness to revolutionary actions.Lenin describes the \"revolutionary situation\" as follows: \n\"To the Marxist it is indisputable that a revolution is impossible without a revolutionary situation; \nfurthermore, it is not every revolutionary situation that leads to revolution. What, generally speaking, are the symptoms of a revolutionary situation? We shall certainly not be mistaken if we indicate the following three major symptoms: \n(1) when it is impossible for the ruling classes to maintain their rule without any change; when there is a crisis, in one form or another, among the \u201cupper classes\u201d, a crisis in the policy of the ruling class, leading to a fissure through which the discontent and indignation of the oppressed classes burst forth. For a revolution to take place, it is usually insufficient for \u201cthe lower classes not to want\u201d to live in the old way; it is also \nnecessary that \u201cthe upper classes should be unable\u201d to rule in the old way; \n(2) when the suffering and want of the oppressed classes have grown more acute than usual; \n(3) when, as a consequence of the above causes, there is a considerable increase in the activity of the masses, who \nuncomplainingly allow themselves to be robbed in \u201cpeace time\u201d, but, in turbulent times, are drawn both by all the circumstances of the crisis and by the \u201cupper classes\u201d themselves into independent \nhistorical action. \nWithout these objective changes, which are independent of the will, not only of individual groups and parties but even of individual classes, a revolution, as a general rule, is impossible. The totality of all these objective changes is called a revolutionary situation.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Riverina Movement was a short-lived movement that advocated an independent state for the Riverina region of New South Wales, Australia.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Roman/red (Dutch: Rooms/rood) is the nickname of coalitions of Catholic and social-democratic parties in the Netherlands and Belgium. Roman refers to Roman Catholic and red to the colour of social democrats.  Between 1946 and 1958, the Catholic People's Party (KVP) and the social-democratic Labour Party (PvdA) formed the core of several 'Roman/red' cabinets, led by Willem Drees.\nAfter the Catholic KVP merged with two Protestant parties to form the non-denominational Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) in 1980, the term was used less in Dutch politics.  In Belgian politics the term is still used to describe cabinets made up out of the Catholic Christian Democratic & Flemish party (CD&V) and Humanist Democratic Centre (CDh) and the social-democratic Socialist Party Different (SP.A) and Socialist Party (PS).\nThe German equivalent is the Grand coalition.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The R\u014dninkai (\u6d6a\u4eba\u4f1a, \"The Society of Masterless Samurai\") was a Japanese ultra-nationalist anti-democratic political group that shared many of its members with the similar organization Genyosha and the Black Dragon Society. It was founded by Tanaka Hiroyuki in 1908. T\u014dyama Mitsuru, Miura Gor\u014d, Yukio Ozaki, Kazuo Kojima, Ry\u016bsuke Miyasake, and Ry\u014dhei Uchida were among its members.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Rotokas Record was a weapons surrender agreement involving the Bougainville Resistance Force and the Bougainville Revolutionary Army and the Papua New Guinean government.  It was signed on May 3, 2001.The weapons surrender agreement was part of a larger peace process between Papua New Guinea and Bougainville after Bougainville attempted to secede from Papua New Guinea.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A ruling clique is a group of people who jointly rule an oligarchic form of government.\nRuling cliques generally differ from another type of oligarchy: a military junta. Military juntas are always ruled by military personnel (often high-ranking like general). A ruling clique can include people from various professions. The ruling elites who comprise the leadership tend to form a council, political party, or another form of an organized group. The high-ranking members share a rough balance of power although sometimes one or more members seek to increase their power at the expense of others or some of them may attempt to transform the system into an autocracy or make it more democratic.\nSome ruling cliques could be considered a form of aristocracy while others are based on a very small circle of rulers rather than a broader based organization such as a political party. In some cases, the entire ruling clique is composed of a council of leaders who are the only members of the clique.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Rural parliaments are forums for discussion and debate, often established to give voice to rural populations of the country, to influence policy and practice and to develop networks between those in rural areas. They have been established in Estonia, Swedish-speaking Finland, Hungary, the Netherlands, Slovakia, Sweden, and Scotland and will soon be established in Romania.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The safety valve theory was a theory about how to deal with unemployment which gave rise to the Homestead Act of 1862 in the United States. Given the concentration of immigrants (and population) on the Eastern coast, it was hypothesized that making free land available in the West would relieve the pressure for employment in the East. By analogy with steam pressure (= the need for work), the enactment of a free land law, it was believed, would act as a safety valve. This theory meant that if the East started filling up with immigrants, they could always go West until they reached a point where they could not move any farther.\nA distinction has to be made between (1) the safety valve theory as an ideal and (2) the safety valve theory as embodied in the Homestead Act of 1862.\nThere is a dispute whether and to what extent the Homestead Act did or did not succeed as a safety valve in ameliorating the problem of unemployment in the East.\nOpposition to giving away free land came from employers, who anticipated either a shortage of employees or conditions favorable to employees.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Saitama Prefectural Assembly (\u57fc\u7389\u770c\u8b70\u4f1a, Saitama-ken Gikai) is the prefectural parliament of Saitama Prefecture.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Second lady is a title sometimes used in reference to the wife of a vice president or a lieutenant governor (deputy governor), and if no office of vice president or lieutenant governor exists, of a prime minister or premier/chief minister of a republic, and to the deputy prime minister or deputy premier/deputy chief minister of a monarchy, styled relative to the title of First Lady, the wife of a president or governor of a republic or of a prime minister or premier/chief minister of a monarchy.Second gentleman is the male equivalent of the title in countries where the head of government's spouse has been a man.\nSecond spouse, a rare version of the title, can be used in either case where the spouse of a head of government is of any gender.\nIn countries which have more than one vice presidential position (e.g. Peru, Afghanistan), the Second Lady would be the spouse of the First Vice President, the Third Lady would be the spouse of the Second Vice President, and so on.\nIn the United States, collectively, the vice president of the United States and his or her spouse are known as the second couple and, if they have children, they are usually referred to as the second family\nIn South Korea, it is similar to that of the United States where collectively the prime minister and the second lady are regarded as the second couple, and if they have a family they are all collectively known as the second family.\nAlthough no country grants any legal power to second ladies, their duties often include the following:\n\nhosting during receptions at the vice presidential/prime ministerial/deputy prime ministerial residence;\npresiding over selected welfare institutions;\naccompanying the spouse in official travels;\nvarious ceremonial duties.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Second Nawaz Sharif ministry began on 3 February 1997, when Nawaz Sharif was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Pakistan, and ended without completing its mandated term on 12 October 1999. Sharif, a conservative politician who presided the Pakistan Muslim League from Punjab, took the office following a decisive victory in the primary elections held in 1997 over the Pakistan Peoples Party\u2013 a left-leaning political party. The second administration of Sharif ended with the precedence of Musharraf administration in 1999 when the military took over the control of the federal government.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Second Nawaz Sharif provincial cabinet was formed by Nawaz Sharif in November 1988 to begin a new government following the 1988 Pakistani general election. It was dissolved on 6 August 1990.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Second Sharif provincial cabinet was formed by Shehbaz Sharif in 2008 to begin a new government following the 2008 Pakistani general election.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Serenje is a constituency of the National Assembly of Zambia. It covers Chisenga, Mapepela, Serenje and Wingie in Serenje District of Central Province.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The seventh emergency special session of the United Nations General Assembly centred on the Palestine issue. It was held by the UN in 1980, convened by Senegal, and was the only special session to have been resumed besides the Tenth, which considered the same issue.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Shahabuddin Ahmed Cabinet led the Interim Government of Bangladesh from 6 December 1990 to 20 March 1991.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A sign war is a competition between two or more organizations to gain the best visibility, or simply to engage in friendly \"one-upmanship\". The goal may be to put up more signs than one's competitors, or it may be to put up wittier signs.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In Cambodian politics, Sihanoukism (Khmer: \u179f\u17b8\u17a0\u1793\u17bb\u1793\u17b7\u1799\u1798, Seih\u00e2n\u016dn\u012dy\u00f4m) refers to the political ideology of King Norodom Sihanouk. Sihanoukist political parties include the Sangkum Reastr Niyum, FUNCINPEC, and the most recent Community of Royalist People's Party. On 30 June 2006, in a letter to Sisowath Thomico, Sihanouk urged FUNCINPEC and other parties not to use in their writings or statements \"Sihanoukism\" and \"Sihanoukist\".", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Sindhiani Tahreek (Sindhi: \u0633\u0646\u068c\u064a\u0627\u06bb\u064a \u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u06aa, \"Sindhi women's movement\") (also known as The Sindhiyani Tehreek) is a women-led political organization formed by rural women in Sindh, the southern province of Pakistan.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Manager Singh (20 January 1920 \u2013 28 October 1993), widely known as Malviya of Dwaba or JanNayak (leader of the common people), was an Indian independence activist and political leader. He is especially remembered for promoting the educational system and his anti-corruption efforts. He was elected five times as the MLA from Dwaba constituency. Manager Singh was born in Karmanpur village of Ballia District of Uttar Pradesh. He is worshipped and glorified by people of Ballia District of Uttar Pradesh.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "House of Skoropadsky (Ukrainian: \u0421\u043a\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0439) is the noble family of Ukraine and hold the title Hetman founded in 1918.\n\nIvan Skoropadsky (1646 \u2013 September 3, 1722; reigned 1708\u20131722) \u2013 was a Hetman of Zaporizhian Host, and the successor to the famous Hetman Ivan Mazepa, in turn succeeded by Pavlo Polubotok.\nPavlo Skoropadsky (b. 1873-d.1945) \u2013 Hetman of Ukraine for a brief period of time in 1918, kicked out of the country by activist Symon Petliura; (claimant 1919\u20131945)\nDanylo Skoropadsky (d. 1957) \u2013 assassinated by the KGB in London, February 23, 1957 ; son of Pavlo  \u2013 (claimant 1945\u20131957)\nMaria Skoropadska (d. 1959) \u2013 daughter of Pavlo \u2013 (claimant 1957\u20131959)\nYelyzaveta Skoropadska (d. 1976) \u2013 daughter of Pavlo \u2013 (claimant 1959\u20131976)\nOlena Skoropadska-Ott (b. 1919 - d. 2014) \u2013 daughter of Pavlo \u2013 (claimant 1976\u20132014)\nBorys Skoropadsky (b. 1956) - son of Danylo - (claimant 1999\u2013present)The Skoropadskys now reside in Toronto and the rights to Danylo's grave have been passed down to Olena Skoropadska-Ott's two daughters, after her death in 2014.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Slovak National Council's Declaration of Independence of the Slovak Nation (Slovak: Deklar\u00e1cia Slovenskej n\u00e1rodnej rady o zvrchovanosti Slovenskej republiky) was a resolution of the Slovak National Council on 17 July 1992, by which members of the Council demanded Slovakia's independence. This event was part of a process, which finished with the dissolution of Czechoslovakia and creation of an independent Slovakia on 1 January 1993.\nThe text of the declaration in Slovak:\n\nEnglish translation:\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A small-c conservative is anyone who believes in the philosophy of conservatism but does not necessarily identify with an official Conservative Party.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Social interventionism is an action which involves the deliberate intervention of a public or private organization into social affairs for the purpose of changing them. In other words, it is a deliberate attempt to change society in some way, \"an alteration of the social structure\".David Lloyd Hoffmann describes social interventionism as one of the two defining features of modernity and modern political systems (the second feature being mass politics). According to Hoffmann, a general ethos of social intervention arose across Europe by the 19th century, in which both state officials and non-governmental professionals working for charitable institutions or private companies tried to reshape their societies in accordance with scientific or aesthetic norms. This new ethos was based upon Enlightenment rationalism, with its belief that human society can and should be improved through the application of reason, as well as 17th century cameralism that pioneered the use of statistics and data in making government decisions. Social interventions could take many forms depending on the ideology of the people or institutions undertaking them, and both the left and right wings of European politics supported the broad idea of social interventionism, though they disagreed on how society should be improved and what \"improvement\" meant. Therefore, social interventionism is not defined as a specific set of goals or policies, but rather as the \"impulse to manage society through the application of bureaucratic procedures and categories\", or the \"rational design of social order commensurate with the scientific understanding of natural laws\".In the late 20th century, with the rise of the Washington Consensus, social interventionism fell out of favor in international political thought.Academic research of social interventions occurs in many public policy schools around the world. Some universities also have dedicated research centres or clusters covering Social Intervention, for example the Department of Social Policy and Intervention at the University of Oxford.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Socialist Register is an annual socialist publication. It was founded in 1964 by Ralph Miliband and John Saville. They had criticisms of the New Left Review after Perry Anderson became editor of the NLR in 1962. Miliband and Saville sought to bring about a journal in the orientation of The New Reasoner.The Socialist Register is published in the US by Monthly Review Press, in Canada by Fernwood Publishing, and in the UK and rest of the world by Merlin Press. Its name is a reference to the Political Register, a 19th-century newspaper founded by radical journalist William Cobbett.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2007 Somali National Reconciliation Conference was held from 15 July 2007 until 30 August 2007 in Mogadishu; it was announced on 1 March 2007 by Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, the President of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Sorry Everybody was a website created after the 2004 United States presidential election, which invited U.S. citizens to apologize to the world in advance for the actions of George W. Bush in the next four years. Its most prominent feature was the gallery, which contains images submitted by visitors holding various apology notes. The website became massively popular in the aftermath of the presidential elections, leading some Bush supporters to create spinoffs to express they were not sorry.\nThe website was created by James Zetlen, an American neuroscience student who was at the time in the third year of his undergraduate program at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles. The first photo was taken by Zetlen of himself, in his home in Los Angeles on November 3, 2004, just after the concession of John Kerry in the 2004 U.S. presidential election (which had been held a day earlier, on November 2, 2004). Zetlen's photo inspired thousands more similar contributions from U.S. citizens, and he compiled a gallery of 8,000 of these photos on his website and published a 256-page book containing approximately 1,000 of them, entitled Sorry Everybody: An Apology to the World for the Re-election of George W. Bush.\nAfter Barack Obama's victory in the 2008 presidential election, the title of the site changed to \"Hello Everybody\", and Zetlen invited submissions again\u2014this time of celebratory pictures of Americans reintroducing themselves to the world.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The House of Assembly of Kiribati has a Speaker, a function adapted from the British Westminster model. The position was established in 1979 by article 71 of the Constitution, when the country became independent from the United Kingdom. It replaced the Speaker of the former House of Representatives existing since 1967, then known as Legislative Council in 1970 and House of Assembly since 1974.Article 71 states that the Speaker \"shall be elected by the members of the Maneaba [House of Assembly] from among persons who are not members of the Maneaba\". His or her function is to \"preside at each sitting of the Maneaba\" (art.72).\nThe website of the House of Assembly indicates that his \"decision on a point of order is final. He is fully entitled to regulate the conduct of business in all matters not provided in the Rules of Procedure. He has the specific power to decide whether a bill or a motion pertains to money matters, which then requires a minister's signification. He may adjourn a sitting if there is no quorum after an objection is raised by a member\".The Speaker is also a member of the Council of State, the purpose of which is to \"perform the duties of the Beretitenti and other executive functions of Government when a motion of no confidence in the Beretitenti or the Government is supported in the Maneaba Ni Maungatabu.\"", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly is the presiding officer of the Legislative Assembly of the Falkland Islands. The Speaker also administers the oaths of office and allegiance.\nThe Legislative Council (established in 1845) was presided over by the Governor until 2002 when the office of Speaker was created. In 2009 the new Constitution of the Falkland Islands replaced the Legislative Council with the Legislative Assembly and also laid out the election, powers and role of the Speaker.\nThe Speaker is elected by the Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) at the first meeting of the Assembly after an election. Unlike the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly does not need to be a member of the Assembly, although the Speaker must be eligible to stand as a MLA. The MLAs also elect a Deputy Speaker, in the same manner as the Speaker, who acts as presiding officer in the absence of the Speaker.\nThe Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are elected for the life of the Legislative Assembly although they can be removed by a motion of no confidence supported by at least six of the eight elected MLAs. During the Speaker election, the Attorney General acts as presiding officer.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The speaker of the National Assembly (Korean: \uad6d\ud68c\uc758\uc7a5; Hanja: \u570b\u6703\u8b70\u9577; RR: Gukhoe Uijang) is the presiding officer of the National Assembly of South Korea.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A special member was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations whose participation was limited in certain functions.  Originally, it was a status held by a few newly joined countries, whose involvement was limited by its own limited financial resources.  More recently, the name has been changed to member in arrears, from the 2007 CHOGM on the recommendation of the Committee on Commonwealth Membership. The guidelines came from the 2003 CHOGM in Abuja that strengthened and replaced the 1999 CHOGM Durban guidelines.They are not required to make payments to the Commonwealth.  They may attend most functions and organs of the Commonwealth, but are not invited to attend Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings.  They are, although limited in these respects, still considered members of the Commonwealth.\nThe status was created especially for Nauru, which had an exceptionally small population and area.  Nauru was followed by fellow Pacific sovereign state Tuvalu, and then the larger Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Maldives.  These progressively gained full membership, leaving none from September 2000.  However, Nauru fell behind on its subscription payments, and reverted to a special member in July 2005. Nauru has been a full member again since June 2011.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A split vote is normally used synonymously with \"deadlocked\", \"hung\", or \"evenly split\" vote. It indicates a vote in which no decision can be made, as neither side has the majority.\nThe term can be used to indicate dissent by as little as a single vote, if a unanimous vote is required.\nIf a casting vote is available, this may be used to break the deadlock. In other cases it may result in situations such as hung juries or hung parliaments.\nA split vote may arise from vote splitting, which occurs in an election when the existence of two or more similar candidates reduces the votes received by each of them, reducing the chances of any one of them winning against another, significantly different, candidate. In systems that require a winning candidate to receive a majority of votes, this may result in a runoff election.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A standing committee is a permanent committee made up of a small number of parliamentary members appointed to analyse and opine on issues in a specific area of government, such as, for example, finance, justice, or education. Its counterpart is a select committee, which is erected to investigate or solve a specific problem, and, upon conclusion, is dissolved.Standing committees exist in the British Parliament, as well as in other parliaments based on the Westminster model or those borrowing from it, such as the US, Canada,  and India.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 1st Standing Committee of the Workers' Party of South Korea (WPSK) was elected at the 1st WPSK Congress held in November 1946. It consisted of 14 members and remained active until the merger of WPSK and the Workers' Party of North Korea on 30 June 1949. In between sessions of the Standing Committee, the Political Committee met in its place.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A state occasion or act of state is an official state ceremony usually marking an important event or honouring a person. Characteristics of a state occasion are a grand ceremony, a representative framework and the presence of high state officials, such as heads of state and government.\nWhen honouring a deceased person it typically takes the form of a state funeral, although it can also be a separate ceremony which takes place before or after the actual funeral. Acts of state honouring deceased persons, but which are not actual funerals themselves, are found in a number of European countries and at the European Union level.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The State of the Black Union was an annual event in the United States to consider issues of particular relevance in the African American community, featuring prominent speakers such as John Conyers, Jesse Jackson, and Al Sharpton.In January 2010, the founder, Tavis Smiley, announced that he was ending the event in favour of producing more programs for the Public Broadcasting Service.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The State of the City Address - or State of the City Speech - is a speech customarily given once each year by the mayors or city managers of many cities in the United States and Canada, and commonly called as State of the City Address (SOCA) or State of the Municipality Address (SOMA) in the Philippines. Other international cities have also adopted the tradition; for example, the Executive Mayor of Johannesburg has delivered a State of the City Address since 2002.  In Corning, New York the \"State of the City Address\" has been replaced by the \"Status of the Administration Address\" given by the City Manager who serves as the City's Chief Executive Officer rather than the Mayor. \nThe timing, venue and purpose of a State of the City Address can vary significantly depending on local history and practice. Most State of the City Addresses are held early in the calendar year, but some mayors deliver their address as late as December of each year. In many American and Canadian cities, by law or tradition, the State of the City Address is delivered to the city council of the city. Just as often, the presentation is given to - or even given at the invitation of - members of a local business organization or a prominent local charity. Either way, the Address is usually used to outline the mayor's legislative proposals and policy directions for the upcoming year.\nThe analogous address given by the president of the United States is known as the State of the Union address and the address given by a governor of a U.S. state is known as the State of the State address. The mayor of the District of Columbia gives a State of the District address.\nSince Canadian provincial legislatures and the Parliament of Canada begin legislative sessions with a Speech from the Throne delivered on the government's behalf by the Lieutenant Governor or the Governor-General of Canada, there is no formal equivalent for the federal government or regional governments in the Canadian system. However, on occasion, local business organizations have invited their province's Premier to deliver a State of the Province Address.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Statute of the Council of Europe (also known as the Treaty of London (1949)) is a treaty that was signed on 5 May 1949, creating the Council of Europe. The original signatories were Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom.\nA state formally joins the Council of Europe by ratifying the Statute. As of 2013, it has been ratified or acceded to by 46 European states. Russia withdrew from the Council of Europe on 15 March 2022 to avoid being expelled by a vote from the Parliamentary Assembly scheduled to take place the same day. All other European states have ratified the Statute with the exception of Belarus and Vatican City (the Holy See).\nThe treaty was registered with the United Nations with treaty number I:1168, vol.87, page 103. Its date of registration was 11 April 1951.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Stevens Reed Curcio & Potholm is a company that creates political advertisements for Republican candidates and politicians. They were the creators of the controversial Swift Boat Veterans commercials that attacked Senator John Kerry during his 2004 presidential election bid. The company has worked for such notable Republicans as John McCain, Bill Frist and others.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Strategic geography is concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas that affect the security and prosperity of nations. Spatial areas that concern strategic geography change with human needs and development. This field is a subset of human geography, itself a subset of the more general study of geography.  It is also related to geostrategy.\nStrategic geography is that branch of science, which deals with the study of spatial areas that affect the security and prosperity of a nation.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A straw donor is a person who illegally uses another person's money to make a political contribution in their own name.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Student politics in Namibia encompasses the activities and culture among Namibian students, mostly from the tertiary level of education such as the University of Namibia, Namibia University of Science and Technology and the International University of Management. It is mostly played by youth & student leaders from Namibia National Students Organization, UNAM SRC, NUST SRC and other student organizations who liaise nationally with the government to address student issues.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Stunning elections are a process of democratization in authoritarian or hybrid regimes through partially free elections in which the opposition either wins, or forms a majority in parliament and begins to significantly influence the decision-making process.The hybrid regime may hold a clean election if the ruling elites are confident in their popularity. Usually, the return of some democratic institutions by an autocrat is done in order to increase the ruler's legitimacy, including international respect. However, an underestimation of the risks (caused by broken feedback mechanisms) may result in unexpected outcomes.Samuel P. Huntington linked the term stunning election to the situation in which an autocrat-organized election, produces an unexpectedly bad outcome.Paul Pierson noted that in developed democracies, candidates often change their rhetoric depending on the tactics and preferred audience of their opponents. He also noted that voters changing their behavior in such a way as not to \"waste\" their vote on a popular, but impassable candidate, leads to unplanned heterogeneity in the election results, especially in conditions of pluralism. Andreas Schedler in the footsteps of George Tsebelis argued that even if the results of the overturning elections are not recognized by the ruling elites (stolen elections), street protests may lead to a regime change through democratization-by-election.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Styr Nyxas (or Styr Nykhas) (Ossetian: \u0421\u0442\u044b\u0440 \u041d\u044b\u0445\u0430\u0441) is a political ideology advocating for the reunification of the Ossetians within the Russian Federation. The Ossetians are an Iranic ethnic group indigenous to Ossetia, a region that spans the Caucasus Mountains. They are currently administratively divided into the Republic of North Ossetia\u2013Alania (a federal subject of the Russian Federation) and the de facto independent republic of South Ossetia.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Subject of labor, or object of labor, is a concept in Marxist political economy that refers to \"everything to which man's labor is applied\". The subject of labor may be materials provided directly by nature like timber or coal, or materials that have been modified by labor. In the latter case, the subject of labor (e.g., yarn in a textile mill or semi-conductor chips in a computer assembly factory) are called \"raw materials\". This usage of the term \"raw materials\" is given in, for instance, in Capital, Part III.The \u201csubject of labor\u201d is one of three basic factors of the production process, along with \"human labor\" and the \"means of labor\" (tools and infrastructure used to transform the subject of labor).\nThe subject of labor and the means of labor comprise the means of production of society.\"Subject of labor\" is sometimes called \"object of labor\". In both cases, the term refers to what is being worked on.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The sugar side letter was added to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in last minute negotiations between the Clinton Administration and the Mexican Government before the Congress approved the North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act (P.L. 103-182). It altered NAFTA's initial sugar provisions by adding one additional factor to the formula to be used to determine how much sugar Mexico could export to the United States through 2008. Mexican access to the U.S. market was initially set to be equal to the amount of its net sugar surplus (sugar production minus sugar consumption), subject to a maximum of 25,000 tonnes (25,000 long tons; 28,000 short tons) over the 1995-2001 period and a maximum of 250,000 metric tons in 2001\u20132008. The side letter changed this definition to add Mexican consumption of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) to the \"net production surplus\" definition. This change effectively lowers the amount of sugar that Mexico can sell to the U.S. market.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "SULFA, short for Surrendered ULFA, refers to former members of the United Liberation Front of Assam that have surrendered to the Indian government.\nSince 1990, the government of India has been attempting to capture members of ULFA. In 1992, a large group of high-ranking leaders and members surrendered to government authorities, which was the first time ex-ULFA members were referred to as \"SULFA\". However, those that surrendered were disarmed by the government, leaving them without a means of defence against retaliation from their ex-associates. They were also offered bank loans to start a new life, in return for providing information to the government about the ULFA.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Tahdiya is Arabic (\u062a\u0647\u062f\u0626\u0629) for \"calming\" or \"quieting\".\nThe term has been applied to a temporary lull between the Israeli forces and the  Palestinian Hamas, beginning early in 2004 following the non successful discussions to sign a Hudna, or temporary armistice. While Hudna is a term for temporary armistice, it should not be confused with tahdiya, which stands for calming down on hostilities but not a complete stop to them.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In political anthropology, a theatre state is a political state directed towards the performance of drama and ritual rather than more conventional ends such as warfare and welfare. Power in a theatre state is exercised through spectacle. The term was coined by Clifford Geertz in 1980 in reference to political practice in the nineteenth-century Balinese Negara, but its usage has since expanded. Hunik Kwon and Byung-Ho Chung, for example, argue that contemporary North Korea is a theatre state. In Geertz's original usage, the concept of the theatre state contests the notion that precolonial society can be analysed in the conventional discourse of Oriental despotism.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The thick line policy (Polish: gruba kreska, thick stroke, or gruba linia, thick line) was the term used by prime minister of Poland, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, in his first parliamentary speech in Sejm, in 1989.He said, \"We split away the history of our recent past with a thick line. We will be responsible only for what we have done to help extract Poland from her current predicament, from now on\". (Przesz\u0142o\u015b\u0107 odkre\u015blamy grub\u0105 lini\u0105. Odpowiada\u0107 b\u0119dziemy jedynie za to, co uczynili\u015bmy, by wydoby\u0107 Polsk\u0119 z obecnego stanu za\u0142amania.)\n\nIn more recent years, his intentions were considered by many people, and his gruba kreska is often understood as a policy of nonpunishment for crimes committed by the communist regime of pre-1989 Poland.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Trade, Development and Cooperation Agreement (TDCA) is a treaty concluded between the European Community and South Africa. The treaty consists of three areas of agreement. First of all, it includes a free trade agreement between the EU and South Africa. Secondly, it includes development aid. Thirdly, it includes several areas of cooperation, such as economic and social cooperation.\nThe TDCA was signed in 1999 and came into force in 2004.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Transatlantic Intelligencer was an advocacy website centering on European politics and its American reception.  Up until August 2005, it was a blog but at that point it transitioned into a news magazine website format. It tried to surpass the perceived \"language gap\"  between the continents and in Europe itself, aiming mainly at the American audience. Due to their political weight and influence, it focused on France and Germany.The site featured the Trans-Int Review, provided \"major translations and original articles\" dealing with key topics of current \"European politics and transatlantic relations\". The Trans-Int News supplied translated extracts from leading European news purveyors and necessary information on backgrounds.The site's editor was John Rosenthal, whose writings and translations of French- and German- language journalism have appeared in publications such as Monthly Review, Le Figaro, Newsday, Policy Review, Merkur, Claremont Review of Books, Tech Central Station, World Politics Review and Les Temps Modernes. He taught political philosophy and the history of European philosophy at Rutgers University, New York University, and the \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure de Lyon. He also served as Contributing Editor Europe for World Politics Review.The website stopped publication in 2016 with no announced plans for revival.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A transit watchdog is an individual or group that provides public comment regarding public transit operations. Transit watchdogs attract a variety of contributors, from transit users to railfans, who offer feedback about service, operations, and funding matters.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In political science and in international and comparative law and economics, transitology is the study of the process of change from one political regime to another, mainly from authoritarian regimes to democratic ones rooted in conflicting and consensual varieties of economic liberalism.Transitology tries to explain processes of democratization in a variety of contexts, from bureaucratic authoritarianism and other forms of dictatorship in Latin America, southern Europe and northern Africa to postcommunist developments in eastern Europe. The debate has become something of an academic \"turf-war\" between comparative studies and area studies scholars, while highlighting several problematic features of social science methodology, including generalization, an overemphasis on elite attitudes and behavior, Eurocentrism, the role of history in explaining causality, and the inability to produce testable hypotheses.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The transnational capitalist class (TCC), also known as the transnational capitalist network (TCN), in neo-Gramscian and Marxian-influenced analyses of international political economy and globalization, is the global social stratum that controls supranational instruments of the global economy such as transnational corporations and heavily influences political organs such as the World Trade Organization. \nUp until 1960s capitalist class was studied mostly within the national context. Study from 1974 titled Global Reach: The Power of the Multinational Corporation by Ronald E. Muller and Richard Barnet started the discussion about multinational corporations and to what authors referred as \u201cinternational corporate elite.\u201dAccording to Professor William I. Robinson it is \"that segment of the world bourgeoisie that represents transnational capital\". It is characteristically cosmopolitan and often unconstrained by national boundaries. The transnational capitalist class is expressed as a global ruling class and essential players of global capitalism by William I. Robinson and Jerry Harris.Different factions within this class exist. Harris, for example, identifies statist-factions of the TCC in Russia, China, and the Persian Gulf. Various studies have examined the role of the TCC in Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, North America, and Oceania.\nProfessor Leslie Sklair argues that the transnational capitalist class is made up of four fractions which he identifies as corporate, state, technical and consumerist. The four fractions stated by Professor Leslie Sklair, bring together transnational corporations (TNC), globalizing bureaucrats, globalizing professionals and merchants as well as the media as members of the TCC. Also according to Sklair's book Sociology of the Global System, the World Economic Forum (WEF) shows the existence of the TCC as the corporate fraction and the state fraction gather in Davos, Switzerland. The theory of the Transnational Capitalist Class has two main principles:\nThe transnational capitalist class collaborate to benefit their own interests (powerful lobbyists and super PACs);\nNation states have less control over transnational capitalist corporations aiding in globalization.\"Davos Man\" is a neologism referring to the global elite of wealthy (predominantly) men, whose members view themselves as completely \"international\" and who despise the people of their own country, being loyal only to global capital itself. According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, who is credited with inventing the phrase \"Davos Man\", they are people who \"have little need for national loyalty, view national boundaries as obstacles that thankfully are vanishing, and see national governments as residues from the past whose only useful function is to facilitate the \u00e9lite's global operations\". In his 2004 article \"Dead Souls: The Denationalization of the American Elite\", Huntington argues that this international perspective is a minority elitist position not shared by the nationalist majority of the people.Ian Richardson sees Bilderberg group as the transnational power elite, \"an integral, and to some extent critical, part of the existing system of global governance\", that is \"not acting in the interests of the whole\".", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Transnationality is the principle of acting at a geographical scale larger than that of states, so as to take into account the interests of a supranational entity. \nTransnational policies or programmes are not simply aggregations of national policies or programmes, but seek to submerge these within a greater whole.  According to Aihwa Ong, the term differs from that of transnationalism, as transnationalism refers \"to the cultural specificities of global processes, tracing the multiplicity of the uses and conceptions of 'culture'\" whereas transnationality is \"the condition of cultural interconnectedness and mobility across space\".Transnationality is practised by organisations such as the United Nations and the European Union. The EU's principle of subsidiarity holds that actions should be carried out at the lowest feasible governmental level, and therefore much scope is left to individual Member States. The EU institutions thus concern themselves principally with transnational policies and actions.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Treaty of Paris was signed on March 6, 1323. It established clarity over the following: Count Louis I of Flanders relinquished Flemish claims over the County of Zeeland and acknowledged the Count of Holland, William I, as the Count of Zeeland. William, in turn, agreed to renounce all claims on Flanders.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Treaty of Prague was a treaty signed on 11 December 1973, in Prague, by West Germany and Czechoslovakia in which both states recognised each other diplomatically, declared the 1938 Munich Agreement to be null and void, acknowledged the inviolability of their common borders and abandoned all territorial claims.The Treaty of Prague was a strong element of the Ostpolitik put forward by the German Chancellor Willy Brandt and supported by his ruling party in the Bundestag of the Federal Republic of Germany. Also, since Germany and Czechoslovakia had never signed any treaty since the Second World War, the treaty has been a peace treaty between the two countries. The western part of Czechoslovakia that had borders with Germany is now the Czech Republic, which has also ratified the treaty.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Tribal Students Union or TSU is a Student organisation of Tripura, it is affiliated to Students' Federation of India. The TSU is the student wing of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) in Tripura.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Tribal Youth Federation (in Bengali Upajati Juba Federation) is an organization affiliated to Democratic Youth Federation of India in Tripura. TYF organizes youth from the tribal populations of the state. TYF has a separate central committee and publishes Bini Kharad (Our Voice). The supreme body of TYF is the Central Conference.\nTYF works in close coordination with Ganamukti Parishad and is often considered as the youth wing of GMP.\nTYF was founded in 1967 to counter the influence of Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The 2022 Tripoli clashes erupted between forces loyal to rival Libyan prime ministers Fathi Bashagha and Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh over the capital city of Tripoli.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Tu'i, also spelled more simplistically Tui, is a Polynesian traditional title for tribal chiefs or princes. In translations, the highest such positions are often rendered as \"king\". For details, see the links below various polities. Traditionally, a Tui is an equivalent of God title. Origin of Tui is believed to be Tui Manu'a (the title given to the son of the Polynesian God Tagaloa, and therefore Tui were viewed as living Gods).", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The \"Two Whatevers\" (Chinese: \u4e24\u4e2a\u51e1\u662f; pinyin: Li\u01ceng g\u00e8 f\u00e1n sh\u00ec) refers to the statement that \"We will resolutely uphold whatever policy decisions Chairman Mao made, and unswervingly follow whatever instructions Chairman Mao gave\" (\u51e1\u662f\u6bdb\u4e3b\u5e2d\u4f5c\u51fa\u7684\u51b3\u7b56\uff0c\u6211\u4eec\u90fd\u575a\u51b3\u7ef4\u62a4\uff1b\u51e1\u662f\u6bdb\u4e3b\u5e2d\u7684\u6307\u793a\uff0c\u6211\u4eec\u90fd\u59cb\u7ec8\u4e0d\u6e1d\u5730\u9075\u5faa).\nThis statement was contained in a joint editorial, entitled \"Study the Documents Well and Grasp the Key Link\", printed on 7 February 1977 in People's Daily, the journal Red Flag and the PLA Daily.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Ulusalc\u0131l\u0131k is a secularist (laik), neo-nationalist ideology in Turkey that is influenced by Kemalism. Until the late 20th century, the word had been used as an equivalent of 'nationalism'. However, in the mid-1990s, it transformed into a ideology led by left-wing nationalists M\u00fcmtaz Soysal and Do\u011fu Perin\u00e7ek.As a reaction to the rise of a reformist, but staunchly conservative AKP in 2000s, Ulusalc\u0131lar came up with numerous conspiracy theories. The central theme of these theories is a world-wide conspiracy to destroy Turkey, which is believed to be spearheaded by countries such as United States, EU member states, Greece, Israel, and Armenia, ethnicities such as Greeks, Arabs, and Armenians, and ideologies such as liberalism, anti-nationalist leftism, and Islamism. To further consolidate their claims, the leaders of the ideology sought to 'historically prove' their theories, thus developing Kemalist historiography and radicalizing it. These theories were popularized by media outlets such as S\u00f6zc\u00fc, a staunch Kemalist and xenophobic newspaper. According to Do\u011fan G\u00fcrp\u0131nar, the theories are mostly popular among upper-middle-class secular Turks; however, he notes that there is a lack of definitive research on this area.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Un-Credible Shrinking Man was a Party Political Broadcast by the United Kingdom's Labour Party that was aired in May 2014.It starred Dominic Coleman as David Cameron.It attracted media attention for its parody of the 1950s black-and-white film The Incredible Shrinking Man. Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg is portrayed as The Un-Credible Shrinking Man in a comedy piece that sees him being treated with contempt by his coalition partners in the Conservative Party, shrinking to the size of a doll as he is forced to abandon his party's election manifesto policies, and finally being chased by the Downing Street cat. The Liberal Democrats release their own black-and-white film in response, portraying Labour leader Ed Miliband as the \"incredible silent man\".", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Under Secretary of Energy for Infrastructure, previously the Undersecretary for Energy, is a position within the United States Department of Energy. The under secretary oversees the department's energy and environment programs, including environmental cleanup of the nuclear weapons complex, nuclear waste management efforts, and applied energy research and developmental activities.\nThe Under Secretary of Energy for Infrastructure is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Under Secretary is paid at level III of the Executive Schedule, meaning they receives a basic annual salary of $152,000 as of 2006. Previous Under Secretaries by recency include Acting Under Secretary David B. Sandalow, Under Secretary Bud Albright, who was confirmed on September 3, 2007. Acting Under Secretary Bill Ostendorff, Acting Under Secretary Dennis Spurgeon, David K. Garman, and Robert G. Card.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Uniform national swing, or UNS is a system for translating opinion polls, which give overall vote proportions, to expected eventual parliamentary seats in a constituency based first past the post system, as in the UK general elections. Under the uniform national swing, changes in the vote proportions (swing) since the previous election are assumed to be constant across all constituencies. By applying this change to the previous per-constituency based vote proportions, a prediction for which party would have the most votes in each constituency may be made, which is then counted and totalled for a final seat count.\nAlternative methods exist, such as the proportional national swing system. However, UNS has proven acceptably accurate in the past, and so is commonly used in UK media for seat count predictions.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A Union Council is a body of elected or appointed representatives who represent students who are members of a students' union. Union Council's often have the power to hold the Union's Officers to account and to create new Union policies.  The Council is usually not responsible for implementing Union policy.  A policy passed by such a body usually has less authority than one passed by a general meeting of students or a referendum of all students in the Union.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Union of Arms (in Spanish Uni\u00f3n de Armas) was a political proposal, put forward by Gaspar de Guzm\u00e1n, Count-Duke of Olivares for greater military co-operation between the constituent parts of the composite monarchy ruled by Philip IV of Spain.The plan was for each of the kingdoms ruled by Philip to contribute equitably to a fund from which 140,000 troops would be maintained for the defense of the monarchy. The plan was \"a thinly disguised attempt to integrate the fiscal institutions of the empire [that] prompted much opposition in the Indies.\"\n\nThe division of contributions envisaged was:\nCrown of Castile, 44,000 troops\nSpanish Netherlands, 12,000 troops\nKingdom of Aragon, 10,000 troops\nKingdom of Valencia, 6,000 troops\nPrincipality of Catalonia, 16,000 troops\nKingdom of Portugal, 16,000 troops\nKingdom of Naples, 16,000 troops\nKingdom of Sicily, 6,000 troops\nDuchy of Milan, 8,000 troops\nMediterranean and Atlantic islands, 6,000 troopsAlthough the proposal ultimately failed, it was an important factor in the growing mistrust of Castilian hegemony that led to the Reapers' War in Catalonia and the Portuguese Restoration War.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The United Front is a strategy used by the People's Republic of China to achieve dominance over Taiwan. It relies on the presence of pro-Beijing sympathizers in Taiwan combined with a carrot-and-stick approach of threatening war with Taiwan while offering opportunities for business and cultural exchanges.In 2022, Taiwan's National Security Bureau chief stated that the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had provided training to local internet celebrities in \"cognitive warfare\" campaigns to spread propaganda.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 65/265 is a resolution of the United Nations General Assembly which suspended the right of Libya to take part in the Human Rights Council. Adopted on March 1, 2011 without vote, the resolution was passed in response to Muammar Gaddafi's treatment of protesters in the 2011 Libyan civil war.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The United People's Party Liberal (abbr. UPPL) is a political party founded in Assam. The party has its headquarters in Kokrajhar Town. The party was actively participated in 2020 Bodoland Territorial Council Election under the presidency of Pramod Boro. Earlier the party was led by former MP Urkhao Gwra Brahma.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Between 12 and 15 January 1994, President Bill Clinton of the United States and President Boris Yeltsin of the Russian Federation negotiated an agreement between their respective countries not to target strategic nuclear missiles at each other.\nThe text of the agreement, which is thirteen paragraphs long, includes a single paragraph on the subject of detargeting. It specifies 30 May 1994 as the deadline for detargeting, and states that \"for the first time in nearly half a century \u2013 virtually since the dawn of the nuclear age \u2013 Russia and United States will not operate nuclear forces, day-to-day, in a manner that presumes they are adversaries.\"\nDetargeted missiles are reprogrammed to either have no target or, in the case of missiles that require a constant target (such as the Minuteman III), are set to open-ocean targets.In 1997, during a debate over an amendment that would require the president to certify that Russia had detargeted its missiles, Representative Curt Weldon (R-PA) introduced into the Congressional Record a transcript of a 60 Minutes interview with Russian generals which stated that Russian intercontinental ballistic missiles could be retargeted to point to US targets within a matter of minutes. Weldon also pointed out that there is no way to verify that Russia has detargeted its missiles.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The University Students' African Revolutionary Front (USARF) was a political student group formed in 1967 at the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. The group, which engaged in study and activism and held regular meetings on Sundays, featured many students who would go on to become influential politicians. USARF was composed of students from Kenya, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and elsewhere in Africa. President of Uganda, Yoweri Museveni was elected its chairman for the whole time he was at university. John Garang, another former USARF member, was the vice-president of Sudan at the time of his death in July 2005. The group identified closely with African liberation movements, especially FRELIMO in Mozambique.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The Viridian Design Movement was an aesthetic movement focused on concepts from bright green environmentalism. The name was chosen to refer to a shade of green that does not quite look natural, indicating that the movement was about innovative design and technology, in contrast with the \"leaf green\" of traditional environmentalism.  The movement tied together environmental design, techno-progressivism, and global citizenship. It was founded in 1998 by Bruce Sterling, a postcyberpunk science fiction author. Sterling always remained the central figure in the movement, with Alex Steffen perhaps the next best-known. Steffen, Jamais Cascio, and Jon Lebkowsky, along with some other frequent contributors to Sterling's Viridian notes, formed the Worldchanging blog. Sterling wrote the introduction to Worldchanging's book (Worldchanging: A Users Guide for the 21st Century), which (according to Ross Robertson) is considered the definitive volume on bright green thinking. Sterling formally closed the Viridian movement in 2008, saying there was no need to continue its work now that bright green environmentalism had emerged.\n\n", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A voting bloc is a group of voters that are strongly motivated by a specific common concern or group of concerns to the point that such specific concerns tend to dominate their voting patterns, causing them to vote together in elections. For example, Beliefnet identifies 12 main religious blocs in American politics, such as the \"Religious Right\", whose concerns are dominated by religious and sociocultural issues; and American Jews, who are identified as a \"strong Democratic group\" with liberal views on economics and social issues.  The result is that each of these groups votes en bloc in elections.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Wag the dog is, as a political term, the act of creating a diversion from a damaging issue usually through military force. It stems from the generic use of the term to mean a small and seemingly unimportant entity (the tail) controls a bigger, more important one (the dog). It is usually used by a politician when they are in a scandal, in hopes that people forget about the scandal and focus on the more important issue. The phrase originates in the saying \"a dog is smarter than its tail, but if the tail were smarter, then it would wag the dog.\" The concept has strong intersections with many other aspects of Diversionary foreign policy, particularly the Rally 'round the flag effect, as wag the dog actions tend to both distract and seek to bolster support through these actions.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A walk-in agent is an individual who voluntarily offers to conduct espionage. Specifically, a \"walk-in\" is an agent or a mole of a government who literally walks into an embassy or intelligence agency without prior contact or recruitment.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "This Wayaobu Manifesto (Chinese: \u74e6\u7a91\u5821\u5ba3\u8a00) was issued in December 1935, by Mao Zedong in Wayaobu, northern Shaanxi. It deliberated on policies and strategies to confront the Japanese invasion of China (see Second Sino-Japanese War).\nMao Zedong called for a national united front with the Kuomintang to resist the Japanese. This appeal struck a responsive chord among Chinese. This decision of the Chinese Communist Party differed sharply with  Chiang Kai-shek's policy of first defeating the Communists before challenging Japan directly (\u5b89\u5185\u6518\u5916).\nOn December 9, 1935, students and other citizens (dubbed the \u201cDecember Niners\u201d) held a demonstration on the Tiananmen Square in Beijing (renamed as Beiping then) to protest Chiang Kai-shek's continued \u201cnonresistance\u201d against the Japanese. City police used violence to suppress the students, turning the fire hoses on them, in the near-freezing weather. However, this demonstration became a potent symbol of anti-Japanese resistance and led to patriotic groups sprouting around the country.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "WikiCandidate was a wiki designed to collaboratively create a virtual political campaign for a fictional U.S. presidential candidate. Begun by students and faculty at the Cornell University Department of Communication, its content was intended to be a tool for understanding what characteristics the ideal candidate would have, as determined through a consensus among the community of users. For the university, the endeavor was a research project investigating online civic participation. The site is run on MediaWiki and registering an account is required to edit. All content on the site was published under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The World Ecological Parties (WEP) is an international association of mainly ecological parties. The WEP was founded in November 2003 in Mainz, Germany and elected its first board in April 2004 in Strasbourg, France. It organized an Eco Camp in 2005, General Assembly - 1\u20133 April 2005 in Lisbon Portugal, General Assembly - 6 & 7 May 2006 in Vr\u0161ac Serbia; General Assembly - 25\u201327 May 2007 in Hungary. The WEP is independent from the Global Greens which organize the major Green parties. \nPresent member parties are: \n\nCosmopolitan Party of Canada, Canada\nDebout pour le Congo, DR Congo\nGr\u00f8nne Demokrater, Denmark\nMouvement Ecologiste Ind\u00e9pendant, France\nPartido da Terra, Portugal\n\u00d6kologisch-Demokratische Partei, Germany\nEcologists of Greece, Greece\nPartia e Blerte Shqiptare, Albania\nPartia Ekologjike e Kosoves (PEK), Kosovo\nSauvons le Congo, DR Congo\nZelena Stranka, Serbia\nHungarian Social Green Party, HungaryNetwork Partners:\n\nNuclear Disarmament Party, Australia\nAsol, Togo NGOOther wep organisations:\n\nWEPY - World Ecological Parties YouthMembers of the board are: \n\nPresident: Erida Luka, Albania\nVice President: Budimir Babic, Serbia\nGeneral Secretary: Ellen Eigemeier, Germany\nTreasurer: Ulrike Brandhorst, Germany\nEvent-Manager: Ott\u00f3 Stekler, Hungary\nMembers of the Board: Michael McGee, France\nMembers of the Board: Goran Dimitrijevski, Serbia", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "The X-file scandal is a South Korean political scandal of 2005.  The scandal revolves around the release of wiretapped conversations to the media.  Many of the conversations were of conservative politicians in the Grand National Party arranging bribes during the South Korean presidential election of 1997.  The tapes were made illegally.  The scandal has recently broadened to look at the general role of the National Intelligence Service (NIS) in political and personal affairs.\nIn July, 2005, South Korean police raided the home of NIS intelligence operative Kong Un-young, retrieving 274 tapes.  Kong attempted suicide, but was unsuccessful. Because of this evidence of NIS involvement, some Grand National Party leaders charge that the administration of Roh Moo-hyun must have been aware of the wiretaps.  However, members of the pro-government Uri Party have charged that GNP leaders were also aware of them.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Y'all Politics is a for profit digital media service focused on political news in the United States state of Mississippi. It was founded in 2004 by Alan Lange, originally to cover that year's race for mayor in Jackson, Mississippi. It is considered to have a politically conservative perspective. In 2013, it was named one of the best state-based political blogs by Chris Cillizza of the Washington Post's blog The Fix.  Y'all Politics staff members are regularly featured in a variety of media outlets as experts on Mississippi politics.  The news site has also been active in recent years conducting polling on Mississippi political issues.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "In Malay, Yang di-Pertuan Besar, literally \"He Who Is Made Great\" or \"Great Ruler\", is a royal title.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "A youth ambassador is a young agent, representative and/or steward for the charity for which he or she works.Youth ambassadors have been introduced in order to promote participation, or spread goodwill or knowledge. Organizations that make use of youth ambassadors vary from charitable organizations for children to intergovernmental organizations, like the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the United Nations for the support of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and for other organizations.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Zhai Gong (Chinese: \u7fdf\u516c, fl. 2nd century BCE) was a Magistrate under the Emperor Wen of the Han dynasty of China.\nHe was a native of Xiagui (\u4e0b\u90bd) in Shaanxi. He was a popular politician; yet when he was dismissed from his office, he was abandoned. Upon his reinstatement, his friends tried to come back; but he denied them, and posted a notice to the effect that true friendship endures even through poverty and disgrace.", "label": "Politics"}, {"sentence": "Comparative theology is a relatively new discipline within theology, which holds together \"comparative\" and \"theology\" in creative tension. It represents a particular type of theological practice committed to deep interreligious learning (\"comparative\") while staying rooted in a particular religious tradition (\"theology\"). Moreover, while many of its proponents come from the Christian religious tradition, it can have as a starting point the theology of any religious tradition.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The \"Holy Experiment\" was an attempt by the Religious Society of Friends, also known as Quakers, to establish a community for themselves and other persecuted religious minorities in what would become the modern state of Pennsylvania.  They hoped it would show to the world how well they could function on their own without any persecution or dissension.The Experiment ultimately failed after roughly eight years, due to the death of William Penn and conflicts between Quakers and non-Quakers within the colony over the foundation of a Pennsylvania-backed militia, which defied Quaker beliefs.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Patternism is a method of comparing the teachings of the religions of the ancient Near East whereby the similarities between these religions are assumed to constitute an overarching pattern. Opponents of this approach have employed the term patternism as a pejorative. While supporters are unified in their belief that the similarities result from the fact that the religions of the ancient near east are related, patternists vary widely in their views about how closely related these religions are and why.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition about the universe is true. In epistemology, philosophers use the term \"belief\" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to take it to be true; for instance, to believe that snow is white is comparable to accepting the truth of the proposition \"snow is white\". However, holding a belief does not require active introspection. For example, few carefully consider whether or not the sun will rise tomorrow, simply assuming that it will. Moreover, beliefs need not be occurrent (e.g. a person actively thinking \"snow is white\"), but can instead be dispositional (e.g. a person who if asked about the color of snow would assert \"snow is white\").There are various different ways that contemporary philosophers have tried to describe beliefs, including as representations of ways that the world could be (Jerry Fodor), as dispositions to act as if certain things are true (Roderick Chisholm), as interpretive schemes for making sense of someone's actions (Daniel Dennett and Donald Davidson), or as mental states that fill a particular function (Hilary Putnam). Some have also attempted to offer significant revisions to our notion of belief, including eliminativists about belief who argue that there is no phenomenon in the natural world which corresponds to our folk psychological concept of belief (Paul Churchland) and formal epistemologists who aim to replace our bivalent notion of belief (\"either we have a belief or we don't have a belief\") with the more permissive, probabilistic notion of credence (\"there is an entire spectrum of degrees of belief, not a simple dichotomy between belief and non-belief\").Beliefs are the subject of various important philosophical debates. Notable examples include: \"What is the rational way to revise one's beliefs when presented with various sorts of evidence?,\" \"Is the content of our beliefs entirely determined by our mental states, or do the relevant facts have any bearing on our beliefs (e.g. if I believe that I'm holding a glass of water, is the non-mental fact that water is H2O part of the content of that belief)?,\" \"How fine-grained or coarse-grained are our beliefs?,\" and \"Must it be possible for a belief to be expressible in language, or are there non-linguistic beliefs?\".", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Although biological evolution has been vocally opposed by some religious groups, many other groups accept the scientific position, sometimes with additions to allow for theological considerations.  The positions of such groups are described by terms including \"theistic evolution\", \"theistic evolutionism\" or \"evolutionary creation\".  Of all the religious groups included on the chart, Buddhists are the most accepting of evolution.  Theistic evolutionists believe that there is a God, that God is the creator of the material universe and (by consequence) all life within, and that biological evolution is a natural process within that creation. Evolution, according to this view, is simply a tool that God employed to develop human life. According to the American Scientific Affiliation, a Christian organization of scientists:\n\nA theory of theistic evolution (TE) \u2014 also called evolutionary creation \u2014 proposes that God's method of creation was to cleverly design a universe in which everything would naturally evolve. Usually the \"evolution\" in \"theistic evolution\" means Total Evolution \u2014 astronomical evolution (to form galaxies, solar systems,...) and geological evolution (to form the earth's geology) plus chemical evolution (to form the first life) and biological evolution (for the development of life) \u2014 but it can refer only to biological evolution.\nAccording to Eugenie Scott, Director of the US National Center for Science Education, \"In one form or another, Theistic Evolutionism is the view of creation taught at the majority of mainline Protestant seminaries, and it is the official position of the Catholic church\".Theistic evolution is not a scientific theory, but a particular view about how the science of evolution relates to religious belief and interpretation. Theistic evolution supporters can be seen as one of the groups who reject the conflict thesis regarding the relationship between religion and science \u2013 that is, they hold that religious teachings about creation and scientific theories of evolution need not contradict, what evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould called non-overlapping magisteria.  Christian proponents of this view are sometimes described as Christian Darwinists.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The afterlife (also referred to as life after death or the world to come) is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's identity or their stream of consciousness continues to live after the death of their physical body. According to various ideas about the afterlife, the essential aspect of the individual that lives on after death may be some partial element, or the entire soul or spirit of an individual, which carries with it and may confer personal identity or, on the contrary nirvana. Belief in an afterlife is in contrast to the belief in oblivion after death.\nIn some views, this continued existence takes place in a spiritual realm, and in other popular views, the individual may be reborn into this world and begin the life cycle over again, likely with no memory of what they have done in the past. In this latter view, such rebirths and deaths may take place over and over again continuously until the individual gains entry to a spiritual realm or otherworld. Major views on the afterlife derive from religion, esotericism and metaphysics.\nSome belief systems, such as those in the Abrahamic tradition, hold that the dead go to a specific place after death, as determined by God, or other divine judgment, based on their actions or beliefs during life. In contrast, in systems of reincarnation, such as those in the Indian religions, the nature of the continued existence is determined directly by the actions of the individual in the ended life.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Animatism is a term coined by British anthropologist Robert Marett in the context of his teleological theory of the evolution of religion. It refers to \"a belief in a generalized, impersonal power over which people have some measure of control\". Marett argues that certain cultures believe \"people, animals, plants, and inanimate objects were endowed with certain powers, which were both impersonal and supernatural.\" Mana, Marett states, is a concentrated form of animatistic force found within any of these objects that confer power, strength, and success.Animatism is a belief that inanimate, miraculous qualities exists in the natural world. It also talks about the belief that everything is infused with a life force giving each lifeless object personality or perception, but not a soul as in animism. It is a widespread belief among small-scale societies. In South Pacific regions, such as Melanesia and Polynesia, this belief comes in form of manaism, which is derived from manaMany indigenous cultures believe in animatism. They believe that worshipping inanimate objects will drive them away from the evil forces around. These groups also believe that the inanimate objects they worship have mystical powers that are sent by God to help them on Earth.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Apotheosis (from Ancient Greek  \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03ad\u03c9\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 (apoth\u00e9\u014dsis), from  \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c9/\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03b5\u1ff6 (apothe\u00f3\u014d/apothe\u00f4) 'to deify'), also called divinization or deification (from Latin  deificatio 'making divine'), is the glorification of a subject to divine levels and, commonly, the treatment of a human being, any other living thing, or an abstract idea in the likeness of a deity. The term has meanings in theology, where it refers to a belief, and in art, where it refers to a genre.\nIn theology, apotheosis refers to the idea that an individual has been raised to godlike stature. In art, the term refers to the treatment of any subject (a figure, group, locale, motif, convention or melody) in a particularly grand or exalted manner.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Various theistic positions can involve belief in a God or \"gods\". They include:\n\nHenotheism, belief in the supremacy of one god without denying the existence of others.\nMonotheism, the doctrine or belief that there is only one deity.\nPanentheism, the belief that a deity is a part of the universe as well as transcending it.\nPantheism,  a doctrine identifying the deity with the universe and its phenomena.\nPolytheism, the worship of or belief in more than one god.\nidolism, the belief in or worship of idols.These positions are all contrasted by atheism, the non-belief in god.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Bilocation, or sometimes multilocation, is an alleged psychic or miraculous ability wherein an individual or object is located (or appears to be located) in two distinct places at the same time. Reports of bilocational phenomena have been made in a wide variety of historical and religious contexts, ranging from ancient Greek legends and Christian traditions to modern occultism.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Throughout history, various groups of people have considered themselves to be the chosen people of a deity, for a particular purpose. The phenomenon of a \"chosen people\" is well known among the Israelites and Jews, where the term (Hebrew: \u05e2\u05dd \u05e1\u05d2\u05d5\u05dc\u05d4 / \u05d4\u05e2\u05dd \u05d4\u05e0\u05d1\u05d7\u05e8) originally referred to the Israelites as being selected by Yahweh to worship only him and to fulfill the mission of proclaiming his truth throughout the world. Some claims of chosenness are based on parallel claims of Israelite ancestry, as is the case for the Christian Identity and Black Hebrew sects\u2014both which claim themselves (and not Jews) to be the \"true Israel\". Others claim that the concept is spiritual, where individuals who genuinely believe in God are considered to be the \"true\" chosen people. This view is common among most Christian denominations, who historically believed that the church replaced Israel as the people of God.\nAnthropologists commonly regard claims of chosenness as a form of ethnocentrism. The more extreme ethnocentric concept of a master race grounded in biological determinism, rather than metaphysical favouritism, is a common theme in many flavours of supremacism.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Collective responsibility, also known as collective guilt, refers to responsibilities of organizations, groups and societies. Collective responsibility in the form of collective punishment is often used as a disciplinary measure in closed institutions, e.g. boarding schools (punishing a whole class for the actions of one known or unknown pupil), military units, prisons (juvenile and adult), psychiatric facilities, etc. The effectiveness and severity of this measure may vary greatly, but it often breeds distrust and isolation among their members. Historically, collective punishment is a sign of authoritarian tendencies in the institution or its home society.In ethics, both methodological individualists and normative individualists question the validity of collective responsibility. Normally, only the individual actor can accrue culpability for actions that they freely cause. The notion of collective culpability seems to deny individual moral responsibility. Contemporary systems of criminal law accept the principle that guilt shall only be personal. According to genocide scholar A. Dirk Moses, \"The collective guilt accusation is unacceptable in scholarship, let alone in normal discourse and is, I think, one of the key ingredients in genocidal thinking.\"", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious cosmology is an explanation of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe from a religious perspective. This may include beliefs on origin in the form of a creation myth, subsequent evolution, current organizational form and nature, and eventual fate or destiny. There are various traditions in religion or religious mythology asserting how and why everything is the way it is and the significance of it all. Religious cosmologies describe the spatial lay-out of the universe in terms of the world in which people typically dwell as well as other dimensions, such as the seven dimensions of religion; these are ritual, experiential and emotional, narrative and mythical, doctrinal, ethical, social, and material.Religious mythologies may include descriptions of an act or process of creation by a creator deity or a larger pantheon of deities, explanations of the transformation of chaos into order, or the assertion that existence is a matter of endless cyclical transformations. Religious cosmology differs from a strictly scientific cosmology informed by the results of the study of astronomy and similar fields, and may differ in conceptualizations of the world's physical structure and place in the universe, its creation, and forecasts or predictions on its future.\nThe scope of religious cosmology is more inclusive than a strictly scientific cosmology (physical cosmology) in that religious cosmology is not limited to experiential observation, testing of hypotheses, and proposals of theories; for example, religious cosmology may explain why everything is the way it is or seems to be the way it is and prescribing what humans should do in context. Variations in religious cosmology include those such as from India Buddhism, Hindu, and Jain; the religious beliefs of China, Chinese Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism, Japan's Shintoisim and the beliefs of the Abrahamic faiths, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Religious cosmologies have often developed into the formal logics of metaphysical systems, such as Platonism, Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, Taoism, Kabbalah, Wuxing or the great chain of being.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In religion, a covenant is a formal alliance or agreement made by God with a religious community or with humanity in general. The concept, central to the Abrahamic religions, is derived from the biblical covenants, notably from the Abrahamic covenant. Christianity asserts that God made an additional covenant through Jesus Christ, called the \"new covenant\".\nA covenant in its most general sense and historical sense, is a solemn promise to engage in or refrain from a specified action. A covenant is a type of agreement analogous to a contractual condition. The covenantor makes a promise to a covenantee to do (affirmative covenant) or not do some action (negative covenant).", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Desecration is the act of depriving something of its sacred character, or the disrespectful, contemptuous, or destructive treatment of that which is held to be sacred or holy by a group or individual.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Direct revelation is a term used by some Christian churches to express their belief in a communication from God to a person, by words, impression, visions, dreams or actual appearance. Direct revelation is believed to be an open communication between God and man, or the Holy Spirit and man, without any other exterior (secondary) means. Direct revelation from evil spirits can also occur.\nExamples of this is seen in God communicating the Ten Commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai (Exodus 34:4); or the devil communicating knowledge to Jesus Christ during his temptation in the wilderness (Luke 4:1-12) or the appearance of an angel to Manoah's wife telling her that she shall bear Samson (Judges 13:2). Direct revelation is classified as special revelation, but the word \"direct\" has come to make this type of revelation distinct.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Disputationes (full title: Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae Fidei adversus hujus temporis Haereticos), also referred to as De Controversiis or the Controversiae, is a work on dogmatics in three volumes by Robert Bellarmine.\nThe Disputationes has been described as \"the definitive defence of papal power\". After its publication, Bellarmine's Disputationes was regarded as the Catholic Church's foremost defence of its doctrine, and especially the papal power.It was written while Bellarmine was lecturing at the Roman College, and was first published at Ingolstadt in three volumes (1586, 1588, 1593). This work was the earliest attempt to systematize the various controversies of the time, and made an immense impression throughout Europe, the strength of its arguments against Protestantism so acutely felt in Germany and England that special chairs were founded in order to provide replies to it. Thomas Hobbes, Theodore Beza, Conrad Vorstius and John Rainolds were among those who wrote counter-arguments against the work.\n\"The complete edition, reviewed and corrected by the author, which became the standard for all further editions, appeared in Venice in 1596.\"\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Divine apathy is the doctrine that the divine nature is incapable of suffering, passivity or modification. This doctrine is a common feature of Platonist, Aristotelian, and Stoic philosophical theology and seems to have heavily influenced post-Biblical Jewish, Christian, and Muslim thought.  On the other hand, the Bible depicts YHWH as capable of grieving, for example:\n\"And it repented the LORD that he had made man on the earth, and it grieved him at his heart.\" (Genesis 6:6 King James Version)\n\"And then \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4 sighed as He has effectuated the \u0294\u01df\u1e0f\u01df\u0316m in the land, and then He travailed (Himself) to His heart.\" (Genesis 6:6 Scriptures of the Faith Once Delivered)", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Divine inspiration is the concept of a supernatural force, typically a deity, causing a person or people to experience a creative desire. It has been a commonly reported aspect of many religions, for thousands of years. Divine inspiration is often closely tied to the concept of revelation, the belief in information being revealed or disclosed through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Divinity or the divine are things that are either related to, devoted to, or proceeding from a deity. What is or is not divine may be loosely defined, as it is used by different belief systems.\nThe root of the word divine is literally \"godly\", but the use varies significantly depending on which deity is being discussed.\nFor specific related academic terms, see Divinity (academic discipline), or Divine (Anglican).", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Dogma is a belief or set of beliefs that is accepted by the members of a group without being questioned or doubted. It may be in the form of an official system of principles or doctrines of a religion, such as Roman Catholicism, Judaism, or Protestantism, as well as the positions of a philosopher or of a philosophical school such as positivism, postmodernism, egalitarianism, and dark enlightenment. It may also be found in political belief-systems, such as Marxism, communism, capitalism, progressivism, liberalism, conservatism, and fascism.In the pejorative sense, dogma refers to enforced decisions, such as those of aggressive political interests or authorities. More generally, it is applied to some strong belief which its adherents are not willing to discuss rationally. This attitude is named as a dogmatic one, or as dogmatism; and is often used to refer to matters related to religion, but is not limited to theistic attitudes alone and is often used with respect to political or philosophical dogmas.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Economic ethics is the combination of economics and ethics that unites value judgements from both disciplines to predict, analyze, and model economic phenomena. It encompasses the theoretical ethical prerequisites and foundations of economic systems. This particular school of thought dates back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, whose Nicomachean Ethics describes the connection between objective economic principles and the consideration of justice. The academic literature on economic ethics is extensive, citing authorities such as natural law and religious law as influences on normative rules in economics. The consideration of moral philosophy, or that of a moral economy, is a point of departure in assessing behavioural economic models. The standard creation, application, and beneficiaries of economic models present a complex trilemma when ethics are considered. These ideas, in conjunction with the fundamental assumption of rationality in economics, create the link between economics and ethics.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Entering heaven alive (called by various religions \"ascension\", \"assumption\", or \"translation\") is a belief held in various religions. Since death is the normal end to an individual's life on Earth and the beginning of afterlife, entering heaven without dying first is considered exceptional and usually a sign of a deity's special recognition of the individual's piety.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Evolutionary creation, also presented as Evolutionary creationism, is the religious belief that God as Creator brings about his plan through processes of evolution. It is a type of creationism which, like theistic evolution, accepts modern science, but there are theological differences. Its proponents, who tend to be conservative evangelical Christians, hold that God is actively involved in evolution to a greater extent than theistic evolutionists.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Faith, derived from Latin fides and Old French feid, is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept. In the context of religion, one can define faith as \"belief in God or in the doctrines or teachings of religion\".\nReligious people often think of faith as confidence based on a perceived degree of warrant,\nwhile others who are more skeptical of religion tend to think of faith as simply belief without evidence.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Faith and rationality exist in varying degrees of conflict or compatibility. Rationality is based on reason or facts. Faith is belief in inspiration, revelation, or authority. The word faith sometimes refers to a belief that is held with lack of reason or evidence, a belief that is held in spite of or against reason or empirical evidence, or it can refer to belief based upon a degree of evidential warrant.Although the words faith and belief are sometimes erroneously conflated and used as synonyms, faith properly refers to a particular type (or subset) of belief, as defined above.\n\nBroadly speaking, there are two categories of views regarding the relationship between faith and rationality: Rationalism holds that truth should be determined by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma, tradition or religious teaching.\nFideism holds that faith is necessary, and that beliefs may be held without any evidence or reason and even in conflict with evidence and reason.The Catholic Church also has taught that true faith and correct reason can and must work together, and, viewed properly, can never be in conflict with one another, as both have their origin in God, as stated in the Papal encyclical letter issued by Pope John Paul II, Fides et ratio (\"Faith and Reason\").", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In religion, a false prophet is a person who falsely claims the gift of prophecy or divine inspiration, or to speak for God, or who makes such claims for evil ends. Often, someone who is considered a \"true prophet\" by some people is simultaneously considered a \"false prophet\" by others, even within the same religion as the \"prophet\" in question. In a wider sense, it is anyone who, without having it, claims a special connection to the deity and sets him or herself up as a source of spirituality, as an authority, preacher, or teacher. Analogously, the term is sometimes applied outside religion to describe someone who fervently promotes a theory that the speaker thinks is false.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Discussions of the far future are of major importance both in theology and folk religion. Many Christian authors have welcomed the scientific theory of the heat death of the universe as the ultimate fate of the universe as it was first proposed, while atheists and materialists back then commonly opposed the theory in favour of the idea that the universe and life in it would exist eternally. Nonetheless, in modern days, nontheists have largely come to accept the theory, while Christian eschatology is in conflict with the idea that entropy will be the predominant factor in determining the state of the far future, instead predicting God's creation of the New Earth and its existence into the far future.According to Mahayana Buddhism, an emanation of the Buddha-nature will appear in the material world in the far future.In Hinduism, Brahma, the creator god, will live for 100 years, with each day of these years made up of two kalpas, and each kalpa lasting  4.32 billion human years. The lifetime of Brahma, and thus the universe, is therefore predicted to last 315.36 trillion years.Mayan religion often cites incredibly long time periods. Stela 1 at Coba marks the date of creation as 13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.0.0.0.0 in the Mesoamerican Long Count. According to Linda Schele, these 13s represent \"the starting point of a huge odometer of time\", with each acting as a zero and resetting to 1 as the numbers increase. Thus this inscription anticipates the current universe lasting at least 2021\u00d713\u00d7360 days, or roughly 2.687\u00d71028 years; a time span equal to 2 quintillion times the age of the universe as determined by cosmologists. Others have suggested, however, that this date marks creation as having occurred after that time span.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Fear of God may refer to fear itself, but more often to a sense of awe, and submission to, a deity. People subscribing to popular monotheistic religions for instance, might fear Hell and divine judgment, or submit to God's omnipotence.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "God Is Back: How the Global Revival of Faith Is Changing the World is a 2009 book by John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge which argues against the secularization thesis and claims that there is a global revival of faith has started in the late twentieth century.\nMicklethwait and Wooldridge provided a quick coverage of American history, in which they argue that American religion was dramatically transformed by the disestablishment of churches after the American Revolution.  An emerging \"free market\" of religious choices led Americans to become increasingly pluralistic and tolerant of other forms of Christianity.  The voluntary nature of religious association led Americans to take ownership of their own institutions and churches, helping create a democratic sense of responsibility for creating associations and community.  These features of American culture, along with the First Amendment's separation of church and state, ensured that American religions could only survive by appealing to the common people.  This democratized American Christianity, leading average Americans to shape religious movements themselves.  In the post-Revolutionary period, all this led America in an increasingly pluralist and democratic direction.Micklethwait and Wooldridge argue that the religions growing around the world tend to exhibit these same features.  World religions\u2014and Christianity, in particular\u2014are growing fastest where they are: competing with other religious alternatives, unsupported by state governments, and entirely dependent upon popular interest.  Writing against the fear that the growth of religion will increase warfare and strife, Micklethwait and Wooldridge argue that a democratic and pluralistic culture would help minimize these dangers while maximizing the benefits of religion. Finally, while the authors suggest that Islam too could be modernized and introduced to a pluralistic culture, they suspect that Islam is less amenable for this transition than Christianity.Kirkus Reviews called it \"A meaningful contribution to the ongoing conversation about the place of faith in modern life.\"", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In religion, heterodoxy (from Ancient Greek: h\u00e9teros, \"other, another, different\" + d\u00f3xa, \"popular belief\") means \"any opinions or doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position\". Under this definition, heterodoxy is similar to unorthodoxy, while the adjective 'heterodox' could be applied to a dissident.\nHeterodoxy is also an ecclesiastical term of art, defined in various ways by different religions and churches. For example, in the apostolic churches (the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of the East, the Anglican Communion, and the Oriental Orthodox Churches), heterodoxy may describe beliefs that differ from strictly orthodox views, but that fall short either of formal or of material heresy.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Hisbah (Arabic: \u062d\u0633\u0628\u0629, romanized: \u1e25isba, \"accountability\") is an Islamic doctrine referring to upholding \"community morals\", based on the Quranic injunction to  \"enjoin good and forbid wrong\".In pre-modern Islam, Hisbah was not just a doctrine but an office charged with \"maintenance of public law and order and supervising market transactions\", covering salat prayers, \"mosque maintenance, community matters, and market dealings\", whose functionary was called a muhtasib.Later, the celebrated Islamic scholar Al-Ghazali (d.1111), used \"Hisba\" as a \"general term for forbidding wrong\", and specifically for the \"duty of individual Muslims\" to forbid wrong and command right. He also used the term \"muhtasib\", but for any Muslim who carried out the duty.What is \"good\" and what is \"wrong\" are based on the norms of sharia (Islamic law), according to scholars. How right is commanding and wrong forbidden can be divided into \u201cthree modes\u201d according to an oft quoted prophetic hadith\u2014by \u201chand\u201d, i.e. using force; \u201ctongue\u201d i.e. verbally; by the \u201cheart\u201d i.e. silently.  Scholars and Islamic schools of law (madhhab) differ regarding who precisely was (and is) responsible for carrying out the duty, to whom it was to be directed, and what its performance entailed\u2014schools of law differ over whether Hisbah is an individual or collective duty, for example.  Who is eligible to use force (their \"hand\") to command and forbid is disputed, some reserving it for the political authorities such as the mu\u1e25tasib and their subordinates. Others, like  Al-Ghazali, argue that these modes extended to all qualified believers.Pre-modern Islamic literature describes Islamic revivalists (usually scholars) taking action to forbid wrong by destroying forbidden objects, especially containers of alcoholic beverages and musical instruments, and disrupting  forbidden activities, such as  chess games and association of unmarried members of the opposite gender.  \nIn the contemporary Muslim world, various state or parastatal bodies\u2014often with phrases like the \"Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice\" (Saudi Arabia), or \"Hisbah\" (Nigeria) in their titles\u2014have appeared in Iran, Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, Sudan, Malaysia, etc., at various times and with various levels of power.  Wrongdoing targeted by these groups includes inadequate hijab covering, lack of gender segregation, failure to observe salat,  consumption of alcohol and public displays of affection.A slightly different spelling of the same triconsonantal root, \u1e25is\u0101b (Arabic: \u062d\u0633\u0627\u0628\u0629, romanized: \u1e25is\u0101b) refers to \"the reckoning\" of Judgement Day in Islam, where those resurrected from the dead are judged to be sent to heaven or hell.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Incarnation literally means embodied in flesh or taking on flesh. It refers to the conception and the embodiment of a deity or spirit in some earthly form. Or the appearance of a god as a human. If capitalized, it is the union of divinity with humanity in Jesus Christ. In its religious context the word is used to mean a god, deity, or divine being in human or animal form on Earth.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Innocence is a lack of guilt, with respect to any kind of crime, or wrongdoing. In a legal context, innocence is to the lack of legal guilt of an individual, with respect to a crime. In other contexts, it is a lack of experience.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Integral yoga, sometimes also called  supramental yoga, is the yoga-based philosophy and practice of Sri Aurobindo and  The Mother (Mirra Alfassa). Central to Integral yoga is the idea that Spirit manifests itself in a process of involution, meanwhile forgetting its origins. The reverse process of evolution is driven toward a complete manifestation of spirit.\nAccording to Sri Aurobindo, the current status of human evolution is an intermediate stage in the evolution of being, which is on its way to the unfolding of the spirit, and the self-revelation of divinity in all things. Yoga is a rapid and concentrated evolution of being, which can take effect in one life-time, while unassisted natural evolution would take many centuries or many births. Aurobindo suggests a grand program called sapta chatushtaya (seven quadrates) to aid this evolution.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The term involution refers to different things depending on the writer. In some instances it refers to a process that occurs prior to evolution and gives rise to the cosmos, in others an aspect of evolution, and still others a process that follows the completion of evolution in the human form.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In Plato's Ion (; Greek: \u1f3c\u03c9\u03bd) Socrates discusses with the titular character, a professional rhapsode who also lectures on Homer, the question of whether the rhapsode, a performer of poetry, gives his performance on account of his skill and knowledge or by virtue of divine possession. It is one of the shortest of Plato's dialogues.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The religious perspectives on Jesus vary among world religions. Jesus' teachings and the retelling of his life story have significantly influenced the course of human history, and have directly or indirectly affected the lives of billions of people, even non-Christians. He is considered by many to be one of the most influential persons to have ever lived, finding a significant place in numerous cultural contexts.Christianity teaches that Jesus is the Messiah (Christ) foretold in the Old Testament and the Son of God. Christians believe that through his death and resurrection, humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life. These teachings emphasize that as the willing Lamb of God, Jesus chose to suffer in Calvary as a sign of his full obedience to the will of his Father, as an \"agent and servant of God\". Christians view Jesus as a role model, whose God-focused life believers are encouraged to imitate.\nIn Islam, Jesus (commonly transliterated as Isa) is one of God's highest-ranked and most-beloved prophets. Islam considers Jesus to be neither the incarnation nor the Son of God. Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion of monotheism (tawhid) and forbid the association of partners with God, which would be idolatry (shirk).\nIn the Druze faith, Jesus is considered one of God's important prophets and the Messiah.The Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith considers Jesus to be one of many manifestations of God, who are a series of personages who reflect the attributes of the divine into the human world. Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds reject the idea that divinity was contained with a single human body.\nApart from his own disciples and followers, the Jews of Jesus' day generally rejected him as the Messiah, as do the great majority of Jews today. Mainstream Jewish scholars argue that Jesus neither fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah.\nSikhism views Jesus as a high-ranked Holy man or saint. \nOther world religions such as Buddhism have no particular view on Jesus, and have but a minor intersection with Christianity. For non-religious perspectives on Jesus, see historical Jesus.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Judgement in an afterlife, in which ones deeds and characteristics in life determine either punishment or reward, is a central theme of many religions. Almost all religions are greatly devoted to the afterlife, emphasizing that what you do in your current life affects what happens to you after death.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The knight of faith (Danish: troens ridder) is an individual who has placed complete faith in himself and in God and can act freely and independently from the world. The 19th-century Danish philosopher S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard vicariously discusses the knight of faith in several of his pseudonymic works, with the most in-depth and detailed critique exposited in Fear and Trembling and in Repetition.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Monopsychism is the belief that all humans share the same eternal consciousness, soul, mind and intellect.  It is also a recurring feature in many mystical traditions.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Orthodoxy (from Greek: \u1f40\u03c1\u03b8\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03be\u03af\u03b1, orthodox\u00eda, 'righteous/correct opinion') is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion.Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churches accept different creeds and councils. Such differences of opinion have developed for numerous reasons, including language and cultural barriers.\nIn some English-speaking countries, Jews who adhere to all the traditions and commandments as legislated in the Talmud are often called Orthodox Jews.\nSunni Islam is sometimes referred to as \"orthodox Islam\".\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In religion, a prophet is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the supernatural source to other people. The message that the prophet conveys is called a prophecy.\nClaims of prophethood have existed in many cultures and religions throughout history, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, ancient Greek religion, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and many others.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious liberalism is a conception of religion (or of a particular religion) which emphasizes personal and group liberty and rationality. It is an attitude towards one's own religion (as opposed to criticism of religion from a secular position, and as opposed to criticism of a religion other than one's own) which contrasts with a traditionalist or orthodox approach, and it is directly opposed by trends of religious fundamentalism. It is related to religious liberty, which is the tolerance of different religious beliefs and practices, but not all promoters of religious liberty are in favor of religious liberalism, and vice versa.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious offense is any action which offends religious sensibilities and arouses serious negative emotions in people with strong belief.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious views on truth vary both between and within religions. The most universal concept of religion that holds true in every case is the inseparable nature of truth and religious belief. Each religion sees itself as the only path to truth. Truth, therefore, is never relative, always absolute.\nAccording to an online edition of Webster's Dictionary, the word Truth is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Resurrection or anastasis is the concept of coming back to life after death. In a number of religions, a dying-and-rising god is a deity which dies and is resurrected. Reincarnation is a similar process hypothesized by other religions, which involves the same person or deity coming back to live in a different body, rather than the same one.\nThe resurrection of the dead is a standard eschatological belief in the Abrahamic religions. As a religious concept, it is used in two distinct respects: a belief in the resurrection of individual souls that is current and ongoing (Christian idealism, realized eschatology), or else a belief in a singular resurrection of the dead at the end of the world. Some believe the soul is the actual vehicle by which people are resurrected.The death and resurrection of Jesus is a central focus of Christianity. Christian theological debate ensues with regard to what kind of resurrection is factual \u2013 either a spiritual resurrection with a spirit body into Heaven, or a material resurrection with a restored human body. While most Christians believe Jesus' resurrection from the dead and ascension to Heaven was in a material body, some believe it was spiritual.Like the Abrahamic religions, Hinduism also has a core belief in resurrection and reincarnation. This is known as sa\u1e43s\u0101ra.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects (a \"sacred artifact\" that is venerated and blessed), or places (\"sacred ground\").\nFrench sociologist \u00c9mile Durkheim considered the dichotomy between the sacred and the profane to be the central characteristic of religion: \"religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden.\":\u200a47\u200a In Durkheim's theory, the sacred represents the interests of the group, especially unity, which are embodied in sacred group symbols, or using team work to help get out of trouble. The profane, on the other hand, involve mundane individual concerns.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In a religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, selfish, shameful, harmful, or alienating might be termed \"sinful\".", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is \"the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being\".", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A Soulcatcher or soul catcher (Haboolm  Ksinaalgat, 'keeper of breath') is an amulet (Aatxasxw) used by the shaman (Halayt) of the Pacific Northwest Coast of British Columbia and Alaska. It is believed by Tsimshian that all soulcatchers were constructed by the Tsimshian tribe, and traded to the other tribes.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Theistic evolution (also known as theistic evolutionism or God-guided evolution) is a theological view that  God creates through laws of nature. Its religious teachings are fully compatible with the findings of modern science, including biological evolution. Theistic evolution is not in itself a scientific theory, but includes a range of views about how science relates to religious beliefs and the extent to which God intervenes. It rejects creationist doctrines of special creation, but can include beliefs such as creation of the human soul. Modern theistic evolution accepts the general scientific consensus on the age of the Earth, the age of the universe, the Big Bang, the origin of the Solar System, the origin of life, and evolution.Supporters of theistic evolution generally attempt to harmonize evolutionary thought with belief in God, rejecting the conflict thesis regarding the relationship between religion and science; they hold that religious teachings about creation and scientific theories of evolution need not contradict each other.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In religion, transcendence is the aspect of a deity's nature and power that is completely independent of the material universe, beyond all known physical laws. This is contrasted with immanence, where a god is said to be fully present in the physical world and thus accessible to creatures in various ways. In religious experience, transcendence is a state of being that has overcome the limitations of physical existence, and by some definitions, has also become independent of it. This is typically manifested in  prayer, rituals, meditation, psychedelics and paranormal \"visions\".\nIt is affirmed in various religious traditions' concept of the divine, which contrasts with the notion of a god (or, the Absolute) that exists exclusively in the physical order (immanentism), or is indistinguishable from it (pantheism). Transcendence can be attributed to the divine not only in its being, but also in its knowledge. Thus, a god may transcend both the universe and knowledge (is beyond the grasp of the human mind).\nAlthough transcendence is defined as the opposite of immanence, the two are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Some theologians and metaphysicians of various religious traditions affirm that a god is both within and beyond the universe (panentheism); in it, but not of it; simultaneously pervading it and surpassing it.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion and agriculture have been closely associated since neolithic times and the development of early Orphic religions based upon fertility and the seasons.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Center for the Study of Religion and Society (CSRS) is a research center at the University of Notre Dame in the United States that is dedicated to advancing social scientific understanding of religion in society through scholarly research, training, and publications. The center brings a variety of faculty, students, and other researchers together into a community of scholars engaged in empirical investigations, intellectual interchange and teaching crucial for advancing the sociological study of religion. Activities facilitated by CSRS include major data collection projects, seminars, colloquia, lectures, conferences, grant writing, and the building of an infrastructure for survey, interviews-based, and participant-observation social research. The center combines an emphasis on the insight and richness of cultural analysis with the strength of large-scale survey research.\nChristian Smith of the University of Notre Dame is the director of CSRS and the principal investigator on a number of the center's current research projects.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Chester Ronning Centre for the Study of Religion and Public Life is a research centre on the University of Alberta's Augustana Campus in Camrose, Alberta. It is the first such centre in a public university in Canada to focus on the intersection of religion and public life.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Everyone Knows Your Mother Is a Witch is a historical fiction novel written by Rivka Galchen and published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux on June 8, 2021. The book is a fictionalized version of true events. Part of the historical background of this story is that \"between 1625 and 1631, under the Catholic Prince-Bishopric of W\u00fcrzburg, the Holy Roman Empire saw one of the biggest mass trials in European history, with an estimated 900 people executed in the W\u00fcrzburg witch trials.\"", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Faith and Globalisation Initiative (FGI) is an international group of universities created in 2008 by former British prime minister Tony Blair and his Faith Foundation.\nThe Faith and Globalisation Initiative is \"bringing together some of the world\u2019s leading research Universities to form a global network focusing on the emerging field of faith and globalisation\".", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Faith Community Nursing, also known as Parish Nursing, Parrish Nursing, Congregational Nursing or Church Nursing, is a movement of over 15,000 registered nurses, primarily in the United States.  There are also Parish nurses in Australia, the Bahamas, Canada, England, Ghana, India, Kenya, Korea, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, New Zealand, Nigeria, Palestine, Pakistan, Scotland, Singapore, South Africa, Swaziland, Ukraine, Wales, Zambia and Zimbabwe.  Faith community nursing is a practice specialty that focuses on the intentional care of the spirit, promotion of an integrative model of health and prevention and minimization of illness within the context of a community of faith. The intentional integration of the practice of faith with the practice of nursing so that people can achieve wholeness in, with, and through the population which faith community nurses serve.\nParish nursing began in the mid-1980s in Chicago through the efforts of Rev. Dr. Granger Westberg as a reincarnation of the faith community nursing outreach done by religious orders, such as the \"Parish Deaconesses\" in Europe and America in the 1800s.  Parish nursing is rooted in the Judeo-Christian tradition, and the historic practice of professional nursing, and is consistent with the basic assumptions of many faiths that we care for self and others as an expression of God's love. However, it is not only available to Christian congregations.  There are Jewish Congregational Nurses, Muslim Crescent Nurses, and RNs serving in similar capacities within other faith traditions.\nFaith Community Nursing (FCN) is recognized as a specialty nursing practice. Faith Community Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice was approved by the American Nurses Association in 2005 (and updated in 2012) and define the specialty as \"...the specialized practice of professional nursing that focuses on the intentional care of the spirit as part of the process of promoting holistic health and preventing or minimizing illness in a faith community.\" (American Nurses Association, 2012, Faith Community Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice, Silver Springs, MD: Author, p1). The 16 standards of Faith Community Nursing Practice reflect the specialty's professional values and priorities and provide practice directions and the framework for practice evaluation.  Each standard is measurable by a set of specific competencies that serve as evidence of minimal compliance with that standard.\nFaith community nursing focuses on a wholistic approach to patient care. Faith community nursing believes that by promoting a wholistic approach this will prevent or minimize illnesses in faith communities (How is faith community nursing the same or different, 2015). Nurses in this specialty, cares for the patient as a whole; physically, emotionally, and spiritually. A good relationship between the nurse and client is vital for this specialty. The role of a faith community nurse is to provide routine spiritual care in partnership with a faith community; it also involves routine implementation and coordination of activities, resourcing and referring. Faith community nurses also maintain the goal of patient care towards wholistic functioning. Patients have needs that are not related to clinical nursing. These needs can affect the way they view their care, the way they receive that care, and the way they engage in that care (The Joint Commission, 2010). For some, their faith is their way to cope with illnesses and stress; faith community nursing helps to bring faith and clinical nursing together to achieve this goal.\nTo become a faith community nurse, the registered nurse must have a minimum of 2 years experience, must have a current license in the state where the faith community is located, and have completed a parish nurse foundations course for the specialty practice as recognized by the American Nurses Association.  There are several different curriculum offerings for the faith community nurse which have been developed by a panel of nursing faculty.  These are offered though a partnership with the International Parish Nurse Resource Center (IPNRC) at more than 130 nursing schools and health systems around the US and abroad.\nFaith community nurses serve in several roles, including:\n\u2022\tHealth advisor\n\u2022\tEducator on health issues\n\u2022\tVisitor of church members at home or in the hospital\n\u2022\tProvider of referrals to community resources and provide assistance in obtaining needed health services\n\u2022\tDeveloper of support groups within the church\n\u2022\tTrainer and coordinator of volunteers\n\u2022\tProvider of health screenings\nFaith community nursing plays a tremendous role in increasing patient outcomes. Through the encouragement of spirituality, faith community nurses decrease post hospitalization adverse events; decrease hospital readmission's and increase patient's ability to thrive at home after hospital discharge. Post hospitalization adverse events can be decreased with the use of faith community nurses, during post hospital follow up care. Medical guidance and education provided by faith community nursing increases patient\u2019s adherence. Supportive networks and measure creates leverage when reaching out to hard to reach populations like; poverty stricken, low income, homeless, and medically uninsured individuals. These individuals remain the hardest for health care professionals to keep in touch with after hospital discharge, as well as the most least likely to adhere to medical treatment once discharged. Home visits, follow up care, community services and resources are available to these individuals through the use of faith community nurses. The utilization of social services provides preventative measures, health screening, and education on topics like: exercise, health, and nutritional, to improve the patient\u2019s health and disease status. Not only does a faith community nurse improve patient outcomes but they also improve the spiritual, mental and physical well-being of the patient, through counseling and the use of other community health programs (Schroepfer, 2016). (SHarrisCSU)\nIt is important to note that faith community nurses are not expected to provide patient care in the church or at a patient's home but rather to be a source of referrals for services in the community.  They coordinate existing services and supplement them with a holistic dimension of health and caring.\nA parish nurse program or faith community nurse program can operate in several different ways.  Models include: 1) one church supporting its own full or part-time nurse, 2) several churches supporting one nurse, 3) a group of volunteer nurses supporting one or several churches or 4) a nurse related to a hospital or clinic who supports a church or churches as part of his or her job.  Of the several thousand faith community nurses, only about 35% in the US are compensated financially for their ministry. In the United States, faith community nurses typically belong to the Health Ministries Association which is the national professional membership organization for faith community nurses.  They also have available the International Parish Nurse Resource Center and the American Nurses Association, among others.\nThe Caribbean has joined the community of Parish Nursing and Health Care Ministry with the launching of Health Care Ministry in The Bahamas.  It began with an initial course spanning a three-week period and brought together nurses from various denominations who were commissioned on 27 February 2005. Initially, the Canadian and Australian models of Parish Nursing were introduced to The Bahamas as an extension of the Pastoral Care Ministries of Diocese 2000 & Beyond, a programme of the Anglican Diocese of The Bahamas and Turks & Caicos Islands. To date, more than 60 people have been trained and actively engaged in the ministry as either Parish Nurses or Health & Wellness Carers.\nSince the ministry began in 2005 it has grown steadily and was known as the Anglican Diocesan Health Care Ministry [Parish Nursing] Council.  However, effective 7 March 2008 the name changed to the Ecumenical Health Care Ministry Council. It is intended that there will be continued training and that the programme will spread throughout the Commonwealth of The Bahamas and the Caribbean.  To this end, the ministry will be recognised by the Bahamas Christian Council and by extension the Caribbean Council of Churches (Ecumenical Health Care Ministry, Bahamas).\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Forbidden Art 2006 was an art exhibition that took place from the 7th to 31 March 2007 at the Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center. The curator of the exhibition was art critic Andrey Erofeev.\nThe exhibition was sharply criticized by a number of religious and nationalist organizations, and against its organizers, Andrei Erofeev and Yuri Samodurov, a criminal case was opened for inciting religious hatred, which ended in a court conviction.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Jealousy in religion examines how the scriptures and teachings of various religions deal with the topic of jealousy.\nReligions may be compared and contrasted on how they deal with two issues: concepts of divine jealousy, and rules about the provocation and expression of human jealousy.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Nudity in religion deals with the differing attitudes to nudity and modesty among world religions.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Open-source religions employ open-source methods for the sharing, construction, and adaptation of religious belief systems, content, and practice. In comparison to religions utilizing proprietary, authoritarian, hierarchical, and change-resistant structures, open-source religions emphasize sharing in a cultural Commons, participation, self-determination, decentralization, and evolution. They apply principles used in organizing communities developing open-source software for organizing group efforts innovating with human culture. New open-source religions may develop their rituals, praxes, or systems of beliefs through a continuous process of refinement and dialogue among participating practitioners. Organizers and participants often see themselves as part of a more generalized open-source and free-culture movement.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Pakistanism or Pakistanization  is a neologism that refers to the continual division of any society along religious lines.In Europe, Alija Izetbegovi\u0107, the first President of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, began to embrace the \"Pakistan model\" in the 1960s, alienating Serbs which would use this ideology to attack Bosniaks later on, while in his Islamic Declaration he \"designated Pakistan as a model country to be emulated by Muslim revolutionaries worldwide.\"Some West Africans were inspired by the Indian independence movement. In 1920, educated West Africans formed the National Congress of British West Africa, which modeled its name on the Indian National Congress. According to Ali Mazrui, the facet of the Indian independence movement West Africans found most admirable was the Indian peoples' unity during the struggle. In 1936, H. O. Davies said,\n\n\"Africans should follow India \u2013 the only way is for Africans to co-operate and make sacrifices in the struggle for freedom.\"\nAccording to Ali Mazrui,\n\n\"But the emergence of the Muslim League in India as a serious secessionist movement soon shattered the myth of unity in the Indian model. A new word entered the vocabulary of West African nationalism \u2013 the word was 'pakistanism'.\"\nGhana's Kwame Nkrumah and Nigeria's Nnamdi Azikiwe became concerned about possible Pakistanization in their respective countries and Africa as a whole. The Convention People's Party's 1954 Election Manifesto contain the following message:\n\n\"We have seen the tragedy of religious communalism in India and elsewhere. Don't let us give it a chance to take root and flourish in Ghana. Down with Pakistanism!\"", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Changes in religious demography are often consequences, and often goals, of human mass migration to other territories. Often, the goals of a political migration is to establish a territory and governments biased towards and welcoming of members of the same sect.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The study of religion and video games is a subfield of digital religion, which the American scholar of communication, Heidi Campbell, defines as \"Religion that is constituted in new ways through digital media and cultures.\" (Campbell, 2012, p. 3). Video games once struggled for legitimacy as a cultural product, today, however, they are both business and art. Video games increasingly turn to religion not just as ornament but as core elements of their video game design and play. Games involve moral decision, rely on invented religions, and allow users to create and experience virtual religious spaces. As one of the newest forms of entertainment, however, there is often controversy and moral panic when video games engage religion, for instance, in Insomniac Games' use of the Manchester Cathedral in Resistance: Fall of Man. Concepts and elements of contemporary and ancient religions appear in video games in various ways: places of worship are a part of the gameplay of real-time strategy games like Age of Empires; narratively, games sometimes borrow themes from religious traditions like in Mass Effect 2.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion in Scouting and Guiding is an aspect of the Scout method that has been practiced differently and given different interpretations in different parts of the world over the years.\nIn contrast to the Christian-only Boys' Brigade, which started two decades earlier, Robert Baden-Powell founded the Scout movement as a youth organization (with boys as 'Scouts' and girls as 'Guides'), which was independent of any single faith or religion, yet still held that spirituality and a belief in a higher power were key to the development of young people.Scouting organizations are free to interpret the method as laid down by the founder. As the modern world has become more secular and as many societies have become more religiously diverse, this has caused misunderstandings and controversies in some of the national member organizations.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A religious exemption is a legal privilege that exempts members of a certain religion from a law, regulation, or requirement. Religious exemptions are often justified as a protection of religious freedom, and proponents of religious exemptions argue that complying with a law against one's faith is a greater harm than complying against a law that one otherwise disagrees with due to a fear of divine judgment. Opponents of religious exemptions argue that they mandate unequal treatment and undermine the rule of law.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious intolerance is intolerance of another's religious beliefs or practices or lack thereof.\nMere statements which are contrary to one's beliefs do not constitute intolerance. Religious intolerance, rather, occurs when a group (e.g., a society, a religious group, a non-religious group) specifically refuses to tolerate one's practices, persons or beliefs  on religious grounds.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious stratification  is the division of a society into hierarchical layers on the basis of religious beliefs, affiliation, or faith practices.\nAccording to Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore, \"[t]he reason why religion is necessary is apparently to be found in the fact that human society achieves its unity primarily through the possession by its members of certain ultimate values and ends in common\".  Furthermore, Davis and Moore contend that it is \"the role of religious belief and ritual to supply and reinforce this appearance of reality\" that these \"certain ultimate values\" have. This is one possible explanation for why religion is one of the underlying factors which links various forms of inequality into a chain of stratification.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious toleration may signify \"no more than forbearance and the permission given by the adherents of a dominant religion for other religions to exist, even though the latter are looked on with disapproval as inferior, mistaken, or harmful\". Historically, most incidents and writings pertaining to toleration involve the status of minority and dissenting viewpoints in relation to a dominant state religion.  However, religion is also sociological, and the practice of toleration has always had a political aspect as well.:\u200axiii\u200aAn overview of the history of toleration and different cultures in which toleration has been practiced, and the ways in which such a paradoxical concept has developed into a guiding one, illuminates its contemporary use as political, social, religious, and ethnic, applying to LGBT individuals and other minorities, and other connected concepts such as human rights.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious views on smoking vary widely. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have traditionally used tobacco for religious purposes, while Abrahamic and other religions have only been introduced to the practice in recent times due to the European colonization of the Americas in the 16th century.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The retribution principle (often abbreviated RP) is a term used in Ancient Near East studies and Old Testament studies to refer to various forms of the belief that the righteous will prosper while the wicked will suffer.\"", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin Saeculum, \"worldly\" or \"of a generation\"), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. Anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion, either negatively or positively, may be considered secular. Linguistically, a process by which anything becomes secular is named secularization, though the term is mainly reserved for the secularization of society; and any concept or ideology promoting the secular may be termed secularism, a term generally applied to the ideology dictating no religious influence on the public sphere.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Spiritual left refers to a spiritually or religiously based position that shares the social transformative vision of the left and its commitment to social justice, peace, economic equality, and (in recent years) ecological consciousness, but who base their commitment on spiritual or religious traditions. \nTwo present-day examples of spiritual leftism are Jim Wallis, editor of Sojourners magazine, who finds a call for peace and for the elimination of poverty in the Christian Gospel and Rabbi Michael Lerner, editor of Tikkun magazine, calling for a \"New Bottom Line\" where productivity, efficiency and rationality would be judged not only in material terms, but also in terms of love, generosity, peace, social justice, ecological sanity and awe and wonder at the grandeur of the universe.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Tony Blair Faith Foundation was an interfaith charitable foundation established in May 2008 by former British prime minister Tony Blair. Since December 2016 its work has been continued by the Tony Blair Institute for Global Change.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "World War I, also known as the First World War or the Great War, had a major impact on global society and culture. Religion was also impacted. Christianity in both Europe and the United States served to unite fellow soldiers of the same denomination and motivated them to fight. Some European countries shared unity across denominations while others did not. In Germany, Catholic and Protestant differences caused tension while Austria-Hungary did not unify Catholic services.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Absolute Infinite (symbol: \u03a9) is an extension of the idea of infinity proposed by mathematician Georg Cantor.\nIt can be thought of as a number that is bigger than any other conceivable or inconceivable quantity, either finite or transfinite.\nCantor linked the Absolute Infinite with God,:\u200a175\u200a:\u200a556\u200a and believed that it had various mathematical properties, including the reflection principle: every property of the Absolute Infinite is also held by some smaller object.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Alpha (\u0391 or \u03b1) and omega (\u03a9 or \u03c9) are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, and  a title of Christ and God in the Book of Revelation. This pair of letters is used as a Christian symbol, and is often combined with the Cross, Chi-rho, or other Christian symbols.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A chakravarti (Sanskrit: \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0928\u094d, cakravartin; Pali: cakkavatti; Chinese: \u8f49\u8f2a\u738b, Zhu\u01cenl\u00fanw\u00e1ng, \"Wheel-Turning King\"; \u8f49\u8f2a\u8056\u738b, Zhu\u01cenl\u00fan Sh\u00e8ngw\u00e1ng, \"Wheel-Turning Sacred King\"; Japanese: \u8ee2\u8f2a\u738b, Tenrin'\u014d or \u8ee2\u8f2a\u8056\u738b, Tenrinj\u014d\u014d) is an ideal (or idealized) universal ruler, in the history, religion, and mythologies of India. The concept is present in the cultural traditions of Vedic, Hindu, Jain and Buddhist narrative myths and lore. There are three types of chakravarti: chakravala chakravarti, a king who rules over all four of the continents (i.e., a universal monarch); dvipa chakravarti, a ruler who governs only one of those continents; and pradesha chakravarti, a monarch who leads the people of only a part of a continent, the equivalent of a local king.  Dvipa chakravarti is particularly one who rules the entire Indian sub-continent (as in the case of the Maurya Empire, despite not conquering the southern kingdoms).:\u200a175\u200a The first references to a Chakravala Chakravartin appear in monuments from the time of the early Maurya Empire, in the 4th to 3rd century BCE,  in reference to Chandragupta Maurya and his grandson Ashoka.\nThe word cakra-vartin- is a bahuvr\u012bhi compound word, translating to \"one whose wheels are moving\", in the sense of \"whose chariot is rolling everywhere without obstruction\". It can also be analysed as an 'instrumental bahuvr\u012bhi: \"through whom the wheel is moving\" in the meaning of \"through whom the Dharmachakra (\"Wheel of the Dharma) is turning\" (most commonly used in Buddhism). The Tibetan equivalent  Tibetan: \u0f41\u0f7c\u0f62\u0f0b\u0f63\u0f7c\u0f66\u0f0b\u0f66\u0f92\u0fb1\u0f74\u0f62\u0f0b\u0f56\u0f60\u0f72\u0f0b\u0f62\u0f92\u0fb1\u0f63\u0f0b\u0f54\u0f7c\u0f0b, Wylie: khor los sgyur ba'i rgyal po translates \"monarch who controls by means of a wheel\".\n\nIn Buddhism, a chakravarti is the secular counterpart of a buddha. The term applies to temporal as well as spiritual kingship and leadership, particularly in Buddhism and Jainism. In Hinduism, a chakravarti is a powerful ruler whose dominion extends to the entire earth. In both religions, the chakravarti is supposed to uphold dharma, indeed being \"he who turns the wheel (of dharma)\".\nThe Indian concept of chakravarti later evolved into the concept of devaraja \u2014 the divine right of kings \u2014 which was adopted by the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Southeast Asia through Hindu Brahmin scholars deployed from India to their courts. It was first adopted by Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms such as Majapahit; through them by the Khmer Empire; and subsequently by the Thai monarchs.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Elyon (Hebrew: \u05e2\u05b6\u05dc\u05b0\u05d9\u05d5\u05b9\u05df\u200e \u02bfEly\u014dn) is an epithet of the God of the Israelites in the Hebrew Bible. \u02be\u0112l \u02bfEly\u014dn is usually rendered in English as \"God Most High\", and similarly in the Septuagint as \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2 \u1f41 \u1f55\u03c8\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 (\"God the highest\").\nThe term also has mundane uses, such as \"upper\" (where the ending in both roots is a locative, not superlative or comparative), \"top\", or \"uppermost\", referring simply to the position of objects (e.g.  applied to a basket in Genesis 40.17 or to a chamber in Ezekiel 42.5).", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Great Commandment (or Greatest Commandment) is a name used in the New Testament to describe the first of two commandments cited by Jesus in Matthew 22:35-40, Mark 12:28-34, and in answer to him in Luke 10:27a:\n\n... and one of them, a lawyer, asked him a question to test him. \"Teacher, which commandment in the law is the greatest?\" He [Jesus] said to him, \"'You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind.' This is the greatest and first commandment. Love God above all else. And the second is like it: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.' On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets.\"\nMost Christian denominations consider these two commandments as, together, forming the core of the Christian religion.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Holy of Holies (Hebrew: \u05e7\u05b9\u05d3\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d4\u05b7\u05e7\u05b3\u05bc\u05d3\u05b8\u05e9\u05b4\u05c1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e Q\u014d\u1e0fe\u0161 haqQ\u014f\u1e0f\u0101\u0161\u012bm or Kodesh HaKodashim; also \u05d4\u05b7\u05d3\u05b0\u05bc\u05d1\u05b4\u05d9\u05e8 haD\u0259\u1e07\u012br, \"the Sanctuary\") is a term in the Hebrew Bible that refers to the inner sanctuary of the Tabernacle, where God's presence appeared. According to Hebrew tradition, the area was defined by four pillars that held up the veil of the covering, under which the Ark of the Covenant was held above the floor. According to the Hebrew scripture, the Ark contained the Ten Commandments, which were given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai. The Temple in Jerusalem was said to have been built by King Solomon for keeping the Ark.\nAncient Jewish traditions viewed the Holy of Holies as the spiritual junction of Heaven and Earth, the \"axis mundi\".\nAs a part of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, the Holy of Holies was situated somewhere on Temple Mount; its precise location in the Mount being a matter of dispute, with some classical Jewish sources identifying its location with the Foundation Stone, which sits under the Dome of the Rock. Other Jewish scholars argue that contemporary reports would place the Temple to the north or to the east of the current Dome of the Rock.   \nThe Christian Crusaders associated the Holy of Holies with the Well of Souls, a small cave that lies underneath the Foundation Stone in the Dome of the Rock.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Ishvara (Sanskrit: \u0908\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0930, romanized: \u012a\u015bvara) or Eshwara is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism. In ancient texts of Hindu philosophy, depending on the context, Ishvara can mean supreme Self, ruler, lord, king, queen or husband. In medieval era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal God, or special Self.Ishvara is primarily an epithet of Lord Shiva. In Shaivism and for most of the Hindus, Ishvara is synonymous with Shiva. For many Vaishnavites, it is also synonymous with Vishnu like Venkateswara. In traditional Bhakti movements, Ishvara is one or more deities of an individual's preference (I\u1e63\u1e6da-devat\u0101) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements such as Arya Samaj and Brahmoism, Ishvara takes the form of a monotheistic God. In the Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any \"personal deity\" or \"spiritual inspiration\".\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "King of Kings was a ruling title employed primarily by monarchs based in the Middle East. Though most commonly associated with Iran (historically known as Persia in the West), especially the Achaemenid and Sasanian Empires, the title was originally introduced during the Middle Assyrian Empire by king Tukulti-Ninurta I (reigned 1233\u20131197 BC) and was subsequently used in a number of different kingdoms and empires, including the aforementioned Persia, various Hellenic kingdoms, Armenia, Georgia, and Ethiopia.\nThe title is commonly seen as equivalent to that of Emperor, both titles outranking that of king in prestige, stemming from the medieval Byzantine emperors who saw the Shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire as their equals. The last reigning monarchs to use the title of Shahanshah, those of the Pahlavi dynasty in Iran (1925\u20131979), also equated the title with \"Emperor\". The rulers of the Ethiopian Empire used the title of N\u0259gus\u00e4 N\u00e4g\u00e4st (literally \"King of Kings\"), which was officially translated as \"Emperor\". The female variant of the title, as used by the Ethiopian Zewditu, was Queen of Kings (Ge'ez: N\u0259g\u0259st\u00e4 N\u00e4g\u00e4st). In the Sasanian Empire, the female variant used was Queen of Queens (Middle Persian: b\u0101nbishn\u0101n b\u0101nbishn).\nIn Judaism, Melech Malchei HaMelachim (\"the King of Kings of Kings\") came to be used as a name of God. \"King of Kings\" (\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd) is also used in reference to Jesus Christ several times in the Bible, notably in the First Epistle to Timothy and twice in the Book of Revelation. In Islam, both the terms King of Kings and the Persian variant Shahanshah are condemned, particularly in Sunni hadith.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Kit\u00e1b-i-Aqdas (Persian: \u06a9\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0642\u062f\u0633), or simply Aqdas (Persian: \u0627\u0642\u062f\u0633) is the central religious text of the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith written by Bah\u00e1\u02bcu'll\u00e1h, the founder of the religion, in 1873. Though it is the main source of Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed laws and practices, much of the content deals with other matters, like foundational principles of the religion, the establishment of Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed institutions, mysticism, ethics, social principles, and prophecies. In Baha'i literature it is described as \"the Mother-Book\" of the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed teachings, and the \"Charter of the future world civilization\".Bah\u00e1\u02bcu'll\u00e1h had manuscript copies sent to Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00eds in Iran some years after its writing in 1873, and in 1890\u201391 (1308 AH, 47 BE) he arranged for its first publication in Bombay, India. Parts of the text were translated to English by Shoghi Effendi, which, along with a Synopsis and Codification were published in 1973 by the Universal House of Justice at the centennial anniversary of its writing. The full authoritative English translation, along with clarifying texts from Bah\u00e1\u02bcu'll\u00e1h and detailed explanatory notes from the Universal House of Justice, was first published in 1992.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A megachurch is a church with an unusually large membership that also offers a variety of educational and social activities, usually Protestant or Evangelical. The Hartford Institute for Religion Research defines a megachurch as any Protestant Christian church having 2,000 or more people in average weekend attendance. The megachurch is an organization type rather than a denomination.\nThe concept originated in the mid 19th century, with the first one established in London, England, in 1861. More emerged in the 20th century, especially in the United States, and expanded rapidly through the 1980s and 1990s. In the early 21st century megachurches are widespread in the US and a growing phenomenon in several African countries, Australia and elsewhere. In the late 2000s and early 2010s, they became more untraditional, with most newer ones having stadium type seating.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The precise style of French sovereigns varied over the years. Currently, there is no French sovereign; three distinct traditions (the Legitimist, the Orleanist, and the Bonapartist) exist, each claiming different forms of title.\nThe three styles laid claim to by pretenders to the French throne are:\n\nLegitimist: \"Most high, most potent and most excellent Prince, X, by the Grace of God, King of France and of Navarre, Most Christian Majesty.\" (Tr\u00e8s haut, tr\u00e8s puissant et tr\u00e8s excellent Prince, X, par la gr\u00e2ce de Dieu, Roi de France et de Navarre, Roi Tr\u00e8s-chr\u00e9tien)\nOrleanist: \"X, by the Grace of God and by the constitutional law of the State, King of the French.\" (X, par la gr\u00e2ce de Dieu et par la loi constitutionnelle de l'\u00c9tat, Roi des Fran\u00e7ais)\nBonapartist: \"X, By the Grace of God and the Constitutions of the Republic, Emperor of the French.\" (X, par la gr\u00e2ce de Dieu et les Constitutions de la R\u00e9publique, Empereur des Fran\u00e7ais.)", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Most Faithful Majesty (Portuguese: Sua Majestade Fidel\u00edssima) was the title used by the Portuguese monarchs, from 1748 to 1910.\nThe sobriquet Most Faithful King (Latin: Rex Fidelissimus, Portuguese: Rei Fidel\u00edssimo) was a title awarded by the Pope Benedict XIV \u2013 as spiritual head of the Catholic Church \u2013 in 1748, to the King John V of Portugal and to his heirs.The title Fidelissimus remains attached to monarchs descended from whoever received the original sobriquet. The sobriquet can be awarded to either a king or a queen. The only European monarchy that has received the sobriquet was the now-defunct monarchy of Portugal.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Omnibenevolence (from Latin omni- meaning \"all\", bene- meaning \"good\" and volens meaning \"willing\") is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as \"unlimited or infinite benevolence\". Some philosophers have argued that it is impossible, or at least improbable, for a deity to exhibit such a property alongside omniscience and omnipotence, as a result of the problem of evil. However, some philosophers, such as Alvin Plantinga, argue the plausibility of co-existence.\nThe word is primarily used as a technical term within academic literature on the philosophy of religion, mainly in context of the problem of evil and theodical responses to such, although even in said contexts the phrases \"perfect goodness\" and \"moral perfection\" are often preferred because of the difficulties in defining what exactly constitutes \"infinite benevolence\".", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Omnipotence is the quality of having unlimited power. Monotheistic religions generally attribute omnipotence only to the deity of their faith. In the monotheistic religious philosophy of Abrahamic religions, omnipotence is often listed as one of a deity's characteristics, along with omniscience, omnipresence, and omnibenevolence. The presence of all these properties in a single entity has given rise to considerable theological debate, prominently including the problem of evil, the question of why such a deity would permit the existence of evil. It is accepted in philosophy and science that omnipotence can never be effectively understood.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Omnipresence or ubiquity is the property of being present anywhere and everywhere. The term omnipresence is most often used in a religious context as an attribute of a deity or supreme being, while the term ubiquity is generally used to describe something \"existing or being everywhere at the same time, constantly encountered, widespread, common\". Ubiquitous can also be used as a synonym for words like worldwide, universal,  global, pervasive, all over the place.\nThe omnipresence of a supreme being is conceived differently by different religious systems. In monotheistic beliefs like Christianity, and Judaism the divine and the universe are separate, but the divine is present everywhere. In pantheistic beliefs the divine and the universe are identical. In panentheistic beliefs the divine interpenetrates the universe, but extends beyond it in time and space.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Omniscience () is the capacity to know everything. In Hinduism, Sikhism and the Abrahamic religions, this is an attribute of God. In Jainism, omniscience is an attribute that any individual can eventually attain. In Buddhism, there are differing beliefs about omniscience among different schools.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The pontifex maximus (Latin for \"supreme pontiff\") was the chief high priest of the College of Pontiffs (Collegium Pontificum) in ancient Rome. This was the most important position in the ancient Roman religion, open only to patricians until 254 BC, when a plebeian first occupied this post. Although in fact the most powerful office in the Roman priesthood, the pontifex maximus was officially ranked fifth in the ranking of the highest Roman priests (ordo sacerdotum), behind the rex sacrorum and the flamines maiores (Flamen Dialis, Flamen Martialis, Flamen Quirinalis).A distinctly religious office under the early Roman Republic, it gradually became politicized until, beginning with Augustus, it was subsumed into the position of emperor in the Roman imperial period. Subsequent emperors were styled pontifex maximus well into Late Antiquity, including Gratian (r. 367\u2013383), but during Gratian's reign the phrase was replaced in imperial titulature with the Latin phrase: pontifex inclytus (\"honourable pontiff\"), an example followed by Gratian's junior co-emperor Theodosius the Great and which was used by emperors thereafter including the co-augusti Valentinian III (r. 425\u2013455) and Marcian (r. 450\u2013457) and the augustus Anastasius Dicorus (r. 491\u2013518). The first to adopt the inclytus alternative to maximus may have been the rebel augustus Magnus Maximus (r. 383\u2013388).\nThe word pontifex and its derivative \"pontiff\" became terms used for Christian bishops, including the Bishop of Rome, and the title of pontifex maximus was applied to the Catholic Church for the pope as its chief bishop and appears on buildings, monuments and coins of popes of Renaissance and modern times. The official list of titles of the pope given in the Annuario Pontificio includes \"supreme pontiff\" (Latin: summus pontifex) as the fourth title, the first being \"bishop of Rome\".", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Latin title Rex Catholicissimus, Anglicized as Most Catholic King or Most Catholic Majesty, was awarded by the Pope to the Sovereigns of Spain.  It was first used by Pope Alexander VI in the papal bull Inter caetera in 1493.\nThe best-known example of this title is the Catholic Monarchs (Los Reyes Cat\u00f3licos), used solely in reference to Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon.\nNeither King Juan Carlos I nor Felipe VI have made use of the title, but they have not renounced it either.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum is a translation of the Hebrew term \u05e7\u05b9\u05d3\u05b6\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d4\u05b7\u05e7\u05b3\u05bc\u05d3\u05b8\u05e9\u05b4\u05c1\u05d9\u05dd (Q\u1e53\u1e0fe\u0161 HaQ\u014f\u1e0f\u0101\u0161\u00eem), literally meaning Holy of Holies, which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the Ancient Israelites, inside the Tabernacle and later inside the Temple in Jerusalem, but the term also has some derivative use in application to imitations of the Tabernacle in church architecture.\nThe plural form sancta sanctorum is also used, arguably as a synecdoche, referring to the holy relics contained in the sanctuary. The Vulgate translation of the Bible uses sancta sanctorum for the Holy of Holies. Hence the derivative usage to denote the Sancta Sanctorum chapel in the complex of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome.\nIn Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult image (Murti) of the deity is kept forms the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum sanctorum.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Summum bonum is a Latin expression meaning the highest or ultimate good, which was introduced by the Roman philosopher Cicero to denote the fundamental principle on which some system of ethics is based \u2014 that is, the aim of actions, which, if consistently pursued, will lead to the best possible life. Since Cicero, the expression has acquired a secondary meaning as the essence or ultimate metaphysical principle of Goodness itself, or what Plato called the Form of the Good.  These two meanings do not necessarily coincide.  For example,  Epicurean and Cyrenaic philosophers claimed that the 'good life' consistently aimed for pleasure, without suggesting that pleasure constituted the meaning or essence of Goodness outside the ethical sphere.  In De finibus, Cicero explains and compares the ethical systems of several schools of Greek philosophy, including Stoicism, Epicureanism, Aristotelianism and Platonism, based on how each defines the ethical summum bonum differently.  \nThe term was used in medieval philosophy. In the Thomist synthesis of Aristotelianism and Christianity, the highest good is usually defined as the life of the righteous and/or the life led in communion with God and according to God's precepts. In Kantianism, it was used to describe the ultimate importance, the singular and overriding end which human beings ought to pursue.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Takbir (\u062a\u064e\u0643\u0652\u0628\u0650\u064a\u0631, pronounced [tak.bi\u02d0r], \"magnification [of God]\") is the name for the Arabic phrase  \u02beAll\u0101hu \u02beakbaru (\u0671\u0644\u0644\u064e\u0651\u0670\u0647\u064f \u0623\u064e\u0643\u0652\u0628\u064e\u0631\u064f, pronounced [\u0294a\u026b.\u026ba\u02d0.hu \u0294ak.baru] (listen)), meaning \"Allah (God) is the greatest\".It is a common Arabic expression, used in various contexts by Muslims and Arabs around the world: in formal Salah (prayer), in the Adhan (Islamic call to prayer),, in Hajj, as an informal expression of faith, in times of distress or joy, or to express resolute determination or defiance. The phrase is also used by Arab Christians.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Urreligion is a postulated \"original\" or \"oldest\" form of religious tradition (the German prefix ur- expressing the idea of \"original\", \"primal\", \"primitive\", \"elder\", \"primeval\", or \"proto-\"). The concept contrasts with that of organized religion, as found (for example) in the theocracies of the early urban cultures of the Ancient Near East or in world religions as they have developed.\nThe term Urreligion originated in the context of German Romanticism.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Amrit Vel\u0101 (Punjabi: \u0a05\u0a70\u0a2e\u0a4d\u0a30\u0a3f\u0a24 \u0a35\u0a47\u0a32\u0a3e, lit: Time of Amrit) refers to integral religious time used for daily meditation and recitation of Gurbani hymns, during last part of the night before the dawning of the early morning sun. This is according to the Pahar system of time most Sikhs typically translate this time to start 3:00am. Guru Nanak in the Japji Sahib (4th Pauri) says, \"In amrit vel\u0101 meditate on the grandeur of the one true Name.\" The importance of Amrit Vela is found throughout the Guru Granth Sahib. The Guru Granth Sahib states that \"those who consider themselves a Sikh must wake up daily at Amrit vela and be in tune with the Naam (the Lord's Name)\"In the SPGC Sikh Rehat Maryada it is written to arise in the Amrit Vel\u0101, bath, and meditate on the divine Naam (through Simran and Naam Japna). Here, Amrit Vela is defined as \"three hours before the dawn\". Sikhs recite their morning Nitnem during Amrit vela. Traditionally after Nitnem Sikhs meet with the Sangat (congregation) to recite Asa di Var.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In the practice of Christianity, canonical hours mark the divisions of the day in terms of fixed times of prayer at regular intervals. A book of hours, chiefly a breviary, normally contains a version of, or selection from, such prayers.In the Roman Rite, canonical hours are also called offices, since they refer to the official set of prayers of the Church, which is known variously as the officium divinum (\"divine service\" or \"divine duty\"), and the opus Dei (\"work of God\"). The current official version of the hours in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church is called the Liturgy of the Hours (Latin: liturgia horarum) in North America or divine office in Ireland and Britain.In Lutheranism and Anglicanism, they are often known as the daily office or divine office, to distinguish them from the other 'offices' of the Church (holy communion, baptism, etc.). In the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches, the canonical hours may be referred to as the divine services, and the book of hours is called the horologion (Greek: \u1f69\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd). Despite numerous small differences in practice according to local custom, the overall order is the same among Byzantine Rite monasteries, although parish and cathedral customs vary rather more so by locale.\nThe usage in Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, and their Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran counterparts all differ from each other and from other rites.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In the canon law of the Catholic Church, the computation of time, also translated as the reckoning of time (Latin: supputatio temporis), is the manner by which legally-specified periods of time are calculated according to the norm of the canons on the computation of time. The application of laws frequently involves a question of time: generally three months must elapse after their promulgation before they go into effect; some obligations have to be fulfilled within a certain number of days, or weeks, or months. Hence the need of the rules for the computation of time. With the Code of 1917 and the reformed Code of 1983, the legislator has formulated these rules with a clearness and precision that they never had before.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In theology, one meaning of the term dispensation is as a distinctive arrangement or period in history that forms the framework through which God relates to mankind.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Dispensationalism is a particular hermeneutic or analytical system for interpreting the Bible based on a literal translation, and which stands in contrast to the earlier Calvinist system of covenant theology used in fundamentalist biblical interpretation. \nDispensationalism was first developed by John Nelson Darby around 1830, and considers biblical history as divided by God into dispensations, defined periods or ages to which God has allotted distinct covenants or administrative principles. According to dispensationalism, each age of God's plan is thus administered in a certain way, and humanity is held responsible as a steward during that time. Dispensationalists' presuppositions start with the inductive reasoning that biblical history has a particular discontinuity in the way God reacts to humanity in the unfolding of their, sometimes supposed, free wills.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In the practice of Christianity, canonical hours mark the divisions of the day in terms of fixed times of prayer at regular intervals. A book of hours, chiefly a breviary, normally contains a version of, or selection from, such prayers.In the Roman Rite, canonical hours are also called offices, since they refer to the official set of prayers of the Church, which is known variously as the officium divinum (\"divine service\" or \"divine duty\"), and the opus Dei (\"work of God\"). The current official version of the hours in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church is called the Liturgy of the Hours (Latin: liturgia horarum) in North America or divine office in Ireland and Britain.In Lutheranism and Anglicanism, they are often known as the daily office or divine office, to distinguish them from the other 'offices' of the Church (holy communion, baptism, etc.). In the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches, the canonical hours may be referred to as the divine services, and the book of hours is called the horologion (Greek: \u1f69\u03c1\u03bf\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd). Despite numerous small differences in practice according to local custom, the overall order is the same among Byzantine Rite monasteries, although parish and cathedral customs vary rather more so by locale.\nThe usage in Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, and their Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran counterparts all differ from each other and from other rites.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Fixed prayer times, praying at dedicated times during the day, are common practice in major world religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The international date line  in Judaism is used to demarcate the change of one calendar day to the next in the Jewish calendar. The Jewish calendar defines days as running from sunset to sunset rather than midnight to midnight. So in the context of Judaism, an international date line demarcates when the line of sundown moving across the Earth's surface stops being the sunset ending and starting one day and starts being the sunset ending and starting the following day.\nHowever, the conventional International Date Line is a relatively recent geographic and political construct whose exact location has moved from time to time depending on the needs of different interested parties. While it is well-understood why the conventional date line is located in the Pacific Ocean, there are not really objective criteria for its exact placement within the Pacific. In that light, it cannot be taken for granted that the conventional International Date Line can (or should) be used as a date line under Jewish law. In practice, within Judaism the halakhic date line is similar to, but not necessarily identical with, the conventional Date Line, and the differences can have consequences under religious law.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Pralaya (Sanskrit: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0932\u092f, lit.\u2009'destruction'), in Hindu cosmology, is an aeonic term for dissolution.\nA Pralaya specifies different periods of time during which a non-activity situation persists, as per different formats or contexts. The word Mahapralaya stands for \"Great Dissolution\". During each pralaya, the lower ten realms (loka) are destroyed, while the higher four realms called Satya-loka, Tapa-loka, Jana-loka, and Mahar-loka are preserved. During each Mahapralaya, all 14 realms are destroyed.\nIn the Samkhya philosophy, one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy, pralaya means \"non-existence\", a state of matter achieved when the three gunas (principles of matter) are in perfect balance. The word pralaya comes from Sanskrit meaning \"dissolution\" or by extension \"reabsorption, destruction, annihilation or death\".\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Reckoning of Time (Latin: De temporum ratione) is an Anglo-Saxon era treatise written in Medieval Latin by the Northumbrian monk Bede in 725. The treatise includes an introduction to the traditional ancient and medieval view of the cosmos, including an explanation of how the spherical Earth influenced the changing length of daylight, of how the seasonal motion of the Sun and Moon influenced the changing appearance of the new moon at evening twilight, and a quantitative relation between the changes of the tides at a given place and the daily motion of the Moon.The Reckoning of Time describes the principal ancient calendars, including those of the Hebrews, the Egyptians, the Romans, the Greeks, and the Anglo-Saxons. The focus of De temporum ratione was calculation of the date of Easter, for which Bede described the method developed by Dionysius Exiguus. De temporum ratione also gave instructions for calculating the date of the Easter full moon, for calculating the motion of the Sun and Moon through the zodiac, and for many other calculations related to the calendar.\nBede based his reasoning for the dates on the Hebrew Bible. The functions of the universe and its purpose are generally referred to a scriptural foundation. According to the introduction by Faith Wallis in the 1999 English translated edition of The Reckoning of Time, Bede aimed to write a Christian work that integrated the astronomical understanding of computing with a theological context of history. The book is also regarded by Bede to be a sequel to his works The Nature of Things and On Time.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Relative hour (Hebrew singular: sha\u02bfah z\u01ddmanit / \u05e9\u05e2\u05d4 \u05d6\u05de\u05e0\u05d9\u05ea; plural: sha\u02bfot - z\u01ddmaniyot / \u05e9\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea \u05d6\u05de\u05e0\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea), sometimes called halachic hour, seasonal hour and variable hour, is a term used in rabbinic Jewish law that assigns 12 hours to each day and 12 hours to each night, all throughout the year. A relative hour has no fixed length in absolute time, but changes with the length of daylight each day - depending on summer (when the days are long and the nights are short), and in winter (when the days are short and the nights are long). Even so, in all seasons a day is always divided into 12 hours, and a night is always divided into 12 hours, which inevitably makes for a longer hour or a shorter hour. All of the hours mentioned by the Sages in either the Mishnah or Talmud, or in other rabbinic writings, refer strictly to relative hours.Another feature of this ancient practice is that, unlike the standard modern 12-hour clock that assigns 12 o'clock pm for noon time, in the ancient Jewish tradition noon time was always the sixth hour of the day, whereas the first hour began with the break of dawn, by most exponents of Jewish law, and with sunrise by the Vilna Gaon and Rabbi Hai Gaon. Midnight (12:00 am local official clock time) was also the sixth hour of the night, which, depending on summer or winter, can come before or after 12:00 am local official clock time, whereas the first hour of the night always began when the first three stars appeared in the night sky.\nDuring the Spring (\u05d1\u05d0\u05d7\u05d3 \u05d1\u05ea\u05e7\u05d5\u05e4\u05ea \u05e0\u05d9\u05e1\u05df\u200e) and Autumnal (\u05d1\u05d0\u05d7\u05d3 \u05d1\u05ea\u05e7\u05d5\u05e4\u05ea \u05ea\u05e9\u05e8\u05d9\u200e) equinox (around 20 March and 23 September), the length of a day and night are equal. However, even during the summer solstice and winter solstice when the length of the day and the length of the night are at their greatest disparity, both day and night are always divided into 12 hours.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Salah times are prayer times when Muslims perform salah. The term is primarily used for the five daily prayers including the Friday prayer, which takes the place of the Dhuhr prayer and must be performed in a group of worshippers.  Muslims believe the salah times were taught by Allah to Muhammad.\nPrayer times are standard for Muslims in the world, especially the fard prayer times. They depend on the condition of the Sun and geography. There are varying opinions regarding the exact salah times, the schools of Islamic thought differing in minor details. All schools of thought agree that any given prayer cannot be performed before its stipulated time.\nMuslims pray five times a day, with their prayers being known as Fajr (dawn), Dhuhr (after midday), Asr (afternoon), Maghrib (after sunset), and Isha (nighttime), always facing towards Mecca. The direction of prayer is called the qibla; the early Muslims initially prayed in the direction of Jerusalem before this was changed to Mecca in 624 CE, about a year after Muhammad's migration to Medina.The timing of the five prayers are fixed intervals defined by daily astronomical phenomena. For example, the Maghrib prayer can be performed at any time after sunset and before the disappearance of the red twilight from the west. In a mosque, the muezzin broadcasts the call to prayer at the beginning of each interval. Because the start and end times for prayers are related to the solar diurnal motion, they vary throughout the year and depend on the local latitude and longitude when expressed in local time. In modern times, various religious or scientific agencies in Muslim countries produce annual prayer timetables for each locality, and electronic clocks capable of calculating local prayer times have been created. In the past, some mosques employed astronomers called the muwaqqits who were responsible for regulating the prayer time using mathematical astronomy.The five intervals were defined by Muslim authorities in the decades after the death of Muhammad in 632, based on the hadith (the reported sayings and actions) of the Islamic prophet.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Sasha and Zamani are two aspects of time as expressed in some Eastern and Central African cultures. Sasa are spirits known by someone still alive while Zamani are spirits not known by anyone currently alive. Sasa are concerned with, and are expressed as, the present time, the recent past, and the near future while Zamani is the limitless past. Potential time is the third part of the space-time continuum in African thought. People must learn from the past to act wisely in the present to create a good future.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Wheel of the Year is an annual cycle of seasonal festivals, observed by many modern Pagans, consisting of the year's chief solar events (solstices and equinoxes) and the midpoints between them. While names for each festival vary among diverse pagan traditions, syncretic treatments often refer to the four solar events as \"quarter days\", with the four midpoint events as \"cross-quarter days\". Differing sects of modern Paganism also vary regarding the precise timing of each celebration, based on distinctions such as lunar phase and geographic hemisphere.\nObserving the cycle of the seasons has been important to many people, both ancient and modern. Contemporary Pagan festivals that rely on the Wheel are based to varying degrees on folk traditions, regardless of actual historical pagan practices. Among Wiccans, each festival is also referred to as a sabbat (), based on Gerald Gardner's view that the term was passed down from the Middle Ages, when the terminology for Jewish Shabbat was commingled with that of other heretical celebrations. Contemporary conceptions of the Wheel of the Year calendar were largely influenced by mid-20th century British Paganism.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The wheel of time or wheel of history (also known as Kalachakra) is a concept found in several religious traditions and philosophies, notably religions of Indian origin such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, and Buddhism, which regard time as cyclical and consisting of repeating ages.  Many other cultures contain belief in a similar concept: notably, the Q'ero Natives of Peru, as well as the Hopi Natives of Arizona.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Zmanim (Hebrew: \u05d6\u05b0\u05de\u05b7\u05e0\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dd, literally \"times\", singular zman) are specific times of the day in Jewish law.\n\nIn Jewish law, a calendar day is defined as running from \"evening\" to \"evening.\"  This is based on the repetition of the phrase \"... and there was evening, and there was morning ...\"\u2014evening preceding morning\u2014in the account of creation in Genesis.\nAdditionally, Jewish law requires certain activities to be undertaken \"during the day\"\u2014or at a certain time during the day\u2014while other activities are to be undertaken \"at night\"\u2014or at a certain time during the night.For either purpose, the status of the twilight hours just after sunset or just before sunrise is ambiguous. Judaism provides its own definitions for this period; at the same time, various rabbinic authorities differ on just how those definitions are to be applied for different purposes.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Abrahamites were a sect of deists in Bohemia in the 18th century, who professed to be followers of the pre-circumcised Abraham. Believing in one God, but rejecting the Trinity, original sin, and the perpetuity of punishment for sin, they contented themselves with the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer. Declining to be classed either as Christians or Jews, they were excluded from the edict of toleration promulgated by Emperor Joseph II in 1781, and deported to various parts of the country, the men being drafted into frontier regiments. Some became Roman Catholics, and those who retained their \"Abrahamite\" views were not able to hand them on to the next generation.They are not to be confused with the ninth-century Syrian group also known as the Abrahamite monks, who were exterminated by the iconoclastic emperor Theophilus.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In law and philosophy, accommodationism is the co-existence of religion with rationalism or irreligion. It may be applied to government practice or to society more broadly. Accommodationist policies are common in liberal democracies as a method of guaranteeing freedom of religion, and these policies may include options for religious education, official recognition of certain religious practices, and tolerance of religious expression in public spaces. It contrasts with separationist secularism and fundamentalism.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Agasha Temple of Wisdom is a spiritualist group founded in 1943 by Richard Zenor. After the publication of James Crenshaw's book Telephone Between Two Worlds in 1950, in which both Zenor and the temple were prominently featured, the temple became more popular. Upon Zenor's death in 1978, Geary Salvat was chosen to lead the group.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Agawan Festival is an annual harvest festival held in Sariaya, Quezon, Philippines every 15 May in \nhonor to Saint Isidore the Laborer, the patron saint of agriculture and good harvest. \nThe celebration is known as the Happy Pandemonium and one of the four harvest festivals celebrated in the province of Quezon every May 14th or 15th.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Ali Illahism (Persian: \u0639\u0644\u06cc\u200c\u0627\u0644\u0644\u0651\u0647\u06cc) is a  syncretic religion which has been practiced in parts of Iranian Luristan which combines elements of Shia Islam with older religions. It centers on the belief that there have been successive incarnations of the Deity throughout history, and Ali Ilahees reserve particular reverence for Ali, the son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who is considered one such incarnation. Various rites have been attributed as Ali Ilahian, similarly to the Yezidis, Ansaris, and all sects whose doctrine is unknown to the surrounding Muslim and Christian population. Observers have described it as an agglomeration of the customs and rites of several earlier religions, including Zoroastrianism, historically because travelogues were \"evident that there is no definite code which can be described as Ali Illahism\".Sometimes Ali-Illahism is used as a general term for the several denominations that venerate or deify Ali, like the Kaysanites, the Alawis or the Ahl-e Haqq/Yarsanis, others to mean the Ahl-e Haqq.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Alu-Oshaeraen is a shrine in Nigeria.\nAlu is the Esan word that means shrine or temple. Araen is the Esan word that means blood. Alu-Oshaeraen or Alu_Okhaeraen literally means shrine of blood. It is a mysterious shrine at the borders of Idunwele and Eguare in Ewu. It is believed that the shrine was previously a lake which fled the place to somewhere in Agbede when an injustice was done. The shrine is the spiritual centre for the religion of the people of Idunwele Ewu. The shrine is guarded by the families of Ugbekhilu or Ubene in Idunwele.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Amaravati is the capital city of Svarga, the realm of Indra, the king of the gods in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism  . At the centre of Amaravati is Vaijayanta, the palace of Indra or \u015aakra (Buddhism) in Buddhism. The heaven of Lord Indra is a region for the virtuous alone with celestial gardens called Nandana Vana that houses sacred trees like the wish-fulfilling Kalpavriksha and the Parijata and sweet-scented flowers such as hibiscuses, roses, hyacinths, freesias, magnolias, gardenias, jasmines, and honeysuckles. Fragrant almond extract is sprinkled on the sides of palaces. The fragrant groves are occupied by Apsaras. Low sweet music plays. Indra's abode is eight hundred miles in circumference and forty miles in height.The pillars of Amaravati are composed of diamonds and its furniture is made of pure gold. Amaravati's palaces are also made of gold. Pleasant breezes carry the perfume of rose-colored flowers. Amaravati was built by Lord Vishwakarma, the architect of the gods, a son of Lord Brahma, sometimes depicted as a son of Kashyapa (Although, in a later legend, Tvastr, believed by many to be the same as Vishwakarma, is killed by Indra for having created Vritra, a Danava (Hinduism) who was an embodiment of drought, an antithesis to Indra himself). The inhabitants of Amaravati are entertained by music, dancing and every sort of festivity. Divinity fills up the entire region.\nThe audience chamber of Amaravati accommodates the thirty-three celestials the Tr\u0101yastri\u1e43\u015ba, together with the forty-eight thousand Rishis and the multitude of attendants.\nIndra also has a celestial meeting hall at Amravati which is known as Pushkara-Malini, which is built by Indra himself.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Anaisa Pye (alternatively, Anaisa Pie, Anaisa Pie Danto, or Anaisa La Chiquita) is a popular loa within religion in the Dominican Republic.  She is considered the patron saint of love, money, and general happiness within the religion in the Dominican Republic 21 Divisions. \nShe is often considered extremely flirtatious, generous, and playful by her devotees. She, as well as other worshipers, are concerned for other female loas, as they consider themselves able to provide for anything a person could request.  \nAmong Dominican Roman Catholic believers, she is syncretized with Saint Anne. Her altars are often decorated with pictures and statues of Saint Anne and the child Mary.   She is said to work very well with Belie Belcan, another popular loa who is associated with Saint Michael the Archangel. Icons of Saint Anne are generally placed next to icons of Saint Michael in Vodou households and temples.  \nHer feast day is celebrated on 29 ,July. Her favorite colors are yellow and pink.  Some people consider Cachita to be one of her puntos (or incarnations), and some modern polytheists associate her with her ancient counterparts Inanna or Anat.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Anecdotes of Oyasama, the Foundress of Tenrikyo (\u7a3f\u672c\u5929\u7406\u6559\u6559\u7956\u4f1d\u9038\u8a71\u7bc7 Kohon Tenrikyo Oyasama-den Itsuwa-hen) is an anthology of anecdotes about Nakayama Miki, the foundress of Tenrikyo. This text is one of the supplemental texts (\u6e96\u539f\u5178 jun-genten) to the Tenrikyo scriptures, along with The Doctrine of Tenrikyo and The Life of Oyasama.\nAnecdotes of Oyasama was first published in the original Japanese on January 26, 1976, commemorating the 90th Anniversary of Oyasama (i.e. the 90th year since adherents believe Nakayama Miki withdrew from physical life and became everliving). An English translation was published the following year, on May 26, 1977.\nThe preface of the first 1956 publication of The Life of Oyasama mentions that a collection of anecdotes on Nakayama Miki would be put together in the near future. The \"K\u014dki Committee,\" a subset of Tenrikyo reverends and scholars led by theologian Ueda Yoshinaru, compiled the anecdotes. The anecdotes were originally published in four volumes, each containing 50 stories. The first volume was released in January 1974, the second in September 1974, the third in May 1975, and the fourth in October 1975. The anecdotes went through further editing for content and wording before being published in one set of 200 stories on January 26, 1976.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "An annual cycle refers to a set of changes or events that uniformly, or consistently, take place at the same time of year.\nIn biology, the annual cycle for plants and animals details behavioral and chemical changes that take place as the seasons advance.In business, a business cycle refers to the way modelling and analysis is applied to the periodic development and marketing of new products and services.\nIn religion, the annual cycle refers to the various celebrations or memorials that occur in the same sequence from year to year. For example, in Christianity the liturgical year is an annual cycle, which for some Christian denominations is composed of the temporal cycle that tracks the events in the life of Christ, and the sanctoral cycle which tracks the various saint's days. Some Christian churches only observe the temporal cycle.In climatology, an annual cycle is the part of a measured quantity's fluctuation that is attributed to Earth's changing position in orbit over the course of the year.  Such quantities might be influenced directly (e.g. incoming solar radiation at a point at the surface) or indirectly (e.g. stratospheric westerlies and easterlies over the winter and summer hemispheres, respectively) by orbital position.\nMathematically, the climatological annual cycle is commonly estimated from observational data or model output by taking the average of all Januaries, all Februaries, and so forth. If the observational record is long enough and conditions are stationary (i.e. there is no significant long-term trend), a meaningful annual cycle will result that can be used to calculate an anomaly time series.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Antisuperstition is a concept in Chinese religion  that can be defined as to body of all discussion against religious practice when using the word mixin, distinctly mixin/zongjiao.Antisuperstition is similar to some extreme forms of Confucian fundamentalism, rejecting the moral self-perfection delineated by any particular world religion's theological scriptures.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Arabic Bay\u00e1n is a book written by the B\u00e1b around 1848. Its larger sister book is the Persian Bay\u00e1n. The work is incomplete, containing only eleven Vahids. Each Vahid serves as a chapter and contains nineteen Abwab. The grammar is highly irregular. The work was composed while the B\u00e1b was imprisoned in Maku, Iran.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Archegos was the head of the Manichaean religion. No surviving list of every Archegos remains, and the succession procedure is unknown. Ab\u016b Hil\u0101l al-Dayh\u016bri is the last known Archegos. The first Archegos was the prophet Mani.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "An aretology or aretalogy (from ancient Greek aret\u00ea, \"excellence, virtue\") in the strictest sense is a narrative about a divine figure's miraculous deeds. There is no evidence that these narratives constituted a clearly defined genre but there exists a body of literature that contained praise for divine miracles. These literary works were usually associated with eastern cults.In the Greco-Roman world, aretologies represent a religious branch of rhetoric and are a prose development of the hymn as praise poetry. Asclepius, Isis, and Serapis are among the deities with surviving aretologies in the form of inscriptions and papyri. The earliest records of divine acts emerged from cultic hymns for these deities, were inscribed in stones, and displayed in temples. The Greek aretologos (\u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, \"virtue-speaker\") was a temple official who recounted aretologies and may have also interpreted dreams.By extension, an aretology is also a \"catalogue of virtues\" belonging to a person; for example, Cicero's list and description of the virtues of Pompeius Magnus (\"Pompey the Great\") in the speech Pro Lege Manilia. Aretology became part of the Christian rhetorical tradition of hagiography.In an even more expanded sense, aretology is moral philosophy which deals with virtue, its nature, and the means of arriving at it. It is the title of an ethical tract by Robert Boyle published in the 1640s. Other scholars also consider literature that involve the praise of wisdom as aretology.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Aspect is a term used across several religions and in theology to describe a particular manifestation or conception of a deity or other divine being. Depending on the religion, these might be disjoint or overlapping parts, or methods of perceiving or conceptualizing the deity in a particular context.\nIn the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith, this might be conceived as a Manifestation of God.In Christianity, Trinitarianism (see Trinity) is the belief in God as three distinct Persons in one Divinity, all of One Being, not confounding the Substance nor dividing the Essence: as such it would be false and indeed heretical (Sabellianism), from the perspective of orthodox Christianity, to conceive of one God manifested in three separate aspects or modes.In some conceptions of Hinduism, Vishnu is seen as aspect of Brahman.\nIn Sikhism, there are three distinct aspects: God as deity; God in relation to creation; and God in relation to man.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Ilocano ritual of Atang is known as a food offering that is intended to drive away evil and malevolent spirits. It plays an important role in Ilocano culture, as Ilocanos generally believe that there are spirits who live among humans, either of the dead or of other worlds who need to be appeased whenever they are disturbed or offended. This custom of offering food to the deceased is known as alay by the Tagalog and halad by the Cebuanos.    \nThe most common atang to ward off sickness is a rice cake called sinukat (glutinous rice cooked in coconut milk). A table with an atang meal may be put in a new house. An atang may also be for a harvest offering. Ilocanos may prepare an atang before each meal. The atang may also be called a santorum or panang. The atang meal may be associated in some ceremonies with dance.Atang is usually performed on Pista ti Natay, or Undas and other special events. Plates of food prepared for an atang consist of delicacies such as suman, dudul, linapet (sticky rice cake or cassava cake with a ground peanut filling, wrapped in banana leaves); baduya, patupat or balisongsong (snacks made from sticky rice or rice flour); busi (caramelized popped rice); linga (black sesame seeds); sinukat or diket, inkiwar (sticky ricewith coconut milk); and bagas (uncooked rice) shaped in a crucifix and topped with fresh eggs. The food may also be accompanied by bua (betel nut) and gawed or paan (piper leaf), apog (lime powder), basi (fermented sugarcane wine), and tabako (tobacco). These offerings are placed in front of a photo of the departed and/or image of Jesus, Mary, or the Holy Family during wakes and anniversaries in homes or in front of the graves, after which the family and/or mourners of the deceased may also offer prayers.Ilocanos believe that the soul has not yet left the world of the living during the wake and still needs sustenance, hence the offering of food as they transcend onto the afterlife. It is also believed that the soul returns to the land of the living after the 9-day wake and must be welcomed back. In instances when the deceased appears in a dream or when a family member suddenly experiences unexplainable sickness, atang is performed as an appeasement ritual for the deceased who may have been offended or disturbed. It is also interpreted as asking the deceased to intercede for their loved ones, and thanking them for warning against bad omen through dreams. Clearly, the significance of the atang for the Ilocanos goes beyond the remembrance and honoring of the dead loved ones. It connotes their view of life after death and the relation of the living to the departed.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Aumism is a minor religious sect founded in 1969 by Gilbert Bourdin (1923\u20131998). Centered on the \"holy city\" of Mandarom, near Castellane in the French Alps, it has approximately 400 members, down from 1200 at its peak. It is a synthesis of a number of religions, most prominently Hinduism. Its name derives from the mystical \"aum\" sound used in Hindu meditation, which is said to be the sound that gave birth to all other sounds. There is debate about whether Bourdin's founding of the Ashram (Holy City) of Mandarom in 1969 marked the beginning of the Aumist movement.\nAumism is founded upon five \"truths\":\n\nDeath is nothing but a change of state\nSuffering arises from the fear of moving forward\nPain makes one take \"giant steps towards God\"\nEvolution is a law which dictates that every being must have the attainment of a higher level as its purpose\nFinal truth on \"the ultimate goal to be reached\".The Aumists believe that the Earth is itself a living being, and that every animal is connected to a group soul. Aumists are told not to cause animals to suffer. They also believe in several \"ages\" of time, like the Golden Age, Silver Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Copper age. Aumists also reject modern technologies.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In regard to the reading of prayers with a graceful tone or accent, so to make an impression on the hearers, there was a person appointed, in monasteries, to hear the monks read, who instructed them how to perform it, before they were admitted to read publicly in the church, or before the people. This was called auscultare, q.d. to hear, listen.\n\"Quicunque Lecturus vel Cantaturus est aliquid in Monasterio; si necesse babeat ab eo, viz. Cantore, priusquam incipiat debet Auscultare.\" \u2014 Lanfranc in Decreta pro ordinis S. Benedicti.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Azizollah Khoshvaqt (Persian: \u0639\u0632\u06cc\u0632\u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647 \u062e\u0648\u0634\u0648\u0642\u062a), also known as Ayatollah Khoshvaqt (1926 \u2013 19 February 2013), was a contemporary philosopher, mystic, theologian and faqih. He was a student of Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai, Seyyed Hossein Borujerdi and Seyyed Ruhollah Khomeini. He was the second child of the family, went to seminary after passing high-school, and went to Qom after educating for five years in Lorzadeh mosque in Tehran.\nAzizollah Khoshvaght came back to Tehran after the end of his seminary education, and got married at the age of 33, and the result of this marriage was 2 sons and 4 daughters for him. His parents were from Zanjan. Khoshvaqt is considered to be a prominent scholar, Faqih and a teacher of ethics. Azizollah Khoshvaght who was also well known as Aziz Khoshvaght, was also the Imam Jama'a of Imam Hassan-Mojtaba mosque in Tehran.Azizollah Khoshvaght died at the age of 86, when he was in Mecca on 19 February 2013.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "B\u00e0 Ch\u00faa Kho (Lady of the Storehouse) is a goddess of Vietnamese folk religion, with her temple in B\u1eafc Ninh. She is one of the new popular goddess like B\u00e0 Ch\u00faa X\u1ee9, Lady of the Realm.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Badatz Beit Yosef is a kosher certification that is widely used by Sephardic and other Jews in Israel. Badatz Beit Yosef follows the guidelines set by Rabbi Yosef Caro. In Israel, an estimated 70 percent of restaurants use the Badatz Beit Yosef standard. Badatz Beit Yosef was the first kosher-certifying organization to certify cigarettes for Passover. Badatz Beit Yosef is the leader in kosher slaughter of chicken for Orthodox Jews in Israel.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Barmati Panth is a religious tradition founded by Dhani Matang Dev around 1100 CE. The term Barmati means four direction and eight corners joined to form twelve (bar in gujarati, kutchi) Barmati Panth. The Barmati Panth was founded on peak of karumbha dungar (Mountain range in palitana, gujarat later through scriptures of Matang dev founded by their heirs and won in legal battle on the basis of Jain scriptures which itself named is at Matang caves) On peak of karumbha dungar a Narvadh yagna was performed to establish Barmati pant. Its followers are spread in Kutch (now in Gujarat, India) and Sindh (now in Pakistan).", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Baron Criminel (also spelled Baron Kriminel) is a much feared spirit or loa in the Haitian Vodou religion. He is envisioned as the first murderer who has been condemned to death, and is invoked to pronounce swift judgment. Baron Criminel is syncretized with Saint Martin de Porres, perhaps because his feast day is November 3, the day after F\u00eate Guede or F\u00eate Ghede (Haitian Creole: F\u00e8t Gede). His colors are black, purple, white and deep blood red.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "According to the Book of Samuel, the Battle of Mizpah (1084 B.C.) was a battle in Israel that occurred when the Ark of the Covenant was captured in the Battle of Aphek.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Bocheonism (Korean: \ubcf4\ucc9c\uad50 Bocheongyo or Pochonkyo, \"religion of the vault of heaven/firmament\") was one among more than 100 new religious movements of Korea of the family of religions called Jeungsanism, rooted in Korean shamanism and recognizing Gang Il-sun (Kang Jeungsan) as the incarnation of Sangje, the Supreme God. It was founded by Cha Gyeong-seok (1880-1936) on Ibam Mountain in Daeheung-ri, Ibam-myeon, Jeongeup, Jeollabuk-do, in the year 1911. Today this site is part of Naejangsan National Park.\nCha Gyeong-seok was originally a Donghak (Cheondoist) priest, who converted to Jeungsanism after meeting Gang Il-Sun. After Gang's death, Goh Pan-Lye (Subu, literally \u201cHead Lady,\u201d 1880\u20131935, although in Kang's circle there was more than one \"Subu\"), a female disciple of Kang Jeungsan, around September 1911 gathered around her a number of Kang's followers. Cha Gyeong-seok was Goh's male cousin and became the leader of Goh's branch. Dissatisfied with this situation, Goh separated from Cha in 1919 and established her own new religion.  Cha continued under the name Bocheon-gyo, which was adopted in 1921, at a great ritual held in Hamyang County, Gyeongsangnam-do.\nEventually, Bocheonism became the largest Korean new religious movement and possibly the largest religion in Korea, with some six million followers, including leading activists in the Korean independence movements. Bocheonism, however, declined rapidly after Cha's death in 1936, and fragmented into several competing group, as did Goh's organization. The largest among these branches is Jeung San Do.\nCha prophesied that the unification of the world would take place beginning in Korea. Branches of Bocheonism are also credited with encouraging local culture in the Jeongeup region, including the pungmulgut performance tradition.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Sayed Borhan Khan (1624 \u2013 c. 1680) was a khan of Qasim Khanate from 1627 to 1679. He was a son of Arslanghali and Fatima Soltan. After the death of his father he was crowned as a khan of Qasim. Sayed Borhan's regents were Fatima Soltan and her father Agha Muhammad Shah Quli Sayyid. During his reign the Khanate was totally placed under Moscow control, Russian authorities enforced Christianization. In 1679 Sayed Borhan abdicated and was baptized as Vasili.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Sigebert Buckley (c. 1520 AD \u2013 probably 1610) was a Benedictine monk in England, who is regarded by the Benedictines and by Ampleforth College in particular as representing the continuity of the community through the English Reformation.\nAlthough the English Benedictines had been dissolved by Henry VIII in the 1530s, one solitary monastery was re-established in Westminster Abbey by the Roman Catholic Queen, Mary I of England 20 years later. After only a few years, her half-sister Queen Elizabeth I dissolved this monastery again. By 1607 only one of the Westminster monks was left alive: Father Sigebert Buckley.Buckley survived until the reign of James I, by which time a number of Englishmen had become Benedictines in the monasteries of Italy and Spain, and had obtained a faculty from Pope Clement VIII (in 1602) to take part with the secular clergy and the Jesuits in the English mission. It was through the efforts of the English monks of the Cassinese or Italian Congregation (including Thomas Preston) that Buckley became instrumental in preserving monastic continuity in England. It is through Buckley that the English Benedictine Congregation lays claim to an unbroken continuity with the pre-Reformation monasticism of England.\nAmpleforth College, the largest Roman Catholic boarding school in England, was opened in 1802 and is run by the Benedictine monks of Ampleforth Abbey, which traces its history through Buckley.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Buyruk or Kitab al-Manaqib (Book of Exemplary Acts) is the sacred book of the Shabak. It is written in Turkmen.The Buyruk is written in the form of an interlocution between Shaykh Safi-ad-din Ardabili, founder of the Safaviyya order, and his son Sadr al-D\u012bn M\u016bs\u0101 on different religious matters, and particularly on the life and principles of the Sufi order. It also contains poems composed by Shah Ismail I under the pseudonym 'Khatai', which indicates it must have been compiled in the sixteenth century at the earliest.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A calaca (Spanish pronunciation: [ka\u02c8laka], a colloquial Mexican Spanish name for skeleton) is a figure of a skull or skeleton (usually human) commonly used for decoration during the Mexican Day of the Dead festival, although they are made all year round.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Candombl\u00e9 Jej\u00e9, also known as Brazilian Vodum, is one of the major branches (nations) of Candombl\u00e9. It developed in the Portuguese Empire among Fon and Ewe slaves. \n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Cantillation is the ritual chanting of prayers and responses. It often specifically refers to Jewish Hebrew cantillation. Cantillation sometimes refers to diacritics used in texts that are to be chanted in liturgy.\nCantillation includes:\n\nChant\nByzantine chant\nGallican chant\nGregorian chant\nOld Roman chant\nSyriac chant\nVedic chant\nHebrew cantillation\nVietnamese cantillation\nTajwid (recitation of the Quran)", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A cantor or chanter is a person who leads people in singing or sometimes in prayer. In formal Christian worship, a cantor is a person who sings solo verses or passages to which the choir or congregation responds.\nIn Judaism, a cantor is one who sings and leads people in prayer in a Jewish religious service and may be called hazzan. A cantor in Reform and Conservative Judaism is an ordained person similar to that of a rabbi if the cantor has gone through seminary training or been certified as a cantor from an endorsed seminary.\nThe term itself is derived from Latin, meaning \"singer\". It is frequently used to translate a range of equivalent terms in other languages, such as for the leader of singing on a traditional Kerala snake boat, a Chundan Vallam. A similar term is precentor, defined as a leader of the singing of a choir or congregation.\nMore specific types of cantor include:\n\nCantor in Christianity, an ecclesiastical officer leading liturgical music in several branches of the Christian church\nProtopsaltis, leader master cantor of the right choir (Orthodox Church)\nLampadarios, leader of the left choir (Orthodox Church)\nDomestikos, leader assistant to the Protopsaltis of the right choir and/or to the Lampdarios of the left choir (Orthodox Church)\nPrecentor\nSuccentor\nHazzan in Judaism, a singer and/or musician. Orthodox Judaism only allows men to be cantors, while the other branches allow women. Reform Judaism and Orthodox Judaism ordain cantors from seminaries. Ordained cantors serve as clergy in their congregations and perform all ministerial rites as rabbis.\nAn ordained muezzin, who calls the Adhan in Islam for prayer, that serves as clergy in their congregations and perform all ministerial rites as imams.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Capitulary of Le Mans, or the Capitulare in pago Cenomannico datum, is a capitulary traditionally ascribed to Charlemagne and dated to the year 800.  In the text, a Frankish ruler named Charles regulates the labour services of peasants in the region of Le Mans in western Francia. Those peasants with more land were obliged to carry out more ploughing services for their lords.The text has often been used as evidence for Charlemagne's regulation of the peasantry in the early Middle Ages, for instance by Rachel Stone and Chris Wickham. However, it has been suggested that the text was not in fact issued by Charlemagne, though it is still important evidence for attitudes to the peasantry and labour in early medieval Europe.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Cassandra Martyrs of Charity were a group of twelve Catholic and Protestant religious workers who perished in the sinking of the M/V Do\u00f1a Cassandra off the coast of Surigao on November 21, 1983.They were involved in charity work to serve communities impoverished and marginalized under the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos, and were on their way to a retreat and planning meeting in a Cebu city when their vessel began to capsize after being battered by Typhoon Warling (International name: Orchid). As a group, they were last seen \"praying, distributing life vests, helping children put theirs on, instructing other passengers to hasten towards the life rafts and to be ready to abandon ship,\" but perished when emergency supplies ran out and the boat finally sank.Some of the group's members were later honored by having their names inscribed on the Wall of Remembrance at the Bantayog ng mga Bayani, which honors the heroes and martyrs whose actions eventually helped bring down the authoritarian regime.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Christ Heart Church (Japanese: \u57fa\u7763\u5fc3\u5b97\u6559\u56e3) is a new religious movement that was formed in 1927. Its founder, Kawai Shinsui (\u5ddd\u5408\u4fe1\u6c34, 1867-1962), reinterpreted the faith through the lenses of Confucian and Buddhist traditions by claiming that Christianity offers a more complete path of self-cultivation and advocates traditional Buddhist disciplines of meditation to achieve a Christian satori (enlightenment). Zen meditation and ky\u014dkenjutsu (\u5f37\u5065\u8853) became important means of development in the Christ Heart Church.\nIn sharp contrast to Protestant missionary policy, the Christ Heart Church allow its members to maintain the traditional Buddhist altar in the home. They also see no conflict between Christian faith and ancestor veneration. Members are encouraged to show 'proper respect' toward traditional customs, and the church supports participation in Buddhist ancestral rites with non-Christian family members.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Churches of Christ is a grouping of the Christian denomination Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) in Nigeria. It dates from 1947. The Fellowship of Churches of Christ in Nigeria is something different.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Archdeacon of Connor is a senior ecclesiastical officer within the Diocese of Connor.The archdeaconry can trace its history from Eustacius, the first known incumbent, who went on to be Bishop of the Diocese to the current incumbent Stephen McBride. McBride  is responsible for the disciplinary supervision of the Connor clergy; and the upkeep of diocesan property.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "\u0110\u1ea1o M\u1eabu (Vietnamese: [\u0257\u00e2\u02d0w\u02c0 m\u0259\u030cw\u02c0], \u9053\u6bcd) is the worship of mother goddesses which was established in Vietnam in the 16th century.While scholars like Ng\u00f4 \u0110\u1ee9c Th\u1ecbnh propose that it represents a systematic worship of mother goddesses, \u0110\u1ea1o M\u1eabu draws together fairly disparate beliefs and practices. These include the worship of goddesses such as Thi\u00ean Y A Na, B\u00e0 Ch\u00faa X\u1ee9 \"Lady of the Realm\", B\u00e0 Ch\u00faa Kho \"Lady of the Storehouse\", and Princess Li\u1ec5u H\u1ea1nh, legendary figures like \u00c2u C\u01a1, the Tr\u01b0ng Sisters (Hai B\u00e0 Tr\u01b0ng), and Lady Tri\u1ec7u (B\u00e0 Tri\u1ec7u), as well as the branch Four Palaces.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Daphnomancy is a form of pyromancy whereby the future is predicted by burning bay laurel leaves. A loud crackling from the fire is a positive omen, whereas silence is a negative one.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Deconsecration, also called secularization, is the act of removing a religious blessing from something that had been previously consecrated by a minister or priest of that religion. The practice is usually performed on churches or synagogues to be rendered to non-religious (secular) use or demolished.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Devla/Del/Devel, Devlam, Devles, Devleske or Dovel is the word used when directly calling or praying to God in the Romani language.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Diabolical rebaptism is the supposed rebaptism of an individual in the name of the devil. It was a common accusation made against the accused at witch trials, but seems to have been essentially the invention of demonologists.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In Etruscan religion, the dii involuti (\"veiled\" or \"hidden gods\", also di involuti or dii superiores et involuti) were a group of gods, or possibly a principle, superior to the ordinary pantheon of gods. In contrast to the ordinary Etruscan gods, including the Dii Consentes, the dii involuti were not the object of direct worship and were never depicted. Their specific attributes and number are unknown; Jean-Ren\u00e9 Jannot suggests that they may represent either an archaic principle of divinity or \"the very fate that dominates individualized gods\".The sky-god Tinia was believed to require their consent to cast the thunderbolt that announced disasters. According to Seneca in his Naturales quaestiones,\n\nThe third manubia Jupiter also sends, but he summons to council the gods whom the Etruscans call the Superior, or Veiled Gods [diis quos superiores et involutos vocant], because the lightning destroys whatever it strikes and everywhere alters the state of private or public affairs that it encounters, for fire allows nothing to remain as it was.\nThe dii involuti may be identical with the \"Secret Gods of Favour\" mentioned by Martianus Capella.The dii involuti can also be related to early Mesopotamian concepts of \"hiding gods\", like the Anunnaki.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Society of the Way (Japanese: \u9053\u4f1a (\u3069\u3046\u304b\u3044), Hepburn: D\u014dkai) is a Japanese new religion founded by Matsumura Kaiseki in 1907 which synthesizes aspects of Christian, Confucian, Daoist, and traditional Japanese thought. Its four main tenets are theism (Japanese: \u4fe1\u795e), ethical cultivation (Japanese: \u4fee\u5fb3), neighborly love (Japanese: \u611b\u96a3), and a belief in eternal life (Japanese: \u6c38\u751f).", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In George Gurdjieff's Fourth Way school of thought, Earth Level or Planet Level refers to the level of the Law of Forty-eight on the Ray of Creation, meaning that forty-eight laws govern it.\nIt corresponds to the Gurdjieff hydrogen number 48 and the musical note mi. Moon Level precedes it and All Planets Level follows it.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The religious capital or ecclesiastical capital of a region is a place considered pre-eminent by the adherents of a particular religion within that region. This is most often significant for the region's predominant religion or state religion, if any. The administrative headquarters of an organised religion may be centralised in a particular location; for example, Rome for the Catholic Church, or Salt Lake City for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. In an episcopal church, the site of the cathedral of the primate bishop of an area may be considered its ecclesiastical capital; for example, Armagh is the seat of the primate of All Ireland in both the Catholic church and the Anglican church. Other places may be considered religious capitals by being centres of learning, such as Qom for Shia Islam in Iran; or places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem for the Abrahamic religions and Varanasi for Hinduism.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Egbesu is the god or deity of justice of the Ijaw people of the Niger Delta region. Egbesu is also perceived as the spiritual foundational force for combating evil. The Egbesu force can only be used in defence or to correct an injustice, and only by people who are in harmony with the universe. The symbol of the divine force is the leopard, panther, and lion.\nEgbesu has both a philosophical and spiritual dimension, the latter of which has been more prominent during recent times due to conflicts in regions where the Ijaw reside.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Ehi is the name of a personal spirit in some West African religious beliefs, especially in southwestern Nigeria and Benin. Ehi means \"genius\", but it also means \"angel\" in some Nigerian languages and refers to a spirit possessing a man, similar to a guardian angel. Furthermore, Ehi means \"gift\" in the Idoma language of Nigeria. \nEhi is a component of a person that remains with the supreme deity Osa. A person's ehi guides them through their life in the agbon, or material world, while interacting with other spirits in the erinmwin, or spirit world.\nThe ehi remains with the person during the day, and returns to report to Osa at night.Ehi is viewed as a cult in parts of western Africa with a \"moderated initiative\" where many believe that lack of success can be blamed on the Ehi possessing a man. The Ehi is said to be \"constantly sacrificed\" in gratitude for success or for guidance in difficult times. Bradbury says of it, \"Close as a man and his ehi are they are yet thought of as being independent agents and so there is a possibility of conflict between them. Ehi must, therefore, be propritiated in much the same way as other supernatural entities and failure to do this results in trouble.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "An esbat  is a coven meeting at a time other than one of the Sabbats within Wicca and other Wiccan-influenced forms of contemporary Paganism. Janet and Stewart Farrar describe esbats as an opportunity for a \"love feast, healing work, psychic training and all.\"", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church is a movement born in Jamaica in the 1950s by disciples of Marcus Garvey and was incorporated in Florida in 1975. Members of the movement understand and confirm that it is based on the teachings of Marcus Garvey and that they use  cannabis as sacrament.In 1979 the group was accused, tried, and convicted of smuggling massive amounts of potent cannabis from Jamaica to Miami in actions that kept the Jamaican economy afloat that decade. The then-Jamaican Prime Minister Edward Seaga told a U.S. interview \"It's just a little sinsemilla that it keep the country going right now\". The Coptics published a free newspaper promoting Garveyism and the decriminalization of marijuana titled \"Coptic Times\". They also appeared on 60 Minutes on October 28, 1979. The group's leader was Thomas Reilly, also known as Brother Louv. During the same year, The Supreme Court of Florida found: \"(1) the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church represents a religion within the first amendment to the Constitution of the United States, and (2) the \u201cuse of cannabis is an essential portion of the religious practice.\" \"Further, the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church is not a new church or religion but the record reflects it is centuries old and has regularly used cannabis as its sacrament\u201d.In 1986 the organization participated in the Drug Enforcement Administration's hearings on cannabis rescheduling in the United States.\nOn January 19, 2017 Jim Tranmer, a member of the group, was pardoned and released from prison by Barack Obama before he left the office of the President of the United States. Tramner had received a 33 year prison sentence  for possession of cannabis because he defended the sacramentality and goodness of cannabis without repentance.  Today many are grateful for his sacrifice and his release is an acknowledgement in the paradigm change that has taken place since the majority of the population now see that to fight against a medicinal plant is a detrimental social policy.  \nOlsen ran for governor in Iowa, as a Libertarian, in 1994 and for the U.S. House of Representatives, again as a Libertarian, in 1996.  He is currently a priest in the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church, and resides in Iowa.\nThe EZCC is not associated with either the Coptic Orthodox Church or the Coptic Catholic Church, both based in Egypt. The Coptic Orthodox Church has an Ethiopian sister church, which is also unrelated.\nThe Zion Coptic Church appeared in the 2011 Billy Corben documentary Square Grouper: The Godfathers of Ganja, whose first section concerns the group and features interviews with former members.\nIn Brazil there are the First Niubingui Church Etiope Coptic of Zion of Brasil.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In Ghana, Togo, Benin and other countries of West Africa, a fetish priest is a person who serves as a mediator between the spirits and the living. Fetish priests usually live and worship their gods in enclosed places, called a fetish shrine. The fetish shrine is a simple mud hut with some kind of enclosure or fence around it. The priest or priestess performs rituals to consult and seek the favor from his gods in the shrine.  The rituals are performed with money, liquor, animals, and in some places, human sex slaves called trokosi, fiashidi, or woryokwe.  The priest is usually chosen through \"spiritual nomination of the shrine\" through divination. They are most at times believed to help people in spiritual matters and physical needs (riches, good fortunes, marriage, traveling mercies, deliverance) in people's life. People fear them most often because fetish priests claim they can kill people spiritually.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Forn Sed Norge (Old Ways Norway), formerly Foreningen Forn Sed, is a Norwegian heathen religious organization.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The title gonagas (or konagas) (Pite Sami: g\u00e5n\u00e5gas), bird man, was a shaman ranking level in Northern Scandinavia amongst noayddes, which possessed special level of spiritual knowledge and visualized themselves to have possession to transform oneself into a bird figure to \"fly\" over mountains. Because of this spiritual ability, Lundius states they were treated more respectfully or had a higher position than other peoples. According to the myth they could \"spiritual communicate,\" i.e. travel to trading ports in forehand and see what peoples would come to trade. And in the witchcrafting period, the figure could not be burned on the stake because the fire would be smothered in the same way water cannot be ignited.\nThe word ultimately derives from a Germanic word for \"king\" (Compare to Finnish Kuningas and Lithuanian Kunigas, both from Proto-Germanic *Kuningaz; in archaic contex the Finnish word simply had the meaning of \"leader\" or \"high-ranked person\" instead of monarch).", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A grave candle, grave lantern, death candle or a death lantern is a type of candle or lantern, which is lit in memory of the dead or to commemorate solemn events. The form of a lantern is commonly used in Christianity, whereas candles are more common in Judaism (where they are known as the Yahrzeit candle).\nThe tradition has been adopted by Christianity from the earlier pagan tradition.The grave lanterns, known as znicz, are a common tradition in Poland.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Gruppo del Rosario (Rosary Prayer Group) is an Italian apocalyptic cult, primarily active from 1973 to 1989, although remnants of the cult existed as late as 2010. In May 1988, 35 of its members, including its then leader, Lidia Naccarato, were arrested following the brutal murder of a fellow member. The sect has been the subject of several studies by the Italian psychiatrist Mario Di Fiorino.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Guede L'Orage (Haitian Creole: Gede Loraj) is loa (or lwa) in the Haitian Vodou religion. This spirit usually only manifests during storms.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Guru Nanak Interfaith Prize is a biannual, $50,000 award to \"an individual or an organisation in recognition of propagating Guru Nanak\u2019s philosophy of discovering oneness of humanity by exploring the differences that separate people\".  The prize is administered by Hofstra University, New York as part of its efforts in the advancement of religious study, and is supported by the Sardarni Kuljit Kaur Bindra Foundation, funded by a gift from the family of Ishar Singh Bindra.Hofstra sought nominations though press releases and placing ads in major U.S. newspapers.  Notable members of the selection committee included Desmond Tutu, Inder Kumar Gujral, Charles Schumer, Norm Coleman, David Rosen, and Martin E. Marty.The first such prize was presented to Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama on November 11, 2007 by a delegation from Hofstra who had traveled to India for the presentation.  The Dalai Lama was selected from a field of 75 nominees engaged in interfaith efforts throughout the world. Other notable individuals nominated included Arthur Schneier, Jagdish Gandhi, Sukhbir Singh Kapoor, Paul F. Knitter, and Frank Kaufmann. Notable organizations and groups nominated included Hartford Seminary and the Molloy College Institute for Christian/Jewish Dialogue.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Mull\u00e1 H\u00e1d\u00ed (Arabic: \u0645\u0644\u0627 \u0647\u0627\u062f\u064a) was the fifteenth Letter of the Living in the B\u00e1b\u00ed movement and also the son of Mull\u00e1 Abdu'l-Vahhab-i-Qazv\u00edni who was a close companion of Shaykh Ahmad with whom he shared the message of fast approaching Revelation. Mull\u00e1 H\u00e1d\u00ed was initially a Shaykhi a student of Siyyid K\u00e1zim. He did not get involved in the Battle of fort Shaykh Tabarsi and shielded his life through the practice of Taqiyya. He was also the brother of another letter of the living Mull\u00e1 Muhammad-'Aliy-i-Qazvini.\nAfter the death of the B\u00e1b, the B\u00e1b\u00eds split into a number of factions one of which was led by Mull\u00e1 H\u00e1d\u00ed. He later became a devout Azal\u00ed and was expelled from the community by Bah\u00e1\u02bcu'll\u00e1h during the Edirne period \"and spent his final days in oblivion\".\nMull\u00e1 H\u00e1d\u00ed is a controversial Letter of the Living since it is not entirely clear that he was actually one. He is noted as absent in the list formed by Amanat [1987] and replaced by Mull\u00e1 Muhammad-i-May\u00e1ma'\u00ed. This is explained in a footnote that although he is included in Nabil's list provided in The Dawn-breakers, the incomplete list provided by al-Karbal\u00e1'\u00ed al-Qat\u00edl has Mull\u00e1 Muhammad-i-May\u00e1ma'\u00ed in his place. Qat\u00edl described Mull\u00e1 H\u00e1d\u00ed as \"in darkness\" in spite of his brother's vigour and the fact that in later years he never showed any serious interest in the movement. Mull\u00e1 Muhammad-i-May\u00e1ma'\u00ed's preaching in his home town of May\u00e1may gave him weight in Amanat's eyes.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The happy hunting ground is a concept of the afterlife associated with Native Americans in the United States. The phrase most likely originated with Anglo-Saxon settlers' interpretation of the Indian description.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Healing Church in Rhode Island is a Rhode Island-based religious sect whose adherents believe that cannabis (or marijuana) is a \"holy herb\" and use it in religious rituals. Leaders of the group attracted attention in 2015 for attempting to smoke marijuana in front of the Roger Williams National Memorial (a memorial to Roger Williams, a pioneer of religious freedom and one of the smallest National Parks) as part of a religious service. One of the church members said that bhang was consumed during the service on federal property, to avoid violating a no-smoking rule. The following year, two leaders of the group were arrested and charged in connection with a marijuana grow operation. Days before the arrest, the pair had filed a lawsuit in federal district court, contending that enforcement of state anti-marijuana laws against those who use marijuana for religious purposes violates  the U.S. Constitution.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Hell-fire preaching is a religious term that refers to preaching which calls attention to the final destiny of the impenitent, which usually focuses extremely on describing the painful torment in the Hereafter as a method to invite people to religion. There may be degrees of emphasis, and degrees of extent to which hell is emphasized in the khutbah (sermon or speech in Islam).", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Henet or the Pelican is the Ancient Egyptian goddess of pelicans. She is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts.\nThe Pelican (Henet in Egyptian) is depicted in livestock scenes the walls of tombs of people from the Pharaoh's court.  She appears in royal funerary texts from the Pyramid Age as a protective symbol against snakes. Scholar George Hart says that the imagery in the texts of a pelican falling into the Nile suggests that Henet scoops dangerous elements out of the water in the form of fish.  This is similar to the dragnets and bird nets used for trapping sinners in the Underworld. Scholars think that Henet is a goddess because she is called \"mother of the king\" in the Pyramid Texts. In ancient Egypt, that term was used exclusively for goddesses.\nHart continues to say that, in other funerary papyri, the pelican can predict safe travel for a dead person in the Underworld. The open beak of the Pelican is also associated with the ability of the deceased person to leave the burial chamber and go out into the rays of the sun, possibly an analogy made between the long cavernous beak of the pelican and the tomb shaft.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Nivi (n\u012bv\u012b, \u0928\u093f\u0935\u0940, \u0928\u0940\u0935\u0940) was a women's garment. It was a simple piece of cloth draped or worn around the waist, covering the lower part of the body.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Impiety is a perceived lack of proper respect for something considered sacred. Impiety is often closely associated with sacrilege, though it is not necessarily a physical action. Impiety cannot be associated with a cult, as it implies a larger belief system was disrespected. One of the Pagan objections to Christianity was that, unlike other mystery religions, early Christians refused to cast a pinch of incense before the images of the gods, an impious act in their eyes. Impiety in ancient civilizations was a civic concern, rather than solely religious (as religions were tied into the state). It was believed that impious actions such as disrespect towards sacred objects or priests could bring down the wrath of the gods.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "An Iyi-uwa is an object from Igbo mythology that binds the spirit of a dead child (known as ogbanje) to the world, causing it to return and be born again to the same mother.Many objects can serve the purpose of iyi-uwa, including stones, dolls, hair or pieces of the dead child's clothes, omens, or offerings. The iyi-uwa must be found and destroyed in order for the ogbanje to rest and stop haunting the mother. To find the object, shamans known as 'dibia' question the spirit and perform rituals to force it to reveal where the iyi-uwa is located.The novel Things Fall Apart by Nigerian author Chinua Achebe contains a detailed subplot involving an ogbanje child and her iyi-uwa.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In the Tenrikyo religion, the Jiba (\u3062\u3070) is the axis mundi where adherents believe that God created humankind. The spot is located in the center of the main sanctuary at Tenrikyo Church Headquarters, located in Tenri, Nara, Japan. It is marked by a wooden pillar called the Kanrodai (\u304b\u3093\u308d\u3060\u3044).", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Kan-Laon is the name of an ancient Hiligaynon deity. During pre-Hispanic times, the deity was worshiped by indigenous people as their Supreme Ruler. In the Visayan language, Kan-Laon means \"One Who Is the Ruler Of Time.\"\nKanlaon Volcano, is the largest active stratovolcano in the Philippines and highest peak in the Visayas region, specifically Negros, where it is situated. A story states that Kan-Laon used from word Laon means waiting for her lover , but later the waiting for long time is over when his King named Kan(CAN) arrived in Mount Kanlaon after the Hiligaynon epic heroes and lovers, Laon and Kan (who were named after the goddess), defeated the dragon-like monster that lived in the volcano. The volcano is said to be where Kanlaon made her presence felt to the people. In ancient times, native priests and priestesses (babaylan) would climb up the volcano and do rituals every good harvest season or when there was a special ceremony. They would also offer gifts as a sign of respect. \nKan-Laon has many counterparts all over the Philippine archipelago. Some of the more popular are Bathala of the Tagalogs, Gugurang of the Bicolanos, and Kabunian of the Ilocanos and Ifugaos.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Karakia are M\u0101ori incantations and prayers, used to invoke spiritual guidance and protection. They are generally used to increase the spiritual goodwill of a gathering, so as to increase the likelihood of a favourable outcome. They are also considered a formal greeting when beginning a ceremony.\nAccording to legend, there was a curse on the Waiapu River which was lifted when George Gage (Hori Keeti) performed karakia. In M\u0101ori religion, karakia are used to ritually cleanse the homes of the deceased after a burial.\nThe missionary Richard Taylor gives a 19th-century view of the traditional role and scope of karakia:\n\nThe word karakia, which we use for prayer, formerly meant a spell, charm, or incantation [...] [Maori] have spells suited for all circumstances \u2013 to conquer enemies, catch fish, trap rats, and snare birds, to make their kumara grow, and even to bind the obstinate will of woman; to find anything lost; to discover a stray dog; a concealed enemy; in fact, for all their wants. These karakias are extremely numerous [...]\n\nWith the nineteenth-century introduction of Christianity to New Zealand, M\u0101ori adopted (or wrote new) karakia to acknowledge the new faith. Modern karakia tend to contain a blend of Christian and traditional influence, and their poetic language may make literal translations into English not always possible. In modern M\u0101ori society, performances of karakia frequently open important meetings and ceremonies, both within a M\u0101ori context (such as tribal hui, tangi, or the inauguration of new marae), and in a wider New Zealand setting in which both M\u0101ori and P\u0101keh\u0101 participate (such as the beginning of public meetings or at the departure of official delegations for overseas).", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "K\u00e9l\u00e9 is an Afro-Saint Lucian religion, originated from the Djin\u00e9 people of the Babonneau region. Its primary deities are Ogun, Shango and Eshu. K\u00e9l\u00e9 ceremonies include the drumming of the tanbou manman (mother drum) and the tanbou ich (child drum) of the Bat\u00e1 drum family. The religion has its origins in African slaves of the Babonneau region. The religion is strongly connected to the Ogun festival in Nigeria. Repressed by the Roman Catholic church until the early 1960s, it had been practiced in secrecy underground. The ritual includes the display of smooth stones (one of Shango's worship items) and iron or steel items in honor of Ogun. The faith itself is believed to be a Saint Lucian version of Yoruba religion.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Lama of the Tamang people, is an ancient priestly clan having resided in the area now known as Nepal since antiquity and predating the spread of Buddhism, is associated with spiritual and religious dealings, including ancestor worship  Additionally, other Swagen Bhai (Tamang kinship clans) perform priestly rituals, such as shaman Jhankris, but the Lama are most associated with priesthood.\nThis particular Swagen Bhai (kinship clan) of the Tamang are so associated with religion that all Tamangs are addressed as Lama by other highland Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups in the region, such as Gurung, Sherpa, etc.   Nevertheless, only those of Swagen Bhai Lama are truly Lama.  As with all Swagen Bhai, there are complex restrictions on intermarriage between kinship clans.  \nThe exact relationship between Bon Lamaism, their religion of antiquity that survives to modern times, Gurung Dharma, the religion of a nearby and related ethnolinguistically close people, and Bon Buddhist tradition (Bonpa), has not been established.  Nevertheless, the Tamang are considered to be least influenced by Khas-ization of all ethnic groups in Nepal, in addition to being the most connected to traditional religion of the Southern Himalayan region.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Lay preacher is a preacher or a religious proclaimer who is not a formally ordained cleric. Lay preaching varies in importance between religions and their sects. Although lay preachers in many Christian denominations may be accorded titles such as  Reverend as a courtesy by people \u2013 including those in their congregation \u2013 it is only once a priest, cleric, minister or reverend  has been ordained that he/she can correctly adopt that title.Movements which encourage lay preachership include:\n\nAwakening (Lutheran movement, especially see Hans Nielsen Hauge, Paavo Ruotsalainen, and lay preachers organized by Lars Levi Laestadius)\nMethodist local preacher\nLay speaker (United Methodist Church)\nLay reader (Anglican communion)\nPlymouth Brethren\nLay ecclesial ministry (Catholic), see also Bo Sanchez and Hippolytus Guarinonius\nThe United Reformed Church (England)\nUnitarian & Free Christian Accredited Lay Preacher (Great Britain)", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Letter of Benan was a literary forgery issued by Ernst Edler von der Planitz in 1910, allegedly a translation from a fifth-century Coptic papyrus containing a translation of an original composed in Greek in 83 CE.  There is no evidence that either the Greek or Coptic works ever existed.It consists of a letter purporting to be of an Egyptian physician describing his encounters with Jesus and the apostles. Internal evidence and historical inconsistencies, in the absence of the purported original manuscripts, clearly indicate this work to be a fake. It is thus counted among the modern apocrypha.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Macranthropy is the allegorical portrayal of the universe as a giant anthropomorphic body. The various components of the universe are assigned to corresponding body parts.\nMacranthropy has made appearances in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient India.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Ma\u00f1ay is a Quechua word meaning \"alterations in a traditional human behaviour.\" This term is related to the huacas. In other terms, Ma\u00f1ay is the combination of two religions (Inca religion and Christianity) that share separate traditions and culture. Each religion was respected by the local (native) religious practices.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In European folklore, mandragoras are familiar demons who appear in the figures of little men without beards.Mandragoras are thought to be little dolls or figures given to sorcerers by the Devil for the purpose of being consulted by them in time of need; and it would seem as if this conception had sprung directly from that of the fetish, which is nothing else than a dwelling-place made by a shaman or medicine-man for the reception of any wandering spirit who chooses to take up his abode therein.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Martial temples (Chinese: \u6b66\u5e99; pinyin: w\u01d4mi\u00e0o), also translated as military temples or warrior temples, are Chinese temples dedicated to worshiping outstanding military leaders and strategists (excluding kings and emperors). They were often built by the governments as the counterpart of civil temples (wenmiao) or Temple of Confucius. Temples that worshiped both civil and military gods are called Wenwu temple (wenwumiao).\nMartial temples originated from China in 731 AD, initially for worshiping 11 strategists, among whom Jiang Ziya was the dominant figure. The rest of the 10 strategists with comparatively inferior status were called Shizhe (\u5341\u54f2), which means \"Ten Wise Men\", among whom Zhang Liang had the highest status, only below Jiang Ziya. It was supposed to be worshipped in spring and autumn, and the formality would be similar to the worshiping of the Temple of Confucius. \nThe people being worshipped in the temple however changed in subsequent periods of history. In the Qing dynasty, Guan Yu (as Guandi or Wudi, the God of War) became the major god in the martial temples. Offerings may be made to Guandi on the 15th day or the second month and the 13th day of the fifth month of the lunar calendar.  After the Republic of China established in 1912, the government promoted the joint worshiping of Guan Yu and Yue Fei, the latter was considered a national hero in defending Southern Song dynasty from the invasion of Jurchen Jin. 24 other strategists in history were also worshiped alongside Guan Yu and Yue Fei, but with lower status. After the People's Republic of China established in 1949, the communist government no longer officially promoted martial temples.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A meditation (derived from the  Latin  meditatio, from a verb meditari, meaning \"to think, contemplate, devise, ponder\") is a written work or a discourse intended to express its author's reflections, or to guide others in contemplation. Often they are an author's musings or extended thoughts on deeper philosophical or religious questions. In the case of Marcus Aurelius, writing was therapeutic. He would use writing as a form of therapy, often aiming to write short and memorable paragraphs.  Meditation, as form of writing, is a type of Reflective writing. Often, writings in this style are a form of meditation. Writing, just like meditation, is a form of interfering with one's mind for beneficial purposes. Just like meditation writing deliberately focuses one's mind on the task at hand, restructuring your conscious thoughts.  This idea can very clearly be viewed in Descartes' Meditations. In Meditations Descartes hopes to have his readers follow along in Meditational exercises. As such, he hopes to have readers read the entire Meditations, rather than just a part, explaining that he wants people reading it to be in serious deliberation. Descartes's Meditations offer particular insight into this style of writing, letting us know that meditations is meant to delve into the various aspects of self, and our ideas of ourselves. Often, he is seen as examining the seemingly unconscious ideas of the mind, and bringing them to consciousness. Thereby clarifying ideas in one's own head. Meditations, according to Descartes, are not meant to be an idle task but rather something that should go on to affect all aspects of life: from social interactions, to how we perceive ourselves. Despite the being Descartes perceptions of meditations there are other varieties. Some view meditations more like writing therapy, a way to vent out and deal with one's emotions, whereas Descartes and the stoics viewed meditations as a form of contemplation, as mentioned above. Examples of meditations are:\n\nThomas Traherne's Centuries of Meditations\nT.S. Eliot's Four Quartets\nMeditations a series of personal writings by Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor 161\u2013180 CE, setting forth his ideas on Stoic philosophy\nMeditations on First Philosophy by Ren\u00e9 Descartes", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Meggen Lawn Cross is a supposedly supernatural mark of a cross in the ground in Meggen, a village near Argenb\u00fchl in Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg, Germany. The Cross first appeared on June 30, 1972 in form of a bald spot in the surrounding field. Later a cross with a length of 3.3 metres and a width of 1.6 metres appeared. \nThe cross reappears each year. Its origin is unknown. Investigations by the University of Hohenheim have been unable to find any cause for the phenomenon.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Montamentu is an African Caribbean ecstatic religion found in Cura\u00e7ao. Precursors or earlier forms may be seen in ancestor veneration in the 18th century and a 1788 court case in which religionists were condemned by the colonial court for practicing the religion as an act of \"lying to the bystanders\".  In the 1950s a new wave came about, introduced by migrants from the Dominican Republic. As with most African diaspora religions from the colonial and slavery era, Montamentu is a syncretic religion. Roman Catholic, African and Native American, as well as some Asian deities are revered.Montamentu is accompanied by music. In some cases by tamb\u00fa drumming, although this is a misnomer. Tamb\u00fa, proper, is the drum, rhythms, music event, dancing and singing combined in a festive, non-religious setting. Also: in some ceremonies the music is provided by musical records from Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti or Venezuela. Sometimes there is chanting without drums.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Sheikh M\u00fbsa Sor (\"Red Moses\"; also Sheikh M\u00fbs) is a Yazidi saint. He is also called the Lord of Air and Wind. Yazidis venerate him as the patron saint of lung and rheumatic diseases. A subdivision of the Adani Sheikh lineage is also named after him.\u2018Ebd\u00ee Resho (\u2018Ebd Resh) was a companion of Sheikh Musa Sor.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "N\u0101ma is Sanskrit for name. In this context its meaning is the creative power. Alternate meanings in the Granth Sahib include shabad (word), kirtan (melody). In Arabic it is kalama (kalam meaning \"pen\") \"a\" indicates something that's written by pen, in Chinese it means tao. Simran means repetition of, or meditation on, the name of the divine and is the principal method or tool which is meant to unite the soul with the Paramatman, Allah, or God.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Narayani Sena, Narayana Gopas, Gopayan or Yadava Sena, the army of Lord Krishna of Dwarka Kingdom is called as the supreme Sena of all time. It is described in the Mahabharata as being all of the Abhira people. They were the basic threat to the rival kingdoms. Fearing Narayani Sena, many Kings didn't try fighting against Dwaraka. Because Dwaraka sorted most of the threats through Krishna's politics and talent of Yadavas. Using Narayani Sena, the Yadavas extended their empire to most of India.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Osalobua  is the name for God in the Edo language. It is often abbreviated as Osa, which is commonly integrated into modern Edo names, such as Esosa, which means God's goodness or gift; Eghosa, God's time; and Efosa, God's blessings or wealth.\nThe epithet  Osalobua Noghodua means God Almighty. The word osalobua encompasses a large number of divine principles - including the divine state of being merciful, timeless, goodness, justice, sublimity, and supreme. In the Edo belief system, Osalobua has the divine attributes of omnipresence (orhiole), omniscience (ajoana), and omnipotence (udazi). The Supreme Deity is believed to be present everywhere and at all times.Edo State has several areas with their own local dialects; Esan, Ewohimi, Ewato, Ewosa, Etsako, Auchi, Igueben, Ora, Oredo,  Orihionmwon and Iruekpen to mention but a few. The Esan people called God \"Osenebra\". It is often abbreviated as Ose. God is also described as \"Ofuekenede\" (merciful God), \"Okakaludo\" (stronger than stone), \"Obonosuobo\" (the great physician), \u201cOshimiri atata\u201d (a river that never runs dry) etc.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In religion and esotericism, the term \"physical universe\" or \"material universe\" is used to distinguish the physical matter of the universe from a proposed spiritual or supernatural essence. In philosophy, it is useful to posit the existence of a metaphysical world, the so called Platonic world of Forms, where abstract idealized objects such as circles and lines exist, in contrast to the material or physical world.\nIn the Book of Veles, and perhaps in traditional Slavic mythology, the physical universe is referred to as Yav. Gnosticism holds that the physical universe was created by a Demiurge. In Dharmic religions Maya is believed to be the illusion of a physical universe.\nPhysicalism, a type of monism, holds that only physical things exist. This is also known as metaphysical naturalism.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A prayer stick is a stick-shaped object used for prayer.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The priestly caste is a social group responsible for officiating over sacrifices and leading prayers or other religious functions, particularly in nomadic and tribal societies.\nIn some cases, as with the Brahmins of Vedic India and the Kohanim and Levites of ancient Israel, the caste was a hereditary one, with a person's position as a priest depending on his biological descent. Zoroastrianism also has a hereditary priesthood, as does Alevism, Yezidism and Yarsanism. In Sufism, the spiritual guide is also often a hereditary leader, while the Sayyids of India, who claim descent from the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, have been described as a priestly caste.In the Russian Eastern Orthodox Church, the clergy, over time, formed a hereditary caste of priests. Marrying outside of these priestly families was strictly forbidden; indeed, some bishops did not even tolerate their clergy marrying outside of the priestly families of their diocese. In 1867, the Synod abolished family claims to clerical positions. Within the lands of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, the largest Eastern Catholic Church, priests' children often became priests and married within their social group, establishing a tightly-knit hereditary caste.In other cases, as with the Druids of the Celtic world and the shamans of ancient Eurasian nomads, the position within the caste may have depended more upon apprenticeship; the exact nature of the \"caste\" in these cases is difficult to ascertain due to our lack of primary sources.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Protestant dissenting deputies (also known as the Deputies of the Three Denominations of Dissenters) were a group in the 18th and 19th centuries in England, consisting of two representatives from each congregation of the dissenting denominations within ten miles of London. The 'three denominations' were Presbyterian, Independent and Baptist. The first formal meeting was in 1736 in Salters' Hall when Benjamin Avery was elected chairman.\nTheir main aim was protecting the civil rights of  Dissenters (i.e. fighting against the several statutes passed after the Restoration that imposed civil and religious disabilities on non-Anglicans).\nThey found support in the Whig party.  They had a selected committee of twenty-one who met regularly at the King's Head Tavern on Poultry, London.  The group, though technically representative of the London congregations, was, de facto, the representatives for dissenting bodies across the nation.  They presented addresses to the Crown on behalf of all dissenters.  They tended to support private influence over more public forms of protest.\nTheir support was a leading cause for the repeal of the Test and Corporations Act in 1828.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Pur\u00e9pecha religion is the religion of the Pur\u00e9pecha people.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Rangfarah is the name chosen for a revivalist movement of Tangsa traditional spirituality. The intention is \"to give an alternative form of religious belief to those who were neither following the Christian beliefs nor the traditional ways\". \"Rangfrah\" meaning \"God\" in the Longchang dialect was given a form very similar to that of the \"Shiva\" of the Hindu religion and a worshiping house called \"Rangshom Him\" was built to place the Rangfrah idol and make arrangement for the followers to gather and offer their prayers.\nIn the dialects of other Tangsa communities, the term for \"God\" takes variants such as Rangwa, Rangkhothak, etc. Traditionally, the Tangsas rarely practiced any kind of religious rituals dedicated to the God. However, they generally used various ways to invoke spirits to either receive their benevolent influences or to protect themselves from their malevolent activities. The rituals were mostly invocations, which predominantly involved offerings of animals, rice, rice-beer, eggs, etc. wrapped in leaves of a particular plant and then placing them at a sacred location specific to that particular ritual.\nAccording to the Rangfra Faith Promotion Society, there are a total of 65 Rang Frah temples in Changlang and Tirap districts, each corresponding to approx. 100 believers.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion & Ethics Newsweekly was an American weekly television news-magazine program which aired on PBS.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion in Barbados is predominantly Christian. Religious freedom is established by law and generally enforced in practice, although some minority religious groups have complaints about  government practices that interfere with their beliefs.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion in Cheshire, and, in particular, Christianity, has a long history. In the 2001 census, however 1 in 5 people either were recorded as no religion or religion not stated.\nThe boundary of the Church of England Diocese of Chester currently follows most closely the pre-1974 county boundary of Cheshire, so it includes all of Wirral, most of Stockport, and the Cheshire panhandle, that included Tintwistle Rural District council area. In terms of Roman Catholic church administration, the majority of Cheshire falls into the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury. Cheshire still has a slightly higher proportion of Christians than the rest of the North West of England.There is an Islamic organisation in Cheshire called Islamic Forum Cheshire it is affiliated to the Muslim Council of Britain.In Cheshire there were number of Jewish congregations some of which were set up by World War II evacuees  the only remaining is  Chester Hebrew Congregation. In Cheshire there is also a Jewish Primary School called North Cheshire Jewish Primary School.There are a number of Buddhist centres in Cheshire, including Kagyu Buddhism Cheshire, and Odiyana Buddhist Meditation Centre which provides classes in Buddhism throughout the County.In Warrington there is a Sikh Gurdwara  called Guru Nanak Gurdwara Sikh Temple built by the Indian community in Cheshire.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The most common religion in Dominica is Christianity, with a majority of practitioners identifying as Roman Catholic. Various minority religious groups are also present on the island.\nThe constitution of Dominica establishes the freedom of religion, which is broadly respected by both the government and general society.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion in Kano State of Nigeria is mainly Islam. The Sharia is valid in the entire state. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Kano has its seat in the state. It stated in Kano State that there is freedom in the practise of religion of Christianity in Kano State. This claim was recently challenged when the Governor of Kano State publicly converted an underaged minor to Islam. The imprisoned atheist Mubarak Bala lives in Kano.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Throughout the ages, there have been various popular religious traditions practiced on the Korean peninsula. The oldest indigenous religion of Korea is the Korean folk religion (a version of Shamanism), which has been passed down from prehistory to the present. Buddhism was introduced to Korea from China during the Three Kingdoms era in the 4th century, and the religion pervaded the culture until the Joseon Dynasty, when Confucianism was established as the state philosophy. During the Late Joseon Dynasty, in the 19th century, Christianity began to gain a foothold in Korea. While both Christianity and Buddhism would play important roles in the resistance to the Japanese occupation of Korea in the first half of the 20th century, only about 4% of Koreans were members of a religious organization in 1940.Since the division of Korea into two sovereign states in 1945\u2014North Korea and South Korea\u2014religious life in the two countries has diverged, shaped by different political structures. Religion in South Korea has been characterized by a rise of Christianity and a revival of Buddhism, though the majority of South Koreans have no religious affiliation or follow folk religions. Religion in North Korea is characterized by state atheism in which freedom of religion is nonexistent. Juche ideology, which promotes the North Korean cult of personality, is regarded by experts as a kind of national religion.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion in Niger State is mainly Islam and Christianity. The Sharia is valid for areas with a mainly Muslim population. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Minna and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kontagora have their seat in the state. Darul Islam (Nigeria) is present in the state.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion in North America is dominated by various branches of Christianity and spans the period of Native American dwelling, European settlement, and the present day. Religion has been a major influence on art, culture, philosophy and law of the continent.\nBetween them, the United States, Mexico and Canada account for 85 percent of the population of North America. Religion in each of these countries is dominated by Christianity (77.4), making it the largest religious group in North America.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion in the Faroe Islands consists largely of the Lutheran Church of the Faroe Islands, but also includes smaller Protestant groups such as the Open Brethren, as well as a few Catholics and adherents of non-Trinitarian religions, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses.\nThe Church of the Faroe Islands is the established religion since it became independent in 2007; previously the Church of Denmark held that role.\nThe Faroe Islands, located between Scotland and Iceland, are partly ruled by Denmark, and as such the people long practiced the same religion as the Danes although religious observance is nowadays more widespread and intense among the Faroese.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (Transnistria) official statistics show that 91 percent of the Transnistrian population adhere to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, with 4 percent adhering to the Catholic Church. Roman Catholics are mainly located in Northern Transnistria, where a notable Polish minority is living.Transnistria's government has supported the restoration and construction of new Orthodox churches. It affirms that the republic has freedom of religion and states that 114 religious beliefs and congregations are officially registered. However, as recently as 2009, registration hurdles were met with by some religious groups, notably the Jehovah's Witnesses.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion in Zamfara State of Nigeria is mainly Islam. The Sharia is valid in the entire state. No Roman Catholic diocese has its seat in the state. Zamfara State declared Sharia Law on the 28th October 1999 as the law governing the state. It was made by the then-Zamfara State Governor, Ahmed Sani Yerima.Shari'a is the Islamic code of law that for centuries has provided a complete guide to life for Muslims. The argument however is that Nigeria is made an equal distribution of Christian and Muslims so the implication of imposing the law was detrimental to the non-Muslim faithfuls. The question of its legality was considered as it was seen to be against the constitution.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion News Service (RNS) is a news agency covering religion, ethics, spirituality and moral issues. It publishes news, information, and commentaries on faiths and religious movements to newspapers, magazines, broadcast organizations and religious publications. It was founded in 1934.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religion on the Line is the name of a number of local talk radio programs, where a variety of clergy members discuss religious and other topics.  On WABC in New York, it is hosted by Rabbi Joseph Potasnik and Deacon Kevin McCormack.  On KCMO in Kansas City, it is hosted by Reverend Robert Lee Hill, Chancellor George M. Noonan, and Rabbi Emeritus Michael Zedek, since 1992.  In Chicago it aired on WIND (AM).On KABC in Los Angeles, Lou Cook was one of the original hosts, and Carole Hemingway hosted this show from 1974 to 1982. Starting in 1982, it was hosted by Dennis Prager, and had the top ratings when it aired on Sunday nights.  Prager hosted for over ten years.  In 1994-95, Truman Jacques hosted.  KABC ran the show until 1997, when they ran other programming in its Sunday night time slot.  Among other hosts at KABC were Ira Fistell.  Hemingway attempted to start a show of the same name at competing station KGIL.These shows inspired the similar \"A Show of Faith\" in Houston.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious fraud is a term used for civil or criminal fraud carried out in the name of a religion or within a religion, e.g. false claims to being kosher or tax fraud.A specific form of religious fraud is pious fraud (Latin: pia fraus), whereby one employs lies and/or deception in order to convince others of the truth of one's own religion or specific religious claims. Sometimes these involve 'white lies': the perpetrator may think it more important to make others accept a certain belief than that the method is truthful; this end justifies the means of a lie. A well-known example is the Shroud of Turin, a late Medieval fabrication that supposedly was the clothing in which Jesus would have been buried in the 1st century.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A religious goods store, also known as a religious bookstore, religious gifts store or religious supplies shop, is a store specializing in supplying materials used in the practice of a particular religious tradition, such as Buddhism, Taoism, Chinese folk religion and Christianity among other religions.These shops are abundant across the Greater Chinese region as well as Overseas Chinese communities around the world.In Christendom, religious goods stores are often visited to purchase Christian art, books and devotional material for the home, as well as gifts such as a Bible, daily devotional or cross necklace for occasions such as Baptism, Confirmation and Holy Matrimony.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious police are any police force responsible for the enforcement of religious norms and associated religious laws. Most religious police in modern society are Islamic and can be found in countries with large Muslim population, such as Saudi Arabia or Iran. The responsibilities of religious police heavily vary by religion and culture. For example, the Islamic religious police prioritize the prevention of alcohol consumption, playing of music and public display of affection, Western holidays, and prayer time absences. On the other hand, the religious police force in Vietnam are responsible for monitoring religious extremists, such as Dega Protestants or Ha Mon Catholics.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A religious or sacred precinct is the area around a religious site, such as a temple, that is dedicated to religious purposes. A religious precinct may be defined by a physical enclosure, although this is not always the case.  Religious precincts are an aspect of the spatiality of religion.Religious precincts in urban settings often serve a mixture of religious and non-religious purposes. In some cases, a religious precinct may take up a substantial part of a city: the sacred precinct in Tenochtitlan encompassed 78 buildings.In polytheistic faiths, a religious precinct may encompass sites dedicated to multiple gods. The ancient Roman sacred precinct at Altbachtal encompassed more than 70 distinct temples.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious tourism in India is a focus of Narendra Modi's national tourism policy. Uttarakhand has been popular as a religious and adventure tourism hub.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Religious views on capitalism have been philosophically diverse, with numerous religious philosophers defending the natural right to property while simultaneously expressing criticism at the negative social effects of materialism and greed.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Responsive reading is the alternate reading of a text between the leader of a group and the rest of the group, especially during worship or Bible study or during the reading of the Psalms at Bible reading time.  Some hymnals include responsive readings, usually selected from the Psalms, in addition to the hymns.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In the history of religions, the Roman School is a methodology that emerged after World War II and was prominent in Italy throughout the 1950s. It was a competitor to the French structuralist approach.\nOne of its main characteristics was the ambition to study religion from a neutral or politically aloof perspective. It began with Raffaele Pettazzoni, who had been one of the first academics to propose a historical approach to the study of religion. One of its most influential contributors was Angelo Brelich, whose works on rituals and initiation have had a lasting impact. Other prominent disciples of the Roman School include Dario Sabbatucci and Giulia Piccaluga.The school and its body of work have been examined by later scholars including Giampiera Arrigoni and Marcello Massenzio.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Ruhanga literally meaning He Who Creates features in Bantu mythology as the remote creator and sky-God, recognized among the Banyoro, Banyankore, Batooro, Bahaya, Bakiga, Bahima and all other groups referred to in general as Banyakitara. The Bahima further recognise him as the arbiter of life, sickness, and death.  However, unlike creator figures in other religious systems, Ruhanga is generally not a focus of worship.Ruhanga is also considered to be the founder of the Batembuzi dynasty of the Kingdom of Kitara.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Sabrael is an Angel named in the Testament of Solomon and 3 Enoch.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Sacralism is the confluence of church and state wherein one is called upon to change the other. It also denotes a perspective that views church and state as tied together instead of separate entities so that people within a geographical and political region are considered members of the dominant ecclesiastical institution.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A sacred garden is a religiously-influenced garden, often found on temple grounds.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Sacred site, sacred ground, sacred space, holy ground, or holy place refers to a location which is deemed to be sacred or hallowed. The sacredness of a  natural feature may accrue through tradition or be granted through a blessing. One or more religions may consider sacred locations to be of special significance. Often, such locations either are or become the home of  sanctuaries, shrines, places of worship, or locations conducive to meditation. Regardless of construction or use, these areas may have a variety of ritual or taboo associations - including limitations on visitors or on allowed actions within the space. Such places may become the focus of pilgrimage, drawing pilgrims from great distances, or simply locations of significance for the local populace.\nSacred sites occur in every land-territory on Earth, except in Antarctica.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Apostolic Vicariate of San Jose in Mindoro is a Latin Church missionary jurisdiction or apostolic vicariate of the Catholic Church in the western part of Mindoro island in the Philippines. Its cathedra is within the Cathedral of St. Joseph the Worker, in the episcopal see of San Jose.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Satnampanth, also called Satnami Samaj or Satnami movement, is a religious sect founded by Ghasidas in the 1820s in present-day Chhattisgarh.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Secularization is the confiscation of church property by a government, such as in the suppression of monasteries. The term is often used to specifically refer to such confiscations during the French Revolution and the First French Empire in the sense of seizing churches and converting their property to state ownership. Other examples include:\n\nDissolution of the Monasteries in England\nEcclesiastical confiscations of Mendiz\u00e1bal in Spain\nJosephinism in Austria: as part of his enlightened absolutism, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor seized several monasteries before the French Revolution, leaving only 388 of the 915 monasteries (of which 762 were male institutions and 153 female ones) existing in Austria in 1780.\nGerman mediatization: incorporation of ecclesiastical principalities and territories of the former Holy Roman Empire into larger secular territorial states.\nSecularization of monastic estates in Romania", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Sekta Niebo (Heaven Sect) (Polish Zb\u00f3r Chrze\u015bcija\u0144ski Leczenia Duchem Bo\u017cym; \"Christian Church of Healing by Spirit of God\") was a small religious movement founded in 1990 by faith healer Bogdan Kacmajor, who believed he was a prophet chosen by God and a reincarnation of the prophet Elijah.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Shtatol also called Erzyan shtatol (Erzya: \u0160tatol, \u011brz\u00e4\u0144 \u0161tatol) is a wax candle supported by an ornamented wooden vessel used in traditional Erzya rituals (erzja Ine\u0161kipazn\u011b\u0144 Kemema).", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In Yazidism, the Silat Bridge is a bridge in Lalish, Iraq that leads to the most holy Yazidi shrine. It symbolizes the connection and crossing over from the profane earthly world and the sacred, esoteric world. As with the Chinvat Bridge in Zoroastrianism, the Silat Bridge in will also play a role at the end of times in Yazidism (Kreyenbroek 2005: 39).Every year, thousands of Yazidi pilgrims arrive at the bridge for the Feast of the Assembly as they cross the bridge to the sacred site of Sheikh Adi's tomb.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Singleness of heart (also called singleheartedness) is the ideal of having sole devotion to a task or endeavour.  It is normally employed in a religious or spiritual context.  In antiquity it was thought of as a counteraction to the divisive effects of civilization on the soul.  It is especially associated with the practices of Christian monasticism.\nJesus, as recorded by Matthew 6:22 said: \n\n22 The light of the body is the eye: if therefore thine eye be single, thy whole body shall be full of light.\n\nReferring to the desert landscape inhabited by the earliest Christian monks, Peter Brown, in A History of Private Life, explains:\n\nThe bleak, asocial landscape of the desert was a distant image of Paradise -- the first, the true home of humankind, where Adam and Eve had dwelt in full majesty, before the subtle and overpowering onset of the doublehearted cares of human life in settled society, before marriage, physical greed, the labor of the earth, and the grinding cares of present human society robbed them of their original serenity.  Totally singlehearted, therefore joined with the angelic hosts in unfailing and undivided praise of God, the life of the monk mirrored on earth the life of the angels.  (Paul Veyne, editor. Harvard: 1987. Volume I, p. 289)\n\nS\u00f8ren Kierkegaard expressed a similar concept in his maxim \"Purity of heart is to will one thing\" and his sermon-form essay bearing that title.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A sipapu (a Hopi word) was a small hole or indentation in the floor of a kiva (pithouse). Kivas were used by the Ancestral Puebloans and continue to be used by modern-day Puebloans. The sipapu symbolizes the portal through which their ancient ancestors first emerged to enter the present world.Hopi mythology (and similar traditions in other Pueblo cultures such as the Zuni and Acoma) states that this is the hole from which the first peoples of this world entered. As they stepped outside of the sipapu, they changed from lizard-like beings into human form. It is from this point that the \"First Peoples\" of the Earth began to divide and separate, becoming tribes. The original sipapu is said to be located in the Grand Canyon.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Snake handling is a religious rite observed in some historical and contemporary religious communities.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Spiritual literature is a genre of literature, in which usually involves the personal spiritual experience of the author, in form of diary, autobiography, self-dialogue etc..", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Strixology is a genre of writing about the reality and dangers of witches, their origins, character and power; often in the context of theology or of demonology. (The Latin word strix can mean \"screech-owl\" or \"witch\".)\nDuring the early modern period strixologists refuted the reality of witches and contributed to the decline of witch-hunts.As a systematic study, strixology emerged during the period 1431\u20131439 at the Council of Basel - an ecclesiastical council where theologians and demonologists met and debated what was seen as the Devil's work, magical observations and confessions of witches. Those issues were not a primary purpose of the Council. Nonetheless, the subject of one of the discussions was a peasant named Stedelen who was believed to have committed maleficia and who said under torture that he was a part of a secret society of Devil-worshippers. This story was disturbing enough to be reported to the council by Peter of Simmental and described in great detail.This case and similar revelations were later used by the Dominican professor Johannes Nider, a participant at the Council's meetings, as examples in his Formicarius (1436-1438) a book that laid the foundations of strixology. Scholars cited this significant work for centuries. Around the time Formicarius was published, there was a relatively small number of witch-hunt victims - estimated to have been in the hundreds.This changed at the end of the 15th century, partially due to the publication of the infamous Malleus Maleficarum which cemented belief in the reality of witches and in the higher susceptibility of women to take part in witchcraft. The book proclaimed that \u201cevils which are performed by witches exceed all other sin which God has ever permitted to be done.\u2026\u201d. The Malleus Maleficarum adamantly pushed its views on the threat of witches in society. The text boldly claims that \"[witches] exist\" and \"to defend the opposite view steadfastly is altogether heretical\"", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A suangi is a common name  of a male who is suspected, and therefore accused, of being a  witch in the belief system of local people in western Papua, Indonesia. Suangis are said to eat the blood and/or internal organs of their victims and then stuff the bodies with leaves and grass. They are also believed to devour the person's soul. After being attacked, the zombified victim is then said to return home where they seem to have fallen mysteriously ill. If a victim is able to name the suangi that has attacked him, they are often killed and eaten by the victim's family in the belief that it will free the person's spirit.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Supplication (also known as petitioning) is a form of prayer, wherein one party humbly or earnestly asks another party to provide something, either for the party who is doing the supplicating (e.g., \"Please spare my life.\") or on behalf of someone else.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Surgat (Latin: Surgat, lit.\u2009'Rise') is a minor demon mentioned in The Grimoire of Pope Honorius, The Secrets of Solomon and the Grimorium Verum. He is listed as \"Surgat who opens all locks.\" His angel opposite is Aquiel.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Svikiro is a spirit medium of the Shona people of Zimbabwe.\nA svikiro is an ancestral spirit primarily known to possess a living human and will give advice based on that communication.The word comes from the verb kusvika meaning \"to arrive at or reach a place\". It also stems from kusvikirwa meaning \"to arrive upon\", as it is believed that the ancestral spirits arrive in the bodies of the mediums.Other types of mediums (svikiro) include mhondoro which are possessed by the ancestor spirits of the same name. Mhondoro means lion in Shona. It is believed that mhondoro spirits reside in the bodies of maneless lions until they have a host to possess. Mhondoro spirits are royal ancestral spirits of deceased chiefs and kings or any other royals. They are believed to be concerned with matter of the clan and territories including the nation.Roles of the Svikiro\n\nthey are given leading figure in the community and they deal with the welfare of the community at large.\nthey mediates between the spiritual world and the human world.\nthey protect the society from disturbing factors. they understand some of the life complications and for the society to maintain its equilibrium ...\nthey receives visions and dreams\nmakes offerings,\nperforms healing rituals\nand serves as a messenger", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "A tablet, in a religious context, is a term used for certain religious texts.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Tadibya (t\u00e1dyebya; Russian: \u0442\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0431\u044f) is the mediator between the ordinary world and the upper- and underworlds of the spirits among the Nenets people. The Nenets rank their shamans by their spiritual attachment and function as well as their experience.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Tagbilaran Cathedral (Filipino: Katedral ng Tagbilaran), officially named as the Saint Joseph the Worker Cathedral - Shrine Parish (Filipino: Parokyang Katedral at Pandiyosesanong Dambana ni San Jose Manggagawa), is a Roman Catholic cathedral church in Tagbilaran, capital city of Bohol province, in Central Visayas, Philippines. It is the seat of the Diocese of Tagbilaran which comprises Bohol's western half. The cathedral is located in Tagbilaran poblacion and was installed with a historical marker by the NHCP in 1953.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Yearly Meeting of Aotearoa/New Zealand (Te H\u0101hi T\u016bhauwiri) is the umbrella body and Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends in New Zealand.Quakers have a long history of involvement in New Zealand. The Quaker Sydney Parkinson was on James Cook's first voyage; other Quakers visited or settled before the first regular Meeting for Worship in Nelson in 1843. New Zealand Friends formed a Yearly Meeting, independent of the London Yearly Meeting, in 1964.\nMonthly Meetings under the care of the Yearly Meeting in New Zealand include Northern, Mid-North Island, Palmerston North, Whanganui, Taranaki, Kapiti, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin. In 2005 there were approximately 590 Friends in New Zealand, but about 1500 people, including children, are associated with the Society.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Theodidaktos (Greek, from theos - 'god', and didaktos - taught) were \"the immediate disciples of Ammonius Saccas, who was called Theodidaktos, \u201cGod-Taught\u201d \u2013 such as Plotinus and his follower Porphyry.\"", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The Tianxian miaodao (\u5929\u4ed9\u5e99\u9053 \"Way of the Temple of the Heavenly Immortals\"), incorporated as the Church of the Way of the Temple of the Heavenly Immortals (\u5929\u4ed9\u5e99\u9053\u4f1a Ti\u0101nxi\u0101n mi\u00e0od\u00e0o hu\u00ec), is a Chinese salvationist religious sect centered in Henan. It was founded in the mid-19th century and flourished in the early republic, and was known for its rebellious aptitude towards the state. Despite systematic efforts of the later communist republic to suppress it in the 1950s and 1960s, it has persisted to the present day.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "\"Tower of Babylon\" is a science fantasy novelette by American writer Ted Chiang, published in 1990. The story revisits the tower of Babel myth as a construction megaproject, in a setting where the principles of pre-scientific  cosmology (the geocentric model, celestial spheres, etc.) are literally true. It is Chiang's first published work.The story won the 1991 Nebula Award for Best Novelette, and was reprinted in Chiang's 2002 anthology, Stories of Your Life and Others.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "In a  religious context, transfiguration, from Latin transfiguratio, is the experience of momentary divine radiance. It can function as a form of apotheosis.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Trinidad Orisha, also known as Shango, is a syncretic religion in Trinidad and Tobago and is of Caribbean origin, originally from West Africa (Yoruba religion). Trinidad Orisha incorporates elements of Spiritual Baptism, and the closeness between Orisha and Spiritual Baptism has led to use of the term \"Shango Baptist\" to refer to members of either or both religions. Anthropologist James Houk described Trinidad Orisha as an \"Afro-American religious complex\", incorporating elements mainly of traditional African religion and Yoruba and incorporates some elements of Christianity (Catholicism and Protestantism), Hinduism, Islam (especially Sufism), Buddhism,  Judaism, Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed, and Trinidad Kabbalah.\n\n", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Votive sites are sites where animal sacrifice, in the form of bones deposited in a split in a block of stone or beneath a cairn, are made. \nThe sites strongly resemble graves or tombs; however, no human bones are found. Such finds are made in Hallstatt culture sites, and presumably represent graves. Votive sites, or (North & East Saami) \"seite\" or (South Saami) \"storiockare\" (storjunkare) are representative, especially among Saami groups and hence are most common in Lappland. It was believed that stones ruled over the food resources and as such were protected from Giants by the help of Thor.  However, findings are also made down to Scania, Sweden where an earlier interpretation, in 1589, was a rendezvous point of Huns and Goths. Findings in Central Europe are usually devoted to the Hallstatt culture. A similar worship in stones is known in Crete.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Waaq (also Waq or Waaqa) is the ancient name for God in the Cushitic languages of both the Oromo people and Somali people in the Horn of Africa. The word still means God in present Oromo language. Some traditions indicate Waaq is associated with the Harar region, however Waaqism also extends to eastern Kenyan Cushitic tribes, the Aweer people.\nIn Oromo and Somali culture, Waaq, Waaqa or Waaqo was the name of God in their pre-Christian and pre-muslim monotheistic faith believed to have been adhered to by Cushitic groups.This religion was practiced mainly by Somali people and Oromo people before Islam came to the Horn of Africa.\nThere are also ancient names of villages which involve the word (WAAQ) in the Somali language and also Oromo language.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "The will of God or divine will is a concept found in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, according to which God's will is the first cause of everything that exists.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Zendik Farm, officially known as Zendik Farm Arts Cooperative, was a community of artists and environmentalists based in southeastern San Diego County. It was founded by Wulf Zendik.Zendik is a Sanskrit language word for outlaw or heretic. Their mission was to save the earth from ecollapse. The community consisted of thirty-five people who preached that competition between people is evil; truth and co-operation are saviors. They grew their own food and sew their clothes themselves. Their headquarters had a library consisted of second-hand books and covered subjects such as practical first aid and esoteric philosophy.", "label": "Religion"}, {"sentence": "Parson-naturalists were ministers of religion who also studied natural history. The archetypical parson-naturalist was a priest in the Church of England in charge of a country parish, who saw the study of science as an extension of his religious work. The philosophy entailed the belief that God, as the Creator of all things, wanted man to understand his Creations and thus to study them through scientific techniques. They often collected and preserved natural artefacts such as leaves, flowers, birds' eggs, birds, insects, and small mammals to classify and study. Some wrote books or kept nature diaries.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The idea that there are specific marine counterparts to land creatures, inherited from the writers on natural history in Antiquity, was firmly believed in Islam and in Medieval Europe. It is exemplified by the creatures represented in the medieval animal encyclopedias called bestiaries, and in the parallels drawn in the moralising attributes attached to each. \"The creation was a mathematical diagram drawn in parallel lines,\" T. H. White said a propos the bestiary he translated. \"Things did not only have a moral they often had physical counterparts in other strata. There was a horse in the land and a sea-horse in the sea. For that matter there was probably a Pegasus in heaven\". The idea of perfect analogies in the fauna of land and sea was considered part of the perfect symmetry of the Creator's plan, offered as the \"book of nature\" to mankind, for which a text could be found in Job:\n\nBut ask the animals, and they will teach you, or the birds of the air, and they will tell you; or speak to the earth, and it will teach you, or let the fish of the sea inform you. Which of all these does not know that the hand of the Lord has done this? In his hand is the life of every creature and the breath of all mankind.\nThe idea appears in the Jewish Tannaic sources as well, as brought down in Babylonian Talmud, Chulin 127a. Rashi (Psalms 49:2) traces this to a biblical source \u2013 the land is referred to as \"Chaled\", from the weasel (chulda), because the weasel is the only animal on dry land that does not have its counterpart in the sea.\nAll of Creation was considered to reflect the Creator, and Man could learn about the Creator through studying the Creation, an assumption that underlies the \"watchmaker analogy\" offered as a proof of God's existence.\nThe correspondence between the realms of earth and sea, extending to its denizens, offers examples of the taste for allegory engendered by Christian and Islamic methods of exegesis, which also encouraged the doctrine of signatures, a \"key\" to the meaning and use of herbs.\nThe source text that was most influential in compiling the bestiaries of the 12th and 13th centuries was the Physiologus, one of the most widely read and copied secular texts of the Middle Ages. Written in Greek in Alexandria the 2nd century CE and accumulating further \"exemplary\" beasts in the next three centuries and more, Physiologus was transmitted in the West in Latin, and eventually translated into many vernacular languages: many manuscripts in various languages survive. Aelian, On the Characteristics of Animals (A. F. Scholfield, in Loeb Classical Library, 1958).\nChristian writers, trained in anagogical thinking and expecting to find spiritual instruction inherent in the processes of Nature, disregarded the caveat in Pliny's Natural History, where the idea is presented as a \"vulgar opinion\": \n\nHence it is that the vulgar notion may very possibly be true, that whatever is produced in any other department of Nature, is to be found in the sea as well; while, at the same time, many other productions are there to be found which nowhere else exist. That there are to be found in the sea the forms, not only of terrestrial animals, but of inanimate objects even, is easily to be understood by all who will take the trouble to examine the grape-fish, the sword-fish, the sawfish, and the cucumber-fish, which last so strongly resembles the real cucumber both in colour and in smell.\nPliny points out that many more things are found in the sea than on the land, and also mentions the correspondences that may be discovered between many non-living objects of the land and living creatures in the sea. \nSaint Augustine of Hippo reasons based on analogy, that since there is a serpent in the grass, there must be an eel in the sea; because there is a Leviathan in the sea, there must be a Behemoth on the land. (City of God? xi.15?)\nThe reaction to such anagogical thinking set in with the unfolding of critical scientific thought in the 17th century. Sir Thomas Browne devoted a chapter of his Pseudodoxia Epidemica to dispelling such a belief: Chapter XXIV: \"That all Animals in the land are in their kinde in the Sea.\" During the Enlightenment the ancient conception was given an innovative and rationalized cast by Beno\u00eet de Maillet in describing the transformations and metamorphoses undergone by creatures of the sea to render them fit for life on land, a proto-evolutionist concept, though it was based on superficial morphological similarities:\n\nThere are in the Sea, Fish of almost all the Figures of Land-Animals, and even of Birds. She includes Plants, Flowers, and some Fruits; the Nettle, the Rose, the Pink, the Melon and the Grape, are to be found there.\nAs for the Quadrupeds, we not only find in the Sea, Species of the same Figure and Inclinations, and in the Waves living on the same Aliments by which they are nourished on Land, we have also Examples of those Species living equally in the Air and in the Water. Have not the Sea-Apes precisely the same figure with those of the Land?\nThough in Moby-Dick Ishmael, with a nod to Sir Thomas Browne's wording, denies the claim that land animals find their counterparts in the sea,For though some old naturalists have maintained that all creatures of the land are of their kind in the sea; and though taking a broad general view of the thing, this may very well be; yet coming to specialties, where, for example, does the ocean furnish any fish that in disposition answers to the sagacious kindness of the dog? The accursed shark alone can in any generic respect be said to bear comparative analogy to him.\nIn discussing dolphins trained to aid scuba divers, a 1967 Popular Mechanics article could still casually state: \"It's hoped that the marine counterparts of some land animals can be trained to become useful members of the Man-in-the-Sea program.\"", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A nature center (or nature centre) is an organization with a visitor center or interpretive center designed to educate people about nature and the environment. Usually located within a protected open space, nature centers often have trails through their property.   Some are located within a state or city park, and some have special gardens or an arboretum. Their properties can be characterized as nature preserves and wildlife sanctuaries.  Nature centers generally display small live animals, such as reptiles, rodents, insects, or fish.  There are often museum exhibits and displays about natural history, or preserved mounted animals or nature dioramas.   Nature centers are staffed by paid or volunteer naturalists and most offer educational programs to the general public, as well as summer camp, after-school and school group programs. These educational programs teach people about nature conservation as well as the scientific method, biology, and ecology.Some nature centers allow free admission but collect voluntary donations in order to help offset expenses.  They usually rely on support from dedicated volunteers.\nEnvironmental education centers differ from nature centers in that their museum exhibits and education programs are available mostly by appointment, although casual visitors may be allowed to walk on their grounds.\nSome city, state and national parks have facilities similar to nature centers, such as museum exhibits, dioramas and trails, and some offer park nature education programs, usually presented by a park ranger.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Nature writing is nonfiction or fiction prose or poetry about the natural environment. Nature writing encompasses a wide variety of works, ranging from those that place primary emphasis on natural history facts (such as field guides) to those in which philosophical interpretation predominate. It includes natural history essays, poetry, essays of solitude or escape, as well as travel and adventure writing.Nature writing often draws heavily on scientific information and facts about the natural world; at the same time, it is frequently written in the first person and incorporates personal observations of and philosophical reflections upon nature.\nModern nature writing traces its roots to the works of natural history that were popular in the second half of the 18th century and throughout the 19th. An important early figure was the \"parson-naturalist\" Gilbert White (1720\u20131793), a pioneering English naturalist and ornithologist. He is best known for his Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789).\nWilliam Bartram (1739\u20131823) is a significant early American pioneer naturalist who first work was published in 1791.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Naturhistorieselskabet - the Society for Natural History - was a private society that was the only institution to offer education in natural history in Denmark in the late 18th century. The spirit of the Age of Enlightenment and an escalating agricultural crisis, led the king and the Danish elite to call foreign experts on economy, including botany and silviculture, to the country. The autonomous University of Copenhagen, on the other hand, was reluctant to employ foreign experts in little-established disciplines. Naturhistorieselskabet was formed in 1788 in order to ensure education in botany, zoology and mineralogy based on private funds. For example, Martin Vahl lectured in botany. After the appointment in 1795 of a professor in geology and in 1797 one in botany, the society gradually lost its importance. It was soon abolished and its collections donated to the state (much later united with the university collections).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Peterson Identification System is a practical method for the field identification of animals, plants and other natural phenomena. It was devised by ornithologist Roger Tory Peterson in 1934 for the first of his series of Field Guides (See Peterson Field Guides.) Peterson devised his system \"so that live birds could be identified readily at a distance by their 'field marks' without resorting to the bird-in-hand characters that the early collectors relied on. During the last half century the binocular and the spotting scope have replaced the shotgun.\" As such, it both reflected and contributed to awareness of the emerging early environmental movement. Another application of this system was made when Roger Tory Peterson was enlisted in the US Army Corps of Engineers from 1943-1945. \u201c...plane identification\u2014the aircraft spotting technique\u2014was based on Roger\u2019s bird identification method-the Peterson system.\u201d.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Plant collecting is the acquisition of plant specimens for the purposes of research, cultivation, or as a hobby. Plant specimens may be kept alive, but are more commonly dried and pressed to preserve the quality of the specimen. Plant collecting is an ancient practice with records of a Chinese botanist collecting roses over 5000 years ago.Herbaria are collections of preserved plants samples and their associated data for scientific purposes. The largest herbarium in the world exist at the Mus\u00e9um National d'Histoire Naturelle, in Paris, France. Plant samples in herbaria typically include a reference sheet with information about the plant and details of collection. This detailed and organized system of filing provides horticulturist and other researchers alike with a way to find information about a certain plant, and a way to add new information to an existing plant sample file.\nThe collection of live plant specimens from the wild, sometimes referred to as plant hunting,  is an activity that has occurred for centuries. The earliest recorded evidence of plant hunting was in 1495 BC when botanists were sent to Somalia to collect incense trees for Queen Hatshepsut. The Victorian era saw a surge in plant hunting activity as botanical adventurers explored the world to find exotic plants to bring home, often at considerable personal risk. These plants usually ended up in botanical gardens or the private gardens of wealthy collectors. Prolific plant hunters in this period included William Lobb and his brother Thomas Lobb, George Forrest, Joseph Hooker, Charles Maries and Robert Fortune.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Regius Professor of Natural History is a Regius Professorship at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland. It was originally called the Regius Professor of Civil and Natural History at Marischal College until in 1860 Marischal College and King's Colleges merged to form the University of Aberdeen, and the title changed to Natural History.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Synopses of the British Fauna is a series of identification guides, published by The Linnean Society and The Estuarine and Coastal Sciences Association. Each volume in the series provides and in-depth analysis of a group of animals and is designed to bridge the gap between the standard field guide and more specialised monograph or treatise. The series is now published by The Field Studies Council on behalf of The Linnean Society and The Estuarine and Coastal Sciences Association. \nThe series is designed for use in the field and is kept as user friendly as possible with technical terminology kept to a minimum and a glossary of terms provided, although the complexity of the subject matter makes the books more suitable for the more experienced practitioner.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "An astronaut (from the Ancient Greek \u1f04\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd (astron), meaning 'star', and \u03bd\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 (nautes), meaning 'sailor') is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander or crew member aboard a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the term is sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists.\"Astronaut\" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality or allegiance; however, astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian \"kosmos\" (\u043a\u043e\u0441\u043c\u043e\u0441), meaning \"space\", also borrowed from Greek) in order to distinguish them from American or otherwise NATO-oriented space travellers. Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin \"t\u00e0ik\u014dng\" (\u592a\u7a7a), meaning \"space\"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called h\u00e1ngti\u0101nyu\u00e1n (\u822a\u5929\u5458, meaning \"heaven navigator\" or literally \"heaven-sailing staff\").\nSince 1961, 600 astronauts have flown in space.  Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Astronaut training describes the complex process of preparing astronauts in regions around the world for their space missions before, during and after the flight, which includes medical tests, physical training, extra-vehicular activity (EVA) training, procedure training, rehabilitation process, as well as training on experiments they will accomplish during their stay in space.\nVirtual and physical training facilities have been integrated to familiarize astronauts with the conditions they will encounter during all phases of flight and prepare astronauts for a microgravity environment. Special considerations must be made during training to ensure a safe and successful mission, which is why the Apollo astronauts received training for geology field work on the Lunar surface and why research is being conducted on best practices for future extended missions, such as the trip to Mars.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies \u2013 in either observational (by analyzing the data) or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology, which studies the Universe as a whole.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A bacteriologist is a microbiologist or a professional trained in bacteriology, a subdivision of microbiology. The duties of a bacteriologist primarily include prevention, diagnosis and prognosis of diseases. Alongside healthcare providers, they may carry out various functions such as epidemiological surveillance, quality auditing with biotechnology development, basic research, management and teaching related to the career, scientist management, laboratory coordination and blood banks.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Biochemists are scientists who are trained in biochemistry. They study chemical processes and chemical transformations in living organisms. Biochemists study DNA, proteins and cell parts. The word \"biochemist\" is a portmanteau of \"biological chemist.\"\nBiochemists also research how certain chemical reactions happen in cells and tissues and observe and record the effects of products in food additives and medicines.\nBiochemist researchers focus on playing and constructing research experiments, mainly for developing new products, updating existing products and analyzing said products. It is also the responsibility of a biochemist to present their research findings and create grant proposals to obtain funds for future research.Biochemists study aspects of the immune system, the expressions of genes, isolating, analyzing, and synthesizing different products, mutations that lead to cancers, and manage laboratory teams and monitor laboratory work. Biochemists also have to have the capabilities of designing and building laboratory equipment and devise new methods of producing correct results for products.The most common industry role is the development of biochemical products and processes. Identifying substances' chemical and physical properties in biological systems is of great importance, and can be carried out by doing various types of analysis. Biochemists must also prepare technical reports after collecting, analyzing and summarizing the information and trends found.\nIn biochemistry, researchers often break down complicated biological systems into their component parts. They study the effects of foods, drugs, allergens and other substances on living tissues; they research molecular biology, the study of life at the molecular level and the study of genes and gene expression; and they study chemical reactions in metabolism, growth, reproduction, and heredity, and apply techniques drawn from biotechnology and genetic engineering to help them in their research. About 75% work in either basic or applied research; those in applied research take basic research and employ it for the benefit of medicine, agriculture, veterinary science, environmental science, and manufacturing. Each of these fields allows specialization; for example, clinical biochemists can work in hospital laboratories to understand and treat diseases, and industrial biochemists can be involved in analytical research work, such as checking the purity of food and beverages.\nBiochemists in the field of agriculture research the interactions between herbicides with plants. They examine the relationships of compounds, determining their ability to inhibit growth, and evaluate the toxicological effects surrounding life.\nBiochemists also prepare pharmaceutical compounds for commercial distribution.\nModern biochemistry is considered a sub-discipline of the biological sciences, due to its increased reliance on, and training, in accord with modern molecular biology. Historically, even before the term biochemist was formally recognized, initial studies were performed by those trained in basic chemistry, but also by those trained as physicians.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual cell, a multicellular organism, or a community of interacting populations. They usually specialize in a particular branch (e.g., molecular biology, zoology, and evolutionary biology) of biology and have a specific research focus (e.g., studying malaria or cancer).Biologists who are involved in basic research have the aim of advancing knowledge about the natural world. They conduct their research using the scientific method, which is an empirical method for testing hypotheses. Their discoveries may have applications for some specific purpose such as in biotechnology, which has the goal of developing medically useful products for humans.In modern times, most biologists have one or more academic degrees such as a bachelor's degree plus an advanced degree like a master's degree or a doctorate. Like other scientists, biologists can be found working in different sectors of the economy such as in academia, nonprofits, private industry, or government.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Biomedical sciences are a set of sciences applying portions of natural science or formal science, or both, to develop knowledge, interventions, or technology that are of use in healthcare or public health.  Such disciplines as medical microbiology, clinical virology, clinical epidemiology, genetic epidemiology, and biomedical engineering are medical sciences.  In explaining physiological mechanisms operating in pathological processes, however, pathophysiology can be regarded as basic science.\nBiomedical Sciences, as defined by the UK Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education Benchmark Statement in 2015, includes those science disciplines whose primary focus is the biology of human health and disease and ranges from the generic study of biomedical sciences and human biology to more specialised subject areas such as pharmacology, human physiology and human nutrition. It is underpinned by relevant basic sciences including anatomy and physiology, cell biology, biochemistry, microbiology, genetics and molecular biology, immunology, mathematics and statistics, and bioinformatics. As such the biomedical sciences have a much wider range of academic and research activities and economic significance than that defined by hospital laboratory sciences. Biomedical Sciences are the major focus of bioscience research and funding in the 21st century.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A biomedical scientist is a scientist trained in biology, particularly in the context of medical laboratory sciences or laboratory medicine. These scientists work to gain knowledge on the main principles of how the human body works and to find new ways to cure or treat disease by developing advanced diagnostic tools or new therapeutic strategies. The research of biomedical scientists is referred to as biomedical research.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A chemist (from Greek ch\u0113m(\u00eda) alchemy; replacing chymist from Medieval Latin alchemist) is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, chemical reaction rates, and other chemical properties. In Commonwealth English, pharmacists are often called chemists.\nChemists use their knowledge to learn the composition and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The work of chemists is often related to the work of chemical engineers, who are primarily concerned with the proper design, construction and evaluation of the most cost-effective large-scale chemical plants and work closely with industrial chemists on the development of new processes and methods for the commercial-scale manufacture of chemicals and related products.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A chief experimental officer (CEO) is the head of an experimental organization, especially in the military or civil service.\nChief Experimental Officer has been the topmost class in the Experimental Officer Class of the British Civil Service.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A chief scientific officer (CSO) is a position at the head of scientific research operations at organizations or companies performing significant scientific research projects.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A computational scientist is a person skilled in scientific computing. This person is usually a scientist, a statistician, an applied mathematician, or an engineer who applies high-performance computing and sometimes cloud computing in different ways to advance the state-of-the-art in their respective applied discipline; physics, chemistry, social sciences and so forth. Thus scientific computing has increasingly influenced many areas such as economics, biology, law, and medicine to name a few. Because a computational scientist's work is generally applied to science and other disciplines, they are not necessarily trained in computer science specifically, though concepts of computer science are often used. Computational scientists are typically researchers at academic universities, national labs, or tech companies.One of the tasks of a computational scientist is to analyze large amounts of data, often from astrophysics or related fields, as these can often generate huge amounts of data. Computational scientists often have to clean up and calibrate the data to a usable form for an effective analysis. Computational scientists are also tasked with creating artificial data through computer models and simulations.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Demographic marketers use demographics in marketing research, and the assessment of the changing trends of consumer behavior. Demographics can be called a science and demographic marketers can be called scientists. A demographic is used to describe individuals who are from a particular area. It can also be used to describe individuals who would rely on purchasing a particular product or service. Using demographics, a marketing manager can try to grasp what certain people think and what they are willing to buy.\nBy understanding how various characteristics of the population reflect their tastes, demographic marketers get an idea of the probability of the sales returns of a launched product in a given area. For any type of business, knowing who the customers are most likely to be through demographic analysis will make it easier to market effectively.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Educational technology (commonly abbreviated as edutech, or edtech) is the combined use of computer hardware, software, and educational theory and practice to facilitate learning. When referred to with its abbreviation, edtech, it is often referring to the industry of companies that create educational technology.In addition to practical educational experience, educational technology is based on theoretical knowledge from various disciplines such as communication, education, psychology, sociology, artificial intelligence, and computer science. It encompasses several domains including learning theory, computer-based training, online learning, and m-learning, where mobile technologies are used.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Engineers, as practitioners of engineering, are professionals who invent, design, analyze, build and test machines, complex systems, structures, gadgets and materials to fulfill functional objectives and requirements while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety and cost. The word engineer (Latin ingeniator) is derived from the Latin words ingeniare (\"to contrive, devise\") and ingenium (\"cleverness\"). The foundational qualifications of an engineer typically include a four-year bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, or in some jurisdictions, a master's degree in an engineering discipline plus four to six years of peer-reviewed professional practice (culminating in a project report or thesis) and passage of engineering board examinations. A professional Engineer is typically, is a person registered under an Engineering Council which is widely accepted.\nThe work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "An engineering technician is a professional trained in skills and techniques related to a specific branch of technology, with a practical understanding of the relevant engineering concepts. Engineering technicians often assist engineers and engineering technologists in projects relating to research and development, or focus on post-development activities like implementation or operation. An engineering technician is between a skilled craft worker and an engineering technologist. \nThe Dublin Accord was signed in 2002 as an international agreement for the recognition of engineering technician qualifications. The Dublin Accord is analogous to the Washington Accord for engineers and the Sydney Accord for engineering technologists.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "An engineering technologist is a professional trained in certain aspects of development and implementation of a respective area of technology. Engineering technology education is even more applied and less theoretical than engineering education, though in a broad sense both have a focus on practical application. Engineering technologists often assist engineers but after years of experience, they can also become engineers. Like engineers, areas where engineering technologists can work include product design (including improvement), fabrication and testing. Also as with engineers, engineering technologists sometimes rise to senior management positions in industry or become entrepreneurs.\nThe engineering technology field often overlaps with many of the same general areas in engineering (e.g. design/development, testing) but the focus is more on application than in engineering field (which is, in a somewhat different sense, also about the application of science). Engineering technologists are more likely than engineers to focus on (post-development) implementation, product manufacturing, or operation of technology but this is not a strict rule as they often design original concepts. The National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) in the USA summarizes the distinction as being that engineers are trained more with conceptual skills to \"function as designers,\" while engineering technologists \"apply others' designs.\" The mathematics and sciences, as well as other technical courses, in engineering technology programs, tend to be taught with more application-based examples, whereas engineering coursework provides a more theoretical foundation in math and science (because those are the very subjects that engineers apply directly). Moreover, engineering coursework tends to require higher-level mathematics including calculus and calculus-based theoretical science courses, as well as more extensive knowledge of the natural sciences applied in design, which also serve to prepare students for research (whether in graduate studies or industrial R&D) as opposed to engineering technology coursework which focuses on algebra, trigonometry, applied calculus and other courses that are more practical than theoretical in nature and generally have more labs associated with their undergraduate courses that require the hands-on application of the studied topics. Contemporary engineering coursework prepares students for continuing work in academia and to become research engineers, while engineering technology is a more traditional engineering education with direct application to industry.\nAlthough in the US, some states require a BS degree in engineering accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) with no exceptions, about two-thirds of the states accept BS degrees in engineering technology accredited by the Engineering Technology Accreditation Commission (ETAC) of ABET to become licensed as professional engineers. Each state has different requirements on years of experience needed to take the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) and Professional Engineering (PE) exams. A few states require graduates with a master's degree in engineering to sit for the exams. This education model is more in line with the educational system in the United Kingdom where an accredited MEng or MSc degree in engineering for further learning is required by the Engineering Council (EngC) to be registered as a Chartered Engineer. Engineering technology graduates with applied engineering skills often gain further learning in graduate school with an MS degree in engineering technology, engineering, engineering management, construction management or a National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB)-accredited Master of Architecture degree program. These degrees are also offered online or through distance learning opportunities with various universities, both nationally and internationally, allowing an individual to continue working full time while gaining an advanced degree.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A geneticist is a biologist who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. A geneticist can be employed as a scientist or a lecturer. Geneticists may perform general research on genetic processes or develop genetic technologies to aid in the pharmaceutical or and agriculture industries. Some geneticists perform experiments in model organisms such as Drosophila, C. elegans, zebrafish, rodents or humans and analyze data to interpret the inheritance of biological traits. A geneticist can be a scientist who has earned a PhD in genetics or a physician who has been trained in genetics as a specialization. They evaluate, diagnose, and manage patients with hereditary conditions or congenital malformations, genetic risk calculations, and mutation analysis, as well as refer patients to other medical specialists. The geneticist carries out studies, tests and counsels patients with genetic disorders.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interacts. The Greek prefix \"geo\" means \"earth\" and the Greek suffix, \"graphy,\" meaning \"description,\" so a geographer is someone who studies the earth. The word \"geography\" is a Middle French word that is believed to have been first used in 1540.Although geographers are historically known as people who make maps, map making is actually the field of study of cartography, a subset of geography. Geographers do not study only the details of the natural environment or human society, but they also study the reciprocal relationship between these two. For example, they study how the natural environment contributes to human society and how human society affects the natural environment.In particular, physical geographers study the natural environment while human geographers study human society and culture. Some geographers are practitioners of GIS (geographic information system) and are often employed by local, state, and federal government agencies as well as in the private sector by environmental and engineering firms.The paintings by Johannes Vermeer titled The Geographer and The Astronomer are both thought to represent the growing influence and rise in prominence of scientific enquiry in Europe at the time of their painting in 1668\u201369.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid, liquid, and gaseous matter that constitutes Earth and other terrestrial planets, as well as the processes that shape them. Geologists usually study geology, although backgrounds in physics, chemistry, biology, and other sciences are also useful. Field research (field work) is an important component of geology, although many subdisciplines incorporate laboratory and digitalised work.\nGeologists work in the energy and mining sectors searching for natural resources such as petroleum, natural gas, precious and base metals. They are also in the forefront of preventing and mitigating damage from natural hazards and disasters such as earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis and landslides. Their studies are used to warn the general public of the occurrence of these events. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Geoprofessions is a term coined by the Geoprofessional Business Association to connote various technical disciplines that involve engineering, earth and environmental services applied to below-ground (\u201csubsurface\u201d), ground-surface, and ground-surface-connected conditions, structures, or formations. The principal disciplines include, as major categories:\n\ngeomatics engineering\ngeotechnical engineering;\ngeology and engineering geology;\ngeological engineering;\ngeophysics;\ngeophysical engineering;\nenvironmental science and environmental engineering;\nconstruction-materials engineering and testing; and\nother geoprofessional services.Each discipline involves specialties, many of which are recognized through professional designations that governments and societies or associations confer based upon a person's education, training, experience, and educational accomplishments. In the United States, engineers must be licensed in the state or territory where they practice engineering. Most states license geologists and several license environmental \u201csite professionals.\u201d Several states license engineering geologists and recognize geotechnical engineering through a geotechnical-engineering titling act.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A government scientist is a scientist employed by a country's government, either in a research-driven job (for example J. Robert Oppenheimer on the Manhattan Project), or for another role that requires scientific training and methods. In some countries other terms, such as Technical officers, is also used for scientists.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A healthcare scientist or medical scientist is a scientist working in any of a number of health related disciplines. Healthcare scientists may work directly for health service providers, or in academia or industry. Healthcare scientists typically refers to those contributing directly to clinical services, and not scientists working solely in health related research and development.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "An independent scientist (historically also known as gentleman scientist) is a financially independent scientist who pursues scientific study without direct affiliation to a public institution such as a university or government-run research and development body. The expression \"gentleman scientist\" arose in post-Renaissance Europe, but became less common in the 20th century as government and private funding increased.\nMost independent scientists have at some point in their career been affiliated with some academic institution, such as Charles Darwin, who was affiliated with the Geological Society of London.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Knowledge workers are workers whose main capital is knowledge. Examples include programmers, physicians, pharmacists, architects, engineers, scientists, design thinkers, public accountants, lawyers, editors, and academics, whose job is to \"think for a living\".", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A laboratory technician is a person who works in a laboratory performing analytical or experimental procedures, maintaining laboratory equipment and assisting scientists with their work.\n\nAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first use of the term laboratory technician was in 1896:It [sc. a therapeutic property] is now totally abandoned by the advanced laboratory technicians.The term is now widely accepted. Laboratory technicians are found in a wide range of scientific fields, including forensic science, pathology, chemistry, biomedical science and physics. More junior employees may be known as laboratory assistants, with more senior staff referred to as laboratory technical officers. Laboratory technicians may hold a range of formal academic qualifications, such as associate degrees, often obtained through vocational education.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A medical laboratory scientist (MLS) or clinical laboratory scientist (CLS) or medical technologist (MT) performs diagnostic testing of blood and body fluids in clinical laboratories. The scope of a medical laboratory scientist's work begins with the receipt of patient or client specimens and terminates with the delivery of test results to physicians and other healthcare providers. The utility of clinical diagnostic testing relies squarely on the validity of test methodology. To this end, much of the work done by medical laboratory scientists involves ensuring specimen quality, interpreting test results, data-logging, testing control products, performing calibration, maintenance, validation, and troubleshooting of instrumentation as well as performing statistical analyses to verify the accuracy and repeatability of testing. Medical laboratory scientists may also assist healthcare providers with test selection and specimen collection and are responsible for prompt verbal delivery of critical lab results. An estimated 70% of medical decisions are based on laboratory test results and MLS contributions affect 95% of a health system's costs.\n\nThe most common tests performed by medical laboratory scientists are complete blood count (CBC), comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), electrolyte panel, liver function tests (LFT), renal function tests (RFT), thyroid function test (TFT), urinalysis, coagulation profile, lipid profile, blood type, semen analysis (for fertility and post-vasectomy studies), serological studies and routine cultures. In some facilities that have few phlebotomists, or none at all, (such as in rural areas) medical laboratory scientists may perform phlebotomy. Because medical laboratory scientists have many transferable technical skills, employment outside of the medical laboratory is common. Many medical laboratory scientists are employed in government positions such as the FDA, USDA, non-medical industrial laboratories, and manufacturing.\nIn the United Kingdom and the United States, senior laboratory scientists, who are typically post-doctoral scientists, take on significantly greater clinical responsibilities in the laboratory. In the United States these scientists may function in the role of clinical laboratory directors, while in the United Kingdom they are known as consultant clinical scientists.\nThough clinical scientists have existed in the UK National Health Service for ~60 years, the introduction of formally-trained and accredited consultant-level clinical scientists is relatively new, and was introduced as part of the new Modernising Scientific Careers framework.\nConsultant clinical scientists are expected to provide expert scientific and clinical leadership alongside and, at the same level as, medical consultant colleagues. While specialists in healthcare science will follow protocols, procedures and clinical guidelines, consultant clinical scientists will help shape future guidelines and the implementation of new and emerging technologies to help advance patient care.\nIn the United Kingdom, healthcare scientists including clinical scientists may intervene throughout entire care pathways from diagnostic tests to therapeutic treatments and rehabilitation.  Although this workforce comprises approximately 5% of the healthcare workforce in the UK, their work underpins 80% of all diagnoses and clinical decisions made.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A meteorologist is a scientist who studies and works in the field of meteorology aiming to understand or predict Earth's atmospheric phenomena including the weather. Those who study meteorological phenomena are meteorologists in research, while those using mathematical models and knowledge to prepare daily weather forecasts are called weather forecasters or operational meteorologists.Meteorologists work in government agencies, private consulting and research services, industrial enterprises, utilities, radio and television stations, and in education. They are not to be confused with weather presenters, who present the weather forecast in the media and range in training from journalists having just minimal training in meteorology to full fledged meteorologists.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A microbiologist (from Greek \u03bc\u1fd1\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2) is a scientist who studies microscopic life forms and processes. This includes study of the growth, interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites and their vectors. Most microbiologists work in offices and/or research facilities, both in private biotechnology companies and in academia. Most microbiologists specialize in a given topic within microbiology such as bacteriology, parasitology, virology, or immunology.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A neuroscientist (or neurobiologist) is a scientist who has specialised knowledge in neuroscience, a branch of biology that deals with the physiology, biochemistry, psychology, anatomy and molecular biology of neurons, neural circuits, and glial cells and especially their behavioral, biological, and psychological aspect in health and disease. \n\nNeuroscientists generally work as researchers within a college, university, government agency, or private industry setting. In research-oriented careers, neuroscientists typically spend their time designing and carrying out scientific experiments that contribute to the understanding of the nervous system and its function. They can engage in basic or applied research. Basic research seeks to add information to our current understanding of the nervous system, whereas applied research seeks to address a specific problem, such as developing a treatment for a neurological disorder. Biomedically-oriented neuroscientists typically engage in applied research. Neuroscientists also have a number of career opportunities outside the realm of research, including careers in industry, science writing, government program management, science advocacy, and education. These individuals most commonly hold doctorate degrees in the sciences, but may also hold a master's degree.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A nurse scientist is a nurse with advanced preparation such as a Ph.D. in nursing or related field including research principles and methodology, who also has expert content knowledge in a specific clinical area. The primary focus of the role is to provide leadership in the development, coordination and management of clinical research studies; provide mentorship for nurses in research; lead evaluation activities that improve outcomes for patients participating in research studies; contribute to the overall health sciences literature. Nurse scientists have been regarded as knowledge brokers. They participate in nursing research.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A petroleum geologist is an earth scientist who works in the field of petroleum geology, which involves all aspects of oil discovery and production. Petroleum geologists are usually linked to the actual discovery of oil and the identification of possible oil deposits, gas caps, or leads. It can be a very labor-intensive task involving several different fields of science and elaborate equipment. Petroleum geologists look at the structural and sedimentary aspects of the stratum/strata to identify possible oil traps or tight shale plays.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A physician-scientist  is traditionally a holder of a medical degree and a doctor of philosophy also known as an MD-PhD. Compared to other clinicians, physician-scientists invest significant time and professional effort in scientific research and spend correspondingly less time in direct clinical practice with ratios of research to clinical time ranging from 50/50 to 80/20. Physician-scientists are often employed by academic or research institutions where they drive innovation across a wide range of medical specialties and may also use their extensive training to focus their clinical practices on specialized patient populations, such as those with rare genetic diseases or cancers. Although they are a minority of both practicing physicians and active research scientists, physician-scientists are often cited as playing a critical roles in translational medicine and clinical research by adapting biomedical research findings to health care applications. Overtime the term physician scientist has expanded to holders of other clinical degrees\u2014such as nurses, dentists, and veterinarians\u2014 who are also included by the United States National Institutes of Health in its studies of the physician-scientist workforce (PSW).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe.\nPhysicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms.\nPhysicists work across a wide range of research fields, spanning all length scales: from sub-atomic and particle physics, through biological physics, to cosmological length scales encompassing the universe as a whole.\nThe field generally includes two types of physicists: experimental physicists who specialize in the observation of natural phenomena and the development and analysis of experiments, and theoretical physicists who specialize in mathematical modeling of physical systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena.\nPhysicists can apply their knowledge towards solving practical problems or to developing new technologies (also known as applied physics or engineering physics).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In many countries, the term principal investigator (PI) refers to the holder of an independent grant and the lead researcher for the grant project, usually in the sciences, such as a laboratory study or a clinical trial. The phrase is also often used as a synonym for \"head of the laboratory\" or \"research group leader\". While the expression is common in the sciences, it is used widely for the person or persons who make final decisions and supervise funding and expenditures on a given research project.A co-investigator (Co-I) assists the principal investigator in the management and leadership of the research project. There may be a number of co-investigators supporting a PI.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In schools, the science technician is the person who prepares the practical equipment and makes up the solutions used in school science labs. The role also includes instructing and assisting teachers with practical skills, including class demonstrations, for advanced techniques across all disciplines. Many are very well qualified and have degrees, such as a Bachelor's degree (B.A. or B.Sc), Master's degree (M.Sc.) or even a Doctorate (Dr) and/or other professional qualifications such as the HNC, HND and NVQ. \n\nTheir main duties include:\nCare of living organisms\nMaking up solutions\nSchool science experiments and demonstrations\nInventory\nBudget and Accounts\nRepairing and constructing laboratory equipmentIn December 2002 CLEAPSS commissioned a survey into the Specific Job roles of Science Technicians. The pdf Document G228 - Technicians and their jobs which can be freely downloaded was released and later updated in 2009. The guide was written to help promote a professional technician service in schools and colleges.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A science attach\u00e9 (also known as a scientific attach\u00e9 or a technical attach\u00e9) is a member of a diplomatic mission, usually an embassy. A science attach\u00e9 traditionally had three primary functions: advise the ambassador on scientific and technical matters, report on scientific and technological events, and represent his or her country in scientific and technical matters to foreign scientific and technical academies; to industry; to intergovernmental organizations and agencies; and to international non-governmental organizations. A science attach\u00e9 has also helped forge formal ties between domestic and foreign scientists and researchers, and acted as a catalyst for scientific exchange initiatives. The non-advising roles of the science attach\u00e9 seem somewhat less important in the age of the internet and the truly international scientific community it has helped create.The modern trend seems to be to emphasize the advisory role of the science attach\u00e9 over the facilitation of scientific and technical exchanges. As recently as 1998, the National Academy of Sciences called for the appointment of more science-savvy diplomats to the State Department to improve the quality of the scientific advice available to foreign policymakers. The panel also emphasized the need to encourage general foreign service staff to acquire scientific skills.While there has been more emphasis on the advisory role, science attach\u00e9s could still play a role in facilitating exchanges and collaborations by helping scientists from their home country understand the host nation's science culture and practices.Formerly, being appointed science attach\u00e9 was viewed as the \"kiss of death\" for advancement within the foreign service.  However, with the growing importance of scientific issues such as global warming, global infectious diseases, and bioterrorism to foreign policymaking and diplomacy, this perception may be changing.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science technician is a profession involving working as a member of support staff in any science disciplines. The Science Council defines a technician as \u201ca person who is skilled in the use of particular techniques and procedures to solve practical problems, often in ways that require considerable ingenuity and creativity. Technicians typically work with complex instruments and equipment, and require specialised training, as well as considerable practical experience, in order to do their job effectively\u201d.Science technicians are frequently based in laboratories, but they also perform roles in workshops, studios, the field, or in any location where scientific work is being carried out. As a group, science technicians have been referred to as \"Invisible\"; members of the scientific workforce whose role in the process for forming new scientific knowledge has been poorly acknowledged and insufficiently studied. However, more recently their role has been studied in some detail.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A scientific equipment optician is an individual who makes and adjusts other optical aids, including telescope optics and microscope lenses. See also Optician for individuals who make and adjust glasses.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A volcanologist, or volcano scientist, is a geologist who focuses on understanding the formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, sometimes active ones, to observe and monitor volcanic eruptions, collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice), rock and lava samples. One major focus of inquiry in recent times is the prediction of eruptions to alleviate the impact on surrounding populations and monitor natural hazards associated with volcanic activity. Geologists who research volcanic materials that make up the solid Earth are referred to as igneous petrologists.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Academic Spring was the designation, inspired by the Arab Spring, used for a short time in 2012 to indicate movements by academics, researchers, and scholars opposing the restrictive copyright and circulation of traditional academic journals and promoting free access online instead.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Academic Torrents\nis a website which enables the sharing of research data using the BitTorrent protocol. The site was founded in November 2013, and is a project of the Institute for Reproducible Research (a 501(c)3 U.S. non-profit corporation). \nThe project is said to be similar to LOCKSS but with a focus on \"offering researchers the opportunity to distribute the hosting of their papers and datasets to authors and readers, providing easy access to scholarly works and simultaneously backing them up on computers around the world.\"", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "AfricArXiv is an open-access repository for preprints of academic publications which are either about Africa or by African scientists. The platform was established in 2018. It was established to make preprint servers more available in various fields and regions. Its establishment happen during trends to provide more digital services to support science in Africa.From its founding the platform welcomed publications in any African language. In July 2020 the platform began hosting audio and video files.The Center for Open Science hosts the platform. The cost of operating the servers is significant and that organization takes a fee to cover its costs.Preprints can be submitted to AfricArXiv via ScienceOpen. Users need to have a verified ORCID digital identifier and should include in their manuscripts a short summary translation in a traditional African language. After a member of the AfricArXiv team has checked the submission for formal criteria and approved the manuscript, it will be posted with a Crossref DOI and CC BY 4.0 attribution license.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Allen Mouse and Human Brain Atlases are projects within the Allen Institute for Brain Science which seek to combine genomics with neuroanatomy by creating gene expression maps for the mouse and human brain. They were initiated in September 2003 with a $100 million donation from Paul G. Allen and the first atlas went public in September 2006. \nAs of May 2012, seven brain atlases have been published: Mouse Brain Atlas, Human Brain Atlas, Developing Mouse Brain Atlas, Developing Human Brain Atlas, Mouse Connectivity Atlas, Non-Human Primate Atlas, and Mouse Spinal Cord Atlas. There are also three related projects with data banks: Glioblastoma, Mouse Diversity, and Sleep. It is the hope of the Allen Institute that their findings will help advance various fields of science, especially those surrounding the understanding of neurobiological diseases. The atlases are free and available for public use online.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Allen Institute for Brain Science is a division of the Allen Institute, based in Seattle, Washington, that focuses on bioscience research. Founded in 2003, it is dedicated to accelerating the understanding of how the human brain works. With the intent of catalyzing brain research in different areas, the Allen Institute provides free data and tools to scientists.\nStarted with $100 million in seed money from Microsoft co-founder and philanthropist Paul Allen in 2003, the institute tackles projects at the leading edge of science\u2014far-reaching projects at the intersection of biology and technology. The resulting data create free, publicly available resources that fuel discovery for countless researchers. Hongkui Zeng is the director of the institute.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Amsterdam Call for Action on Open Science is a document that advocates for \"full open access for all scientific publications\", and endorses an environment where \"data sharing and stewardship is the default approach for all publicly funded research\".", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "arXiv (pronounced \"archive\"\u2014the X represents the Greek letter chi [\u03c7]) is an open-access repository of electronic preprints and postprints (known as e-prints) approved for posting after moderation, but not peer review. It consists of scientific papers in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, electrical engineering, computer science, quantitative biology, statistics, mathematical finance and economics, which can be accessed online. In many fields of mathematics and physics, almost all scientific papers are self-archived on the arXiv repository before publication in a peer-reviewed journal. Some publishers also grant permission for authors to archive the peer-reviewed postprint. Begun on August 14, 1991, arXiv.org passed the half-million-article milestone on October 3, 2008, and had hit a million by the end of 2014. \nAs of April 2021, the submission rate is about 16,000 articles per month.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Binder Project is a software project to package and share interactive, reproducible environments.  A Binder or \"Binder-ready repository\" is a code repository that contains both code and content to run, and configuration files for the environment needed to run it.Since 2017, when the Binder Project was merged into the JupyterHub project, the development communities share many people in common.  A common use of Binder is for sharing a Jupyter notebooks in a way that the recipient can immediately execute in a browser.The Binder project maintains core libraries and documentation for running Binder services, which make those projects available, as well as BinderHub, a tool for deploying such services via common cloud computing environments.  A public BinderHub portal is hosted by the community at mybinder.org.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Bioinformatics Research Network (BRN) is a non-profit open-science research-based organization aiming to provide volunteer opportunities and bioinformatics research training that is free and open to everyone. It is a community-driven 501(c)(3) non-profit organization  that aims to establish a worldwide network that is open to anyone interested in bioinformatics irrespective of academic background and to provide bioinformatics training, mentorship and the opportunity to collaborate on exciting research projects.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Blue Obelisk is an informal group of chemists who promote open data, open source, and open standards; it was initiated by Peter Murray-Rust and others in 2005. Multiple open source cheminformatics projects associate themselves with the Blue Obelisk, among which, in alphabetical order, Avogadro, Bioclipse, cclib, Chemistry Development Kit, GaussSum, JChemPaint, JOELib, Kalzium, Openbabel, OpenSMILES, and UsefulChem.\n\nThe project has handed out personal awards for achievements in promoting Open Data, Open Source and Open Standards. Among those who received a Blue Obelisk Award are:\n\nChristoph Steinbeck (2006)\nGeoff Hutchinson (2006)\nBob Hanson (2006),\nEgon Willighagen (2007)\nJean-Claude Bradley (2007)\nOla Spjuth (2007)\nNoel O'Boyle (2010)\nRajarshi Guha (2010)\nCameron Neylon (2010)\nAlex Wade (2010)\nNina Jeliazkova (2010)\nHenry Rzepa (2011)\nDan Zaharevitz (2011)\nSam Adams (2011)\nJens Thomas (2011)\nMarcus Hanwell (2011)\nRoger Sayle (2011)\nthe Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory (2012)\nSaulius Gra\u017eulis (2014)\nAntony Williams (2014)\nDaniel Lowe (2014)\nAndrew Lang (2014)\nMatthew H. Todd (2014)\nWikiChemists (2014)\nGreg Landrum (2016)\nMark Forster (2016)\nJohn Mayfield (2017)", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Jean-Claude Bradley was a chemist who actively promoted Open Science in chemistry, including at the White House, for which he was awarded the Blue Obelisk award in 2007. He coined the term \"Open Notebook science\". He died in May 2014. A memorial symposium was held July 14, 2014 at Cambridge University, UK.One outcome of his Open Notebook work is the collection of physicochemical properties of organic compounds he was studying. All of this data he made available as Open data under the CCZero license. For example, in 2009 Bradley et al. published their work on making solubility data of organic compounds available as Open data. Later, the melting point data set he collaborated on with Andrew Lang and Antony Williams was published with Figshare. Both data sets were also made available as books via the Lulu.com self-publishing platform.He blogged extensively and contributed to at least 25 individual blogs. In an interview in 2008 with Bora Zivkovic titled \"Doing Science Publicly\", he spoke of his work and online presence. In 2010, he gave an extensive interview about the impact of Open Notebook science with Richard Poynder.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Center for Open Science is a non-profit technology organization based in Charlottesville, Virginia with a mission to \"increase the openness, integrity, and reproducibility of scientific research.\" Brian Nosek and  Jeffrey Spies founded the organization in January 2013, funded mainly by the Laura and John Arnold Foundation and others.The organization began with work in reproducibility of psychology research, with the large-scale initiative Reproducibility Project: Psychology. A second reproducibility project for cancer biology research has also been started through a partnership with Science Exchange. In March 2017, the Center published a detailed strategic plan. Brian Nosek posted a letter outlining the history of the Center and future directions.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Citizen science (CS; also known as community science, crowd science, crowd-sourced science, civic science, or volunteer monitoring) is scientific research conducted, in whole or in part, by amateur (or nonprofessional) scientists. Citizen science is sometimes described as \"public participation in scientific research\", participatory monitoring, and participatory action research whose outcomes are often advancements in scientific research by improving the scientific community's capacity, as well as increasing the public's understanding of science.Before the emergence of the professional \u201cscientist\u201d in the 19th century, many important scientific contributions were made by amateurs who neither received formal training nor had formal roles within the establishment. The discovery of Uranus by William Herschel in 1781 may be considered one such example, and the history of science contains many examples of amateur societies. However, with the professionalisation of the field, and the rise of big science in the twentieth century, casual participation became less common or feasible, until advances in information & communication technology again enabled meaningful contributions.\nFirst uses of the term \u201ccommunity science\u201d can be found in the magazine New Scientist and in campaigns to raise awareness of acid rain.  The advancement of information technology has had practical benefits for people, such as the Sapelli app that has helped track illegal forestry. Large photographic databases can be examined by groups of participants providing scientifically credible results, as seen with community-science project Snapshot Serengeti. As CS grows, subjects such as ethics and economic worth become formally studied while a scientific journal hopes to enhance quality and impact through its articles. The impact of CS internationally can be seen in a series of programs shown by American Public Television and available online. Theorists that have examined CS include The American Philosophical Society, Isabelle Stengers and Paul Feyerabend.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Cost of Knowledge is a protest by academics against the business practices of academic journal publisher Elsevier. Among the reasons for the protests were a call for lower prices for journals and to promote increased open access to information. The main work of the project was to ask researchers to sign a statement committing not to support Elsevier journals by publishing, performing peer review, or providing editorial services for these journals.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "COVID Moonshot is a collaborative open-science project started in March 2020 with the goal of developing an un-patented oral antiviral drug to treat SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing COVID-19.\nCOVID Moonshot researchers are targeting the proteins needed to form functioning new viral proteins.  They are particularly interested in proteases such as 3C-like protease (Mpro), a coronavirus nonstructural protein that mediates the breaking and replication of  proteins.COVID Moonshot may be the first  open-science community effort for the development of an antiviral drug.  Hundreds of scientists around the world, from academic and industrial organizations, have shared their expertise, resources, data, and results to more rapidly identify, screen, and test candidate compounds for the treatment of COVID-19.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Creative Commons (CC) is an American non-profit organization and international network devoted to educational access and expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright licenses, known as Creative Commons licenses, free of charge to the public. These licenses allow authors of creative works to communicate which rights they reserve and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. An easy-to-understand one-page explanation of rights, with associated visual symbols, explains the specifics of each Creative Commons license. Content owners still maintain their copyright, but Creative Commons licenses give standard releases that replace the individual negotiations for specific rights between copyright owner (licensor) and licensee, that are necessary under an \"all rights reserved\" copyright management.\nThe organization was founded in 2001 by Lawrence Lessig, Hal Abelson, and Eric Eldred with the support of Center for the Public Domain. The first article in a general interest publication about Creative Commons, written by Hal Plotkin, was published in February 2002. The first set of copyright licenses was released in December 2002. The founding management team that developed the licenses and built the Creative Commons infrastructure as it is known today included Molly Shaffer Van Houweling, Glenn Otis Brown, Neeru Paharia, and Ben Adida.In 2002, the Open Content Project, a 1998 precursor project by David A. Wiley, announced the Creative Commons as successor project and Wiley joined as CC director. Aaron Swartz played a role in the early stages of Creative Commons, as did Matthew Haughey.As of 2019, there were \"nearly 2 billion\" works licensed under the various Creative Commons licenses. Wikipedia uses one of these licenses. As of May 2018, Flickr alone hosted over 415 million Creative Commons-licensed photos. Unsplash used the CC0 license prior to 2017. and Pixabay used the same prior to 2019. Other popular websites/services making use of Creative Commons include Stack Exchange, mozilla.org, Internet Archive, Khan Academy, LibreTexts, MIT OpenCourseWare, WikiHow, OpenStreetMap, GeoGebra, Doubtnut, OpenStax and Arduino as well as music sites ccmixter.org and ninjam.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Creative Commons India Chapter is the country-level Chapter of Creative Commons in India. It organises online and offline events on various aspects related to open content, Open Educational Resources, Creative Commons licensed publishing and the use of Open Access textbooks in schools.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Data collaboratives (sometimes called \u201ccorporate data philanthropy\u201d) are a form of collaboration in which participants from different sectors\u2014including private companies, research institutions, and government agencies\u2014can exchange data and data expertise to help solve public problems.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Data publishing (also data publication) is the act of releasing research data in published form for use by others. It is a practice consisting in preparing certain data or data set(s) for public use thus to make them available to everyone to use as they wish. \nThis practice is an integral part of the open science movement. \nThere is a large and multidisciplinary consensus on the benefits resulting from this practice.The main goal is to elevate data to be first class research outputs. There are a number of initiatives underway as well as points of consensus and issues still in contention.There are several distinct ways to make research data available, including: \n\npublishing data as supplemental material associated with a research article, typically with the data files hosted by the publisher of the article\nhosting data on a publicly available website, with files available for download\nhosting data in a repository that has been developed to support data publication, e.g. figshare, Dryad, Dataverse, Zenodo. A large number of general and specialty (such as by research topic) data repositories exist. For example, the UK Data Service enables users to deposit data collections and re-share these for research purposes.\npublishing a data paper about the dataset, which may be published as a preprint, in a regular journal, or in a data journal that is dedicated to supporting data papers. The data may be hosted by the journal or hosted separately in a data repository.Publishing data allows researchers to both make their data available to others to use, and enables datasets to be cited similarly to other research publication types (such as articles or books), thereby enabling producers of datasets to gain academic credit for their work.\nThe motivations for publishing data may range for a desire to make research more accessible, to enable citability of datasets, or research funder or publisher mandates that require open data publishing. The UK Data Service is one key organisation working with others to raise the importance of citing data correctly and helping researchers to do so.\nSolutions to preserve privacy within data publishing has been proposed, including privacy protection algorithms, data \u201dmasking\u201d methods, and regional privacy level calculation algorithm.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Dataverse is an open source web application to share, preserve, cite, explore and analyze research data. Researchers, data authors, publishers, data distributors, and affiliated institutions all receive appropriate credit via a data citation with a persistent identifier (e.g., DOI, or handle).\nA Dataverse repository hosts multiple dataverses. Each dataverse contains dataset(s) or other dataverses, and each dataset contains descriptive metadata and data files (including documentation and code that accompany the data). \nIn 2019, Dataverse won the Duke's Choice Award for university and higher education.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Aled Morgan Edwards  (born June 1, 1962) is the founder and Chief Executive of the Structural Genomics Consortium, a charitable public-private partnership. He is Professor of Medical Genetics and Medical Biophysics at the University of Toronto, Visiting Professor of Chemical Biology at the University of Oxford, and Adjunct Professor at McGill University.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The European Open Science Cloud (EOSC) is a European Commission initiative aiming at developing an infrastructure providing its users with services promoting open science practices. \nBesides being open science oriented, the envisaged infrastructure is built by aggregating services provided by several providers following a System of systems approach.\nThe initiative started in 2015 with the plan that its organizers finish it by 2020. A European Union committee on research endorsed a plan for the cloud's development in May 2018. The European Open Science Cloud officially launched in November 2018, starting to provide access to services via their EOSC Portal.Public meetings about the project have emphasized the ideological motivations for promoting open science.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Expression Atlas is a database maintained by the European Bioinformatics Institute that  provides information on gene expression patterns from RNA-Seq and Microarray studies, and protein expression from Proteomics studies. The Expression Atlas allows searches by gene, splice variant, protein attribute, disease, treatment or organism part (cell types/tissues). Individual genes or gene sets can be searched for. All datasets in Expression Atlas have its metadata manually curated and its data analysed through standardised analysis pipelines. There are two components to the Expression Atlas, the Baseline Atlas and the Differential Atlas:", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "FAIR data are data which meet principles of findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability. The acronym and principles were defined in a March 2016 paper in the journal Scientific Data by a consortium of scientists and organizations.The FAIR principles emphasize machine-actionability (i.e., the capacity of computational systems to find, access, interoperate, and reuse data with none or minimal human intervention) because humans increasingly rely on computational support to deal with data as a result of the increase in volume, complexity, and creation speed of data.The abbreviation FAIR/O data is sometimes used to indicate that the dataset or database in question complies with the FAIR principles and also carries an explicit data\u2011capable open license.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Figshare is an online open access repository where researchers can preserve and share their research outputs, including figures, datasets, images, and videos. It is free to upload content and free to access, in adherence to the principle of open data. Figshare is one of a number of portfolio businesses supported by Digital Science, a subsidiary of Springer Nature.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Galaxy Zoo is a crowdsourced astronomy project which invites people to assist in the morphological classification of large numbers of galaxies. It is an example of citizen science as it enlists the help of members of the public to help in scientific research.There have been 15 versions as of July 2017. Galaxy Zoo is part of the Zooniverse, a group of citizen science projects. An outcome of the project is to better determine the different aspects of objects and to separate them into classifications.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Global Urban Evolution Project is an international collaborative project  which was started by Marc T. J. Johnson at the Centre for Urban Environments of the University of Toronto Mississauga (UTM). It includes  partners from at least 5 continents, 26 countries, and 160 cities.  As a field study of evolution, and as a global study of the effects of urbanization on evolution, its scale is unprecedented.   It has been described as \"the best replicated test of parallel evolution, on the largest scale ever attempted\".The project uses white clover as a model organism for studying global urbanization and urban evolution. White clover was chosen because it already grew in most cities worldwide.  It examines the plant's production of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in urban and more rural environments (\"urban-rural clines\").  Hydrogen cyanide deters herbivores and increases clover's tolerance for water stress.The project has demonstrated that urban environments are altering the ways in which plants evolve locally, and that similar changes are occurring globally, a demonstration of parallel evolution. It enables researchers to better understand  the nature of urban environments, the adaptive capacity of species, and their ability to deal with rapid global environmental changes.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Initiative for Open Citations (I4OC) is a project launched publicly in April 2017, that describes itself as: \"a collaboration between scholarly publishers, researchers, and other interested parties to promote the unrestricted availability of scholarly citation data and to make these data available.\" It is intended to facilitate improved citation analysis.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The International HapMap Project was an organization that aimed to develop a haplotype map (HapMap) of the human genome, to describe the common patterns of human genetic variation. HapMap is used to find genetic variants affecting health, disease and responses to drugs and environmental factors. The information produced by the project is made freely available for research.\nThe International HapMap Project is a collaboration among researchers at academic centers, non-profit biomedical research groups and private companies in Canada, China (including Hong Kong), Japan, Nigeria, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It officially started with a meeting on October 27 to 29, 2002, and was expected to take about three years. It comprises two phases; the complete data obtained in Phase I were published on 27 October 2005. The analysis of the Phase II dataset was published in October 2007.  The Phase III dataset was released in spring 2009 and the publication presenting the final results published in September 2010.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Journal Article Tag Suite (JATS) is an XML format used to describe  scientific literature published online. It is a technical standard developed by the National Information Standards Organization (NISO) and approved by the American National Standards Institute with the code Z39.96-2012.\nThe NISO project was a continuation of the work done by NLM/NCBI, and popularized by the NLM's PubMed Central as a de facto standard for archiving and interchange of scientific open-access journals and its contents with XML.\nWith the NISO standardization the NLM initiative has gained a wider reach, and several other repositories, such as SciELO and Redalyc, adopted the XML formatting for scientific articles.\nThe JATS provides a set of XML elements and attributes for describing the textual and graphical content of journal articles\nas well as some non-article material such as letters, editorials, and book and product reviews.\nJATS allows for descriptions of the full article content or just the article header metadata; \nand allows other kinds of contents, including research and non-research articles, letters, editorials, and book and product reviews.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Peter Murray-Rust (born 1941) is a chemist currently working at the University of Cambridge. As well as his work in chemistry, Murray-Rust is also known for his support of open access and open data. However, he has also been criticised by Jeffrey Beall for his views on predatory publishers and especially his involvement with publisher MDPI.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Open Energy Modelling Initiative (openmod) is a grassroots community of energy system modellers from universities and research institutes across Europe and elsewhere.  The initiative promotes the use of open-source software and open data in energy system modelling for research and policy advice.  The Open Energy Modelling Initiative documents a variety of open-source energy models and addresses practical and conceptual issues regarding their development and application.  The initiative runs an email list, an internet forum, and a wiki and hosts occasional academic workshops.  A statement of aims is available.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Open energy system database projects employ open data methods to collect, clean, and republish energy-related datasets for open use.  The resulting information is then available, given a suitable open license, for statistical analysis and for building numerical energy system models, including open energy system models.  Permissive licenses like Creative Commons CC0 and CC BY are preferred, but some projects will house data made public under market transparency regulations and carrying unqualified copyright.\nThe databases themselves may furnish information on national power plant fleets, renewable generation assets, transmission networks, time series for electricity loads, dispatch, spot prices, and cross-border trades, weather information, and similar.  They may also offer other energy statistics including fossil fuel imports and exports, gas, oil, and coal prices, emissions certificate prices, and information on energy efficiency costs and benefits.\nMuch of the data is sourced from official or semi-official agencies, including national statistics offices, transmission system operators, and electricity market operators.  Data is also crowdsourced using public wikis and public upload facilities.  Projects usually also maintain a strict record of the provenance and version histories of the datasets they hold.  Some projects, as part of their mandate, also try to persuade primary data providers to release their data under more liberal licensing conditions.Two drivers favor the establishment of such databases.  The first is a wish to reduce the duplication of effort that accompanies each new analytical project as it assembles and processes the data that it needs from primary sources.  And the second is an increasing desire to make public policy energy models more transparent to improve their acceptance by policymakers and the public.  Better transparency dictates the use of open information, able to be accessed and scrutinized by third-parties, in addition to releasing the source code for the models in question.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Open energy system models are energy system models that are open source. However, some of them may use third party proprietary software as part of their workflows to input, process, or output data. Preferably, these models use open data, which facilitates open science.\nEnergy system models are used to explore future energy systems and are often applied to questions involving energy and climate policy.  The models themselves vary widely in terms of their type, design, programming, application, scope, level of detail, sophistication, and shortcomings. For many models, some form of mathematical optimization is used to inform the solution process.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Open Notebook Science Challenge is a crowdsourcing research project which collects measurements of the non-aqueous solubility of organic compounds and publishes these as open data; findings are reported in an open notebook science manner.  Although anyone may contribute research data, the competition is only open to post-secondary students in the US and UK.\nThe challenge in turn forms part of the UsefulChem project, an ongoing open notebook science effort to synthesize and screen potential new anti-malarial drugs.  Data from the Solubility Challenge will be used to build predictive computational models of solubility for use in optimising syntheses.The challenge began on September 28, 2008 and, as of February 2014, involves researchers and their students from at least 4 different institutions and has resulted in the acquisition of over 7672 solubility measurements.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Open research is research that is openly accessible and modifiable by others. Much like open-source schemes that are built around a source code that is made public, the central theme of open research is to make clear accounts of the methodology freely available via the internet, along with any data or results extracted or derived from them. This permits a massively distributed collaboration, and one in which anyone may participate at any level of the project.\nEspecially if the research is scientific in nature, it is frequently referred to as open science. Open research can also include social sciences, the humanities, mathematics, engineering and medicine.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Open scientific data or open research data is a type of open data focused on publishing observations and results of scientific activities available for anyone to analyze and reuse. A major purpose of the drive for open data is to allow the verification of scientific claims, by allowing others to look at the reproducibility of results, and to allow data from many sources to be integrated to give new knowledge.The modern concept of scientific data emerged in the second half of the 20th century, with the development of large knowledge infrastructure to compute scientific information and observation. The sharing and distribution of data has been early identified as an important stake but was impeded by the technical limitations of the infrastructure and the lack of common standards for data communication. The World Wide Web was immediately conceived as a universal protocol for the sharing of scientific data, especially coming from high-energy physics.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Open source is source code that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution. Products include permission to use the source code, design documents, or content of the product. The open-source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration.\nA main principle of open-source software development is peer production, with products such as source code, blueprints, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in open-source appropriate technology, and open-source drug discovery.Open source promotes universal access via an open-source or free license to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint. Before the phrase open source became widely adopted, developers and producers have used a variety of other terms. Open source gained hold with the rise of the Internet. The open-source software movement arose to clarify copyright, licensing, domain, and consumer issues.\nGenerally, open source refers to a computer program in which the source code is available to the general public for use or modification from its original design. Code is released under the terms of a software license. Depending on the license terms, others may then download, modify, and publish their version (fork) back to the community.\nMany large formal institutions have sprung up to support the development of the open-source movement, including the Apache Software Foundation, which supports community projects such as the open-source framework Apache Hadoop and the open-source HTTP server Apache HTTP.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Open synthetic biology is the idea that scientific knowledge and data should be openly accessible through common rights licensing to enable the rapid development of safe, effective and commercially viable synthetic biology applications.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "OpenBCI is an open-source brain-computer interface platform, created by Joel Murphy and Conor Russomanno, after a successful Kickstarter campaign in late 2013.\nOpenBCI boards can be used to measure and record electrical activity produced by the brain (EEG), muscles (EMG), and heart (EKG), and is compatible with standard EEG electrodes. The OpenBCI boards can be used with the open source OpenBCI GUI, or they can be integrated with other open-source EEG signal processing tools.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "OpenCitations (established in 2010)  is a project aiming to publish open bibliographic citation information in RDF. It produces the \"OpenCitations Corpus\" database in the process.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "OpenWorm is an international open science project to simulate the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans at the cellular level as a simulation. Although the long-term goal is to model all 959 cells of the C. elegans, the first stage is to model the worm's locomotion by simulating the 302 neurons and 95 muscle cells. This bottom up simulation  is being pursued by the OpenWorm community. \nAs of 2014, a physics engine called Sibernetic has been built for the project and models of the neural connectome and a muscle cell have been created in NeuroML format. A 3D model of the worm anatomy can be accessed through the web via the OpenWorm browser. The OpenWorm project is also contributing to develop Geppetto, a web-based multi-algorithm, multi-scale simulation platform engineered to support the simulation of the whole organism.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Panton Principles are a set of principles which were written to promote open science. They were first drafted in July 2009 at the Panton Arms pub in Cambridge.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Polymath Project is a collaboration among mathematicians to solve important and difficult mathematical problems by coordinating many mathematicians to communicate with each other on finding the best route to the solution. The project began in January 2009 on Timothy Gowers's blog when he posted a problem and asked his readers to post partial ideas and partial progress toward a solution. This experiment resulted in a new answer to a difficult problem, and since then the Polymath Project has grown to describe a particular process of using an online collaboration to solve any math problem.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "PubRef.org was a short lived project that is now discontinued.\nThe website is not accessible anymore. An old version can be accessed from the Internet Archive.They used the same name PubRef which was a service provided by PubMed for linking bibliographies, defeated by the independent service Crossref.PubRef was a composition and project management application used by researchers and students for scholarly writing and communication.\nPubRef uses an extended form of Markdown  as a primary authoring format and converts this to JATS, the archive format used by the US National Library of Medicine.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Registry of Research Data Repositories (re3data.org) is an open science tool that offers researchers, funding organizations, libraries and publishers an overview of existing international repositories for research data.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Reinventing Discovery: The New Era of Networked Science is a book written by Michael Nielsen and released in October 2011. It argues for the benefits of applying the philosophy of open science to research.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Sage Bionetworks is a nonprofit organization in Seattle that promotes open science and patient engagement in the research process. It is led by Lara Mangravite. It was co-founded by Stephen Friend and Eric Schadt.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science 2.0 is a suggested new approach to science that uses information-sharing and collaboration made possible by network technologies. It is similar to the open research and open science movements and is inspired by Web 2.0 technologies. Science 2.0 stresses the benefits of increased collaboration between scientists. Science 2.0 uses collaborative tools like wikis, blogs and video journals to share findings, raw data and \"nascent theories\" online. Science 2.0 benefits from openness and sharing, regarding papers and research ideas and partial solutions.A general view is that Science 2.0 is gaining traction with websites beginning to proliferate, yet at the same time there is considerable resistance within the scientific community about aspects of the transition as well as discussion about what, exactly, the term means. There are several views that there is a \"sea change\" happening in the status quo of scientific publishing, and substantive change regarding how scientists share research data. There is considerable discussion in the scientific community about whether scientists should embrace the model and exactly how Science 2.0 might work, as well as several reports that many scientists are slow to embrace collaborative methods and are somewhat \"inhibited and slow to adopt a lot of online tools.\"", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science Commons (SC) was a Creative Commons project for designing strategies and tools for faster, more efficient web-enabled scientific research. The organization's goals were to identify unnecessary barriers to research, craft policy guidelines and legal agreements to lower those barriers, and develop technology to make research data and materials easier to find and use. Its overarching goal was to speed the translation of data into discovery and thereby the value of research.\nScience Commons was located at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in the Ray and Maria Stata Center at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Studierfenster is a free, non-commercial open science client/server-based medical imaging processing online framework. It offers capabilities, like viewing medical data (computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, etc.) in two- and three-dimensional space directly in standard web browsers, like Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, and Microsoft Edge. Other functionalities are the calculation of medical metrics (dice score and Hausdorff distance), manual slice-by-slice outlining of structures in medical images (segmentation), manual placing of (anatomical) landmarks in medical image data, viewing medical data in virtual reality, a facial reconstruction and registration of medical data for augmented reality, one click showcases for COVID-19 and veterinary scans, and a Radiomics module.\nOther features of Studierfenster are the automatic cranial implant design with a neural network, the inpainting of aortic dissections with a generative adversarial network and an automatic aortic landmark detection with deep learning in computed tomography angiography scans.\nStudierfenster is currently hosted on an server at the Graz University of Technology in Austria, and expanded jointly with the Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine (IKIM) in Essen, Germany.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Synapse.org is an open source platform for collaborative scientific data analysis. It can store data, code, results, and descriptions research work. It is operated by nonprofit organization Sage Bionetworks.The Synapse web portal is an online registry of research projects that allows data scientists to discover and share data, models, and analysis methods.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Target 2035 is a global effort or movement to discover open science, pharmacological modulator(s) for every protein in the human proteome by the year 2035.  The effort is led by the Structural Genomics Consortium with the intention that this movement evolves organically. Target 2035 has been borne out of the success that chemical probes have had in elevating or de-prioritizing the therapeutic potential of protein targets. The availability of open access pharmacological tools is a largely unmet aspect of drug discovery especially for the dark proteome. \nThe first five years will include building mechanisms (Phase 1 below) which allow researchers to find collaborators with like-minded goals towards discovering a pharmacological tool for a specific protein or protein family, and make it open access (without encumbrances due to intellectual property). One strategic goal is seeding new open science programs on components of the drug discovery pipeline with the goal to bring medicines to the bedside equitably, affordably and rapidly. Phase 1 will also build a framework that welcomes new and (re-)emerging enabling technologies in hit-finding and characterization. An update on the progress was published.Target 2035 will draw on successes from past and current publicly-funded programs including National Institutes of Health (NIH) Illuminating the Druggable Genome initiative for under-explored kinases, GPCR\u2019s and ion channels, Innovative Medicines Initiative's RESOLUTE project on human SLCs, Innovative Medicines Initiative's Enabling and Unlocking Biology in the Open (EUbOPEN), and Innovative Medicines Initiative's Unrestricted Leveraging of Targets for Research Advancement and Drug Discovery. The NIH recently re-iterated their commitment to making their data open to mitigate the 10s of billions due to irreproducible data.Target 2035 will collaborate with the Chemical Probes Portal and open science platforms, e.g. Just One Giant Lab, in order to spread awareness and education of best practices for chemical modulators and the benefits of open science, respectively.\nThe following draft plan has been outlined in a white paper.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "John Wilbanks is the Senior Medical Director at Biogen, and formerly the Chief Commons Officer at Sage Bionetworks. Previously he was a Senior Fellow at the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation and at FasterCures. He is known for his work on open science and research networks.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A learned society (; also known as a learned academy, scholarly society, or academic association) is an organization that exists to promote an academic discipline, profession, or a group of related disciplines such as the arts and science. Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some qualification, or may be an honour conferred by election.Most learned societies are non-profit organizations, and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some also act as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest or the collective interest of the membership.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The American Venous Forum (AVF) is the major national academic society focused on venous and lymphatic disease in the United States. Its mission includes education, research, and advocacy.The AVF is the sponsor organization for the Journal of Vascular Surgery Venous and Lymphatic (JVS V&L) and for the American Venous Forum meeting.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Brassey Institute at 13 Claremont in Hastings, England, was founded by Thomas Brassey in 1879 and, as the Brassey School of Science and Art, provided for the study of arts and the sciences. It opened a chemistry laboratory in the Old Town of Hastings around 1900. The building has housed the town's library for decades. Stocking 11,000 volumes as of 1933, the Institute also housed a museum devoted to natural history, archaeology and local art.\n\nA building in the Venetian Gothic style, it served as the location of the Hastings 1895 chess tournament. 22 Masters were invited to the competition, one of which was William H. K. Pollock, representing Canada.During Lady Brassey's lifetime, Working men's clubs often met at the location.It is a Grade II listed building.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Caribbean Netherlands Science Institute, also known as CNSI, is a scientific research facility in the Caribbean Netherlands, specifically on the island of Sint Eustatius. CNSI was officially opened in 2014. It was created by NIOZ (the Royal Netherlands Institute of Sea Research, aka Nederlands Instituut voor Zeeonderzoek) and is also closely allied with the Faculty of Archaeology of Leiden University, IMARES Wageningen UR, Naturalis Biodiversity Centre, and the Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Chernobyl Forum is the name of a group of UN agencies, founded on 3\u20135 February 2003 at the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) Headquarters in Vienna, to scientifically assess the health effects and environmental consequences of the Chernobyl accident and to issue factual, authoritative reports on its environmental and health effects.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network (DCVMN) is a voluntary non-partisan public health alliance of health organizations and vaccine manufacturers.  It has the goal of protecting people globally against known and emerging infectious diseases through the provision of a consistent supply of high quality vaccines at affordable prices for developing countries, to achieve vaccine equity.  DCVMN includes manufacturers in Brazil, China, Cuba, India, Indonesia, Mexico, South Africa and other low and middle income countries (LMICs). It was established in 2000/2001, and is headquartered in Switzerland. As of 2021, the President is Sai D. Prasad, and the CEO is Rajinder Suri.In 2018, DCVMN members supplied more than half of the 2.36 billion doses of vaccines used globally by UNICEF.  In 2019, a survey of 41 DCVMN members assessed their ability to use  technology platforms, cell cultures and filling technologies for the manufacture of drug products. DCVMN members reported that they had the capability to supply over 50 distinct vaccines to 170 countries, totalling more than  3.5 billion vaccine doses annually.At least 15 manufacturer members have achieved WHO prequalification for their vaccines.  \nMembers are developing and producing novel vaccines for illnesses including neglected tropical diseases:  rotavirus, Japanese encephalitis, pertussis,  haemophilus influenzae, hepatitis B, hepatitis E, meningitis A, cholera, poliovirus, human papillomavirus infection, dengue fever, Chikungunya virus and COVID-19.Developing countries that have the capacity for production of whole inactivated virus (WIV) and protein-based vaccines may be critical in addressing COVID-19 vaccine access gaps and achieving vaccine equity for LMICs.\nAs of 29 December 2020, 18 DCVMN members were involved in preclinical or clinical trials for possible COVID-19 vaccines, three of them in Phase III trials. The DCVMN is a vaccine manufacturers partner of COVAX, a worldwide initiative for equitable access to COVID-19 vaccines.As of 2016, the timeline from a vaccine's first regulatory submission in its country of origin to its approval for use in Sub-Saharan Africa could take up to seven years.\nThe DCVMN is active in identifying obstacles in the processes of vaccine registration and use. It works to increase coordination of requirements and procedures to improve the prequalification, procurement and supply of vaccines. This can involve governments in different countries, the World Health Organization (WHO), and United Nations agencies such as UNICEF.The Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network has received funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The FinnProstate Group (FP), or FinnProstate Study Group, is a group of scientific researchers in Finland who have conducted a series of clinical trials of treatments for prostate cancer. The first publication by the group was in 1985 and the latest publication was in 2019.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Hong Kong Applied Science and Technology Research Institute Company Limited (ASTRI) was established by the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government in 2000 as an R&D centre for information and communications technologies. The Institute states its objective as 'enhancing Hong Kong\u2019s competitiveness in technology-based industries through applied research'.ASTRI focuses on applied research by pursuing R&D projects in partnership with public sector bodies or private sector businesses. Over the years, it has built a portfolio of intellectual properties while developing applications for the various industries and sectors. Since 2000, ASTRI has completed over 500 research projects and been granted around 900 patents in the US, Mainland China and other territories. It has transferred over 750 technologies to the industries.\nASTRI focuses on five areas of applications: smart city, financial technologies, intelligent manufacturing, digital health, and Application Specific Integrated Circuits through ASTRI's role as the Hong Kong branch of the Chinese National Engineering Research Centre (CNERC).Over 600 people currently work for ASTRI based in its facility in Hong Kong Science Park.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Indian Institute of Nano Science & Technology  (IINSc) is a research institution that teaches nano science and technology. It is located in Bangalore, India.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata (IISER-K or IISER Kolkata) is an autonomous public university in science and education field located in Mohanpur near the town of Kalyani in Nadia district, West Bengal, India. It was established by the Ministry of Human Resource Development in 2006 and promoted to the status of an Institute of National Importance in 2012 vide the NIT Amendment Act. It is one of seven Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research, and was the first of the IISERs to be established along with IISER Pune. It is considered to be one of the leading institutes of India in terms of research output, and was ranked fifth in the country by the Nature Index (compiled by Nature Research). Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya(BCKV) & MAKAUT are other nearby Institutions.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Institute of Fisheries Management  (IFM) is a not-for-profit membership based organisation founded in 1969 and based in the United Kingdom.Its objectives include bringing together professionals in fishery management and those with an interest in fisheries. Although it promotes an international view, all of its nine branches are within the UK. Members of the IFM are entitled to use MIFM after their name.\nThe IFM diploma awarded by examination by the institute is accepted as a full credit by the Open University", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The International Union of Radio Science (abbreviated URSI, after its French name, French: Union radio-scientifique internationale) is one of 26 international scientific unions affiliated to the International Council for Science (ICSU).\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A learned society (; also known as a learned academy, scholarly society, or academic association) is an organization that exists to promote an academic discipline, profession, or a group of related disciplines such as the arts and science. Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some qualification, or may be an honour conferred by election.Most learned societies are non-profit organizations, and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some also act as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest or the collective interest of the membership.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "This article lists those scientific organisations and other nationally or internationally recognised groups that specifically reject intelligent design as a valid alternative to evolutionary theory.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research, in the areas of natural science, technology, and social science. Different methods can be used to disburse funding, but the term often connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. It is often measured via Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD).\nMost research funding comes from two major sources, corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily carried out through universities and specialized government agencies; often known as research councils). A smaller amount of scientific research is funded by charitable foundations, especially in relation to developing cures for diseases such as cancer, malaria, and AIDS.\nAccording to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), more than 60% of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. Comparatively, in countries with less GDP such as Portugal and Mexico, the industry contribution is significantly lower. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialization possibilities rather than \"blue-sky\" ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A research site is a place where people conduct research. Common research sites include universities, hospitals, research institutes, and field research locations.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Research4Life, is a platform and website dedicated to making peer-reviewed knowledge public to students and researchers in lower income countries. Research4Life provides free or low cost access to academic and professional peer-reviewed content online. In 2021 Research4Life offered 132,000 leading journals and books in the fields of health, agriculture, environment, applied sciences and legal information.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Rowland Institute for Science was founded by Edwin H. Land, founder of Polaroid Corporation, as a nonprofit, privately endowed basic research organization in 1980. The institute merged with Harvard University on July 1, 2002, and is now called The Rowland Institute at Harvard. The Rowland Institute is dedicated to experimental science across a wide range of disciplines. Research subjects at the institute includes chemistry, physics and biology, and focus on interdisciplinary work and the development of new experimental tools. It is located on the Charles River near Kendall Square in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and is a few miles away from the main campus of Harvard.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) is an interdisciplinary body of the International Science Council.  SCOR was established in 1957, coincident with the International Geophysical Year of 1957-1958.  It sought to bring scientists together to answer key ocean science questions and improve opportunities for marginalised scientists. From 1959 through to 1988 SCOR organised a sequence of Joint Oceanographic Assemblies.  Following these, SCOR has focused its efforts on targeted scientific working groups. These small international groups are designed to address narrowly focused scientific topics based on proposals from independent groups of scientists, national committees for SCOR, other scientific organizations, or previous working groups. The working groups last typically for three to four years.  SCOR activity, often through the efforts of working groups, has helped support the development of many large-scale ocean research projects.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Slavonic Library in Prague is a publicly accessible specialised research library for the field of Slavic Studies. It is one of the largest and most important Slavic libraries in Europe. Since its foundation in 1924, it has been systematically complementing, processing and making accessible its collection of world research Slavic (mainly historical, philological and political-science) literature and selected original production of Slavic authors. Its depositories contain more than 850,000 volumes of library documents, a collection of maps, posters, visual and artistic materials, and numerous collections of special documents.\nThe Slavonic Library provides library and information services concerning the political, economic and cultural life of the Slavic nations, their mutual relations and their relations to other nations in the past as well as the present. Documents can be studied in the library's public reading room, provided with free internet access, an extensive reference library and open-access shelving with a large number of volumes.\nThe library processes and edits specialised bibliographies and publications in its field. It organizes cultural events, professional seminars, conferences and exhibitions. Following the decision of the International Committee of Slavists, it has fulfilled the function of the centre for recording and processing materials related to the international congresses of Slavists.\n\nThe Slavonic Library is a section of the National Library of the Czech Republic but acts autonomously in professional library issues. It consists of departments for collection acquisitions, cataloguing and for services.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A virtual scientific community is a group of people, often researchers and students, who share multiple resources related to the scientific field, and whose main medium of communication is the internet.  Examples of such communities include the Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning Portal or the Biomedical Informatics Research Network.There are numerous scientific repositories and websites in existence that, while useful, do not meet the definition of a virtual scientific community.  Examples of such are data and scientific literature repositories as well as open access journals.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Rayleigh scattering ( RAY-lee), named after the 19th-century British physicist Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt), is the predominantly elastic scattering of light or other electromagnetic radiation by particles much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. For light frequencies well below the resonance frequency of the scattering particle (normal dispersion regime), the amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.\nRayleigh scattering results from the electric polarizability of the particles. The oscillating electric field of a light wave acts on the charges within a particle, causing them to move at the same frequency. The particle, therefore, becomes a small radiating dipole whose radiation we see as scattered light. The particles may be individual atoms or molecules; it can occur when light travels through transparent solids and liquids, but is most prominently seen in gases. \nRayleigh scattering of sunlight in Earth's atmosphere causes diffuse sky radiation, which is the reason for the blue color of the daytime and twilight sky, as well as the yellowish to reddish hue of the low Sun. Sunlight is also subject to Raman scattering, which changes the rotational state of the molecules and gives rise to polarization effects.\n\nScattering by particles with a size comparable to or larger than the wavelength of the light is typically treated by the Mie theory, the discrete dipole approximation and other computational techniques. Rayleigh scattering applies to particles that are small with respect to wavelengths of light, and that are optically \"soft\" (i.e., with a refractive index close to 1). Anomalous diffraction theory applies to optically soft but larger particles.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The recovery effect is a phenomenon observed in battery usage where the available energy is less than the difference between energy charged and energy consumed. Intuitively, this is because the energy has been consumed from the edge of the battery and the charge has not yet diffused evenly around the battery.When power is extracted continuously voltage decreases in a smooth curve, but the recovery effect can result in the voltage partially increasing if the current is interrupted.The KiBaM battery model describes the recovery effect for lead-acid batteries and is also a good approximation to the observed effects in Li-ion batteries. In some batteries the gains from the recovery life can extend battery life by up to 45% by alternating discharging and inactive periods rather than constantly discharging. The size of the recovery effect depends on the battery load, recovery time and depth of discharge.Even though the recovery effect phenomenon is more prominent in the lead acid battery chemistry, its existence in alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries is still questionable. For instance, a systematic experimental case study shows that an intermittent discharge current in case of alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries results in a decreased usable energy output compared to a continuous discharge current of the same average value. This is primarily due to the increased overpotential experienced due to the high peak currents of the intermittent discharge over the continuous discharge current of same average value.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The following is a list of people who are considered a \"father\" or \"mother\" (or \"founding father\" or \"founding mother\") of a scientific field. Such people are generally regarded to have made the first significant contributions to and/or delineation of that field; they may also be seen as \"a\" rather than \"the\" father or mother of the field. Debate over who merits the title can be perennial.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of people who made transformative breakthroughs in the creation, development and imagining of what computers could do.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The birds in a truck riddle is a riddle that asks whether a container or a truck carrying birds changes in weight when the birds inside are flying.The television series MythBusters investigated the question in a 2007 episode, testing it both with a box of pigeons and again with a model helicopter. They concluded that the contents being in flight made no difference to the weight, and theorised that the downdraft of air from the wings or rotors pressed down against the base of the box with the same force as the resting bird or helicopter.A drone research team from Stanford University measured the forces involved in a bird's hovering and found that it created \"double the lift during the downstroke [of the wings] so that the birds did not have to lift their weight during the upstroke\", with the amount of lift on the upstroke being \"almost none\". They concluded that a truck containing a few birds would fluctuate in weight over time, but a larger flock flapping at random would cancel one another and leave the truck's weight unaffected.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of unsolved problems in chemistry. Problems in chemistry are considered unsolved when an expert in the field considers it unsolved or when several experts in the field disagree about a solution to a problem.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Magmatic water, also known as juvenile water, is an aqueous phase in equilibrium with minerals that have been dissolved by magma deep within the Earth's crust and is released to the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption. It plays a key role in assessing the crystallization of igneous rocks, particularly silicates, as well as the rheology and evolution of magma chambers. Magma is composed of minerals, crystals and volatiles in varying relative abundance. Magmatic differentiation varies significantly based on various factors, most notably the presence of water. An abundance of volatiles within magma chambers decreases viscosity and leads to the formation of minerals bearing halogens, including chloride and hydroxide groups. In addition, the relative abundance of volatiles varies within basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic magma chambers, leading to some volcanoes being exceedingly more explosive than others. Magmatic water is practically insoluble in silicate melts but has demonstrated the highest solubility within rhyolitic melts. An abundance of magmatic water has been shown to lead to high-grade deformation, altering the amount of \u03b418O and \u03b42H within host rocks.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The  origin of water on Earth is the subject of a body of research in the fields of planetary science, astronomy, and astrobiology. Earth is unique among the rocky planets in the Solar System in that it is the only planet known to have oceans of liquid water on its surface. Liquid water, which is necessary for life as we know it, continues to exist on the surface of Earth because the planet is at a distance, known as the  habitable zone, far enough from the Sun that it does not lose its water, but not so far that low temperatures cause all water on the planet to freeze.\nIt was long thought that Earth\u2019s water did not originate from the planet\u2019s region of the protoplanetary disk. Instead, it was hypothesized water and other volatiles must have been delivered to Earth from the outer Solar System later in its history. Recent research, however, indicates that hydrogen inside the Earth played a role in the formation of the ocean. The two ideas are not mutually exclusive, as there is also evidence that water was delivered to Earth by impacts from icy planetesimals similar in composition to asteroids in the outer edges of the asteroid belt.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "All models are wrong is a common aphorism in statistics; it is often expanded as \"All models are wrong, but some are useful\". The aphorism acknowledges that statistical models always fall short of the complexities of reality but can still be useful nonetheless. The aphorism originally referred just to statistical models, but it is now sometimes used for scientific models in general.The aphorism is generally attributed to the statistician George Box. The underlying concept, though, predates Box's writings.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "\"And yet it moves\" or \"Although it does move\" (Italian: E pur si muove or Eppur si muove [ep\u02c8pur si \u02c8mw\u0254\u02d0ve]) is a phrase attributed to the Italian mathematician, physicist and philosopher Galileo Galilei (1564\u20131642) in 1633 after being forced to recant his claims that the Earth moves around the Sun, rather than the converse. In this context, the implication of the phrase is: despite his recantation, the Church's proclamations to the contrary, or any other conviction or doctrine of men, the Earth does, in fact, move (around the Sun, and not vice versa).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Murphy's law is an adage or epigram that is typically stated as: \"Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.\" In some formulations, it is extended to \"Anything that can go wrong will go wrong, and at the worst possible time.\"", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Carl Edward Sagan (; SAY-g\u0259n; November 9, 1934 \u2013 December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer, planetary scientist, cosmologist, astrophysicist, astrobiologist, author, and science communicator. His best known scientific contribution is research on extraterrestrial life, including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by radiation. Sagan assembled the first physical messages sent into space, the Pioneer plaque and the Voyager Golden Record, universal messages that could potentially be understood by any extraterrestrial intelligence that might find them. Sagan argued the hypothesis, accepted since, that the high surface temperatures of Venus can be attributed to, and calculated using, the greenhouse effect.Initially an assistant professor at Harvard, Sagan later moved to Cornell where he would spend the majority of his career as the David Duncan Professor of Astronomy and Space Sciences. Sagan published more than 600 scientific papers and articles and was author, co-author or editor of more than 20 books. He wrote many popular science books, such as The Dragons of Eden, Broca's Brain, Pale Blue Dot and narrated and co-wrote the award-winning 1980 television series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage. The most widely watched series in the history of American public television, Cosmos has been seen by at least 500 million people in 60 countries. The book Cosmos was published to accompany the series. He also wrote the 1985 science fiction novel Contact, the basis for a 1997 film of the same name. His papers, containing 595,000 items, are archived at The Library of Congress.Sagan advocated scientific skeptical inquiry and the scientific method, pioneered exobiology and promoted the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI). He spent most of his career as a professor of astronomy at Cornell University, where he directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies. Sagan and his works received numerous awards and honors, including the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal, the National Academy of Sciences Public Welfare Medal, the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for his book The Dragons of Eden, and, regarding Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, two Emmy Awards, the Peabody Award, and the Hugo Award. He married three times and had five children. After developing myelodysplasia, Sagan died of pneumonia at the age of 62, on December 20, 1996.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In physics, mass\u2013energy equivalence is the relationship between mass and energy in a system's rest frame, where the two values differ only by a constant and the units of measurement. The principle is described by the physicist Albert Einstein's famous formula: \n  \n    \n      \n        E\n        =\n        m\n        \n          c\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}\n  .The formula defines the energy E of a particle in its rest frame as the product of mass (m) with the speed of light squared (c2). Because the speed of light is a large number in everyday units (approximately 300000 km/s or 186000 mi/s), the formula implies that a small amount of rest mass corresponds to an enormous amount of energy, which is independent of the composition of the matter. Rest mass, also called invariant mass, is the mass that is measured when the system is at rest. It is a fundamental physical property that is independent of momentum, even at extreme speeds approaching the speed of light (i.e., its value is the same in all inertial frames of reference). Massless particles such as photons have zero invariant mass, but massless free particles have both momentum and energy. The equivalence principle implies that when energy is lost in chemical reactions, nuclear reactions, and other energy transformations, the system will also lose a corresponding amount of mass. The energy, and mass, can be released to the environment as radiant energy, such as light, or as thermal energy. The principle is fundamental to many fields of physics, including nuclear and particle physics.\nMass\u2013energy equivalence arose from special relativity as a paradox described by the French polymath Henri Poincar\u00e9 (1854\u20131912). Einstein was the first to propose the equivalence of mass and energy as a general principle and a consequence of the symmetries of space and time. The principle first appeared in \"Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy-content?\", one of his annus mirabilis papers, published on 21 November 1905. The formula and its relationship to momentum, as described by the energy\u2013momentum relation, were later developed by other physicists.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Apollo 11 (July 16\u201324, 1969) was the American spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had named Tranquility Base upon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module Columbia in lunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes before lifting off to rejoin Columbia.\nApollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages\u2014a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.\nAfter being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. The astronauts used Eagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that propelled Columbia out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.\nArmstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as \"one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.\" Apollo 11 effectively proved US victory in the Space Race to demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, \"before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\"", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Albert Einstein's religious views have been widely studied and often misunderstood. Albert Einstein stated \"I believe in Spinoza\u2019s God\". He did not believe in a personal God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naive. He clarified however that, \"I am not an atheist\", preferring to call himself an agnostic, or a \"religious nonbeliever.\" Einstein also stated he did not believe in life after death, adding \"one life is enough for me.\" He was closely involved in his lifetime with several humanist groups.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "\"Houston, we have a problem\" is a popular but slightly erroneous quotation from the radio communications between the Apollo 13 astronauts Jack Swigert, Jim Lovell and the NASA Mission Control Center (\"Houston\") during the Apollo 13 spaceflight in 1970, as the astronauts communicated their discovery of the explosion that crippled their spacecraft to mission control.\nThe words actually spoken, initially by Swigert, were \"Okay, Houston, we've had a problem here\". After being prompted to repeat the transmission by CAPCOM Jack R. Lousma, this time Lovell responded with \"Ah, Houston, we've had a problem.\"Since then, the phrase \"Houston, we have a problem\" has become popular, being used to account, informally, the emergence of an unforeseen problem, often with a sense of ironic understatement.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "\"Information wants to be free\" is an expression that means all people should be able to access information freely. It is often used by technology activists to criticize laws that limit transparency and general access to information. People who criticize intellectual property law say the system of such government-granted monopolies conflicts with the development of a public domain of information. The expression is often credited to Stewart Brand, who was recorded saying it at a hackers conference in 1984.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The phrase \"scientia potentia est\" (or \"scientia est potentia\" or also \"scientia potestas est\") is a Latin aphorism meaning \"knowledge is power\". commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon the expression \"ipsa scientia potestas est\" ('knowledge itself is power') occurs in Bacon's Meditationes Sacrae (1597). The exact phrase \"scientia potentia est\" (knowledge is power) was written for the first time in the 1668 version of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, who was a secretary to Bacon as a young man.\nThe related phrase \"sapientia est potentia\" is often translated as \"wisdom is power\".", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Thomas Augustus Watson (January 18, 1854 \u2013 December 13, 1934) was an assistant to Alexander Graham Bell, notably in the invention of the telephone in 1876.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "\"N\u014dl\u012b turb\u0101re circul\u014ds me\u014ds!\" is a Latin phrase, meaning \"Do not disturb my circles!\". It is said to have been uttered by Archimedes\u2014in reference to a geometric figure he had outlined on the sand\u2014when he was confronted by a Roman soldier during the Siege of Syracuse prior to being killed.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "J. Robert Oppenheimer (; April 22, 1904 \u2013 February 18, 1967) was an American theoretical physicist. A professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley, Oppenheimer was the wartime head of the Los Alamos Laboratory and is often credited as the \"father of the atomic bomb\" for his role in the Manhattan Project \u2013 the World War II undertaking that developed the first nuclear weapons. Oppenheimer was among those who observed the Trinity test in New Mexico, where the first atomic bomb was successfully detonated on July 16, 1945. He later remarked that the explosion brought to mind words from the Bhagavad Gita: \"Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.\" In August 1945, the weapons were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.\nAfter the war ended, Oppenheimer became chairman of the influential General Advisory Committee of the newly created United States Atomic Energy Commission. He used that position to lobby for international control of nuclear power to avert nuclear proliferation and a nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union. He opposed the development of the hydrogen bomb during a 1949\u20131950 governmental debate on the question and subsequently took stances on defense-related issues that provoked the ire of some factions in the U.S. government and military. During the Second Red Scare, those stances, together with past associations Oppenheimer had with people and organizations affiliated with the Communist Party, led to him suffering the revocation of his security clearance in a much-written-about hearing in 1954. Effectively stripped of his direct political influence, he continued to lecture, write and work in physics. Nine years later, President John F. Kennedy awarded (and Lyndon B. Johnson presented) him with the Enrico Fermi Award as a gesture of political rehabilitation.\nOppenheimer's achievements in physics included the Born\u2013Oppenheimer approximation for molecular wave functions, work on the theory of electrons and positrons, the Oppenheimer\u2013Phillips process in nuclear fusion, and the first prediction of quantum tunneling. With his students he also made important contributions to the modern theory of neutron stars and black holes, as well as to quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and the interactions of cosmic rays. As a teacher and promoter of science, he is remembered as a founding father of the American school of theoretical physics that gained world prominence in the 1930s. After World War II, he became director of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Kenneth Tompkins Bainbridge (July 27, 1904 \u2013 July 14, 1996) was an American physicist at Harvard University who did work on cyclotron research. His precise measurements of mass differences between nuclear isotopes allowed him to confirm Albert Einstein's mass\u2013energy equivalence concept. He was the Director of the Manhattan Project's Trinity nuclear test, which took place July 16, 1945. Bainbridge described the Trinity explosion as a \"foul and awesome display\". He remarked to J. Robert Oppenheimer immediately after the test, \"Now we are all sons of bitches.\" This marked the beginning of his dedication to ending the testing of nuclear weapons and to efforts to maintain civilian control of future developments in that field.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The phrase \"scientia potentia est\" (or \"scientia est potentia\" or also \"scientia potestas est\") is a Latin aphorism meaning \"knowledge is power\". commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon the expression \"ipsa scientia potestas est\" ('knowledge itself is power') occurs in Bacon's Meditationes Sacrae (1597). The exact phrase \"scientia potentia est\" (knowledge is power) was written for the first time in the 1668 version of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, who was a secretary to Bacon as a young man.\nThe related phrase \"sapientia est potentia\" is often translated as \"wisdom is power\".", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The phrase \"standing on the shoulders of giants\" is a metaphor which means \"using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have gone before in order to make intellectual progress\".It is a metaphor of dwarfs standing on the shoulders of giants (Latin: nanos gigantum humeris insidentes) and expresses the meaning of \"discovering truth by building on previous discoveries\". This concept has been dated to the 12th century and, according to John of Salisbury, is attributed to Bernard of Chartres. But its most familiar and popular expression occurs in a 1675 letter by Isaac Newton: \"if I have seen further [than others], it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.\"\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Neil Alden Armstrong (August 5, 1930 \u2013 August 25, 2012) was an American astronaut and aeronautical engineer, and the first person to walk on the Moon. He was also a naval aviator, test pilot, and university professor.\nArmstrong was born and raised in Wapakoneta, Ohio. A graduate of Purdue University, he studied aeronautical engineering; his college tuition was paid for by the U.S. Navy under the Holloway Plan. He became a midshipman in 1949 and a naval aviator the following year. He saw action in the Korean War, flying the Grumman F9F Panther from the aircraft carrier USS Essex. In September 1951, while making a low bombing run, Armstrong's aircraft was damaged when it collided with an anti-aircraft cable, strung across a valley, which cut off a large portion of one wing. Armstrong was forced to bail out. After the war, he completed his bachelor's degree at Purdue and became a test pilot at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) High-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base in California. He was the project pilot on Century Series fighters and flew the North American X-15 seven times. He was also a participant in the U.S. Air Force's Man in Space Soonest and X-20 Dyna-Soar human spaceflight programs.\nArmstrong joined the NASA Astronaut Corps in the second group, which was selected in 1962. He made his first spaceflight as command pilot of Gemini 8 in March 1966, becoming NASA's first civilian astronaut to fly in space. During this mission with pilot David Scott, he performed the first docking of two spacecraft; the mission was aborted after Armstrong used some of his re-entry control fuel to stabilize a dangerous roll caused by a stuck thruster. During training for Armstrong's second and last spaceflight as commander of Apollo 11, he had to eject from the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle moments before a crash. On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Apollo 11 Lunar Module (LM) pilot Buzz Aldrin became the first people to land on the Moon, and the next day they spent two and a half hours outside the Lunar Module Eagle spacecraft while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the Apollo Command Module Columbia. When Armstrong first stepped onto the lunar surface, he famously said: \"That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.\" It was broadcast live to an estimated 530 million viewers worldwide. Apollo 11 effectively proved US victory in the Space Race, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy \"of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth\" before the end of the decade. Along with Collins and Aldrin, Armstrong was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Richard Nixon and received the 1969 Collier Trophy. President Jimmy Carter presented him with the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, he was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1979, and with his former crewmates received the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009.\nAfter he resigned from NASA in 1971, Armstrong taught in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Cincinnati until 1979. He served on the Apollo 13 accident investigation and on the Rogers Commission, which investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. In 2012, Armstrong died due to complications resulting from coronary bypass surgery, at the age of 82.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The tyranny of numbers was a problem faced in the 1960s by computer engineers.  Engineers were unable to increase the performance of their designs due to the huge number of components involved. In theory, every component needed to be wired to every other component (or at least many other components) and were typically strung and soldered by hand. In order to improve performance, more components would be needed, and it seemed that future designs would consist almost entirely of wiring.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried.  Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated.  Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. There also exist  natural experimental studies.\nA child may carry out basic experiments to understand how things fall to the ground, while teams of scientists may take years of systematic investigation to advance their understanding of a phenomenon. Experiments and other types of hands-on activities are very important to student learning in the science classroom. Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time. Experiments can vary from personal and informal natural comparisons (e.g. tasting a range of chocolates to find a favorite), to highly controlled (e.g. tests requiring complex apparatus overseen by many scientists that hope to discover information about subatomic particles). Uses of experiments vary considerably between the natural and human sciences.\nExperiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control measurements and the other measurements. Scientific controls are a part of the scientific method. Ideally, all variables in an experiment are controlled (accounted for by the control measurements) and none are uncontrolled. In such an experiment, if all controls work as expected, it is possible to conclude that the experiment works as intended, and that results are due to the effect of the tested variables.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Acali was a raft which was used in the Acali Expedition or Acali Experiment. It has also been nicknamed the Sex Raft. The raft had a complement of eleven people: five men and six women. It left Las Palmas, Spain on 12 May 1973 and took 101 days to drift across the Atlantic Ocean and reach Cozumel, Mexico, with a single stopover in Barbados. The experiment was conceived by Mexican anthropologist Santiago Genov\u00e9s (who had previously been a crew member of Thor Heyerdahl's Ra expedition) to investigate interpersonal relationships in conditions of limited space and social isolation. The participants showed a restraint towards aggression which created frustration within Genov\u00e9s and led him to start to try to create conflict, and at one point he took command of the float. Despite these attempts, the group remained peaceful.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion (ANP) program and the preceding Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft (NEPA) project worked to develop a nuclear propulsion system for aircraft. The United States Army Air Forces initiated Project NEPA on May 28, 1946. NEPA operated until May 1951, when the project was transferred to the joint Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)/USAF ANP. The USAF pursued two different systems for nuclear-powered jet engines, the Direct Air Cycle concept, which was developed by General Electric, and Indirect Air Cycle, which was assigned to Pratt & Whitney.  The program was intended to develop and test the Convair X-6, but was canceled in 1961 before that aircraft was built. The total cost of the program from 1946 to 1961 was about $1 billion.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Cloud seeding in the United Arab Emirates is a strategy used by the government to address water challenges in the country. Cloud seeding is also referred to as man made precipitation and artificial rain making. The United Arab Emirates is one of the first countries in the Arabian Gulf region to use cloud seeding technology. UAE scientists use cloud seeding technology to supplement the country's water insecurity, which stems from the extremely hot climate. They use weather radar to continuously monitor the atmosphere of the country. Forecasters and scientists have estimated that cloud seeding operations can enhance rainfall by as much as 30-35% percent in a clear atmosphere, and up to 10-15% in a more humid atmosphere. This practice has caused concerns regarding the impact on the environment because it is difficult to predict the long-term global implications.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A control variable (or scientific constant) in scientific experimentation is an experimental element which is constant and unchanged throughout the course of the investigation.  Control variables could strongly influence experimental results, were they not held constant during the experiment in order to test the relative relationship of the dependent and independent variables. The control variables themselves are not of primary interest to the experimenter.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Empirical evidence for a proposition is evidence, i.e. what supports or counters this proposition, that is constituted by or accessible to sense experience or experimental procedure. Empirical evidence is of central importance to the sciences and plays a role in various other fields, like epistemology and law.\nThere is no general agreement on how the terms evidence and empirical are to be defined. Often different fields work with quite different conceptions. In epistemology, evidence is what justifies beliefs or what determines whether holding a certain belief is rational. This is only possible if the evidence is possessed by the person, which has prompted various epistemologists to conceive evidence as private mental states like experiences or other beliefs. In philosophy of science, on the other hand, evidence is understood as that which confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses and arbitrates between competing theories. For this role, it is important that evidence is public and uncontroversial, like observable physical objects or events and unlike private mental states, so that evidence may foster scientific consensus. The term empirical comes from Greek \u1f10\u03bc\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 empeir\u00eda, i.e. 'experience'. In this context, it is usually understood as what is observable, in contrast to unobservable or theoretical objects. It is generally accepted that unaided perception constitutes observation, but it is disputed to what extent objects accessible only to aided perception, like bacteria seen through a microscope or positrons detected in a cloud chamber, should be regarded as observable.\nEmpirical evidence is essential to a posteriori knowledge or empirical knowledge, knowledge whose justification or falsification depends on experience or experiment. A priori knowledge, on the other hand, is seen either as innate or as justified by rational intuition and therefore as not dependent on empirical evidence. Rationalism fully accepts that there is knowledge a priori, which is either outright rejected by empiricism or accepted only in a restricted way as knowledge of relations between our concepts but not as pertaining to the external world.\nScientific evidence is closely related to empirical evidence but not all forms of empirical evidence meet the standards dictated by scientific methods. Sources of empirical evidence are sometimes divided into observation and experimentation, the difference being that only experimentation involves manipulation or intervention: phenomena are actively created instead of being passively observed.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Evidence of absence is evidence of any kind that suggests something is missing or that it does not exist. What counts as evidence of absence has been a subject of debate between scientists and philosophers. It is often distinguished from absence of evidence.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In the design of experiments in statistics, the lady tasting tea is a randomized experiment devised by Ronald Fisher and reported in his book The Design of Experiments (1935). The experiment is the original exposition of Fisher's notion of a null hypothesis, which is \"never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation\".The lady in question (Muriel Bristol) claimed to be able to tell whether the tea or the milk was added first to a cup. Fisher proposed to give her eight cups, four of each variety, in random order. One could then ask what the probability was for her getting the specific number of cups she identified correct, but just by chance.\nFisher's description is less than 10 pages in length and is notable for its simplicity and completeness regarding terminology, calculations and design of the experiment. The example is loosely based on an event in Fisher's life. The test used was Fisher's exact test.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A mesocosm (meso- or 'medium' and -cosm 'world') is any outdoor experimental system that examines the natural environment under controlled conditions. In this way mesocosm studies provide a link between field surveys and highly controlled laboratory experiments.Mesocosms tend to be medium-sized to large (e.g., aquatic mesocosm range: 1 litre (34 US fl oz) to 10,000 litres (2,600 US gal)+) and contain multiple trophic levels of interacting organisms.\nIn contrast to laboratory experiments, mesocosm studies are normally conducted outdoors in order to incorporate natural variation (e.g., diel cycles).  Mesocosm studies may be conducted in either an enclosure that is small enough that key variables can be brought under control or by field-collecting key components of the natural environment for further experimentation.\nExtensive mesocosm studies have been conducted to evaluate how organisms or communities might react to environmental change, through deliberate manipulation of environmental variables, such as increased temperature, carbon dioxide or pH levels.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) was an experimental molten salt reactor at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) researching this technology through the 1960s; constructed by 1964, it went critical in 1965 and was operated until 1969. The costs of a cleanup project were estimated at about $130 million.\nThe MSRE was a 7.4 MWth test reactor simulating the neutronic \"kernel\" of a type of inherently safer epithermal thorium breeder reactor called the liquid fluoride thorium reactor. It primarily used two fuels: first uranium-235 and later uranium-233. The latter 233UF4 was the result of breeding from thorium in other reactors. Since this was an engineering test, the large, expensive breeding blanket of thorium salt was omitted in favor of neutron measurements.\nIn the MSRE, the heat from the reactor core was shed via a cooling system using air blown over radiators. It is thought similar reactors could power high-efficiency heat engines such as closed-cycle gas turbines.\nThe MSRE's piping, core vat and structural components were made from Hastelloy-N and its moderator was a pyrolytic graphite core. The fuel for the MSRE was LiF-BeF2-ZrF4-UF4 (65-29-5-1), the graphite core moderated it, and its secondary coolant was FLiBe (2LiF-BeF2), it operated as hot as 650 \u00b0C and operated for the equivalent of about 1.5 years of full power operation.\nThe result promised to be a simple, reliable reactor. The purpose of the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment was to demonstrate that some key features of the proposed molten-salt power reactors could be embodied in a practical reactor that could be operated safely and reliably and be maintained without excessive difficulty. For simplicity, it was to be a fairly small, one-fluid (i.e. non-breeding) reactor operating at 10 MWth or less, with heat rejection to the air via a secondary (fuel-free) salt.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The stirpiculture experiment at the Oneida Community was the first positive eugenics experiment in American history, resulting in the planned conception, birth and rearing of 58 children. The experiment lasted from 1869\u20131879. It was not considered as part of the larger eugenics history because of its radical religious context. The term \"stirpiculture\" was used by John Humphrey Noyes, founder of the Oneida Community, to refer to his system of eugenics, or the breeding of humans to achieve desired perfections within the species. Noyes derived stirpiculture from the Latin word \"stirps\", which means \"stock, stem, or root\" (Carden). It has been claimed that Noyes coined the term two decades before Francis Galton created the term \"eugenics\". In 1904, Galton claimed that he had first come up with the term and \"deliberately changed it for eugenics,\" a claim supported in print by George Willis Cooke. In his 1883 book Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development, Galton noted that his new term \"eugenics\" was a suitable replacement for the older term \"viriculture\" that he had invented, suggesting that he had confused the two terms \"viriculture\" and \"stirpiculture.\"", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A remote experiment is a real experiment with real laboratory instruments and equipment that can be controlled by a computer through the internet. One or more remote experiments are accessible in remote laboratory. Remotely controlled experiments have become a widespread tool for teaching physics at the university level of education. When executing remote experiments the remote users can change system parameters, observe results in graphical form and/or by video transmission from webcam, and download the experimental results. Sometimes a booking system is available for remote experiments that allows the users to book time for access of remote experiment in advance. User operates remote experiment via graphical user interface. Remote experiments are positively evaluated by the learners.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Repeated measures design is a research design that involves multiple measures of the same variable taken on the same or matched subjects either under different conditions or over two or more time periods. For instance, repeated measurements are collected in a longitudinal study in which change over time is assessed.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A Resistive plate chamber (RPC) is a particle detector widely used in high energy physics. They are used for detecting muons in most of the modern experiments including ATLAS, CMS, and BES III.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Colloquially, \"room temperature\" is a range of air temperatures that most people prefer for indoor settings. It feels comfortable to a person when they are wearing typical indoor clothing. Human comfort can extend beyond this range depending on humidity, air circulation and other factors. Water for drinking may be served at room temperature, meaning it is neither heated nor cooled.\nIn certain fields, like science and engineering, and within a particular context, room temperature can mean different agreed-upon ranges. In contrast, ambient temperature is the actual temperature, as measured by a thermometer, of the air (or other medium and surroundings) in any particular place. The ambient temperature (e.g. an unheated room in winter) may be very different from an ideal room temperature.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Rye Riptides is a boat that was made by a 5th grade class in New Hampshire that was released to the Atlantic Ocean in 2020, and spent 462 days at sea before being discovered in Norway in 2022. The boat was built by two science classes at Rye Junior High School in New Hampshire and launched on October 25, 2020; it was found on February 1, 2022, on a small uninhabited island off the larger island of Sm\u00f8la.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In design of experiments, single-subject curriculum  or single-case research design (SCED) is a research design most often used in applied fields of psychology, education, and human behaviour in which the subject serves as his/her own control, rather than using another individual/group. Researchers use single-subject design because these designs are sensitive to individual organism differences vs group designs which are sensitive to averages of groups. The logic behind single subject designs is 1) Prediction, 2) Verification, and 3) Replication. The baseline data predicts behaviour by affirming the consequent. Verification refers to demonstrating that the baseline responding would have continued had no intervention been implemented. Replication occurs when a previously observed behaviour changed is reproduced. Often there will be large numbers of subjects in a research study using single-subject design, however\u2014because the subject serves as their own control, this is still a single-subject design. These designs are used primarily to evaluate the effect of a variety of interventions in applied research.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Experimental software engineering involves running experiments on the processes and procedures involved in the creation of software systems, with the intent that the data be used as the basis of theories about the processes involved in software engineering (theory backed by data is a fundamental tenet of the scientific method).  A number of research groups primarily use empirical and experimental techniques.\nThe term empirical software engineering emphasizes the use of empirical studies of all kinds to accumulate knowledge.  Methods used include experiments, case studies, surveys, and using whatever data is available.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The hexagonal snowflake, a crystalline formation of ice, has intrigued people throughout history. This is a chronology of interest and research into snowflakes. Artists, philosophers, and scientists have wondered at their shape, recorded them by hand or in photographs, and attempted to recreate hexagonal snowflakes.\nWilson Alwyn Bentley (February 9, 1865 \u2013 December 23, 1931), also known as Snowflake Bentley, was an American meteorologist and photographer, who was the first known person to take detailed photographs of snowflakes and record their features.[1] He perfected a process of catching flakes on black velvet in such a way that their images could be captured before they either melted or sublimated.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "WORF (Write Once, Read Forever) is a new data storage method which allows users to write data once and allows storage of the users data without ever being refreshed. This differs from current digital storage techniques such as drives that need to be re-written often to prevent loss or corruption of data. WORF has the potential to store data forever and is currently being tested on the International Space Station (ISS).\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A wet lab, or experimental lab, is a type of laboratory where it is necessary to handle various types of chemicals and potential \"wet\" hazards, so the room has to be carefully designed, constructed, and controlled to avoid spillage and contamination. \nA dry lab might have large experimental equipment but minimal chemicals, or instruments for analyzing data produced elsewhere.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Widefield ASKAP L-band Legacy All-sky Blind surveY (WALLABY) is a next-generation survey of the 21 cm radio emission from neutral hydrogen (HI) in the Local Universe. It is hosted by the Australian Square Kilometer Array Pathfinder (ASKAP) telescope, WALLABY will survey three-quarters of the sky over a Declination range \u221290\u00b0 to +30\u00b0  to a redshift of 0.26. It will have a angular resolution of 30 arcsec and a sensitivity of 1.6 mJy/beam in each 4 km/s channel. WALLABY is expected to detect about 500,000 galaxies with a mean redshift of 0.05, at a mean distance of about  200 Mpc. The scientific goals of WALLABY include:\na census of gas-rich galaxies in the vicinity of the Local Group;\na study of the HI properties of galaxies, groups and clusters, including the influence of the environment on galaxy evolution;", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science and technology studies (STS) is an interdisciplinary field that examines the creation, development, and consequences of science and technology in their historical, cultural, and social contexts.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science is a cross-disciplinary organization founded in 2009 within Stony Brook University's School of Communication and Journalism, in Stony Brook, New York. Its current director is Laura Lindenfeld. Its goal is to help scientists learn to communicate more effectively with the public, including policymakers, students, funders and the media. It was inspired by Alan Alda, the actor, writer and science advocate, in whose honor it was renamed in 2013, and is supported by Brookhaven National Laboratory and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA was an influential conference organized by Paul Berg, Maxine Singer, and colleagues to discuss the potential biohazards and regulation of biotechnology, held in February 1975 at a conference center at Asilomar State Beach, California. A group of about 140 professionals (primarily biologists, but also including lawyers and physicians) participated in the conference to draw up voluntary guidelines to ensure the safety of recombinant DNA technology. The conference also placed scientific research more into the public domain, and can be seen as applying a version of the precautionary principle.\nThe effects of these guidelines are still being felt through the biotechnology industry and the participation of the general public in scientific discourse. Due to potential safety hazards, scientists worldwide had halted experiments using recombinant DNA technology, which entailed combining DNAs from different organisms. After the establishment of the guidelines during the conference, scientists continued with their research, which increased fundamental knowledge about biology and the public's interest in biomedical research.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Centre for the Public Awareness of Science is part of the Australian National University. In March 2000 it became an accredited Centre for the Australian National Commission for UNESCO.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Committee on the Public Understanding of Science or Copus was founded in 1985 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS), the Royal Institution and the Royal Society. Its aim was to interpret scientific advances and make them more accessible to non-scientists.\nIt played a part in developing the public understanding of science it establishing standards for communicating science and technology\nThe Copus Grant Schemes was set up in 1987 and the last round of grants was for 2003/4. The scheme was funded by the Office of Science and Technology and the Royal Society. 25 grants worth a total of over \u00a3750,000 were awarded in 2003/2004.\nIn 2000 The new Copus Council was formed to be a more inclusive partnership for science communication in the UK. In 2002 following a report commissioned by the Office of Science and Technology the Copus Council was discontinued.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In the psychology of human behavior, denialism is a person's choice to deny reality as a way to avoid a psychologically uncomfortable truth. Denialism is an essentially irrational action that withholds the validation of a historical experience or event, when a person refuses to accept an empirically verifiable reality.In the sciences, denialism is the rejection of basic facts and concepts that are undisputed, well-supported parts of the scientific consensus on a subject, in favor of ideas that are radical, controversial, or fabricated. The terms Holocaust denial and AIDS denialism describe the denial of the facts and the reality of the subject matters, and the term climate change denial describes denial of the scientific consensus that the climate change of planet Earth is a real and occurring event primarily caused in geologically recent times by human activity. The forms of denialism present the common feature of the person rejecting overwhelming evidence and trying to generate political controversy in attempts to deny the existence of consensus.The motivations and causes of denialism include religion, self-interest (economic, political, or financial), and defence mechanisms meant to protect the psyche of the denialist against mentally disturbing facts and ideas; such disturbance is called cognitive dissonance in psychology terms.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The easiness effect is the claim that as a result of science popularization laypeople develop an overconfident scientific understanding. This results in science-related decision-making that reflects a misunderstanding of popular science rather than the judgment of professional scientists.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The acronyms ELSI (in the United States) and ELSA (in Europe) refer to research activities that anticipate and address ethical, legal and social implications (ELSI) or aspects (ELSA) of emerging sciences, notably genomics and nanotechnology. ELSI was conceived in 1988 when James Watson, at the press conference announcing his appointment as director of the Human Genome Project (HGP), suddenly and somewhat unexpectedly declared that the ethical and social implications of genomics warranted a special effort and should be directly funded by the National Institutes of Health.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Ethnoscience has been defined as an attempt \"to reconstitute what serves as science for others, their practices of looking after themselves and their bodies, their botanical knowledge, but also their forms of classification, of making connections, etc.\" (Aug\u00e9, 1999: 118).\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Feminist philosophy of science is a branch of feminist philosophy that seeks to understand how the acquirement of knowledge through scientific means has been influenced by notions of gender and gender roles in society.  Feminist philosophers of science question how scientific research and scientific knowledge itself may be influenced and possibly compromised by the social and professional framework within which that research and knowledge is established and exists. The intersection of gender and science allows feminist philosophers to reexamine fundamental questions and truths in the field of science to reveal any signs of gender biases. It has been described as being located \"at the intersections of the philosophy of science and feminist science scholarship\", and has attracted considerable attention since the 1970s.\nFeminist epistemology often emphasizes \"situated knowledge\" that hinges on one's individual perspectives on a subject. Feminist philosophers often highlight the under-representation of female scientists in academia and the possibility that science currently has androcentric biases. Scientific theory has been accused of being more compatible with male cognitive styles and reasoning. Feminist epistemology suggests that integrating feminine modes of thought and logic that are undervalued by current scientific theory will enable improvement and broadening of scientific perspectives. Advocates assert that it may be guide in creating a philosophy of science that is more accessible to public. Practitioners of feminist philosophy of science also seek to promote gender equality in scientific fields and greater recognition of the achievements of female scientists.\n\nCritics have argued that the political commitments of advocates of feminist philosophy of science is incompatible with modern-day scientific objectivity, emphasizing the success of the scientific method due to its lauded objectivity and \"value-free\" methods of knowledge-making.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Frontiers of Science was an illustrated comic strip created by Professor Stuart Butler of the School of Physics at the University of Sydney in collaboration with Robert Raymond, a documentary maker from the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) in 1961. The artist was Andrea Bresciani. After 1970 the comic was illustrated by David Emerson.It explained scientific concepts and recent research and in a 3 or 4 panel illustrated strip in an accessible and easily comprehensible way. The strip was syndicated to over 200 newspapers around the world for 25 years, from 1961 to 1987. It was also published as soft cover books. As of 2011, it \"retains the record of being the longest-running newspaper science comic strip in the world.\"The strips are archived at Rare Books and Special Collections in Fisher Library at the University of Sydney. The entire series is available for viewing online.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research, in the areas of natural science, technology, and social science. Different methods can be used to disburse funding, but the term often connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. It is often measured via Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD).\nMost research funding comes from two major sources, corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily carried out through universities and specialized government agencies; often known as research councils). A smaller amount of scientific research is funded by charitable foundations, especially in relation to developing cures for diseases such as cancer, malaria, and AIDS.\nAccording to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), more than 60% of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. Comparatively, in countries with less GDP such as Portugal and Mexico, the industry contribution is significantly lower. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialization possibilities rather than \"blue-sky\" ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Google Science Fair was a worldwide (excluding Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, Myanmar/Burma, Syria, Zimbabwe and any other U.S. sanctioned country) online science competition sponsored by Google, Lego, Virgin Galactic, National Geographic and Scientific American.  It was an annual event spanning the years 2011 through 2018.\nThe first Google Science Fair was announced in January 2011; entries were due on April 7, 2011, and judging occurred in July 2011. The competition is open to 13- to 18-year-old students around the globe, who formulate a hypothesis, perform an experiment, and present their results. All students must have an internet connection and a free Google Account to participate, and the projects must be in English, German, Italian, Spanish, or French. The final submission must include ten sections, which are the summary, an \"About Me\" page, the steps of the project, and a works cited page.\nEntries are judged on eight core criteria, which include the student's presentation, question, hypothesis, research, experiment, data, observations, and conclusion. Prizes are awarded to three finalists. The grand prize includes a National Geographic trip to the Galapagos Islands, and a US$50,000 scholarship; finalists will receive a US$15,000 scholarship and assorted packages from sponsoring organizations. While Larry Page and Sergey Brin were PhD students at Stanford University in California, they created Google in January 1996 as a research project; Google employee Tom Oliveri highlighted the company's early days: \"Science fairs help students to explore their vision and curiosity through science. Our company was founded on an experiment. We firmly believe that science can change the world,\" he stated. As of October 28, 2019, no details for the next Google Science Fair have been released.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Helsinki Challenge is a science-based competition and idea accelerator which brings together the academic community and society at large to solve the world's grand challenges in cooperation. The competition goal is not only to create new scientific information, but to influence society.Multidisciplinary teams consisting of experts from the academic and artistic communities, the business world, the public and third sectors, media and other actors of the society are welcome to take part in the competition. Participating teams are evaluated by the jury using the following criteria: originality, creativity, impact, focus on solutions and use of science-based methods. The competition prize is 375,000 euros and it is meant for the implementation of the solution.Helsinki Challenge was held for the first time in 2015. In 2017, the competition is organised by the University of Helsinki in collaboration with Aalto University, Hanken School of Economics, University of Eastern Finland, University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4, University of Oulu, University of the Arts Helsinki, University of Turku, University of Vaasa and \u00c5bo Akademi University.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Industry funding of academic research in the United States is one of the two major sources of research funding in academia along with government support. Currently, private funding of research accounts for the majority of all research and development funding in the United States as of 2007 overall. Overall, Federal and Industrial sources contribute similar amounts to research, while industry funds the vast majority of development work.While the majority of industry research is performed in-house, a major portion of this private research funding is directed to research in non-profit academic centers. As of 1999, industrial sources accounted for an estimated $2.2 billion of academic research funding in the US. However, there is little governmental oversight or tracking of industry funding on academic science and figures of the scale of industry research are often estimated by self-reporting and surveys which can be somewhat unreliable.\nMuch of this industry funding of academic research is directed toward applied research. However, by some accounts, industry may even fund up to 40% of basic research in the United States, with Federal funding of basic research falling below 50%, although this figure does not consider where this research is conducted. The role for funding of academic research from industrial sources has received much attention both in a historical and contemporary perspective. The practice has received both extensive political praise and scholarly criticism.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The International Network of Engineers and Scientists for global responsibility (INES) is an independent non-profit-organization concerned about the impact of science and technology on society. \nINES efforts focus on disarmament and international peace, ethics in science, responsibilities of scientists and the responsible use of science and technology, just and sustainable development.\nINES was founded in 1991 in Berlin at the international congress Challenges - Science and Peace in a Rapidly Changing Environment and has become a network of over 200 organisations and individual members.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Italian Union of Scientists for Disarmament (Unione Scienziati per il Disarmo in Italian) is an association established in 1982 with the purpose of providing information about and analysis of arms control and disarmament. Members of the association believe that this task is part of the social responsibility of scientists.\nThe issues it addresses include nuclear arms-control and disarmament, nuclear proliferation, consequences of nuclear explosions, control of fissile material, developments of military technology, conventional disarmament, chemical and biological disarmament, problems of conflicts and conflict resolution. Members, both individually and collectively, share their views with Italian policy-makers and opinion-makers.\nIt organizes conferences and meetings, including the biennial Castiglioncello conference, courses and seminars in Italian Universities, and courses for high-school teachers.\nIt promotes the establishment of inter-departmental Centers affiliated to Italian Universities, and has actively collaborated for many years with the CIRP-UniBa (Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerche sulla Pace, University of Bari).It collaborates with international organizations of scientists and other Italian institutions, such as Archivio Disarmo (Roma) and Forum per i Problemi della Pace e della Guerra (Firenze). Members of USPID participate in Pugwash and ISODARCO meetings.In 1995 it began a standing collaboration with Landau Network-Centro Volta, Como (Italy). This institution organizes, together with UNESCO and under the sponsorship of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, conferences and research projects on different topics, including disarmament, non-proliferation and scientific-technological aspects of International Security.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Lincoln's Birthday Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom (LBCDIF) was an antifascist organization of scientists founded by Franz Boas in 1938 to discredit the theories of race being forwarded by the Nazis in Germany. \nIn the 1930s Franz Boas was one of the first scientists to become aware of the immense prestige and influence of scientists in that era. Even at his advanced age Boas wanted to find a way to use the influence of scientists to promote human welfare. At Columbia University he collaborated with Ruth Benedict, Leslie Dunn, Robert Lynd, Walter Rautenstrauch, Harold Urey and other members of the University Federation for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom to find a unifying political position that would bring scientists of all disciplines together on a common front. He decided antifascism was such a position, and based on his collaborations wrote the Manifesto on Freedom in Science. In 1938 the Manifesto was released with 1,284 signatures of prominent scientists, including Roger Adams, Robert Oppenheimer and Albert Einstein (see: Einstein Letter to LBCDIF). Boas used the excitement generated by the Manifesto to launch the LBCDIF.  Twenty-six meetings were organized to uphold the principles of the Manifesto, and the success of these meetings encouraged the organizers to expand the Birthday Committee to an ongoing group called the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom (ACDIF).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "This is a List of Astronomy Outreach Resources in Europe originally started as an initiative within the framework of the Astronet EU FP7 project.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Material World was a weekly science magazine programme on BBC Radio 4 broadcast on a Thursday afternoon. The programme's regular presenter was Quentin Cooper, with contributions from scientists researching areas under discussion in each programme.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Neo-colonial research or neo-colonial science, frequently described as helicopter research, parachute science or research, parasitic research, or  safari study, is when researchers from wealthier countries go to a developing country, collect information, travel back to their country, analyze the data and samples, and publish the results with no or little involvement of local researchers. A 2003 study by the Hungarian academy of sciences found that 70% of articles in a random sample of publications about least-developed countries did not include a local research co-author.Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support as fixers but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the research. Scientific publications resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such as funded research centers) and the careers of local scientists. This form of \"colonial\" science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as \"others\" in order to advance colonialism\u2014and critics call for the end of these extractivist practices in order to decolonize knowledge.This kind of research approach reduces the quality of research because international researchers may not ask the right questions or draw connections to local issues. The result of this approach is that local communities are unable to leverage the research to their own advantage. Ultimately, especially for fields dealing with global issues like conservation biology which rely on local communities to implement solutions, neo-colonial science prevents institutionalization of the findings in local communities in order to address issues being studied by scientists.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The people's science movement (PSM) aims to popularise science and scientific outlook among common people. Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishad, Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti, Assam Science Society, Bigyan Prachar Samithy (Orissa), We the Sapiens and the All India Peoples Science Network are some popular people's science movements in India.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose of science. This discipline overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and truth. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of science. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than the philosophy of science.\nThere is no consensus among philosophers about many of the central problems concerned with the philosophy of science, including whether science can reveal the truth about unobservable things and whether scientific reasoning can be justified at all. In addition to these general questions about science as a whole, philosophers of science consider problems that apply to particular sciences (such as biology or physics). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about philosophy itself.\nWhile philosophical thought pertaining to science dates back at least to the time of Aristotle, general philosophy of science emerged as a distinct discipline only in the 20th century in the wake of the logical positivist movement, which aimed to formulate criteria for ensuring all philosophical statements' meaningfulness and objectively assessing them. Charles Sanders Peirce and Karl Popper moved on from positivism to establish a modern set of standards for scientific methodology. Thomas Kuhn's 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was also formative, challenging the view of scientific progress as the steady, cumulative acquisition of knowledge based on a fixed method of systematic experimentation and instead of arguing that any progress is relative to a \"paradigm\", the set of questions, concepts, and practices that define a scientific discipline in a particular historical period.Subsequently, the coherentist approach to science, in which a theory is validated if it makes sense of observations as part of a coherent whole, became prominent due to W. V. Quine and others. Some thinkers such as Stephen Jay Gould seek to ground science in axiomatic assumptions, such as the uniformity of nature. A vocal minority of philosophers, and Paul Feyerabend in particular, argue that there is no such thing as the \"scientific method\", so all approaches to science should be allowed, including explicitly supernatural ones. Another approach to thinking about science involves studying how knowledge is created from a sociological perspective, an approach represented by scholars like David Bloor and Barry Barnes. Finally, a tradition in continental philosophy approaches science from the perspective of a rigorous analysis of human experience.\nPhilosophies of the particular sciences range from questions about the nature of time raised by Einstein's general relativity, to the implications of economics for public policy. A central theme is whether the terms of one scientific theory can be intra- or intertheoretically reduced to the terms of another. That is, can chemistry be reduced to physics, or can sociology be reduced to individual psychology? The general questions of philosophy of science also arise with greater specificity in some particular sciences. For instance, the question of the validity of scientific reasoning is seen in a different guise in the foundations of statistics. The question of what counts as science and what should be excluded arises as a life-or-death matter in the philosophy of medicine. Additionally, the philosophies of biology, psychology, and the social sciences explore whether the scientific studies of human nature can achieve objectivity or are inevitably shaped by values and by social relations.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Policy advocacy is defined as active, covert, or inadvertent support of a particular policy or class of policies. Advocacy can include a variety of activities including, lobbying, litigation, public education, and forming relationships with parties of interest. Advocating for policy can take place from a local level to a state or federal government. For example, a local advocacy group in Brunswick, Georgia, Defenders of Wildlife, advocated for the passage of the H.R. 5552 Migratory Bird Protection Act during 2020 when rollbacks to the bill were introduced from the Trump Administration. At the state level, advocacy for policy can be a joint effort between advocacy groups. In the United States, advocacy groups around the nation planned joint efforts to get the Uniform Partition of Heirs Property Act (UPHPA) signed into law in each of their respective states and in 2018, the bill was signed into law by Texas Governor Greg Abbott making it the tenth state to enforce this law.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Each entry on this list of common misconceptions is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries of the main subject articles, which can be consulted for more detail.\nA common misconception is a viewpoint or factoid that is often accepted as true but which is actually false. They commonly arise from conventional wisdom (such as old wives' tales), stereotypes, superstitions, fallacies, a misunderstanding of science, or the popularization of pseudoscience. Some common misconceptions are also considered to be urban legends, and they are often involved in moral panics.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Positive computing is a technological design perspective that embraces psychological well-being and ethical practice, aiming at building a digital environment to support happier and healthier users. Positive computing develops approaches that integrate insights from psychology, education, neuroscience, and HCI with technological development.\nThe purpose of positive computing is to bridge the technology and mental health worlds.\nIndeed, there are computer and mental health workshops that are aimed to bring people from both communities together.Everyone who uses technology is impacted by the way the tool is designed and even if most technologies may have small effects, they still apply to huge populations.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Public science is a term for research that is conducted amongst, or includes, the public. Two traditions of public science have emerged, one based on participatory action research and another based on science outreach.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Andrei Sakharov Prize is a prize that is to be awarded every second year by the American Physical Society since 2006. The recipients are chosen for \"outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights\". The prize is named after Andrei Sakharov (1921-1989), Soviet nuclear physicist, dissident and human rights activist; since 2007 it has been valued at $10,000.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science by press conference or science by press release is the practice by which scientists put an unusual focus on publicizing results of research in the media. The term is usually used disparagingly. It is intended to associate the target with people promoting scientific \"findings\" of questionable scientific merit who turn to the media for attention when they are unlikely to win the approval of the professional scientific community.\nPremature publicity violates a cultural value of most of the scientific community, which is that findings should be subjected to independent review with a \"thorough examination by the scientific community\" before they are widely publicized. The standard practice is to publish a paper in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. This idea has many merits, including that the scientific community has a responsibility to conduct itself in a deliberative, non-attention seeking way; and that its members should be oriented more towards the pursuit of insight than fame. Science by press conference in its most egregious forms can be undertaken on behalf of an individual researcher seeking fame, a corporation seeking to sway public opinion or investor perception, or a political or ideological movement.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science in Action is a long-running weekly radio programme produced by the BBC World Service and currently hosted by British journalists Roland Pease and Marnie Chesterton, and scientist and broadcaster Professor Adam Hart. It is broadcast on Thursdays at 18.32 GMT and repeated twice the following day, at 01.32 and 08.32.\nA programme with the title Science in Action is believed to have begun life in 1964, when it replaced an earlier series, dating from the 1950s, called Science and Industry. From September 1965 a short-lived series called Science in Action ran on the Home Service; it was broadcast at 19.30 on Thursdays, later 21.30. In December 1965 it was moved to 14.30 on Fridays. The present weekly World Service series, also called Science in Action, began on Saturday 7 July 1979.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Scientific research is concentrated in the developed world, with only a marginal contribution from the rest of the world. Many newly industrialized countries have been trying to establish scientific institutions, but with limited success. There is an insufficient dedicated, inspired and motivated labor pool for science and insufficient investment in science education.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Science Network (TSN) is a non-profit virtual forum dedicated to science and its impact on society. It was initially conceived in 2003 by Roger Bingham and Terry Sejnowski as a cable science TV network modeled on C-SPAN. TSN later became a global digital platform hosting videos of lectures from scientific meetings and long form one-on-one conversations with prominent scientists and communicators of science, including Neil deGrasse Tyson, V.S. Ramachandran, Helen S. Mayberg, and Barbara Landau. TSN has also sponsored and co-sponsored scientific forums, such as Stem cells: science, ethics and politics at the crossroads, held at the Salk Institute in 2004  and the Beyond Belief conference series.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science outreach, also called Education and Public Outreach (EPO or E/PO) or simply public outreach, is an umbrella term for a variety of activities by research institutes, universities, and institutions such as science museums, aimed at promoting public awareness (and understanding) of science and making informal contributions to science education.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Science Party, formerly known as Future Party, is an Australian political party that was established on 2 July 2013. The founding leader, James Jansson, was studying for his Doctorate at the Kirby Institute during the party's formation, with a focus on advancing Australian society through technical and long-term solutions. On 22 March 2016, the name was changed to The Science Party after registering with the Australian Electoral Commission. The Science Party has run candidates for the 2013, 2016 and 2019 Federal elections, as well as several By-elections in between.The party was de-registered on 12 January 2022 by the Australian Electoral Commission for failing to meet the increased registration requirement of 1,500 members. It later merged with other parties to become the Fusion Party.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science Theatre is an undergraduate student-run science outreach organization at Michigan State University's East Lansing campus, performing science theatre.  Science Theatre visits schools and events throughout Michigan performing interactive science demonstrations for K-12 students on-stage or up-close.  Science Theatre performers are undergraduate and graduate student volunteers and all performances are made free of charge.\nThe group's performances consist of arrangements from its catalog of more than seventy demonstrations in biology, chemistry, and physics.  Additionally, Science Theatre performs comprehensive shows in Astronomy, Environmental science, Pressure, the Periodic Table, Quantum Mechanics, and FRIB-related science.\nScience Theatre was founded in April 1991 under a grant from the National Science Foundation and received the 1993 AAAS Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology.  Science Theatre is a four-time winner of the Outreach Award from the Michigan State University Department of Physics and Astronomy.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science Week Ireland is an annual week-long event in Ireland each November, celebrating science in our everyday lives. Science Week is an initiative of Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) It is the largest science festival in the country, engaging tens of thousands of members of the general public in workshops, science shows, talks, laboratory demonstrations, science walks and other science-related events. Science Week is a collaboration of events involving industry, colleges, schools, libraries, teachers, researchers and students throughout Ireland.Science Week supports Science Foundation Ireland\u2019s mission to catalyse, inspire and guide the best in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) education and public engagement. The ultimate aim of this effort is that Ireland will have the most engaged and scientifically informed public by 2020 as outlined in Science Foundation Ireland\u2019s strategy Agenda 2020. This also aligns to the national science innovation strategy, Innovation 2020.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A scientific celebrity or celebrity scientist is a scientist who has gained significant public attention, usually through the media. For the general public, scientific celebrities serve to represent science or a field of science, usually in an unofficial capacity. In some instances, such promotion can be self-serving in nature, can be at the behest of governmental or corporate interests or to promote the science involved.\nWith every new scientific discovery, various people come to be publicly known for their contributions to knowledge, medicine and methods of transportation in the field of this discovery. Although this type of public recognition has become more common in recent times (coincidental with the rise of celebrity culture), the phenomenon is centuries old with many examples of scientific celebrities. Media attention to science became more pervasive beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s as the variety of media outlets increased and media outlets gave greater attention to scientific progress. Scientific celebrities have had a significant role in the popularization of science.At times, scientific celebrities are also known as public scientists.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "\"Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science\" is the title of a report published by the Union of Concerned Scientists in February, 2004. The report was the culmination of an investigation of the Bush administration's objectivity in science, and ultimately a criticism thereof. (After it was published, the report's existence was fairly well-publicized by the United States' mass media.)\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Sense about Science is a United Kingdom charitable organization that promotes the public understanding of science. Sense about Science was founded in 2002 by Lord Taverne, Bridget Ogilvie and others to promote respect for scientific evidence and good science. It was established as a charitable trust in 2003, with 14 trustees, an advisory council and a small office staff. Tracey Brown has been the director since 2002.The organisation works with scientists and journalists to put scientific evidence in public discussions about science, and to correct unscientific misinformation. They encourage and assist scientists to engage in public debates about their area of expertise, to respond to scientifically inaccurate claims in the media, to help people contact scientists with appropriate expertise, and to prepare briefings about the scientific background to issues of public concern.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science is a chair at the University of Oxford. The chair was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. The aim of the Professorship is 'to communicate science to the public without, in doing so, losing those elements of scholarship which constitute the essence of true understanding'. It is a position that had been endowed by Charles Simonyi with the express intention that the holder \"be expected to make important contributions to the public understanding of some scientific field\", and that its first holder should be Richard Dawkins.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Slow science is part of the broader slow movement. It is based on the belief that science should be a slow, steady, methodical process, and that scientists should not be expected to provide \"quick fixes\" to society's problems. Slow science supports curiosity-driven scientific research and opposes performance targets. Slow science is a continually developing school of thought in the scientific community. Followers of slow science practices are generally opposed to the current model of research which is seen as constrained by the need for continued funding.  The slow science perspective attributes the overinflation of scientific publishing, and rise in fraudulent publishing with the requirement for researchers and institutions to create a justification for continued funding.  The term slow science was first popularised in \u201cAnother Science is Possible: A Manifesto for Slow Science\u201d by researcher Isabelle Stengers in 2018. The idea of \u201cpublish or perish\u201d, which too links limitations in the quality of research to financial constraints, has been around since the early 20th century. The slow science philosophy has been described as both a way to approach scientific research, and a science led movement which acts as a critique of science's function in neoliberal society.\nSlow science has developed its key principles through the contribution of many scholars and organisations. Key principles include calls to shift from scientific research which places its value in output of research, research funding reform, and ridding scientific research from coerced political agendas. For especially well known scientists, some have had the freedom to apply slow science principles. Slow Science development has especially gained prevalence in western European scientific communities, in progressive research universities. Slow science as a whole has gradually gained support through individuals and organisational advocacy. Criticism, due to the movement's relatively small impact, has been limited.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The social effects of evolutionary thought have been considerable. As the scientific explanation of life's diversity has developed, it has often displaced alternative, sometimes very widely held, explanations. Because the theory of evolution includes an explanation of humanity's origins, it has had a profound impact on human societies. Some have vigorously denied acceptance of the scientific explanation due to its perceived religious implications (e.g. its implied rejection of the special creation of humans presumably described in the Bible). This has led to a vigorous conflict between creation and evolution in public education, primarily in the United States.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Leo Szilard Lectureship Award (originally called the Leo Szilard Award) is given annually by the American Physical Society (APS) for \"outstanding accomplishments by physicists in promoting the use of physics for the benefit of society\". It is given internationally in commemoration of physicist Leo Szilard.\n\"In the year's of Szilard's life and activity it became clearer than ever before how great the responsibility of scientists is to the society.  And, to a large extent, it is due to Szilard that this awareness began to spread in the scientific community.\" - Andrei Sakharov\nIt is often awarded to physicists early in their careers who are active in areas such as environmental issues, arms control, or science policy. As of 2015 the recipient is given $3,000 plus $2,000 travel expenses and is expected to lecture at an APS meeting and at educational or research laboratories, to promote awareness of their activities.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "University technology transfer offices (TTOs), or technology licensing offices (TLOs),  are responsible for technology transfer and other aspects of the commercialization of research that takes place in a university. TTOs engage in a variety of commercial activities that are meant to facilitate the process of bringing research developments to market, often acting as a channel between academia and industry. Most major research universities have established TTOs in the past decades in an effort to increase the impact of university research and provide opportunities for financial gain. While TTOs are commonplace, many studies have questioned their financial benefit to the university.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "VA (Public & Science) (Swedish: \"Vetenskap & Allm\u00e4nhet\") is a Vetenskap & Allm\u00e4nhet, VA, is a non-profit association that wants to promote dialogue and openness between researchers and the general public.  VA operates primarily Sweden, but with an eye on European and International science communication including several new EU projects.  The organization was founded in 2002 and is currently based from Grev Turegatan 14 in Stockholm, Sweden.VA's members consist of some 80 organizations, authorities, universities, companies and associations. In addition, it has a number of individual members. The organization is funded through membership fees, project grants and a grant from the Swedish Ministry of Education and Research.\nVA's Purpose and Primary Objectives\n\nIncrease collaboration between researchers and the public.\nIncrease knowledge and dialogue about:\nPublic perceptions of research and research needs\nPrerequisites for research, research methods and results\nMethods for science communication\nBe a leading knowledge hub for public engagement and science communication\nStrengthen all aspects of engagement with society; democratic, cultural as well as for the benefit and education of societyPart of what the VA does is carry out surveys and studies with the aim of increasing knowledge about the relationships between science and society at large. This includes an annual barometer into the Swedish public's general attitudes towards science and researchers, as well as more specific studies on how opinion-forming groups in society view and use research, how researchers interact with society, and methods for dialogue on science and research.\nVA also arranges many events and activities aimed at stimulating dialogue between researchers and the public in new ways and in novel arenas. VA is the Swedish national co-ordinator for the science festival European Researchers\u2019 Night. The first Researchers' Night was run in Sweden in September 2005 and in 2017 events were run in 29 cities in Sweden. \nVA also organises the  Researchers' Grand Prix, a science communication competition for researchers and mass experiments in schools, a citizen science initiative that engages pupils in real research. Other activities include Science Caf\u00e9s. VA also participates in societal debate via traditional as well as social media.\nVA is currently a partner in three EU-funded Horizon 2020 projects SciShops: ORION, Open Responsible research and Innovation to further Outstanding Knowledge, is aimed at fostering RRI and open science in research performing and research funding organisations. SciShops will expand the ecosystem of Science Shops in Europe and BLOOM is aimed at raising public awareness and interest in the bioeconomy through dialogue and co-creation activities.\nVA is a member of EUSEA (European Science Events Association), ECSA (European Citizen Science Association) and the Living Knowledge network.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Artificial gravity is the creation of an inertial force that mimics the effects of a gravitational force, usually by rotation. \nArtificial gravity, or rotational gravity, is thus the appearance of a centrifugal force in a rotating frame of reference (the transmission of centripetal acceleration via normal force in the non-rotating frame of reference), as opposed to the force experienced in linear acceleration, which by the equivalence principle is indistinguishable from gravity.\nIn a more general sense, \"artificial gravity\" may also refer to the effect of linear acceleration, e.g. by means of a rocket engine.Rotational simulated gravity has been used in simulations to help astronauts train for extreme conditions. \nRotational simulated gravity has been proposed as a solution in human spaceflight to the adverse health effects caused by prolonged weightlessness. \nHowever, there are no current practical outer space applications of artificial gravity for humans due to concerns about the size and cost of a spacecraft necessary to produce a useful centripetal force comparable to the gravitational field strength on Earth (g).\nScientists are concerned about the effect of such a system on the inner ear of the occupants. The concern is that using centripetal force to create artificial gravity will cause disturbances in the inner ear leading to nausea and disorientation. The adverse effects may prove intolerable for the occupants.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project (BPP) was a research project funded by NASA from 1996-2002 to study various proposals for revolutionary methods of spacecraft propulsion that would require breakthroughs in physics before they could be realized. The project ended in 2002, when the Advanced Space Transportation Program was reorganized and all speculative research (less than Technology readiness level 3) was cancelled.\nDuring its six years of operational funding, this program received a total investment of $1.2 million.  \nThe Breakthrough Propulsion Physics project addressed a selection of \u201cincremental and affordable\u201d research questions towards the overall goal of propellantless propulsion, hyperfast travel, and breakthrough propulsion methods. It selected and funded five external projects, two in-house tasks and one\nminor grant.\nAt the end of the project, conclusions into fourteen topics, including these funded projects, were summarized by program manager Marc G. Millis. Of these, six research avenues were found to be nonviable, four were identified as opportunities for continued research, and four remain unresolved.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Cryonics (from Greek: \u03ba\u03c1\u03cd\u03bf\u03c2 kryos meaning 'cold') is the low-temperature freezing (usually at \u2212196 \u00b0C or \u2212320.8 \u00b0F or 77.1 K) and storage of human remains, with the speculative hope that resurrection may be possible in the future. Cryonics is regarded with skepticism within the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a pseudoscience, and its practice has been characterized as quackery.Cryonics procedures can begin only after the \"patients\" are clinically and legally dead. Cryonics procedures may begin within minutes of death, and use cryoprotectants to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation. It is, however, not possible for a corpse to be reanimated after undergoing vitrification, as this causes damage to the brain including its neural circuits. The first corpse to be frozen was that of Dr. James Bedford in 1967. As of 2014, about 250 dead bodies had been cryopreserved in the United States, and 1,500 people had made arrangements for cryopreservation of their corpses.Critics argue that economic reality means it is highly improbable that any cryonics corporation could continue in business long enough to take advantage of the claimed long-term benefits offered. Early attempts of cryonic preservations were performed in the 1960s and early 1970s which ended in failure with all but one of the companies going out of business, and their stored corpses thawed and disposed of.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Extraterrestrial life, sometimes colloquially referred to as alien life, is life that may occur outside Earth and which did not originate on Earth. No extraterrestrial life has yet been conclusively detected, although efforts are underway. Such life might range from simple forms comparable to prokaryotes, to intelligent beings, possibly bringing forth civilizations that might be far more advanced than humankind. The Drake equation speculates about the existence of sapient life elsewhere in the universe. The science of extraterrestrial life in all its forms is known as astrobiology, the multidisciplinary field that investigates the deterministic conditions and contingent events with which life arises, distributes, and evolves in the universe.Speculation about the possibility of inhabited \"worlds\" outside the planet Earth dates back to antiquity. Multiple early Christian writers discussed the idea of a \"plurality of worlds\" as proposed by earlier thinkers such as Democritus; Augustine references Epicurus's idea of innumerable worlds \"throughout the boundless immensity of space\" in The City of God. Pre-modern writers typically assumed that extraterrestrial \"worlds\" would be inhabited by living beings. William Vorilong, in the 15th century, acknowledged the possibility that Christ could have visited extraterrestrial worlds to redeem their inhabitants. Nicholas of Cusa wrote in 1440 that the Earth was \"a brilliant star\" like other celestial objects visible in space, which would appear similar to the Sun from an exterior perspective due to a layer of \"fiery brightness\" in the outer layer of the atmosphere. He theorized that all extraterrestrial bodies could be inhabited by men, plants, and animals, including the Sun. Descartes wrote that there was no means to prove that the stars were not inhabited by \"intelligent creatures,\" but their existence was a matter of speculation. The writings of these thinkers show that interest in extraterrestrial life existed throughout history, but it is only recently that humans have had any means of investigating it.\nSince the mid-20th century, active research has taken place to look for signs of extraterrestrial life, encompassing searches for current and historic extraterrestrial life, and a narrower search for extraterrestrial intelligent life. Depending on the category of search, methods range from the analysis of telescope and specimen data to radios used to detect and send communication signals.\nThe concept of extraterrestrial life, and particularly extraterrestrial intelligence, has had a major cultural impact, especially extraterrestrials in fiction. Over the years, science fiction has communicated scientific ideas, imagined a wide range of possibilities, and influenced public interest in and perspectives on extraterrestrial life. One shared space is the debate over the wisdom of attempting communication with extraterrestrial intelligence. Some encourage aggressive methods to try to contact intelligent extraterrestrial life. Others\u2014citing the tendency of technologically advanced human societies to enslave or wipe out less advanced societies\u2014argue that it may be dangerous to actively call attention to Earth.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Future Is Wild (also referred to by the acronym FIW) is a 2002 speculative evolution docufiction miniseries and an accompanying multimedia entertainment franchise. The Future Is Wild explores the ecosystems and wildlife of three future time periods: 5, 100, and 200 million years in the future, in the format of a nature documentary. Though the settings and animals are fictional, the series has an educational purpose, serving as an informative and entertaining way to explore concepts such as evolution and climate change.\nThe Future Is Wild was first conceived by independent producer Joanna Adams in 1996 and developed together with various scientists, including Dougal Dixon, author of the 1981 book After Man, which also explored future wildlife. The 2002 series was an international co-production, involving the British BBC, the Franco-German channel Arte, the German ZDF, the Austrian ORF, the Italian Mediaset and the American Animal Planet and Discovery Channel. Wildly successful, The Future Is Wild continues to be broadcast to this day and has been shown on TV in more than 60 different countries.\nThe success of The Future Is Wild spawned a large multimedia franchise, including books, children\u2019s entertainment, exhibitions, theme park rides, educational material and toys. There have also been cancelled projects, such as a potential movie adaptation, as well as a sequel series, The Future Is Wild 2. From 2016 onwards there has been talk of \"relaunching\" the franchise through various projects, such as an action-adventure TV series and The Future is Wild VR (a virtual reality videogame), though no new media has yet materialized.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Sluggish schizophrenia or slow progressive schizophrenia (Russian: \u0432\u044f\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0443\u0301\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0448\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0444\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0301\u044f, romanized: vyalotekushchaya shizofreniya) was a diagnostic category used in the Soviet Union to describe what was claimed to be a form of schizophrenia characterized by a slowly progressive course; it was diagnosed even in patients who showed no symptoms of schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders, on the assumption that these symptoms would appear later. It was developed in the 1960s by Soviet psychiatrist Andrei Snezhnevsky and his colleagues, and was used exclusively in the USSR and several Eastern Bloc countries, until the fall of Communism starting in 1989. The diagnosis has long been discredited because of its scientific inadequacy and its use as a means of confining dissenters. It has never been used or recognized outside of the Soviet Union, or by international organizations such as the World Health Organization. It is considered a prime example of the political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union.Sluggish schizophrenia was the most infamous of diagnoses used by Soviet psychiatrists, due to its usage against political dissidents. After being discharged from a hospital, persons diagnosed with sluggish schizophrenia were deprived of their civic rights, credibility and employability. The usage of this diagnosis has been internationally condemned.In the Russian version of the 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), which has long been used throughout present-day Russia, sluggish schizophrenia is no longer listed as a form of schizophrenia, but it is still included as a schizotypal disorder in section F21 of chapter V.According to Sergei Jargin, the same Russian term \"vyalotekushchaya\" for sluggish schizophrenia continues to be used and is now translated in English summaries of articles not as \"sluggish\" but as \"slow progressive\".\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "American interest in \"gravity control propulsion research\" intensified during the early 1950s.  Literature from that period used the terms anti-gravity, anti-gravitation, baricentric, counterbary, electrogravitics (eGrav), G-projects, gravitics, gravity control, and gravity propulsion.  Their publicized goals were to discover and develop technologies and theories for the manipulation of gravity or gravity-like fields for propulsion. Although general relativity theory appeared to prohibit anti-gravity propulsion, several programs were funded to develop it through gravitation research from 1955 to 1974.  The names of many contributors to general relativity and those of the golden age of general relativity have appeared among documents about the institutions that had served as the theoretical research components of those programs.  Since its emergence in the 1950s, the existence of the related gravity control propulsion research has not been a subject of controversy for aerospace writers, critics, and conspiracy theory advocates alike, but their rationale, effectiveness, and longevity have been the objects of contested views.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Theories of technological change and innovation attempt to explain the factors that shape technological innovation as well as the impact of technology on society and culture. Some of the most contemporary theories of technological change reject two of the previous views: the linear model of technological innovation and other, the technological determinism. To challenge the linear model, some of today's theories of technological change and innovation point to the history of technology, where they find evidence that technological innovation often gives rise to new scientific fields, and emphasizes the important role that social networks and cultural values play in creating and shaping technological artifacts. To challenge the so-called \"technological determinism\", today's theories of technological change emphasize the scope of the need of technical choice, which they find to be greater than most laypeople can realize; as schientists in philosophy of scxience, and further science and technology often like to say about this \"It could have been different.\" For this reason, theorists who take these positions often argue that a greater public involvement in technological decision-making is desired.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Decompression theory is the study and modelling of the transfer of the inert gas component of breathing gases from the gas in the lungs to the tissues and back during exposure to variations in ambient pressure. In the case of underwater diving and compressed air work, this mostly involves ambient pressures greater than the local surface pressure, but astronauts, high altitude mountaineers, and travellers in aircraft which are not pressurised to sea level pressure, are generally exposed to ambient pressures less than standard sea level atmospheric pressure. In all cases, the symptoms caused by decompression occur during or within a relatively short period of hours, or occasionally days, after a significant pressure reduction.The term \"decompression\" derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the organism and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during and after this reduction in pressure. The uptake of gas by the tissues is in the dissolved state, and elimination also requires the gas to be dissolved, however a sufficient reduction in ambient pressure may cause bubble formation in the tissues, which can lead to tissue damage and the symptoms known as decompression sickness, and also delays the elimination of the gas.Decompression modeling attempts to explain and predict the mechanism of gas elimination and bubble formation within the organism during and after changes in ambient pressure, and provides mathematical models which attempt to predict acceptably low risk and reasonably practicable procedures for decompression in the field. Both deterministic and probabilistic models have been used, and are still in use.\nEfficient decompression requires the diver to ascend fast enough to establish as high a decompression gradient, in as many tissues, as safely possible, without provoking the development of symptomatic bubbles. This is facilitated by the highest acceptably safe oxygen partial pressure in the breathing gas, and avoiding gas changes that could cause counterdiffusion bubble formation or growth. The development of schedules that are both safe and efficient has been complicated by the large number of variables and uncertainties, including personal variation in response under varying environmental conditions and workload.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The modern disease theory of alcoholism states that problem drinking is sometimes caused by a disease of the brain, characterized by altered brain structure and function.\nThe largest association of physicians \u2013 the American Medical Association (AMA) \u2013 declared that alcoholism was an illness in 1956. In 1991, the AMA further endorsed the dual classification of alcoholism by the International Classification of Diseases under both psychiatric and medical sections.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In science, an effective theory is a scientific theory which proposes to describe a certain set of observations,  but explicitly without the claim or implication that the mechanism employed in the theory has a direct counterpart in the actual causes of the observed phenomena to which the theory is fitted. That means, the theory proposes to model a certain effect, without proposing to adequately model any of the causes which contribute to the effect.\nFor example, effective field theory is a set of tools used to describe physical theories when there is a hierarchy of scales. Effective field theories in physics can include quantum field theories in which the fields are treated as fundamental, and effective theories describing phenomena in solid-state physics. For instance, the BCS theory of superconduction treats vibrations of the solid-state lattice  as a \"field\" (i.e. without claiming that there is \"really\" a field), with its own field quanta, called phonons. Such \"effective particles\" derived from effective fields are also known as quasiparticles.\nIn a certain sense, quantum field theory, and any other currently known physical theory, could be described as \"effective\", as in being the \"low energy limit\" of an as-yet unknown \"Theory of Everything\".\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "\"The Limits of Individual Plasticity\" is a short essay written by the science fiction author H.G. Wells (21 September 1866 \u2013 13 August 1946) in 1895. In it, Wells speculates his theories on the plasticity of animals, explaining that the default biological form of an animal may be altered in a way that it would continue to survive even if it, in any way, no longer resembles its inherent form. This could, according to Wells, theoretically be achieved through surgical or chemical modification. Wells was fully aware that surgical modification is only a physical change, and would not alter an animal's genetic blueprint. He made note that should an animal be surgically modified, its offspring would most likely retain its parent creature's original physical form.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The membrane theory of shells, or membrane theory for short, describes the mechanical properties of shells when twisting and bending moments are small enough to be negligible.\nThe spectacular simplification of membrane theory makes possible the examination of a wide variety of shapes and supports, in particular, tanks and shell roofs. There are heavy penalties paid for this simplification, and such inadequacies are apparent through critical inspection, remaining within the theory, of solutions. However, this theory is more than a first approximation. If a shell is shaped and supported so as to carry the load within a membrane stress system it may be a desirable solution to the design problem, i.e., thin, light and stiff.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Mosquito-malaria theory (or sometimes mosquito theory) was a scientific theory developed in the latter half of the 19th century that solved the question of how malaria was transmitted. The theory proposed that malaria was transmitted by mosquitoes, in opposition to the centuries-old medical dogma that malaria was due to bad air, or miasma. The first scientific idea was postulated in 1851 by Charles E. Johnson, who argued that miasma had no direct relationship with malaria. Although Johnson's hypothesis was forgotten, the arrival and validation of the germ theory of diseases in the late 19th century began to shed new lights. When Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that malaria was caused by a protozoan parasite in 1880, the miasma theory began to subside.An important discovery was made by Patrick Manson in 1877 that mosquito could transmit human filarial parasite. Inferring from such novel discovery, Albert Freeman Africanus King proposed the hypothesis that mosquitoes were the source of malaria. In the early 1890s Manson himself began to formulate the complete hypothesis, which he eventually called the mosquito-malaria theory. According to Manson, malaria was transmitted from human to human by a mosquito. The theory was scientifically proved by Manson's confidant Ronald Ross of the Indian Medical Service in the late 1890s. Ross discovered that malaria was transmitted by the biting of specific species of mosquito. For this Ross won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902. Further experimental proof was provided by Manson who induced malaria in healthy human subjects from malaria-carrying mosquitoes. Thus the theory became the foundation of malariology and the strategy of control of malaria.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Scientific socialism is a term coined in 1840 by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in his book What is Property? to mean a society ruled by a scientific government, i.e. one whose sovereignty rests upon reason, rather than sheer will: Thus, in a given society, the authority of man over man is inversely proportional to the stage of intellectual development which that society has reached; and the probable duration of that authority can be calculated from the more or less general desire for a true government, \u2014 that is, for a scientific government. And just as the right of force and the right of artifice retreat before the steady advance of justice, and must finally be extinguished in equality, so the sovereignty of the will yields to the sovereignty of the reason, and must at last be lost in scientific socialism.\nIn the 1844 book The Holy Family, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels described the writings of the socialist, communist writers Th\u00e9odore D\u00e9zamy and Jules Gay as truly \"scientific\". Later in 1880, Engels used the term \"scientific socialism\" to describe Marx's social-political-economic theory.Although the term socialism has come to mean specifically a combination of political and economic science, it is also applicable to a broader area of science encompassing what is now considered sociology and the humanities. The distinction between Utopian and scientific socialism originated with Marx, who criticized the Utopian characteristics of French socialism and English and Scottish political economy. Engels later argued that Utopian socialists failed to recognize why it was that socialism arose in the historical context that it did, that it arose as a response to new social contradictions of a new mode of production, i.e. capitalism. In recognizing the nature of socialism as the resolution of this contradiction and applying a thorough scientific understanding of capitalism, Engels asserted that socialism had broken free from a primitive state and become a science. This shift in socialism was seen as complementary to shifts in contemporary biology sparked by Charles Darwin and the understanding of evolution by natural selection\u2014Marx and Engels saw this new understanding of biology as essential to the new understanding of socialism and vice versa.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Youngest Toba eruption was a supervolcano eruption that occurred around 74,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia. It is one of the Earth's largest known explosive eruptions. The Toba catastrophe theory holds that this event caused a global volcanic winter of six to ten years and possibly a 1,000-year-long cooling episode.\nIn 1993, science journalist Ann Gibbons posited that a population bottleneck occurred in human evolution about 70,000 years ago, and she suggested that this was caused by the eruption. Geologist Michael R. Rampino of New York University and volcanologist Stephen Self of the University of Hawai\u02bbi at M\u0101noa support her suggestion. In 1998, the bottleneck theory was further developed by anthropologist Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Both the link and global winter theories are controversial.\nThe Youngest Toba eruption is the most closely studied supervolcanic eruption.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In mathematical dynamics, discrete time and continuous time are two alternative frameworks within which variables that evolve over time are modeled.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The world line (or worldline) of an object is the path that an object traces in 4-dimensional spacetime. It is an important concept in modern physics, and particularly theoretical physics.\nThe concept of a \"world line\" is distinguished from concepts such as an \"orbit\" or a \"trajectory\" (e.g., a planet's orbit in space or the trajectory of a car on a road) by the time dimension, and typically encompasses a large area of spacetime wherein perceptually straight paths are recalculated to show their (relatively) more absolute position states\u2014to reveal the nature of special relativity or gravitational interactions. \nThe idea of world lines originates in physics and was pioneered by Hermann Minkowski. The term is now most often used in relativity theories (i.e., special relativity and general relativity).\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The presence of women in science spans the earliest times of the history of science wherein they have made significant contributions. Historians with an interest in gender and science have researched the scientific endeavors and accomplishments of women, the barriers they have faced, and the strategies implemented to have their work peer-reviewed and accepted in major scientific journals and other publications. The historical, critical, and sociological study of these issues has become an academic discipline in its own right.\nThe involvement of women in medicine occurred in several early western civilizations, and the study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. Women contributed to the proto-science of alchemy in the first or second centuries C.E. During the Middle Ages, religious convents were an important place of education for women, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly research. The 11th century saw the emergence of the first universities; women were, for the most part, excluded from university education. Outside academia, botany was the science that benefitted most from contributions of women in early modern times. The attitude toward educating women in medical fields appears to have been more liberal in Italy than in other places. The first known woman to earn a university chair in a scientific field of studies was eighteenth-century Italian scientist Laura Bassi.\nGender roles were largely deterministic in the eighteenth century and women made substantial advances in science.  During the nineteenth century, women were excluded from most formal scientific education, but they began to be admitted into learned societies during this period. In the later nineteenth century, the rise of the women's college provided jobs for women scientists and opportunities for education.\nBorn in Warsaw, Poland, Marie Curie, paved the way for scientists to study radioactive decay and discovered the elements radium and polonium. Working as a physicist and chemist, she conducted pioneering research on radioactive decay and was the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics and became the first person to receive a second Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Forty women have been awarded the Nobel Prize between 1901 and 2010. Seventeen women have been awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The contributions of women in climate change have received increasing attention in the early 21st century. Feedback from women and the issues faced by women have been described as \"imperative\" by the United Nations and \"critical\" by the Population Reference Bureau.  A report by the World Health Organization concluded that incorporating gender-based analysis would \"provide more effective climate change mitigation and adaptation.\"Many studies have documented the gender gap in science and investigated why women are not included or represented, particularly at higher levels of research . Despite significant progress, female scientists continue to endure discrimination, unequal pay, and funding inequities, according to a special report published in the journal Nature in 2013. It also states that 70 percent of men and women around the world regard science as a male endeavor. Women encounter hurdles due to their family obligations, and they are underrepresented in publications and citations.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Finkbeiner test, named for the science journalist Ann Finkbeiner, is a checklist to help science journalists avoid gender bias in articles about women in science. It asks writers to avoid describing women scientists in terms of stereotypically feminine traits, such as their family arrangements.\nIt resembles but was not inspired by the Bechdel test, a measure of women's representation in fiction. The Finkbeiner test has been linked to affirmative action, because writing can cause readers to view women in science as different from men in negative or unfair ways. The test helps avoid gender bias in science reporting similar to various Bechdel tests that focus on under-representation of marginalized groups in different career fields.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "This page aims to list inventions and discoveries in which women played a major role.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Muslim women in sciences and technology, since the Islamic Golden Age, Muslims have been actively participating in various sciences. Muslim women have come a long way; from not being allowed to work outside of being housewives all the way to becoming top achievers. There have and still are many misconceptions about Muslim women, such as that they need to be covered, they are not well-respected, or that they belong in the kitchen. Besides being a Muslim woman and that challenges that come with it, many of them had big parts in science and technology evolvements. These are the women who stepped up in their home countries, who have strict laws in general and became something of themselves.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Alphonse Michel Rebi\u00e8re (Tulle, 1842 - Paris, 1900) was a nineteenth-century advocate for women's scientific abilities. He wrote the book Les Femmes dans la science, published in 1894. Rebi\u00e8re's piece followed the encyclopedia format, listing the woman alphabetically, giving their names, dates of birth, the social conditions under which they had lived, their contributions and publications. He included \"professional and amateur\" scientists and those who aided in contributions in \"the progress of science.\" Included in Rebi\u00e8re's book was a section of appended works filled with opinions of famous people on the question \"whether or not woman is capable of scientific pursuits.\"  His work was revolutionary in that other works with similar information were never published, and he was one of the first to include women in the field of science.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Survey of Academic Field Experiences study, also known as the SAFE13 study, was a survey conducted between February and May 2013 in order to characterize experiences of scientists working at field sites as they relate to sexual harassment and sexual assault. It has had a significant impact on collective responses to sexual harassment and sexual assault in Western academic science.\nPublished in 2014 by a team of anthropologists, Kathryn B. H. Clancy, Robin G. Nelson,  Julienne N. Rutherford and Katie Hinde, the SAFE13 study is the first empirical investigation into scientists' experiences of harassment during fieldwork. The researchers identify three key takeaways from their work. First, women scientists are targeted more often than men, and junior scientists are also more likely to be harassed relative to senior scientists. Second, women are more likely to be harassed by senior staff, while men are harassed by their peers. Third, the majority of field scientists do not know how to report harassment.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Stemettes is a social enterprise which encourages girls and young women aged 5\u201325 to pursue careers in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (abbreviated STEM). Stemettes runs panel events, hackathons, the Student to Stemette mentoring programme supported by Deutsche Bank, Outbox Incubator and an app, OtotheB, an online platform for girls interested in STEM and entrepreneurship.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Teen Turn is an Irish charity which encourages teenage girls to pursue careers in technology.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Woman in Science is a book written by John Augustine Zahm (under the pen name H. J. Mozans) in 1913. It is an account of women who have contributed to the sciences, up to the time when it was published.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Women of Outstanding Achievement Photographic Exhibition was an annual event organised by the UKRC. It recognised women within science, engineering and technology (SET). The exhibition was created in 2006. Between six and eight women were chosen each year to be photographed by Robert Taylor. Nominations occur in the Autumn of each year and the recipients were announced at a ceremony in March of the following year.\nMany of the portraits from previous years are on permanent loan to institutions such as the University of Oxford, The Royal Society and The Royal Academy of Engineering. The portrait of scientist Nancy Rothwell was purchased by the National Portrait Gallery.In March 2010 the exhibition opened at The Royal Academy of Engineering. Evan Harris, MP for the Liberal Democrats, unveiled the portraits.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In science, adversarial collaboration is a term used when two or more scientists with opposing views work together. This can take the form of a scientific experiment conducted by two groups of experimenters with competing hypotheses, with the aim of constructing and implementing an experimental design in a way that satisfies both groups that there are no obvious biases or weaknesses in the experimental design. Adversarial collaboration can involve a neutral moderator and lead to a co-designed experiment and joint publishing of findings in order to resolve differences.Adversarial collaboration has been recommended by Daniel Kahneman and others as a way of reducing the distorting impact of cognitive-motivational biases on human reasoning and resolving contentious issues in fringe science. It has also been recommended as a potential solution for improving academic commentaries.Philip Tetlock and Gregory Mitchell have discussed it in various articles.  They argue:\n\nAdversarial collaboration is most feasible when least needed: when the clashing camps have advanced testable theories, subscribe to common canons for testing those theories, and disagreements are robust but respectful. And adversarial collaboration is least feasible when most needed: when the scientific community lacks clear criteria for falsifying points of view, disagrees on key methodological issues, relies on second- or third-best substitute methods for testing causality, and is fractured into opposing camps that engage in ad hominem posturing and that have intimate ties to political actors who see any concession as weakness. Tetlock [maintains that] we should expect the greatest expected returns in the \"murky middle\" in which theory-testing conditions are less than ideal but not yet hopeless.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Aesthetics of science is the study of beauty and matters of taste within the scientific endeavour. Aesthetic features like simplicity, elegance and symmetry are sources of wonder and awe for many scientists, thus motivating scientific pursuit. Conversely, theories that have been empirically successful may be judged to lack aesthetic merit, which contributes to the desire to find a new theory that subsumes the old.The topic has been addressed by several publications discussing how aesthetic values are related to scientific experiments and theories.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "AgBiotechNet is a searchable online database of scientific literature on topics related to agricultural biotechnology. Its target audience consists of biotechnology researchers and policy makers. Though some features on the site are available for free, others can only be accessed by paid subscribers. First launched in January 1999, AgBiotechNet is run by the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (also known as CABI), which founded it along with Michigan State University's Agricultural Biotechnology Support Project.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Amphibian Species of the World 6.1: An Online Reference (ASW) is a herpetology database.  It lists the names of frogs, salamanders and other amphibians, which scientists first described each species and what year, and the animal's known range.\nThe American Museum of Natural History hosts Amphibian Species of the World.  As of 2019, it contained more than 8000 species.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "AmphibiaWeb is an American non-profit website that provides information about amphibians. It is run by a group of universities working with the California Academy of Sciences: San Francisco State University, the University of California at Berkeley, University of Florida at Gainesville, and University of Texas at Austin.\nAmphibiaWeb's goal is to provide a single page for every species of amphibian in the world so research scientists, citizen scientists and conservationists can collaborate.  It added its 7000th animal in 2012, a glass frog from Peru.  As of 2022, it hosted more than 8,400 species located worldwide.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "AntWeb is the leading online database on ants: storing specimens images and records, and natural history information, and documenting over 490,000 specimens across over 35,000 taxa of ants in its open source and community driven repository as of November 2014. It was set up by Brian L. Fisher in 2002, and cost US$30,000 dollars to build.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "APEC Youth Science Festival is a science fair run by the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). It is for 15\u201318-year-olds with an interest in science\u2013technology, and seeks to break down cultural barriers for learning. It began in 1998 in Seoul. The president of the Republic of Korea proposed to host the APEC Youth Science Festival at the 2nd APEC Science and Technology Ministers' Conference on November 13, 1996.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Auditory science or hearing science is a field of research and education concerning the perception of sounds by humans, animals, or machines. It is a heavily interdisciplinary field at the crossroad between acoustics, neuroscience, and psychology. It is often related to one or many of these other fields: psychophysics, psychoacoustics, audiology, physiology, otorhinolaryngology, speech science, automatic speech recognition, music psychology, linguistics, and psycholinguistics.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Bayesian Cognitive Science (also known as Computational Cognitive Science; not to be confused with the more generic Computational modeling in cognitive science) is an approach to cognitive science concerned with the rational analysis of cognition through the use of Bayesian inference and cognitive modeling. The term \"computational\" refers to the computational level of analysis as put forth by David Marr.This work often consists of testing the hypothesis that cognitive systems behave like rational Bayesian agents in particular types of tasks. Past work has applied this idea to categorization, language, motor control, sequence learning, reinforcement learning and theory of mind. At other times, Bayesian rationality is assumed, and the goal is to infer the knowledge that agents have, and the mental representations that they use.\nIt is important to contrast this with the ordinary use of Bayesian inference in cognitive science, which is independent of rational modeling (see e.g. Michael Lee's work).\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "BioNews is an online newsletter publishing news about human genetics, assisted conception, and related topics. It was founded in 1999 by Juliet Tizzard, and is published by the English charity Progress Educational Trust, of which it is the flagship publication.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Bode's sensitivity integral, discovered by Hendrik Wade Bode, is a formula that quantifies some of the limitations in feedback control of linear parameter invariant systems. Let L be the loop transfer function and S be the sensitivity function. \nIn the diagram, P is a dynamical process that has a transfer function P(s).  The controller, C, has the transfer function C(s).  The controller attempts to cause the process output, y, to track the reference input, r.  Disturbances, d, and measurement noise, n, may cause undesired deviations of the output.  Loop gain is defined by L(s) = P(s)C(s).\nThe following holds:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u222b\n          \n            0\n          \n          \n            \u221e\n          \n        \n        ln\n        \u2061\n        \n          |\n        \n        S\n        (\n        j\n        \u03c9\n        )\n        \n          |\n        \n        d\n        \u03c9\n        =\n        \n          \u222b\n          \n            0\n          \n          \n            \u221e\n          \n        \n        ln\n        \u2061\n        \n          |\n          \n            \n              1\n              \n                1\n                +\n                L\n                (\n                j\n                \u03c9\n                )\n              \n            \n          \n          |\n        \n        d\n        \u03c9\n        =\n        \u03c0\n        \u2211\n        R\n        e\n        (\n        \n          p\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n        )\n        \u2212\n        \n          \n            \u03c0\n            2\n          \n        \n        \n          lim\n          \n            s\n            \u2192\n            \u221e\n          \n        \n        s\n        L\n        (\n        s\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\int _{0}^{\\infty }\\ln |S(j\\omega )|d\\omega =\\int _{0}^{\\infty }\\ln \\left|{\\frac {1}{1+L(j\\omega )}}\\right|d\\omega =\\pi \\sum Re(p_{k})-{\\frac {\\pi }{2}}\\lim _{s\\rightarrow \\infty }sL(s)}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          p\n          \n            k\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle p_{k}}\n   are the poles of L in the right half plane (unstable poles).\nIf L has at least two more poles than zeros, and has no poles in the right half plane (is stable), the equation simplifies to:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u222b\n          \n            0\n          \n          \n            \u221e\n          \n        \n        ln\n        \u2061\n        \n          |\n        \n        S\n        (\n        j\n        \u03c9\n        )\n        \n          |\n        \n        d\n        \u03c9\n        =\n        0\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\int _{0}^{\\infty }\\ln |S(j\\omega )|d\\omega =0}\n  This equality shows that if sensitivity to disturbance is suppressed at some frequency range, it is necessarily increased at some other range. This has been called the \"waterbed effect.\"", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Bourgeois pseudoscience (Russian: \u0411\u0443\u0440\u0436\u0443\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430) was a term of condemnation in the Soviet Union for certain scientific disciplines that were deemed unacceptable from an ideological point of view due to their incompatibility with Marxism-Leninism. For example, genetics was not acceptable due to the role of random mutations of an individual organism in evolution, which was perceived as incompatible with the \"universal laws of history\" that applied to masses universally, as postulated by the Marxist ideology. At various times pronounced \"bourgeois pseudosciences\" were: genetics, cybernetics, quantum physics, theory of relativity, sociology and particular directions in comparative linguistics (Japhetic theory). This attitude was most prevalent during the rule of Joseph Stalin.\nNotably, the term was not used by Stalin himself, who rejected the notion that science can have a class nature. Stalin removed all mention of \u201cbourgeois biology\u201d from Trofim Lysenko\u2019s report, The State of Biology in the Soviet Union, and in the margin next to the statement that \u201cany science is based on class\u201d Stalin wrote, \u201cHa-ha-ha!! And what about mathematics? Or Darwinism?\u201d The term was mostly used by Stalinist philosophers, such as Mark Moisevich Rosenthal and Pavel Yudin, who use it in the 1951 and 1954 editions of their Short Philosophical Dictionary: \"Eugenics is a bourgeois pseudoscience\", \"Weismannism-Morganism - bourgeois pseudoscience, designed to justify capitalism\".Psychology was declared \"bourgeois pseudoscience\" in People's Republic of China during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). Sociology was banned in PRC in 1952, and it remained banned for over 30 years.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A brassboard or brass board is an experimental or demonstration test model, intended for field testing outside the laboratory environment. A brassboard follows an earlier prototyping stage called a breadboard. A brassboard contains both the functionality and approximate physical configuration of the final operational product. Unlike breadboards, brassboards typically recreate geometric and dimensional constraints of the final system which are critical to its performance, as is the case in radio frequency systems. While representative of the physical layout of the production-grade product, a brassboard will not necessarily incorporate all final details, nor represent the physical size and quality level of the final deliverable product.\nExact definition of a brassboard depends on the industry and has changed with time. A 1992 guide book on proposal preparation defined a brassboard or a breadboard as \"a laboratory or shop working model that may or may not look like the final product or system, but that will operate in the same way as the final system\". The definition of a\nbreadboard was further narrowed to purely electronic systems, while a brassboard was treated as \"a similar arrangement for hydraulic, pneumatic or mechanically interconnected components\".In modern system-on-a-chip prototyping, brassboard is defined as a second prototyping stage that follows engineering validation boards (EVB) and precedes wingboards and final pre-production samples. In a single example the board area decreases four times with each of these steps, so the brassboard is one fourth as large as an EVB, four times larger than the wingboard and around sixteen times larger than a production device. Most systems in the vast array of industries cannot be characterized so specifically.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Britain I. is a distribution area defined in the Fauna Europaea database. It comprises the island of Great Britain and all surrounding islands and island groups including Orkney, Shetland, the Outer and Inner Hebrides, Anglesey and the Isles of Scilly. The Isle of Man is also included in the distribution area.The following territories have their own defined distribution areas and are not included in Britain I.:\n\nNorthern Ireland\nRepublic of Ireland\nChannel Islands", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The California STEM Learning Network (CSLNet) is a nonprofit organization working to improve science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) teaching methods, and to support educators in PK-14 classrooms. CSLNet also lobbies for public policy changes, and encourages creation of public-private partnerships to open doors for all students and science professionals, especially members of underrepresented groups.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Cambridge Science Festival was a series of events typically held annually in March in Cambridge, England and was the United Kingdom's largest free science festival.  In 2019 it was announced that the Cambridge Science Festival and the Cambridge Festival of Ideas would be combined into one festival. The Cambridge Festival took place for the first time in March 2020.\nThe festival attracts more than 30,000 visitors to over 250 events. University researchers and students open their lecture halls and laboratories to the general public, and hold Talks, Exhibitions and Demonstrations, mostly free of charge.Started in 1994 by scientists of the University of Cambridge and backed by local businesses, the festival was inspired by National Science Week and is aimed making science and engineering more accessible, showcasing research performed at Cambridge University, and encouraging young people to pursue careers in engineering and science.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Cantera stone is a quarried, volcanic rock that is mined in various regions of Mexico and Central America. Its name derives from the Spanish word for quarry. Its properties allow for detailed carving and cutting. It is used in hotels, shopping malls, office buildings, and custom homes throughout the world, and has stood for centuries in many cathedrals, haciendas and other buildings throughout Latin America. The stone can absorbs air and humidity without expansion, so it can be used in wet areas. It is often used to create tables, fireplaces, wall tiles, pool areas, and columns.\nThe stone's color may vary depending on the impurities present in the stone of a particular region. The Cantera notably used in many of the buildings, walls, and roads of Oaxaca, Mexico is a distinct green color. This rock is formed by volcanic ash and dust. The ash is washed into a silt bed and combined with the lava, dirt, and stone already on the ground. This combination makes Cantera a porous and lightweight stone.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The  Carcel is a former French unit for measuring the intensity of light. The unit was defined in 1860 as the intensity of a Carcel lamp with standard burner and chimney dimensions, which burnt colza oil\n (obtained from the seed of the plant Brassica campestris)  at a rate of  42 grams of colza oil per hour with a flame 40 millimeters in height.In modern terminology one carcel equals about 9.74 candelas.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Cello scrotum is a hoax medical condition originally published as a brief case report in the British Medical Journal in 1974. As its name suggests, it was purportedly an affliction of the scrotum affecting male players of the cello.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Chief Scientist of South Australia is an independent advisory role to the Government of South Australia, providing advice to the Premier and Cabinet on matters of science, technology, innovation and research. The Chief Scientist chairs the South Australian Science Council and recommends to the government new members for the Council.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A code-break procedure is a set of rules which determine when planned unblinding should occur in a blinded experiment. FDA guidelines recommend that sponsors of blinded trials include a code-break procedure in their standard operating procedure. A code-break procedure should only allow a participant to be unblinded before the conclusion of a trial in the event of an emergency. Code-break usually refers to the unmasking of treatment allocation, but can refer to any form of unblinding.\nTraditionally, each patient's treatment allocation data was stored in a sealed envelopes, which was to be opened to break code. However, this system is prone to abuse. Reports of researchers opening envelopes prematurely or holding the envelopes up to lights to determine their contents has led some researchers to say that the use of sealed envelopes is no longer acceptable. As of 2016, sealed envelopes were still in use in some clinical trials. Modern clinical trials usually store this information in computer files.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Community of Science (COS) was a collection of online databases, providing research information to both the public and subscribers, and services for the research community.  It is owned by ProQuest.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Compressed hydrogen (CH2, CGH2 or CGH2) is the gaseous state of the element hydrogen kept under pressure. Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for mobile hydrogen storage in hydrogen vehicles. It is used as a fuel gas.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Computational representational understanding of mind (CRUM) is a hypothesis in cognitive science which proposes that thinking is performed by computations operating on representations. This hypothesis assumes that the mind has mental representations analogous to data structures and computational procedures analogous to algorithms, such that computer programs using algorithms applied to data structures can model the mind and its processes..\nCRUM takes into consideration several theoretical approaches of understanding human cognition, including logic, rule, concept, analogy, image, and connectionist-based systems based on artificial neural networks. These serve as the representation aspects of CRUM theory which are then acted upon to simulate certain aspects of human cognition, such as the use of rule-based systems in neuroeconomics.\nThere is much disagreement on this hypothesis, but CRUM has high regard among some researchers. Philosopher Paul Thagard called it \"the most theoretically and experimentally successful approach to mind ever developed\".", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The conical refiner is a machine used in the refining of pulp in the papermaking process.  It may also be referred to as a Jordan refiner, after the American inventor Joseph Jordan who patented the device in 1858.\n\nThe conical refiner is a chamber with metal bars mounted around the inside of the container.  The material to be refined is pumped into the chamber at high-pressure rate in order to create an abrasive effect as the material is forced through the machine, abraided by the metal bars.  At the opposite end of the chamber the resulting pulp is pumped out.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Dark current spectroscopy is a technique that is used to determine contaminants in silicon.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Degg's Model shows that a natural disaster only occurs if a vulnerable population is exposed to a hazard.  It was devised in 1992 by Dr. Martin Degg, Head of Geography at the University of Chester.It also depends on how far people are from the epicentre of an earthquake, volcano or any other natural tectonic disaster.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A degree of frost is a non-standard unit of measure for air temperature meaning degrees below melting point (also known as \"freezing point\") of water (0 degrees Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit). \"Degree\" in this case can refer to degree Celsius  or degree Fahrenheit. \nWhen based on Celsius, 0 degrees of frost is the same as 0 \u00b0C, and any other value is simply the negative of the Celsius temperature. When based on Fahrenheit, 0 degrees of frost is equal to 32 \u00b0F. Conversion formulas: \n\nT [degrees of frost] = 32 \u00b0F \u2212 T [\u00b0F]\nT [\u00b0F] = 32 \u00b0F \u2212 T [degrees of frost]The term \"degrees of frost\" was widely used in accounts of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the early 20th century. The term appears frequently in Ernest Shackleton's books South and Heart of the Antarctic, Apsley Cherry-Garrard's account of his Antarctic adventures in The Worst Journey in the World (wherein he recorded 109.5 degrees [Fahrenheit] of frost, \u201377.5 \u00b0F or \u201360.8 \u00b0C), in Jack London's \"To Build A Fire\", as well as Admiral Richard E. Byrd's book Alone.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Degrees of freedom (often abbreviated df or DOF) refers to the number of independent variables or parameters of a system. In various scientific fields, the word \"freedom\" is used to describe the limits to which physical movement or other physical processes are possible. This relates to the philosophical concept to the extent that people may be considered to have as much freedom as they are physically able to exercise.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The dematerialization of a product literally means less, or better yet, no material is used to deliver the same level of functionality to the user. Sharing, borrowing and the organization of group services that facilitate and cater for communities needs could alleviate the requirement of ownership of many products.\nIn his book In The Bubble: Designing In A Complex World, John Thakara states that \"the average consumer power tool is used for ten minutes in its entire life\u2014but it takes hundreds of times its own weight to manufacture such an object\". A product service system with shared tools could simply offer access to them when needed. This shift from a reliance on products to services is the process of dematerialization. Digital music distribution systems, car clubs, bike hire schemes and laundry services all can be examples of dematerialization.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Dielectric thermal analysis (DETA), or dielectric analysis (DEA), is a materials science technique similar to dynamic mechanical analysis except that an oscillating electrical field is used instead of a mechanical force. For investigation of the curing behavior of thermosetting resin systems, composite materials, adhesives and paints, Dielectric Analysis (DEA) can be used in accordance with ASTM E 2038 or E 2039. The great advantage of DEA is that it can be employed not only on a laboratory scale, but also in process.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Differential Doppler effect occurs when light is emitted from a rotating source.  \nIn circumstellar environments it describes the difference in photons arriving at orbiting dust particles. Photons that originate from the limb that is rotating away from the particle are red-shifted, while photons emitted from the limb rotating toward the particle are blue-shifted.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In alchemy, digestion is a process in which gentle heat is applied to a substance over a period of several weeks.\nThis was traditionally performed by sealing a sample of the substance in a flask, and keeping the flask in fresh horse dung or sometimes in direct sunlight. Today, practitioners of alchemy use thermostat-controlled incubators.Digestion is considered one of the 12 core alchemical processes and is \"ruled\", or \"dominated\", by the zodiacal sign of Leo.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In metadata, dimension is a set of equivalent units of measure, where equivalence between two units of measure is determined by the existence of a quantity preserving one-to-one correspondence between values measured in one unit of measure and values measured in the other unit of measure, independent of context, and where characterizing operations are the same.\nThe equivalence defined here forms an equivalence relation on the set of all units of measure.  Each equivalence class corresponds to a dimensionality.  The units of measure \"temperature in degrees Fahrenheit\" and \"temperature in degrees Celsius\" have the same dimensionality, because given a value measured in degrees Fahrenheit there is a value measured in degrees Celsius with the same quantity, and vice versa.   Quantity preserving one-to-one correspondences are the well-known equations C\u00ba = (5/9)*(F\u00ba \u2212 32) and F\u00ba = (9/5)*(C\u00ba) + 32.\nUnits of measure are not limited to physical categories. Examples of physical categories are: linear measure, area, volume, mass, velocity, time duration. Examples of non-physical categories are: currency, quality indicator, colour intensity.\nQuantities may be grouped together into categories of quantities which are mutually comparable.  Lengths, diameters, distances, heights, wavelengths and so on would constitute such a category.  Mutually comparable quantities have the same dimensionality.  ISO 31-0 calls these quantities of the same kind.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Distinguished Professor is an academic title given to some top tenured professors in a university, school, or department. Some distinguished professors may have endowed chairs.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "An elicitation technique is any of a number of data collection techniques used in anthropology, cognitive science, counseling, education, knowledge engineering, linguistics, management, philosophy, psychology, or other fields to gather knowledge or information from people. Recent work in behavioral economics has purported that elicitation techniques can be used to control subject misconceptions and mitigate errors from generally accepted experimental design practices.  Elicitation, in which knowledge is sought directly from human beings, is usually distinguished from indirect methods such as gathering information from written sources.A person who interacts with human subjects in order to elicit information from them may be called an elicitor, an analyst, experimenter, or knowledge engineer, depending on the field of study.Elicitation techniques include interviews, observation of either naturally occurring  behavior (including as part of participant observation) or behavior in a laboratory setting, or the analysis of assigned tasks.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Environmental data rescue is a collection of processes, including photography and scanning, that stores historical and modern environmental data in a usable format. The data is then analyzed and used in scientific models. Historical weather information helps meteorologists and climatologists understand past trends in weather changes, which helps them forecast and predict future weather.  \nOne method takes digital photographs of environmental datum stored on paper medium and then ships the images to a facility where they are entered into a database.\nThroughout the world, some estimate 700,000 pieces of data are lost every day due to inks fading, paper deteriorating, magnetic tape print-through etc. A rough estimate of 100 billion parameter values that are still on paper exists, microfiche, microfilm, and magnetic tape that are in a format unusable by computers and scientists alike, which need to be digitized. This data is stored on a variety of media from paper, microfiche, to older magnetic tapes that are going bad. \nOnce data is digitized, it can be used to help a large range of people from farmers to engineers and in scientific pursuits such as climate studies. \nNational Climatic Data Center is the current collection point for this data within the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration.\nHistorical Environmental Data are also used as a basis for \"Disease Vectorization\" where the areal spread of airborne diseases are correlated to historical weather conditions so that in future outbreaks, health care teams can predict the direction and rate of spread of the disease so that remedial actions can begin before the disease reaches the vulnerable population. Historic data are also used in designing structures such as bridges and buildings, assist the 1.8 billion subsistence farmers throughout the world better plan crops alleviating starvation.\nThe International Environmental Data Rescue Organization, a 501(C)(3) non-profit organization has already participated in the rescue and digitization of one million historic weather observations in Africa and South America:  http://IEDRO.ORG", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "An ergonomic glove, also known as a computer glove or support glove, is a stiff glove worn to try to prevent or remedy carpal tunnel syndrome by holding the wrist in a certain position while typing.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Erice statement is a statement written by Paul Dirac, Piotr Kapitza, and Antonino Zichichi asking for freedom of expression for scientists as well as for nuclear disarmament. It has been signed by over 90,000 scientists as well as numerous world leaders including  Mikhail Gorbachev, Ronald Reagan and Deng Xiaoping.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The International Exhibition of Citriculture was a Specialised Expo recognised by the Bureau International des Expositions. The Expo took place from 21 May to 20 June 1956 in Beit Dagan, Israel and was organised within the framework of the fourth International Congress of Mediterranean Citrus Growers.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Experimental data in science and engineering is data produced by a measurement, test method, experimental design or quasi-experimental design. In clinical research any data produced are the result of a clinical trial. Experimental data may be qualitative or quantitative, each being appropriate for different investigations.\nGenerally speaking, qualitative data are considered more descriptive and can be subjective in comparison to having a continuous measurement scale that produces numbers.  Whereas quantitative data are gathered in a manner that is normally experimentally repeatable, qualitative information is usually more closely related to phenomenal meaning and is, therefore, subject to interpretation by individual observers.\nExperimental data can be reproduced by a variety of different investigators and mathematical analysis may be performed on these data.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Experimental Design Diagram (EDD) is a diagram used in science classrooms to design an experiment. This diagram helps to identify the essential components of an experiment. It includes a title, the research hypothesis and null hypothesis, the independent variable, the levels of the independent variable, the number of trials, the dependent variable, the operational definition of the dependent variable and the constants.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Fauna Europaea is a database of the scientific names and distribution of all living multicellular European land and fresh-water animals. It serves as a standard taxonomic source for animal taxonomy within the Pan-European Species directories Infrastructure (PESI). As of June 2020, Fauna Europaea reported that their database contained 235,708 taxon names and 173,654 species names.Its construction was initially funded by the European Council (2000\u20132004). The project was co-ordinated by the University of Amsterdam which launched the first version in 2004, after which the database was transferred to the Natural History Museum Berlin in 2015.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Femto-photography is a technique for recording the propagation of ultrashort pulses of light through a scene at a very high speed (up to 1013 frames per second). A femto-photograph is equivalent to an optical impulse response of a scene and has also been denoted by terms such as a light-in-flight recording or transient image. Femto-photography of macroscopic objects was first demonstrated using a holographic process in the 1970s by Nils Abramsson at the Royal Institute of Technology (Sweden).  A research team at the MIT Media Lab led by Ramesh Raskar, together with contributors from the Graphics and Imaging Lab at the Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain, more recently achieved a significant increase in image quality using a streak camera synchronized to a pulsed laser and modified to obtain 2D images instead of just a single scanline.In their publications, Raskar's team claims to be able to capture exposures so short that light only traverses 0.6 mm (corresponding to 2 picoseconds, or 2\u00d710\u221212 seconds) during the exposure period, a figure that is in agreement  with the nominal resolution of the Hamamatsu streak camera model C5680, on which their experimental setup is based. Recordings taken using the setup have reached significant spread in the mainstream media, including a presentation by Raskar at TEDGlobal 2012. Furthermore, the team was able to demonstrate the reconstruction of unknown objects \"around corners\", i.e., outside the line of sight of light source and camera, from femto-photographs.In 2013, researchers at the University of British Columbia demonstrated a computational technique that allows the extraction of transient images from time-of-flight sensor data without the need for ultrafast light sources or detectors.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A Fernbach flask is a type of flask suited for large volume cell culture where the culture requires a large surface area to volume ratio.  Typically, they are baffled on the bottom in order to maximize oxygen transfer to the culture medium when shaken. The flask was named after French biologist Auguste Fernbach (1860-1939). A common volume of Fernbach flasks is 2.8 L, although only less than half would typically be used to allow for the best liquid-to-air surface area for appropriate gas exchange.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Flamelet-Generated Manifold (FGM) is a combustion chemistry reduction technique. The approach of FGM is based on the idea that the most important aspects of the internal structure of the flame front should be taken into account. In this view, a low-dimensional chemical manifold is created on the basis of one-dimensional flame structures, including nearly all of the transport and chemical phenomena as observed in three-dimensional flames. In addition, the progress of the flame is generally described by transport equations for a limited number of control variables.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) is an MRI sequence with an inversion recovery set to null fluids. For example, it can be used in brain imaging to suppress cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) effects on the image, so as to bring out the periventricular hyperintense lesions, such as multiple sclerosis (MS) plaques. It was invented by Dr. Graeme Bydder.  FLAIR can be used with both three-dimensional imaging (3D FLAIR) or two dimensional imaging (2D FLAIR).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The free fall machine (FFM) is designed to permit the development of small biological sample such as cell cultures with a simulated effect of micro-gravity, under free fall conditions.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "GeneLab is an open-access, collaborative analysis platform for space bioscience research. GeneLab aims to maximize the research resulting from experiments aboard the International Space Station (ISS) by collecting and providing access to data from genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomics studies aboard ISS. The Space Biosciences Division at NASA's Ames Research Center runs GeneLab.The GeneLab project is both a science collaboration initiative to maximize the omics data collected from spaceflight and from ground simulations of microgravity and radiation experiments; and a data system effort to establish a public bioinformatics repository and collaborative analysis platform for these data.GeneLab houses data from spaceflight experiments and related ground-based studies conducted on a variety of organisms including: mouse, plants, fruit fly, cultured cells, nematodes, bacteria and fungi. The data are publicly available for download, and enable researchers to ask questions about how the spaceflight environment causes changes in the RNA, DNA and proteins, the building blocks of life.Because no single analysis can fully unravel the complexities of fundamental biology, GeneLab provides access to data from multiple experiments and at multiple layers of omics analysis that can be analyzed in an integrated fashion to obtain a more complete understanding of how biological systems adapt to spaceflight, leading to advances for life on Earth and beyond.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Genome News Network (abbreviated GNN) is an online magazine that publishes news articles and educational resources about genomics and medicine. It was founded in 1999, with Barbara Culliton as the founding editor-in-chief. It was originally published by Celera Genomics. In 2001, the Institute for Genomic Research became the magazine's new publisher. An article published in the Lancet Oncology that year stated that the magazine \"...offers news, original articles, the online reference book, What\u2019s a genome?, and primers on sequencing and assembling the genome \u2013 all well  written and illustrated\". As of 2010, new issues of the magazine were published biweekly.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "GikII is a series of European conferences on the intersections between law, technology and popular culture.  It is hosted at a different institution every year. The first conference was in 2006 and was held in Edinburgh, and was organised by Lilian Edwards and Andres Guadamuz.The conference has been held in several European universities and institutions, including University College London, University of Oxford, University of Edinburgh, University of Amsterdam, Alexander von Humboldt Institute for Internet and Society, University of Vienna and University of Sussex. Spin-off workshops are regularly held in addition to the main yearly conference in other parts of the world or as tracks in other conferences, such as at TILTing 2019 at Tilburg University and SoGikII 2009 at the University of New South Wales.The conference deals with what the organisers describe as \"geek law\", studying the intersection of law, regulation, popular culture and technology. The covered topics include artificial intelligence, cryptocurrencies, virtual worlds, games, tattoos, 3D printing, fan fiction, digital privacy, avatar rights, augmented reality, and robots.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A Goldberg drum is a laboratory equipment used in the studies of aerosols. It was described by Leonard J. Goldberg from the Naval Biological Laboratory, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, in 1958. It is used to contain airborne aerosols and particles.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The good regulator is a theorem conceived by Roger C. Conant and W. Ross Ashby that is central to cybernetics. It is stated that \"every good regulator of a system must be a model of that system\". That is, any regulator that is maximally simple among optimal regulators must behave as an image of that system under a homomorphism (the authors sometimes say 'isomorphism' but the mapping they construct is only a homomorphism).  This result is obtained by considering the entropy of the variation of the output of the controlled system, and shows that, under very general conditions, that the entropy is minimized when there is a (deterministic) mapping  \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n        :\n        S\n        \u2192\n        R\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h:S\\to R}\n   from the states of the system to the states of the regulator.  The authors view this map \n  \n    \n      \n        h\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle h}\n   as making the regulator a 'model' of the system.\nWith regard to the brain, insofar as it is successful and efficient as a regulator for survival, it must proceed, in learning, by the formation of a model (or models) of its environment.\nThe theorem is general enough to apply to all regulating and self-regulating or homeostatic systems. \nThe theorem does not explain what it takes for the system to become a good regulator. In cybernetics, the problem of creating good regulators is addressed by the ethical regulator theorem, and by the theory of practopoiesis.  The construction of good regulators is a general problem for any system (e.g., an automated information system) that regulates some domain of application.\nWhen restricted to the ODE (ordinary differential equations) subset of control theory, it is referred to as the internal model principle, which was first articulated in 1976 by B. A. Francis and W. M. Wonham.  In this form, it stands in contrast to classical control, in that the classical feedback loop fails to explicitly model the controlled system (although the classical controller may contain an implicit model).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Gustatory technology is the engineering discipline dealing with gustatory representation.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Amateur Radio Science Citizen Investigation (HamSCI) is an initiative to connect amateur radio operators with scientific researchers, and to use amateur radio as a citizen science tool to collect scientific data, particularly in geospace science.  HamSCI holds annual workshops each year. Most HamSCI projects focus on the ionosphere. The central initiative of HamSCI is the Personal Space Weather Station, a project to conduct distributed sensing of space weather by developing modular hardware similar to traditional weather stations.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "There are a wide range of potential applications for research at high altitude, including medical, physiological, and cosmic physics research.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In science communication and academic publishing, hype in science is the exaggeration and sensationalism of scientific discoveries when submitting discoveries to scientific journals and when publicizing results in the news media.Hype in science has been seen to come as a result of scientists working in an increasingly competitive field where the discoveries published by an individual have large ramifications on that individual\u2019s income and career path. In order to make their work stand out, many scientists will exaggerate their findings and embezzle their writing with affirmative terms. Many studies have been completed that show how the frequency of terms that may be used to affirm or exaggerate findings has increased in recent decades as academia and the competitiveness of science journals increases as well.Scientific journals engage in hype in science as well as the scientists. Journals are more likely to publish articles which use more exciting and positive language. These articles are what get the non-scientific general public interested, and therefore are contenders for press releases and articles in mainstream news outlets.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Incompatibility thesis is an argument in research methodology about incompatibility of quantitative research and qualitative research paradigms in the same research. This thesis is based on philosophies of post-structuralism and post-modernism (among others). Arguments from those philosophies support exclusive superiority of one orientation (usually, the qualitative one) are oppose mixing it with quantitative research (as is advocated by the proponents of mixed-method research who support the compatibility thesis).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Infrared Science Archive (IRSA) is the primary archive for the infrared and submillimeter astronomical projects of NASA, the space agency of the United States. IRSA curates the science products of over 15 missions, including the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), and the Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS). It also serves data from infrared and submillimeter European Space Agency missions with NASA participation, including the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), Planck, and the Herschel Space Observatory. As of 2019, IRSA provides access to more than 1 petabyte of data consisting of roughly 1 trillion astronomical measurements, which span wavelengths from 1 micron to 10 millimeters and include all-sky coverage in 24 bands. Approximately 10% of all refereed astronomical journal articles cite data sets curated by IRSA.IRSA is part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC) and is located on the campus of the California Institute of Technology. It is one of NASA's Astrophysics Data Centers, along with the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), and others.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In economics and social policy, infrastructure bias is the influence of the location and availability of pre-existing infrastructure, such as roads and telecommunications facilities, on social and economic development.\nIn science, infrastructure bias is the influence of existing social or scientific infrastructure on scientific observations.\nIn astronomy and particle physics, where the availability of particular kinds of telescopes or particle accelerators acts as a constraint on the types of experiments that can be done, the data that can be retrieved is biased towards that which can be obtained by the equipment.\nProcedural bias, related to infrastructure bias, is shown by a case of irregular genetic sampling of Bolivian wild potatoes. A 2000 report of previous studies' sampling found that 60% of samples had been taken near towns or roads, where 22% would be the average, had the samples been taken at random (or from equidistant points, or at specifically varying distances from towns, representative of the average terrain density).\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "An instructional manipulation check, often abbreviated IMC, is a special kind of question inserted in a questionnaire among the regular questions, designed to check whether respondents are paying attention to the instructions. Discarding responses by participants who fail to read the instructions reduces the signal-to-noise ratio and can thereby increase the statistical power of an experiment. The tool was developed by Oppenheimer et al.Eliminating random responses this way before performing statistical hypothesis testing may be considered a legitimate form of data manipulation, but should be duly mentioned in publications reporting on the outcome of the experiment in question.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Interference microscopy involving measurements of differences in the path between two beams of light that have been split.\nTypes include:\n\nClassical interference microscopy\nDifferential interference contrast microscopy\nFluorescence interference contrast microscopy", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "International Publisher Ltd. (or International Publisher LLC) is a fraudulent academic publishing company that coordinates the unethical sale of authorship positions on academic research papers. The company is headquartered in Moscow (Russia) with offices in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Iran, and lists its chief editor as Ksenia Badziun.The company was exposed by scientific misconduct tracking website Retraction Watch in 2019. In 2022, a preprint on arxiv.org was covered by Science Magazine detailing how International Publisher Ltd. had published hundreds of academic papers across diverse academic journals, including from respected publishing companies. In 2019, the scientific indexing company Clarivate's Web of Science group sent International Publisher Ltd. a cease-and-desist letter, which was ignored.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Ion milling machine thins samples until they are transparent to electrons by firing ions (typically argon) at the surface from an angle and sputtering material from the surface. By making a sample electron transparent, it can be imaged and characterized in a transmission electron microscope (TEM). Ion beam milling may also be used for cross-section polishing prior to SEM analysis of materials that are difficult to prepare using mechanical polishing.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In medicine, a laboratory specimen is a biological specimen taken by sampling, that is, gathered matter of a medical patient's tissue, fluid, or other material derived from the patient used for laboratory analysis to assist differential diagnosis or staging of a disease process. Common examples include throat swabs, sputum, urine, blood, surgical drain fluids, and tissue biopsies.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A land lab is an area of land that has been set aside for use in biological studies.  Thus, it is literally an outdoor laboratory based on an area of land.\nStudies may be elementary or advanced.  For instance, students may simply be given the task of identifying all the tree species in a land lab, or an advanced student may be doing an intensive survey of the microbial life forms found in a soil sample.\nLand labs are often marked out in plots or transects for studies.  A plot may be any size, usually marked out in square meters.  This allows for more intensive, delimited studies of changes and inventories of biota.  Transects are straight lines at which, at intervals, measurements are taken for a profile of the ecological community.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A Lariat chain is a loop of chain that hangs off, and is spun by a wheel. It is often used as a science exhibit or a toy. \nThe original Lariat Chain was created in 1986 by Norman Tuck, as an Artist-in-Residence project at the Exploratorium in San Francisco. \nLariat Chain was developed from an earlier Tuck piece entitled Chain Reaction (1984). Chain Reaction was hand cranked, and utilized a heavy chain attached by magnets onto an iron flywheel. As in Lariat Chain, Chain Reaction used a brush to disrupt the motion of the traveling chain.  \nThe speed of the chain is arranged to equal the wave speed of transverse waves, so that waves moving against the motion of the chain appear to be standing still.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Lecture bottles are small compressed gas cylinders, typically 12\u201318 inches (300\u2013460 mm) long and 1\u20133 inches (25\u201376 mm) in diameter. They are used in laboratories working with small quantities of gases or specialty gases.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Light ergonomics is the relationship between the light source and the individual. Poor light can be divided into the following:\n\nIndividual or socio-cultural expectations\nInsufficient light\nPoor distribution of light\nImproper contrast\nGlare\nFlicker\nThermal heating (over or under)\nAcoustic noise (especially fluorescents)\nColor spectrum (full-spectrum light, color temperature, etc.)", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A Lilian date is the number of days since the beginning of the Gregorian Calendar on October 15, 1582, regarded as Lilian date 1.  It was invented by Bruce G. Ohms of IBM in 1986 and is named for Aloysius Lilius, who devised the Gregorian Calendar. Lilian dates can be used to calculate the number of days between any two dates occurring since the beginning of the Gregorian calendar. It is currently used by date conversion routines that are part of IBM Language Environment (LE) software and in IBM AIX COBOL.The Lilian date is only a date format: it is not tied to any particular time standard. Another, better known, date notation that is used for similar purposes is the Julian date, which is tied to Universal time (or some other closely related time scale, such as International Atomic Time). The Julian date always begins at noon, Universal time, and a decimal fraction may be used to represent the time of day. In contrast, Ohms did not make any mention of time zones or time of day in his paper.If the Lilian date was to be reckoned in Universal Time, and if the Lilian date is taken to begin at midnight, the Lilian date can be obtained from the Julian date by subtracting 2,299,159.5 from the Julian date, and ignoring the decimal fraction in the result.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Lithoprobe was a Canadian national geoscience research project funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council from 1984\u20132005. Its aim is to research and map the lithosphere structure and composition. Lithoprobe derives from \"probing the lithosphere\".", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Living Earth simulator is a proposed massive computer simulation system intended to simulate the interactions of all aspects of life, human economic activity, climate, and other physical processes on the planet Earth as part of the FuturICT project, in response to the European FP7 \"Future and Emerging Technologies Flagship\" initiative.The Future and Emerging Technologies 'flagship' competition offered a 10-years, ~\u20ac1 billion funding to the winning teams; the competition attracted over 300 international teams.The FuturICT project was not selected and thus the Living Earth Simulator was never developed. The two winners, announced as of March 2013, were Graphene and Human Brain.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Madsci Network is a website known primarily for its Ask-A-Scientist forum where users can ask questions to a panel of volunteer scientists.  Each question, submitted via a Web interface, is reviewed by a volunteer moderator.  If the question is intelligible, not a homework assignment, and has not been answered previously, it may be answered directly by the moderator, or forwarded to one of hundreds of volunteer scientists and professionals.   The moderators match each question to a volunteer's area of expertise.  After answering the question, the volunteer sends it back to the moderators who then review the answer prior to posting it on the web site. The moderator may ask the scientist to edit the answer or provide references for information. Thereafter, the majority of questions and answers are made publicly available in the extensive archives, which date back to 1996.  \nThe Madsci Network hosts the Edible and Inedible Experiments Archive, a unique collection of easy science demos, and a guided tour of data from the Visible Human Project.The Madsci Network gets approximately 600,000 unique visitors and roughly 3 million page views per month.  It is a non-profit ask-a-scientist site with over 700 scientists distributed globally and has been cited in academic publications, web awards, sites/portals like yahoo.com, etc. The principals are: Founder and Executive Director, Dr. Lynn Bry, and Director of Research, Dr. Ricky J Sethi.  Notable scientists who have answered questions on the website include Dr. Samuel Conway.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Malta 2021 Stratospheric Balloon was a stratospheric upper-atmosphere weather balloon launched on 13 August 2021 from the Esplora Complex in the small, island-nation of Malta. A false-advertising campaign before the launch stated that the balloon would be a \"space balloon\" despite the fact the stratospheric balloon only climbed to 37 kilometres (23 mi), 63 kilometres (39 mi) short of the K\u00e1rm\u00e1n line. The launch succeeded an earlier, failed launch in which the balloon detached from its sensory payload due to an imbalance of forces acting on the balloon.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The mdx mouse is a popular model for studying Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). The mdx mouse has a point mutation in its DMD gene, changing the amino acid coding for a glutamine to STOP codon. This causes the muscle cells to produce a small, nonfunctional dystrophin protein. As a result, the mouse has a mild form of DMD where there is increased muscle damage and weakness.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A Meker\u2013Fisher burner, or Meker burner, is an ambient air laboratory burner that produces multiple open gas flames, used for heating, sterilization, and combustion. It is used when laboratory work requires a hotter flame than attainable using a Bunsen burner, or used when a larger-diameter flame is desired, such as with an inoculation loop or in some glassblowing operations. The burner was introduced by French chemist Georges M\u00e9ker in an article published in 1905.The Meker\u2013Fisher burner heat output can be in excess of 12,000 BTU (13,000 kJ) per hour (about 3.5 kW) using LP gas. Flame temperatures of up to 1,100\u20131,200 \u00b0C (2,000\u20132,200 \u00b0F) are achievable. Compared with a Bunsen burner, the lower part of its tube has more openings with larger total cross-section, admitting more air and facilitating better mixing of air and gas. The tube is wider, and its top is covered with a plate mesh, which separates the flame into an array of smaller flames with a common external envelope, ensures uniform heating, and also preventing flashback to the bottom of the tube, which is a risk at high air-to-fuel ratios and limits the maximal rate of air intake in a Bunsen burner. The flame burns without noise, unlike the Bunsen or Teclu burners.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Metal testing is a process or procedure used to check composition of an unknown metallic substance. There are destructive processes and nondestructive processes. Metal testing can also include, determining the properties of newly forged metal alloys. With many chemical-property databases readily available, identification of unmarked pure, common metals can be a quick and easy process. Leaving the original sample in complete, re-usable condition. This type of testing is nondestructive.  When working with alloys (forged mixtures) of metals however, to determine the exact composition, could result in the original sample being separated into its starting materials, then measured and calculated. After the components are known they can be looked up and matched to known alloys. The original sample would be destroyed in the process.  This type of testing is destructive.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The micro-pulling-down (\u03bc-PD) method is a crystal growth technique based on continuous transport of the melted substance through micro-channel(s) made in a crucible bottom.  Continuous solidification of the melt is progressed on a liquid/solid interface positioned under the crucible.  In a steady state, both the melt and the crystal are pulled-down with a constant (but generally different) velocity.\nMany different types of crystal are grown by this technique, including  Y3Al5O12, Si, Si-Ge, LiNbO3, \n\u03b1-Al2O3, Y2O3, Sc2O3, \nLiF, CaF2, BaF2, etc.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A microbalance is an instrument capable of making precise measurements of weight of objects of relatively small mass: of the order of a million parts of a gram. In comparison, a standard analytical balance is 100 times less sensitive; i.e. it is limited in precision to 0.1 milligrams. Microbalances are generally used in a laboratory as standalone instruments but are also incorporated into other instruments, such as thermogravimetry, sorption/desorption systems, and surface property instruments. It is the precision of the microbalance that distinguishes it from other weighing devices.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Microparticle Performance Rating (MPR) is an Air filter rating system created by the company 3M.  It rates the ability of an air filter to filter out micro particles.\nBecause MPR was created by 3M, it only applies to filters produced by the 3M brand.The higher the MPR, the better the filter\u2019s ability to capture particles from the air as it passes through the filter.\nMPR is different from MERV, the Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value. The MERV system measures a filter\u2019s ability to capture large particles. The MPR only takes into account the microscopic particles between 0.3 and 1 \u00b5m.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Microphotography is a writing style that emerged in the early 1990s in science journalism. The style is named after micrographs and is distinctive for its highly detailed, worm's eye or microscopic view of the macroscopic world.\nOne of the flagship works in this style was David Bodanis's commercially prominent The Secret House: 24 hours in the strange & wonderful world in which we spend our nights and days. This book followed daily life in a typical enclosed human habitat in minute detail, featuring detailed physical and biological explanations.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Mindat.org is a non-commercial online database, claiming to be the largest mineral database and mineralogical reference website on the Internet. It is used by professional mineralogists, geologists, and amateur mineral collectors alike.\nThe website contains a significant catalogue of mineral entries, localities, and photographs. Registered editors may add and revise information on the regularly updating database.\nAs of 2016, it included:\n\n45,289 mineral names (this includes mineral varieties, synonyms, and discredited names), of which 5,091 are minerals or mineraloids recognized by the International Mineralogical Association.\n261,955 mineral localities worldwide, with information on 903,204 mineral occurrences within these sites.\nOver 647,000 photos of minerals have been uploaded, arranged into galleries from collectors and institutions worldwide who wish to share their mineral collections online.\n48,657 users registered to upload photos and/or edit data.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Minimalism in structured writing, topic-based authoring, and technical writing in general is based on the ideas of John Millar Carroll and others. Minimalism strives to reduce interference of information delivery with the user's sense-making process. It does not try to eliminate any chance of the user making a mistake, but regards an error as a teachable moment that content can exploit.\nLike Robert E. Horn's work on information mapping, John Carroll's principles of Minimalism were based in part on cognitive studies and learning research at Harvard and Columbia University, by Jerome Bruner, Jerome Kagan, B.F. Skinner, George A. Miller, and others. Carroll argues that training materials should present short task-oriented chunks, not lengthy, monolithic documentation that tries to explain everything in a long narrative.\nA historian of technical communication, R. John Brockmann, points out that Fred Bethke and others at IBM enunciated task orientation as a principle a decade earlier in a report on IBM Publishing Guidelines.\nCarroll observes that modern users are often already familiar with much of what a typical long manual describes. What they need is information to solve a task at hand. He feels that documentation should encourage them to do this with a minimum of systematic instruction.\nDarwin Information Typing Architecture (DITA) is built on Carroll's theories of Minimalism and Horn's theories of Information Mapping.\nMinimalism is a large part of JoAnn Hackos' recent workshops and books on information development using structured writing and the DITA XML standard.\nGood writing means that the message is directly clear to the projected audience. Adopting a minimalist method may appear, in the short-term, to cost more, as writers must cut up and rephrase content into single free-standing chunks. However, the longer-term brings cost-saving benefits, particularly in translation and localization, where often sum is on a \u2018per word\u2019 basis. But the greatest advantage for companies is user fulfillment. The less time a customer spends working out how to do something, the more likely they are to purchase again.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Mississippi State Axion Search is the first of its kind light shining through the wall experiment designed to operate using a continuous radio wave emitter as the source of photons. The experiment contains a radio source and a set of detectors separated by a wall. The aim of the experiment is to limit the mass and coupling constants of an axion like particle or a para photon by looking at the photons on the dark side of the tuned cavity. The experiment is projected to be completed by 2016.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Multiple-classification ripple-down rules (MCRDR) is an incremental knowledge acquisition technique which preserves the benefits and essential strategy of ripple-down rules (RDR) in handling the multiple classifications. MCRDR, the extension of RDR, is based on the assumption that the knowledge an expert provides is essentially a justification for a conclusion in a particular context.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "NASA Categories of Evidence comprise a matrix or scale denoting the sources of evidence provided in the Human Research Program's various evidence reports, and thus potentially their probative value and efficacy. Authors in the Program were urged to label their evidence according to whether it was based on controlled experiments, observation, or expert opinion.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The NatCarb geoportal provides access to geospatial information and tools concerning carbon sequestration in the United States.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Nipastat is the brand name for a mixture of parabens (parahydroxybenzoates) by Clariant, a chemicals company. Parabens are a type of compound used as a preservative in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and food. Nipastat is a white powder at room temperature, but is typically dissolved into a liquid product. Nipastat acts to prevent the growth of bacteria, mold, and yeast. Nipastat is a mixture of five common parabens: methylparaben (50-60%), butylparaben (12-17%), ethylparaben, (13-18%) propylparaben (6-9%), and isobutylparaben (6-9%). When Nipastat is added to a product, the recommended final weight of Nipastat is between 0.05% and 0.3% of the total weight. Nipastat is stable at a range of pHs between 4 and 8.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "NIST-7 was the atomic clock used by the United States from 1993 to 1999. It was one of a series of Atomic Clocks  at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Eventually, it achieved an uncertainty of 5 \u00d7 10\u221215. The caesium beam clock served as the nation's primary time and frequency standard during that time period, but it has since been replaced with the more accurate NIST-F1, a caesium fountain atomic clock that neither gains nor loses one second in 100 million years.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Noology, or No\u00f6logy derives from the ancient Greek words \u03bd\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c2, nous or \"mind\" and \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, logos. Noology thus outlines a systematic study and organization of thought, knowledge and the mind.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The oculo-auricular phenomenon, first described by Kinnier Wilson in 1908, is the phenomenon of an extreme lateral gaze inducing a slight but perceptible backwards movement of the upper part of the pinna. Wilson's phenomenon attracted considerable attention at the time because Wilson was well known and for its implications of Darwin's theory of natural selection. According to (Urban 1993), \"In patients with brainstem disease abnormal transverse auricular muscle coactivation is characterized by absence of activity in one or both ear muscles during lateral gaze in either or both directions.\"\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "An oil bath is a type of heated bath used in a laboratory, most commonly used to heat up chemical reactions. It's essentially a container of oil that is heated by a hot plate or (in rare cases) a Bunsen burner.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Oligosaprobes are organisms that inhabit clean water or water that is only slightly polluted by organic matter. Oxidation processes predominate in such waters owing to an excess of dissolved oxygen. Nitrates are among the nitrogen compounds present; there is little carbonic acid and no hydrogen sulfide.  Oligosaprobic environments are aquatic environments rich in dissolved oxygen and (relatively) free from decayed organic matter.Oligosaprobes include some green and diatomaceous algae, flowering plants (for example, European white water lilies), some rotifers, Bryozoa, sponges, mollusks of the genus Dreissena, cladocerans (daphnids, bithotrephes), dragonfly and mayfly larvae, sterlets, trout, minnows, and newts. Oligosaprobes also embrace a few saprophytes, including bacteria (scores and hundreds per 1 cu mm of water) and organisms that feed on bacteria. The term \u201coligosaprobe\u201d is usually applied only to freshwater organisms.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Open assessment is a method for making impact assessments where anyone can participate and contribute. Most open assessments have been made in Opasnet, which is a wiki-based web-workspace specifically designed for this purpose. The open assessment method has been developed in the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (THL, Finnish: Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitos) in Finland originally for providing guidance in complex environmental health problems. So far, it has been applied on e.g. air pollution and pollutants in fish.  Opasnet has won the World Summit Award Finland competition, the eGovernment and Institutions category.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "ORFS stands for Output RF Spectrum, where 'RF' stands for Radio Frequency.\nThe acronym ORFS is used in the context of mobile communication systems, e.g., GSM. It stands for the relationship between (a) the frequency offset from the carrier and (b) the power, measured in a specific bandwidth and time, produced by the mobile station due to effects in modulation and power ramping and switching. ORFS measurements are defined and required in order to prove conformance by various institutions, e.g., the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) or ETSI.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In Information theory, outage probability of a communication channel is the probability that a given information rate is not supported, because of variable channel capacity. Outage probability is defined as the probability that information rate is less than the required threshold information rate. It is the probability that an outage will occur within a specified time period.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Palaeos.com is a web site on biology, paleontology, phylogeny and geology and which covers the history of Earth. The site is well respected and has been used as a reference by professional paleontologists such as Michael J. Benton, the professor of vertebrate palaeontology in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol. It is frequently cited in Science Online.Palaeos.com was started by Toby White and Alan Kazlev; the pair were later joined by Chris Taylor, Mikko Haaramo of the Department of Geology at the University of Helsinki, and Chris Clowes. It features professional-level, yet readable articles about:\nPalaeontology, evolution and systematics\nGeochronology, earth systems and time scale\nDiversity of life and ecologyThe site's developers have started a wiki, Palaeos.org, which uses MediaWiki software to provide conventional voluntary membership.Some pages use images from websites run by David Peters, whose works sometimes considered as highly unreliable.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In the behavioural sciences (e.g. psychology, biology, neurosciences), an experimental paradigm,  is an experimental setup or way of conducting a certain type of experiment (a protocol) that is defined by certain fine-tuned standards, and often has a theoretical background. A paradigm in this technical sense, however, is not a way of thinking as it is in the epistemological meaning (paradigm).\n\nIn the social sciences empiricist experimentation has independent [and dependent] variables and control conditions...What is the origin of the hypotheses which are studied? Given the basic design, the hypothesis and the particular conditions for the experiment, an experimental paradigm must be made up. The paradigm typically includes factors such as experimental instructions for the subjects, the physical design of the experiment room, and the rules for process of the trial or trials to be carried out.\nThe more paradigms which are attempted, and the more variables within a single paradigm are attempted, with the same results, the more sure one is of the results, that, \"the effect is a true one and not merely a product of artifacts engendered by the use of a particular paradigm.\" The three core factors of paradigm design may be considered: \"(a) ...the 'nuts and bolts' of the paradigm itself...; (b) ...implementation concerns...; and (c) resources available.\"\nAn experimental paradigm is a model of research that is copied by many researchers who all tend to use the same variables, start from the same assumptions, and use similar procedures. Those using the same paradigm tend to frame their questions similarly.\nFor example, the stop-signal paradigm, \"is a popular experimental paradigm to study response inhibition.\" The cooperative pulling paradigm is used to study cooperation. The weather prediction test is a paradigm used to study procedural learning. Other examples include Skinner boxes, rat mazes, and trajectory mapping.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Pen tilt refers to the angle of a writing instrument during handwriting and drawing, which can vary over time. In a coordinate system which is determined by the writing surface plane \n  \n    \n      \n        {\n        X\n        ,\n        Y\n        }\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\{X,Y\\}}\n   and the vertical pen-tip movement along the \n  \n    \n      \n        {\n        Z\n        }\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\{Z\\}}\n   axis, all three two-dimensional planes can be discerned, and the angular signals can be delivered by a digitizer. It is part of the ISO/IEC standard 19794-7 for biometric data in signatures.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Phenom is a small, table-top sized scanning electron microscope (SEM) originally developed by Philips and FEI and further developed by Phenom-World.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Piezo ignition is a type of ignition that is used in portable camping stoves, gas grills and some lighters. Piezo ignition uses the principle of piezoelectricity, which, in short, is the electric charge that accumulates in some materials in response to mechanical deformation. It consists of a small, spring-loaded hammer which, when a button is pressed, hits a crystal of PZT. This sudden forceful deformation produces a high voltage and subsequent electrical discharge, which ignites the gas.\nNo external electric connection is required, though wires are sometimes used to place the sparking location away from the crystal itself. Piezo ignition systems can be operated by either a lever, push-button or built into the control knob. An electric spark is usually generated once per turn of the knob or press of the button.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A pipeclay triangle is a piece of laboratory apparatus that is used to support a crucible being heated by a Bunsen burner or other heat source. It is made of wires strung in an equilateral triangle on which are strung hollow ceramic, normally fire clay, tubes. The triangle is usually supported on a tripod or iron ring. Unlike wire gauze, which primarily supports glassware such as beakers, flasks, or evaporating dishes and provides indirect heat transfer to the glassware, the pipeclay triangle normally supports a crucible and allows the flame to heat the crucible directly.  The triangular shape allows rounded crucibles of various sizes to rest in a stable way.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A pneumatic trough is a piece of laboratory apparatus used for collecting gases, such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Polar mesospheric summer echoes (PMSE) is the phenomenon of anomalous radar echoes found between 80-90 km in altitude from May through early August in the Arctic, and from November through to February in the Antarctic. These strong radar echoes are associated with the extremely cold temperatures that occur above continental Antarctica during the summer. Rocket and radar measurements indicate that a partial reflection from a multitude of ion layers and constructive interference causes at least some of the PMSE.\nGenerally PMSE exhibits dramatic variations in height and intensity as well as large variations in Doppler shift.  PMSE exhibit strong signal power enhancements of scattering cross section at VHF radar frequencies in the range 50 MHz to 250 MHz, at times even to over 1 GHz, that occur in summer at high latitudes. The peak PMSE height is slightly below the summer mesopause temperature minimum at 88 km, and above the noctilucent cloud (NLC) and/or polar mesospheric cloud (PMC) layer at 83\u201384 km. The usual instrument for observing PMSE is a VHF Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere (MST) radar, although LIDARs and sounding rockets have also been used. \nPMSE is believed to be caused by structural irregularities in the ionospheric electron density at lower altitudes. The exact cause of PMSE is not yet known, although theorists have proposed steep electron density gradients, heavy positive ions, dressed aerosols, gravity waves and turbulence as possible explanations.\nPMSE occurs in both the Arctic and Antarctic regions, and is sometimes accompanied by noctilucent clouds.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In methodology, the power of a method is inversely proportional to the generality of the method, i.e.: the more specific the method, the more powerful.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The preferential alignment is a criterion of an orientation of a molecule or atom. The preferential alignment can be related to the formation of the crystal structure of an amorphous structure.\nFor a polymer material with liquid crystals, the liquid crystals are molecules shaped like rigid rods. Just as logs being floated down a river tend to travel parallel to the direction of the river, liquid crystals have a preferential alignment with each other. At high temperatures, this alignment is disrupted and the material is said to be in the isotropic state. At lower temperatures, the alignment will take place and the liquid crystals are said to be in the pneumatic state [Hoong.C.C].", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Problem finding means problem discovery. It is part of the larger problem process that includes problem shaping and problem solving. Problem finding requires intellectual vision and insight into what is missing. Problem finding plays a major role in application of creativity.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Problem shaping means revising a question so that the solution process can begin or continue.  \nIt is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem solving. Problem shaping (or problem framing) often involves the application of critical thinking.\nAlgorithmic approach to technical problems reformulation was introduced by G. S. Altshuller in ARIZ.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A prodromus ('forerunner' or 'precursor') aka prodrome is a term used in the natural sciences to describe a preliminary publication intended as the basis for a later, more comprehensive work.\nIt is also a medical term used for a premonitory symptom, that is, a symptom indicating the onset of a disease.The origin of the word is from the 19th century: via French from New Latin prodromus, from Greek prodromos forerunner.Nicolas Steno's De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus, one of the early treatises attempting to explain the occurrence of fossils in solid rock.\nLudovico Marracci's Latin translation from the Arabic Qur\u2019an was published in 1698. His \u2018Introduction\u2019 (Prodromus) had been published seven years earlier.Other notable prodromi include Prodromus Entomology, Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen, Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Proteus phenomenon is the tendency in science for early replications of a work to contradict the original findings, a consequence of publication bias. It is akin to the winner's curse.The term was coined by John Ioannidis and Thomas A. Trikalinos in 2005 named after the Greek god Proteus who could rapidly change his appearance. A 2013 paper argued that the phenomenon might be \"desirable or even optimal\" from a scientific standpoint.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A public lecture (also known as an open lecture) is one means employed for educating the public in the arts and sciences. The Royal Institution has a long history of public lectures and demonstrations given by prominent experts in the field. In the 19th century, the popularity of the public lectures given by Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution was so great that the volume of carriage traffic in Albemarle Street caused it to become the first one-way street in London. The Royal Institution's Christmas Lectures for young people are nowadays also shown on television. Alexander von Humboldt delivered a series of public lectures at the University of Berlin in the winter of 1827\u20131828, that formed the basis for his later work Kosmos.\nBesides public lectures, public autopsies have been important in promoting knowledge of medicine. The public autopsy of Dr. Johann Gaspar Spurzheim, advocate of phrenology, was conducted after his death, and his brain, skull, and heart were removed, preserved in jars of alcohol, and put on display to the public.   Public autoposies have sometimes verged on entertainment: American showman P. T. Barnum held a public autopsy of Joice Heth after her death. Heth was a woman whom Barnum had been featuring as being over 160 years old. Barnum charged 50 cents admission. The autopsy demonstrated that she had in fact been between 76 and 80 years old.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Qualimetry is a scientific discipline which concerns itself with the methods and problems of quantification of the quality of any object: things or processes, whether natural or man-made, products of labour or nature, whether living or inanimate,  etc.It is a scientific theory of the quantitative determination of quality developed in the former USSR by G.G.Azgaldov and currently used in development of Russian standards (GOST),  etc.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A random positioning machine, or RPM, rotates biological samples along two independent axes to change their orientation in space in complex ways and so eliminate the effect of gravity.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Reagent bottles, also known as media bottles or graduated bottles, are containers made of glass, plastic, borosilicate or related substances, and topped by special caps or stoppers. They are intended to contain chemicals in liquid or powder form for laboratories and stored in cabinets or on shelves. Some reagent bottles are tinted amber (actinic), brown or red to protect light-sensitive chemical compounds from visible light, ultraviolet and infrared radiation which may alter them; other bottles are tinted blue (cobalt glass) or uranium green for decorative purposes -mostly vintage apothecary sets, from centuries in which a doctor or apothecary was a prominent figure. The bottles are called \"graduated\" when they have marks on the sides indicating the approximate (often with a 10% error) amount of liquid at a given level within the container. A reagent bottle is a type of laboratory glassware. The term \"reagent\" refers to a substance that is part of a chemical reaction (or an ingredient of which), and \"media\" is the plural form of \"medium\" which refers to the liquid or gas which a reaction happens within, or is a processing chemical tool such as (for example) a flux.\nSeveral companies produce reagent bottles, including Wheaton, Kimble, Corning, Schott AG, Skl\u00e1rny Moravia and trademark glass names include Pyrex, Kimax, Duran, Boro and Bomex.\nCommon bottle sizes include 100 ml, 250 ml, 500 ml, 1000 ml (1 liter) and 2000 ml (2 liter). Older bottles, especially for medical use and for expensive chemicals, can be found of capacities well under 100 ml. \nThe selection of caps and stoppers that reagent bottles are closed with are as important as the material the bottles are made of, and the decision as to which cap to use is dependent on the material stored in the container, and the amount of heat which the cap can be subject to. Common cap sizes include 33-430 (33mm), 38-430 (38mm), and GL 45 (45mm). Caps range in size from narrow mouthed to wide mouthed and often a glass or plastic funnel is needed to properly fill a reagent bottle from a larger or equal sized container's mouth. Reagent bottle caps are commonly said to be \"autoclavable\".\nAntique or vintage reagent bottles tend to resemble the classic apothecary bottle and have a glass stopper, very often not of standard size, so that very old bottles and samples should be stored with care, as replacing a missing glass stopper would require dedicated glassworking.\nReagent bottles are subject to OSHA regulations, and global scientific standards.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Regionalized variable theory (RVT) is a geostatistical method used for interpolation in space.The concept of the theory is that interpolation from points in space should not be based on a smooth continuous object. It should be, however, based on a stochastic model that takes into consideration the various trends in the original set of points. The theory considers that within any dataset, three types of relationships can be detected:\n\nStructural part, which is also called the trend.\nCorrelated variation.\nUncorrelated variation, or noise.After defining the above three relationships, RVT then applies the first law of geography, in order to predict the unknown values of points. The major application of this theory is the Kriging method for interpolation.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Relaxometry refers to the study and/or measurement of relaxation variables in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Magnetic Resonance Imaging. In NMR, nuclear magnetic moments are used to measure specific physical and chemical properties of materials.\nRelaxation of the nuclear spin system is crucial for all NMR applications. The relaxation rate depends strongly on the mobility (fluctuations, diffusion) of the microscopic environment and the strength of the applied magnetic field. As a rule of thumb, strong magnetic fields lead to increased sensitivity on fast dynamics while low fields lead to increased sensitivity on slow dynamics. Thus, the relaxation rate as a function of the magnetic field strength is a fingerprint of the microscopic dynamics.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A research group is a group of researchers often from the same faculty, specialized on the same subject, working together on the issue or topic.The success of research group depends on several factors like, clear goals, research emphasis, group climate, participative governance, decentralized organization, communication, resources, recruitment, selection, and leadership.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In research, a paper mill is a \"profit oriented, unofficial and potentially illegal organisation that produces and sells authorship on research manuscripts. In some cases, paper mills are sophisticated operations that sell authorship positions on legitimate research, but in many cases the papers contain fraudulent data and can be heavily plagiarized or otherwise unprofessional. According to a report from Nature, thousands of papers in academic journals have been traced to paper mills from China, Iran and Russia, and some journals are revamping their review processes.\"It is a problem of research ethics and research integrity affecting academic publishing (academic writing, scientific writing and medical writing). It is an instance of academic dishonesty involving contract cheating and authorship, more specifically academic ghostwriting or medical ghostwriter.  \nIt may include data fabrication, leading to junk science, and sometimes to retractions in the scientific literature (scientific journals, academic journals, or medical journals).\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Research synthesis is the process of combining the results of multiple primary research studies aimed at testing the same conceptual hypothesis. It may be applied to either quantitative or qualitative research. Its general goals are to make the findings from multiple different studies more generalizable and applicable.It aims to generate new knowledge by combining and comparing the results of multiple studies on a given topic. One approach is to use a systematic review method.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A resonance chamber uses resonance to enhance the transfer of energy from a sound source (e.g. a vibrating string) to the air. The chamber has interior surfaces which reflect an acoustic wave. When a wave enters the chamber, it bounces back and forth within the chamber with low loss (See standing wave). As more wave energy enters the chamber, it combines with and reinforces the standing wave, increasing its intensity.\nSince the resonance chamber is an enclosed space that has an opening where the sound wave  enters and exits after bouncing off of the internal walls producing resonance, commonly acoustic resonance as in many musical instruments (see Sound board (music)), the material of the chamber, particularly that of the actual internal walls, its shape and the position of the opening, as well as the finish (porosity) of the internal walls are contributing factors for the final resulting sound produced.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The retraction index is a measure of how likely an article published in a given academic journal will be retracted. It is calculated by multiplying the number of retracted articles in a journal during a given time period by 1,000, and then dividing the result by the total number of articles published in that journal during the same period. The term was coined in a 2011 editorial by Ferric Fang and Arturo Casadevall, the co-editors-in-chief of the journal Infection and Immunity. In their original editorial, Fang and Casadevall also showed a strong positive correlation between a journal's retraction index and its impact factor. Among the 17 journals they analyzed, the New England Journal of Medicine had the highest retraction index. The New England Journal of Medicine responded to the Feng and Casadevall editorial with a statement criticizing it for only considering papers with abstracts. The statement argued that because most articles published in each issue of the Journal do not have abstracts, the journal's retraction index appeared artificially high. They did not identify a mechanism for why this relationship might exist, but suggested that it might be because researchers are more willing to cut corners to get a paper published in a higher-impact journal.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A riometer (commonly relative ionospheric opacity meter, although originally: Relative Ionospheric Opacity Meter for Extra-Terrestrial Emissions of Radio noise) is an instrument used to quantify the amount of electromagnetic-wave ionospheric absorption in the atmosphere. As the name implies, a riometer measures the \"opacity\" of the ionosphere to radio noise emanating from cosmic origin. In the absence of any ionospheric absorption, this radio noise, averaged over a sufficiently long period of time, forms a quiet-day curve. Increased ionization in the ionosphere will cause absorption of radio signals (both terrestrial and extraterrestrial), and a departure from the quiet-day curve. The difference between the quiet-day curve and the riometer signal is an indicator of the amount of absorption, and is measured in decibels. Riometers are generally passive radio antenna operating in the VHF radio frequency range (~30-40 MHz). Electromagnetic radiation of that frequency is typically Galactic synchrotron radiation and is absorbed in the Earth's D region of the ionosphere.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The R\u00f6ntgen equivalent physical or rep (symbol rep) is a legacy unit of absorbed dose first introduced by Herbert Parker in 1945 to replace an improper application of the roentgen unit to biological tissue. It is the absorbed energetic dose before the biological efficiency of the radiation is factored in. The rep has variously been defined as 83 or 93 ergs per gram of tissue (8.3/9.3 mGy) or per cm3 of tissue.At the time, this was thought to be the amount of energy deposited by 1 roentgen. Improved measurements have since found that one roentgen of air kerma deposits 8.77 mGy in dry air, or 9.6 mGy in soft tissue, but the rep was defined as a fixed number of ergs per unit gram.A 1952 handbook from the US National Bureau of Standards affirms that \"The numerical coefficient of the rep has been deliberately changed to 93, instead of the earlier 83, to agree with L. H. Gray's 'energy-unit'.\" Gray's 'energy unit' was \" one roentgen of hard gamma resulted in about 93 ergs per gram energy absorption in water\". The lower range value of 83.8 ergs was the value in air corresponding to wet tissue. The rep was commonly used until the 1960s, but was gradually displaced by the rad starting in 1954 and later the gray starting in 1977.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "RSVP cycles is a system of creative methodology for collaboration. It was developed by  Lawrence Halprin and Anna Halprin. Lawrence Halprin presented the system in a 1969 book The RSVP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human Environment.(Halprin 1970)\n\nThe name is an initialism referring to its four components:\nResources\nAnything that can be used in the process, including time, physical materials, other people, ideas, limitations etc.\nScore\nInstructions for the work. This can be identified along a gradient scale of being an Open or a Closed score.\nValuaction\nA process of dynamically responding to the work based on values.\nPerformance\nSetting the work in motion.Within each stage there is a micro-cycle, which includes all the other elements (e.g. scoring the resources, resourcing the performance, performing the score etc.). There is no set order in which stages should be completed, and one can jump from any element to any other element as long as there is consensus.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In the study of complex systems and hierarchy theory, the concept of scale refers to the combination of (1) the level of analysis (for example, analyzing the whole or a specific component of the system); and (2) the level of observation (for example, observing a system as an external viewer or as an internal participant). The scale of analysis encompasses both the analytical choice of how to observe a given system or object of study, and the role of the observer in determining the identity of the system. This analytical tool is central to multi-scale analysis (see for example, MuSIASEM, land-use analysis).For example, on at the scale of analysis of a given population of zebras, the number of predators (e.g. lions) determines the number of preys that survives after hunting, while at the scale of analysis of the ecosystem, the availability of preys determines how many predators can survive in a given area. The semantic categories of \"prey\" and \"predator\" are not given, but are defined by the observer.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Scanning electron cryomicroscopy (CryoSEM) is a  form of electron microscopy where a hydrated but cryogenically fixed sample is imaged on a scanning electron microscope's cold stage in a cryogenic chamber. The cooling is usually achieved with liquid nitrogen. CryoSEM of biological samples with a high moisture content can be done faster with fewer sample preparation steps than conventional SEM. In addition, the dehydration processes needed to prepare a biological sample for a conventional SEM chamber create numerous distortions in the tissue leading to structural artifacts during imaging.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A scanning helium ion microscope (SHIM, HeIM or HIM) is an imaging technology based on a scanning helium ion beam. Similar to other focused ion beam techniques, it allows to combine milling and cutting of samples with their observation at sub-nanometer resolution.In terms of imaging, SHIM has several advantages over the traditional scanning electron microscope (SEM). Owing to the very high source brightness, and the short De Broglie wavelength of the helium ions, which is inversely proportional to their momentum, it is possible to obtain qualitative data not achievable with conventional microscopes which use photons or electrons as the emitting source. As the helium ion beam interacts with the sample, it does not suffer from a large excitation volume, and hence provides sharp images with a large depth of field on a wide range of materials. Compared to a SEM, the secondary electron yield is quite high, allowing for imaging with currents as low as 1 femtoamp. The detectors provide information-rich images which offer topographic, material, crystallographic, and electrical properties of the sample. In contrast to other ion beams, there is no discernible sample damage due to relatively light mass of the helium ion. The drawback is the cost.\nSHIMs have been commercially available since 2007, and a surface resolution of 0.24 nanometers has been demonstrated.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science and technology in Asia is varied depending on the country and time. In the past, the Asian civilizations most notable for their contributions to science and technology were India, China and the West Asian civilizations. At present, probably the most notable country in Asia in terms of its technological and scientific achievement is Japan, which is particularly known for its electronics and automobile products. In recent years, China and India have also once again become major contributors to science and technology. Other countries are also notable in other scientific fields such as chemical and physical achievements.\nFor the science and technology of various Asian countries and civilizations, see:", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Science Hack Day is a hack day specifically for \"making weird, silly or serious things with science\". The first was organized by Jeremy Keith and held at the London offices of The Guardian newspaper over the weekend 19/20 June 2010.The event was attended by around 100 participants who had 24 hours to build new hacks. Many stayed overnight at the venue and over 25 hacks were built, submitted and demo'ed by the end of the weekend.Soon thereafter a second Science Hack Day was organized by Ariel Waldman in San Francisco, and several years since, often filling up with a waitlist. Since that first year, more than 50 Science Hack Day events have taken place around the world, including a recent 2020 March Science Hack Day Dublin.The events are attended by a diverse range of science enthusiasts.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Scientific communication is a part of information science and the sociology of science which study researchers' use of formal and informal information channels, their communicative roles (e.g., \"gatekeepers\"), the utilization of the formal publication system and similar issues.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A scientific technique is any systematic way of obtaining information about a scientific nature or to obtain a desired material or product.\nScientific techniques can be divided in many different groups, e.g.:\n\nPreparative techniques\nSynthesis techniques, e.g. the use of Grignard reagents in organic chemistry\nGrowth techniques, e.g. crystal growth or cell cultures in biology\nPurification techniques e.g. those in chemistry\nMeasurement techniques\nAnalysis techniques, e.g. ones that reveal atomic or molecular composition.\nCharacterization techniques, e.g. ones that measure a certain property of a material.\nImaging techniques, e.g. microscopyIn some cases these methods have evolved into instrumental techniques that require expensive equipment. This is particularly true in sciences like physics, chemistry, and astronomy. It is customary to abbreviate the names of techniques into acronyms, although this does not hold for all of them. Particularly the advent of the computer has led to a true proliferation in the number of techniques to the point that few scientists still have a good overview over all that is available. See, for example, the list of materials analysis methods and Category:Scientific techniques.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Semantometrics is a tool for evaluating research. It is functionally an extension of tools such as bibliometrics, webometrics, and altmetrics, but instead of just evaluating citations \u2013 which entails relying on outside evidence \u2013 it uses a semantic evaluation of the full text of the research paper being evaluated.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Sink testing is a form of medical laboratory diagnostics healthcare fraud whereby clinical specimens are discarded, via a sink drain, and fabricated results are reported, without the clinical specimen actually being tested.In the United States, the prevalence of sink testing laboratories in the 1980s led in part to regulation following the passage of Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments in 1988.While the illegal practice still does occur, it is rare within the highly regulated US lab market.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Slewing is the rotation of an object around an axis, usually the z axis. An example is a radar scanning 360 degrees by slewing around the z axis. This is also common terminology in astronomy. The process of rotating a telescope to observe a different region of the sky is referred to as slewing.\nThe term slewing is also found in motion control applications.  Often the slew axis is combined with another axis to form a motion profile.\nIn crane terminology, slewing is the angular movement of a crane boom or crane jib in a horizontal plane.\nThe term is also used in the computer game Microsoft Flight Simulator wherein the user presses a key and he or she can rotate and move the virtual aircraft along all three spatial planes.\nIn the modern day use of CNC programs, slewing is a vital part of the process.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Soft rot Enterobacteriaceae (SRE) (spanning the genera Erwinia, Pectobacterium, Dickeya, and Pantoea), are ubiquitous necrotrophic bacterial pathogens that infect a large number of different plant species worldwide, including economically important crops.When they live in soil outside of their plant hosts they starve and have to adapt to this new condition.  By using strand-specific RNA-seq analysis and in silico sRNA predictions 137 small RNAs candidates were identified in Pectobacterium atrosepticum under starvation conditions. This suggests that sRNAs play roles in bacterial adaptive response. The expression of 9 novel candidate sRNAs was validated by RT-PCR. Those included antisense RNAs  and UTR regions.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Intelligence source and information reliability rating systems are used in intelligence analysis. This rating is used for information collected by a human intelligence collector. This type of information collection and job duty exists within many government agencies around the world.According to Ewen Montagu, John Godfrey devised this system when he was director of the Naval Intelligence Division (N.I.D.) around the time of World War II.The system employed by the United States Armed Forces rates the reliability of the source as well as the information. The source reliability is rated between A (history of complete reliability) to E (history of invalid information), with F for source without sufficient history to establish reliability level. The information content is rated between 1 (confirmed) to 5 (improbable), with 6 for information whose reliability can not be evaluated.For example, a confirmed information from a reliable source has rating A1, an unknown-validity information from a new source without reputation is rated F6, an inconsistent illogical information from a known liar is E5, a confirmed information from a moderately doubtful source is C1.\nThe evaluation matrix as described in the Field Manual FM 2-22.3 (see also Admiralty code):", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A spatial power combiner generally refers to a microwave system in which the output power of several solid state circuits are combined in free space as opposed to in a lossy substrate. Many spatial power combiners use concepts from free-space optics in which dielectric lenses are used to focus a microwave beam into and out of a solid-state circuit array. For this reason, this field of research is also known as quasioptics.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Stereokinetic stimulus, stereokinetic depth, stereokinetic illusion is an illusion of depth induced by moving two-dimensional stimuli. A stereokinetic stimuli generates 3D perception based on 2D rotational motion. A stereokinetic effect is created when flat displays are rotated in the frontal plane and are perceived as having three-dimensional structure.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Synthetic thinned aperture radiometry (STAR) is a method of radar in which the coherent product (correlation) of the signal from pairs of antennas is measured at different antenna-pair spacings (baselines). These products yield sample points in the Fourier transform of the brightness temperature map of the scene, and the scene itself is reconstructed by inverting the sampled transform. The reconstructed image includes all of the pixels in the entire field-of-view of the antennas.\nThe main advantage of the STAR architecture is that it requires no mechanical scanning of an antenna. Using a static antenna simplifies the antenna system dynamics and improves the time-bandwidth product of the radiometer. Furthermore, aperture thinning reduces the overall volume and mass of the antenna system. A disadvantage is the reduction of radiometric sensitivity (or increase in rms noise) of the image due to a decrease in signal-to-noise ratio for each measurement compared to a filled aperture. Pixel averaging is required for good radiometric sensitivity.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Tableau encyclop\u00e9dique et m\u00e9thodique des trois regnes de la nature was an illustrated encyclopedia of plants, animals and minerals, notable for including the first scientific descriptions of many species, and for its attractive engravings. It was published in Paris by Charles Joseph Panckoucke, from 1788 on. Although its several volumes can be considered a part of the greater Encyclop\u00e9die m\u00e9thodique, they were titled and issued separately.\n\nContributors:\n\nJean-Baptiste Lamarck (plants, taxonomy)\nPierre Joseph Bonnaterre (cetaceans, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects)\nLouis Jean Pierre Vieillot (birds, second volume)\nJean Guillaume Brugui\u00e8re (invertebrates)Individual prints from this work today can sell for hundreds of dollars (US) apiece.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A tensor product network, in artificial neural networks, is a network that exploits the properties of tensors to model associative concepts such as variable assignment. Orthonormal vectors are chosen to model the ideas (such as variable names and target assignments), and the tensor product of these vectors construct a network whose mathematical properties allow the user to easily extract the association from it.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Terminology for the Description of Dynamics (TEDDY) aims to provide an ontology for dynamical behaviours, observable dynamical phenomena, and control elements of bio-models and biological systems in Systems Biology and Synthetic Biology.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A tower testing station is a special plant for testing various design for towers for transmission lines and similar uses. A tower testing station consists of two steel stands and one or more foundations, on which a sample of the tower can be built. The number of test conditions is normally limited to between six and eight individual cases, with loading condition such as reduced wind and ice. The towers to be tested are erected on rigid foundation and the wire ropes attached to the loading point required. Loading may either be applied by 'dead' weights using scale pans, winches or hydraulic rams. In the latter cases a load cell or dynamometer is placed in the rigging adjacent to the point of loading at the structure. The loading methods induce strain by pulling cables away from the tower to the specified loads. The pulling load is indicated through a strain gauge placed on the pulling point. Loading points on a tower naturally encompasses longitudinal, transverse and vertical components, either as individual or a combined resultant load.\nThe degree of sophistication of the control equipment for the application and recording of the load varies considerably at individual test stations. From individual load point application of individual load components with corresponding dial gauges to electronic equipment capable of applying all the loads with constant data recording facilities.\nThe test set up is made to conform to the design specifications and verify the adequacy of the main components of the structure and their connections to withstand the static design loads specified for that particular structure as an individual entity under controlled conditions. It furnishes insight into actual stress distribution of unique configurations, fit-up verification, performance of the structure in a deflected position and other benefits.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Transient grating spectroscopy is an optical technique used to measure quasiparticle propagation. It can track changes in metallic materials as they are irradiated.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "TreeBASE was a repository of  phylogenetic data published in scientific journals. In phylogenetic studies, research data are collected or generated, such as  comparative observations (e.g. character state matrices or multiple sequence alignments) made on a set of taxa, metadata about these taxa, and the phylogenetic trees that are inferred to best describe the evolutionary relationships between the taxa.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Trimetasphere carbon nanomaterials (TMS), also known as trimetallic nitride endohedral metallofullerenes, are a family of endohedral metallofullerenes (EMF). The first TMS adduct, a Diels-Alder cycloadduct of Sc3N by C80, was reported by Dorn et al. in 2002. It was not until 2005 that other derivatives were reported. The most abundant TMS consist of 80 carbon atoms encompassing and forming a complex with three metal atoms and a nitrogen atom (trimetallic nitride clusters, M3N).", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A Berlese funnel, also known as Tullgren funnel, Berlese trap, or Berlese-Tullgren funnel, is an apparatus used to extract living organisms, particularly arthropods, from samples of soil. The Tullgren funnel works by creating a desiccation gradient over the sample such that mobile organisms will move away from the dry environment and fall into a collecting vessel, where they perish and are preserved for examination.  The illustration shows how it works: a funnel (E) contains the soil or litter (D), and a heat source (F) such as an electric lamp (G) heats the litter. Animals escaping from the desiccation of the litter descend through a filter (C) into a preservative liquid (A) in a receptacle (B). This illustration is merely a schematic, since usually the soil sample will not be crumbled and poured into the funnel (this would inevitably lead to a high amount of soil particles in the preservation fluid requiring laborious work to sort out the soil organisms). In fact, the soil sample is placed on a mesh sieve that will allow the soil animals to pass but should retain most of the soil particles.\nThis type of extraction is commonly referred to as Berlese funnel or Tullgren funnel. Antonio Berlese described this method of dynamic sampling in 1905 with a hot water jacket as heat source. In 1918 Albert Tullgren described a modification, where the heating came from above by an electric bulb and the heat gradient was increased by an iron sheet drum around the soil sample. Today's extraction funnels of this type usually combine elements from both publications and thus should be referred to as Berlese-Tullgren funnel.A variation of the Berlese funnel uses naphthalene flakes or similar aromatic mothballs in place of the heat source to drive organisms downward. This method finds application in situations without electrical power, where the organisms are repulsed by volatile preservatives in collection container, or they cannot migrate downward quickly enough to avoid desiccation.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Turnover number has two different meanings:\nIn enzymology, turnover number (also termed kcat) is defined as the maximum number of chemical conversions of substrate molecules per second that a single active site will execute for a given enzyme concentration \n  \n    \n      \n        [\n        \n          E\n          \n            T\n          \n        \n        ]\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle [E_{T}]}\n   for enzymes with two or more active sites. For enzymes with a single active site, kcat is referred to as the catalytic constant. It can be calculated from the maximum reaction rate \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          V\n          \n            max\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle V_{\\max }}\n   and catalyst site concentration \n  \n    \n      \n        [\n        \n          E\n          \n            T\n          \n        \n        ]\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle [E_{T}]}\n   as follows:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          k\n          \n            \n              c\n              a\n              t\n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              V\n              \n                max\n              \n            \n            \n              [\n              \n                E\n                \n                  T\n                \n              \n              ]\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k_{\\mathrm {cat} }={\\frac {V_{\\max }}{[E_{T}]}}}\n   (See Michaelis\u2013Menten kinetics).In other chemical fields, such as organometallic catalysis, turnover number (abbreviated TON) has a different meaning: the number of moles of substrate that a mole of catalyst can convert before becoming inactivated. An ideal catalyst would have an infinite turnover number in this sense, because it would never be consumed. The term turnover frequency (abbreviated TOF) is used to refer to the turnover per unit time, equivalent to the meaning of turnover number in enzymology.  For most relevant industrial applications, the turnover frequency is in the range of 10\u22122 \u2013 102 s\u22121 (103 \u2013 107 s\u22121 for enzymes). The enzyme catalase has the largest turnover frequency, with values up to 4 \u00d7 107 s\u22121 having been reported.\n\n  \n    \n      \n        T\n        O\n        N\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              n\n              \n                \n                  p\n                  r\n                  o\n                  d\n                  u\n                  c\n                  t\n                \n              \n            \n            \n              n\n              \n                \n                  c\n                  a\n                  t\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle TON={\\frac {n_{\\mathrm {product} }}{n_{\\mathrm {cat} }}}}\n  \n  \n    \n      \n        T\n        O\n        F\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              T\n              O\n              N\n            \n            t\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle TOF={\\frac {TON}{t}}}", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The  U-1 was a 1950s liquid hydrogen trailer designed to carry cryogenic liquid hydrogen (LH2) on roads being pulled by a powered vehicle. It was designed in response to requirements of the secret US government program code-named Suntan, which aimed to develop a high speed, high altitude hydrogen-powered military aircraft. The trailer was constructed by the Cambridge Corporation and had a capacity of 26,500 liters with a hydrogen loss rate of approximately 2 percent per day.\nThe very low density of hydrogen made tandem axles on the semi-trailer unnecessary, so the U-1 had only one. During subsequent use of this equipment, there occurred an endless series of problems, all stemming from the single axle, which was unheard of for such a large trailer. It seems that each time one of these large semi-trailers went through a state weighing station, it roused suspicion, doubt about the equipment, and inquiries about the nature of the load.\nBecause of these difficulties, the specifications for its successor the U-2 was a double axle semi-trailer which was not needed for the load, but which raised no questions on the road.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Urbach tail is an exponential part in the energy spectrum of the absorption coefficient. This tail appears near the optical band edge in amorphous, disordered and crystalline materials.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A vacuum dry box is a piece of safety equipment which can provide an inert, or controlled atmosphere for handling sensitive materials. These devices can commonly be found in the fume hoods of chemistry labs, in facilities handling deadly pathogens, in NASA moon rock handling facilities and in industrial applications.  Inert atmosphere glove boxes are also used for painting and sandblasting.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In semiconductor manufacturing, virtual metrology refers to methods to predict the properties of a wafer based on machine parameters and sensor data in the production equipment, without performing the (costly) physical measurement of the wafer properties. Statistical methods such as classification and regression are used to perform such a task. Depending on the accuracy of this virtual data, it can be used in modelling for other purposes, such as predicting yield, preventative analysis, etc. This virtual data is helpful for modelling techniques that are adversely affected by missing data. Another option to handle missing data is to use imputation techniques on the dataset, but virtual metrology in many cases, can be a more accurate method.\nExamples of virtual metrology include:\n\nthe prediction of the silicon nitride (\n  \n    \n      \n        S\n        \n          i\n          \n            3\n          \n        \n        \n          N\n          \n            4\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Si_{3}N_{4}}\n  ) layer thickness in the chemical vapor deposition process (CVD), using multivariate regression methods;\nthe prediction of critical dimension in photolithography, using multi-level and regularization approaches;\nthe prediction of layer width in etching.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Vision science is the scientific study of visual perception. Researchers in vision science can be called vision scientists, especially if their research spans some of the science's many disciplines.\nVision science encompasses all studies of vision, such as how human and non-human organisms process visual information, how conscious visual perception works in humans, how to exploit visual perception for effective communication, and how artificial systems can do the same tasks. Vision science overlaps with or encompasses disciplines such as ophthalmology and optometry, neuroscience(s), psychology (particularly sensation and perception psychology, cognitive psychology, linguistics, biopsychology, psychophysics, and neuropsychology), physics (particularly optics), ethology, and computer science (particularly computer vision, artificial intelligence, and computer graphics), as well as other engineering related areas such as data visualization, user interface design, and human factors and ergonomics. Below is a list of pertinent journals and international conferences.\n\n", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Volta Conference was the name given to each of the international conferences held in Italy by the Royal Academy of Science in Rome, and funded by the Alessandro Volta Foundation. In the interwar period, they covered a number of topics in science and humanities, alternating between the two.\nThe first conference, held at Lake Como in 1927, led to the public introduction of the uncertainty principle by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg. The second conference did not take place until 1932; its topic was \"Europe\", and it was notable for the participation of a number of mainly fascist theorizers, along with non-fascists such as the British historian Christopher Dawson. In 1933 the third conference was on the subject of immunology, and \"The Dramatic Theater\" in 1934. During this period, the influence of Italian aeronautics was gaining momentum, led by General Gaetano Arturo Crocco, an aeronautical engineer who had become interested in ramjet engines in 1931, and influenced the selection of \"High Velocities in Aviation\" for the 1935 meeting. This meeting is notable historically as it introduced a number of topics in compressibility and also included the first presentation on swept wings by Adolf Busemann.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "War sand is sand contaminated by remains of projectiles used in war. This kind of sand has been found in Normandy, since the invasion of Normandy, among other places. In 1988, the sand on Omaha Beach was discovered to contain man-made metal and glass particles deriving from shrapnel; 4% of the sand in the sample was composed of shrapnel particles ranging in size between 0.06 millimetres (0.0024 in) and 1 mm (0.039 in). Researchers also discovered trace amounts of iron and glass beads in the sand, originating from the intense heat unleashed by munitions explosions in the air and sand.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A Westphal balance (also known as a Mohr balance) is a scientific instrument for measuring the density of liquids.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "Wiley mill refers to a specific group of grinding mills manufactured under the name Thomas Scientific. The term Wiley as it relates to cutting or grinding mills is a registered trademark of Arthur H. Thomas Company. These mills prepare materials for analysis with minimal moisture loss. Well-dried samples are preferred. In the grinding mill, the material is loaded cut into crude pieces or lumps and loaded into a hopper.  From the hopper, the material drops by gravity into the path of a set of revolving hard tool steel blades driven by an electric motor.  The revolving knives work against stationary knives and the resulting powder is forced through a steel screen.  The powdered material then drops into a waiting collection vessel underneath.The Wiley mill is most commonly used in agriculture and soil science laboratories but can be used on a wide variety of materials.  The Wiley mill was originally designed for grinding fertilizer materials, animal hair, hoofs and other materials. The hard, tool steel cutting edges on the knives which allows for milling of a wide range of materials, including plastics.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "A working paper or work paper may be: \n\nA preliminary scientific or technical paper.  Often, authors will release working papers to share ideas about a topic or to elicit feedback before submitting to a peer reviewed conference or academic journal.  Working papers are often the basis for related works, and may in themselves be cited by peer-review papers. They may be considered as grey literature.\nSometimes the term working paper is used synonymously as technical report.  Working papers are typically hosted on websites, belonging either to the author or the author's affiliated institution. The United Nations uses the term \"working paper\" in approximately this sense for the draft of a resolution.\nDocuments required for a minor to get a job in certain states within the United States. Such papers usually require the employer, parent/guardian, school, and a physician to agree to the terms of work laid out by the employer.\nAudit working papers: Documents required on an audit of a company's financial statements. The working papers are the property of the accounting firm conducting the audit. These papers are formally referred to as Audit Documentation or sometimes as the audit file. The documents serve as proof of audit procedures performed, evidence obtained and the conclusion or opinion the auditor reached (AU 339.05). For more information, see AS 3 and AU 339 or www.aicpa.org.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "The Zeppelin Observatory  (Zeppelinobservatoriet) is a research station in Spitsbergen, Norway. It is located near the top of  Zeppelinfjellet above  Ny-\u00c5lesund on the peninsula of Br\u00f8ggerhalv\u00f8ya.   It is operated by the Norwegian Polar Institute.The  research station  at Zeppelinfjellet  was built between 1988-1989 and officially opened in 1990. After 10 years of use, it was determined that the building no longer covered the needs that were required to operate advanced instrumentation. In the second half of 1999, the old building was demolished and a new and improved station was built at the same site. The new station building was officially opened on 2 May 2000.", "label": "Science"}, {"sentence": "In sports, a dynasty is a team or individual that dominates their sport or league for an extended length of time.  Some leagues usually maintain official lists of dynasties, often as part of a hall of fame, but in many cases, whether a team or individual has achieved a dynasty is subjective. This can result in frequent topic of debate among sports fans due to lack of consensus and agreement in the many different variables and criteria that fans may use to define a sports dynasty. Merriam-Webster describes a dynasty as a \"sports franchise which has a prolonged run of successful seasons\". Within the same sport, or even the same league, dynasties may be concurrent with each other.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship or the NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship, the \"Elite Eight\" comprises the final eight teams, representing the regional finals, or national quarterfinals. In Division I and Division III, the Elite Eight consists of the two teams in each of the four regional championship games. The winners advance to the Final Four.  Since 1997, when the NCAA trademarked the phrase, in Division II, the Elite Eight consists of the eight winners of the eight Division II regions.  Like the Division I Final Four, the Division II Elite Eight games are all held in one predetermined location.\nIn the men's Division I, the lowest-seeded team ever to reach this round in the modern 64 team tournament era is #15 seed Saint Peter's University in 2022.\nTwo #12 seeds have advanced to the Elite Eight: Missouri in 2002, and the #12 Oregon State Beavers in 2021. \nNine #11 seeds have advanced to the Elite Eight: LSU (1986), Loyola Marymount (1990), Temple (2001), George Mason (2006), Virginia Commonwealth (2011), Dayton (2014), Xavier (2017), Loyola Chicago (2018), and UCLA (2021).  There have only been four seasons where two double-digit seeded teams have made it to the Elite Eight: 1990 (10-seed Texas and 11-seed LMU); 2002 (12-seed Missouri and 10-seed Kent State); 2021, where both were from the same conference (12-seed Oregon State and 11-seed UCLA); and 2022 (10-seed Miami and 15-seed Saint Peter's).\nOn average, three of the four #1 seeds make it to the Elite Eight each year.  In men's play, the Elite Eight exists intact for less than 24 hours between the second Friday evening and the following Saturday afternoon of the tournament.  The Elite Eight also represents the halfway mark of the men's tournament since each qualifying team must win three rounds (games) to reach the national quarterfinals, with three rounds remaining to reach and win the national championship game.\nLike \"March Madness,\" the phrase \"Elite Eight\" originally referred to the Illinois High School Boys Basketball Championship, the single-elimination high school basketball tournament run by the Illinois High School Association. When the IHSA finals were reduced from sixteen to eight teams in 1956, a replacement nickname for Sweet Sixteen was needed, and Elite Eight won popular favor. The IHSA trademarked the term in 1995; the trademark rights are now held by the March Madness Athletic Association, a joint venture between the NCAA and IHSA formed after a 1996 court case allowed both organizations to use \"March Madness\" for their own tournaments.\nThe Elite Eight can also refer to the eight NCAA Division I baseball teams that reach the College World Series.\nIn addition, the term is often colloquially used to denote quarterfinalists in the four major North American professional sports; i.e., the teams that reach the American League Division Series and the National League Division Series in Major League Baseball, the Divisional Playoffs in either conference of the National Football League, and the conference semifinals in the National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "An expansion team is a new team in a sports league, usually from a city that has not hosted a team in that league before, formed with the intention of satisfying the demand for a local team from a population in a new area. Sporting leagues also hope that the expansion of their competition will grow the popularity of the sport generally. The term is most commonly used in reference to the North American major professional sports leagues but is applied to sports leagues in other countries with a closed franchise system of league membership. The term refers to the expansion of the sport into new areas. The addition of an expansion team sometimes results in the payment of an expansion fee to the league by the new team and an expansion draft to populate the new roster.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In several countries\u2019 sports, a fight song is a song associated with a team. In both professional and amateur sports, fight songs are a popular way for fans to cheer for their team. In addition, they are often laden with history; in singing a fight song, fans feel part of a large, time-honored tradition. Although the term \"fight song\" is primarily used in the United States and Canada the use of fight songs is commonplace around the world, but they may also be referred to as team anthems, team songs or games songs in other countries, including Australia, Mexico and New Zealand. Fight songs differ from stadium anthems, used for similar purposes, in that they are usually written specifically for the purposes of the team, whereas stadium anthems are not. In Australian Rules Football it is tradition for the song to be sung by the winning team at the end of the game.\nHundreds of colleges have fight songs, some of which are over a century old. The oldest collegiate fight song in the United States is Boston College's \"For Boston\", composed by T.J. Hurley in 1885.One of the oldest games songs in Australia is Melbourne Grammar's 'Play Together, Dark Blue Twenty', which is sung to the tune of 'The March of the Men of Harlech'. It was composed by Ambrose John Wilson who was principal of the school from 1885-1893. This is not to be confused with the school hymn 'Ora et Labora' which is now sung to the tune of 'Jerusalem'.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In  sports, the final four is the last four teams remaining in a playoff tournament. Usually the final four compete in the two games of a single-elimination tournament's semi-final (penultimate) round. Of these teams, the two who win in the semi-final round play another single-elimination game whose winner is the tournament champion. In some tournaments, the two teams that lose in the semi-final round compete for third place in a consolation game.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In various sports, a forfeit is a method in which a match automatically ends, and the forfeiting team loses.\nThere are two distinct forms of forfeiture. One occurs when a team is unable (or refuses) to meet the basic standards for playing the game, either before the game begins or as a result of actions that happen during the match. In such a case, the team not forfeiting wins the match. Another is punitive forfeiture, in which a team has been found to have broken the rules of a sanctioning body during a match they have won and must have the results stricken from the record; whether or not the other team receives a win in such a case depends on the rules of that body and/or whether or not they were in \ncompliance with the rules - if neither team was in compliance with the rules and/or the rules do not allow a losing team to be credited for a win in such a manner then the result is either a double forfeit and/or otherwise recorded as a loss for both teams.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports, a foul is an inappropriate or unfair act by a player as deemed by a referee, usually violating the rules of the sport or game.  A foul may be intentional or accidental, and often results in a penalty. Even though it may not be intentional, fouling can still cause serious harm or injury to opposing players, or even their own players if unaware of their surroundings during particular situations on sports. Fouls are used in many different sports. Often own teammates can clash and foul each other by accident, such as both going for and with eyes on a ball in AFL. Strategical fouls violate the traditional norms of cooperation and agreement to the essential rules and regulations of the game, or are perhaps not part of the games at all.\nIndividual sports may have different types of fouls.  For example, in basketball, a personal foul involves illegal personal contact with an opponent.  A technical foul refers to unsportsmanlike non-contact behavior, a more serious infraction than a personal foul.  A flagrant foul involves unsportsmanlike contact behavior, considered the most serious foul and often resulting in ejection from the game.In association football, a foul is an unfair act by a player as deemed by the referee. In association football or rugby, a professional foul is a deliberate act of foul play, usually to prevent an opponent scoring.\nKinjite are various fouls that a sumo wrestler might commit that will cause him to lose the bout.\nFacial is a term used in some contact sports to refer to a foul that involves one player hitting another in the face.\nPenalties awarded against fouls usually affect the outcome of the game immediately, as seen in the examples above. However, in some cases committing a foul may have further repercussions in the form of a fine (penalty), especially in professional competitions. For example, in the National Basketball Association players are given a $2000 fine each technical foul committed for the first five technical fouls committed in the regular season. Players may also receive fines up to $50,000 for committing fighting fouls. \nGreat athletes push on the rules, norms and boundaries of their games in pursuit for victory/success, although there can be consequences for crossing lines and unwanted outcomes such as suspensions or bans from the games altogether.\nCoaches are not exempt from fouls. In some cases, coaches can also receive fouls. For example, in basketball the coach can be given technical fouls or be immediately ejected from the game. Two examples of a technical foul committed by a coach are entering the court without permission from the referee or physically contacting an official. In the event of receiving two technical fouls, the coach will be ejected from the game. An example of when a coach may be immediately ejected from the game is if they commit a punching foul.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In professional sports, a franchise player is an athlete who is both the best player on their team and one that the team can build their \"franchise\" around for the foreseeable future. The term may be used alongside a particular position name to describe a player, such as a \"franchise quarterback\" in American football.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Free substitution or rolling substitution is a rule in some sports that allows players to enter and leave the game for other players many times during the course of the game; and for coaches to bring in and take out players an unlimited number of times.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In most North American sports, the phrase games behind or games back (often abbreviated GB) is a common way to reflect the gap between a leading team and another team in a sports league, conference, or division.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A give-and-go, or one-two, is a fundamental maneuver in many team sports which involves two players passing the ball or puck back and forth.  The player who has the ball or puck passes to a teammate and then repositions in order to receive a return pass and possibly create a scoring opportunity.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of archery terms, including both the equipment and the practice.  A brief description for each word or phrase is also included.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Glossary of North American horse racing:\n\nAdditional glossaries at:\n\nGlossary of Australian and New Zealand punting\nGlossary of equestrian terms\nParimutuel betting#Parimutuel bet types", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In many team sports which involve scoring goals, the goalkeeper (sometimes termed goaltender, netminder, goalie or keeper) is a designated player charged with directly preventing the opposing team from scoring by blocking or intercepting opposing shots on goal. Such positions exist in bandy, rink bandy, camogie, association football, Gaelic football, international rules football, floorball, handball, hurling, field hockey, ice hockey, roller hockey, lacrosse, ringette, rinkball, water polo, and shinty as well as in other sports.\nIn most sports which involve scoring in a net, special rules apply to the goalkeeper that do not apply to other players. These rules are often instituted to protect the goalkeeper (being a target for dangerous or even violent actions). This is most apparent in sports such as ice hockey and lacrosse, where goalkeepers are required to wear special equipment like heavy pads and a face mask to protect their bodies from the impact of the playing object (e.g. ball or puck.)\nIn some sports, goalkeepers may have the same rights as other players; in association football, for example, the keeper is allowed to kick the ball just as any other player, but may also use their hands to handle the ball in a restricted area. In other sports, goalkeepers may be limited in the actions they are allowed to take or the area of the field or rink where they may be; in the NHL, for example, goalkeepers may not play the puck in the restricted areas behind the net or take the puck across the red line.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A gold medal is a medal awarded for highest achievement in a non-military field. Its name derives from the use of at least a fraction of gold in form of plating or alloying in its manufacture.\nSince the eighteenth century, gold medals have been awarded in the arts, for example, by the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, usually as a symbol of an award to give an outstanding student some financial freedom. Others offer only the prestige of the award. Many organizations now award gold medals either annually or extraordinarily, including various academic societies.\nWhile some gold medals are solid gold, others are gold-plated or silver-gilt, like those of the Olympic Games, the Lorentz Medal, the United States Congressional Gold Medal  and the Nobel Prize medal.  Nobel Prize medals consist of 18 karat green gold plated with 24 karat gold. Before 1980 they were struck in 23 karat gold.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Primarily in Australian sports, a grand final (sometimes colloquially abbreviated to \"grannie\") is a game that decides a sports league's premiership (or championship) winning team, i.e. the conclusive game of a finals (or play-off) series. Synonymous with a championship game in North American sports, grand finals have become a significant part of Australian culture.  The earliest leagues to feature a grand final were in Australian rules football, followed soon after by rugby league. Currently the largest grand finals are in the Australian Football League (AFL) and National Rugby League (NRL). Their popularity influenced other competitions such as soccer's  A-League, the National Basketball League, Suncorp Super Netball and European rugby league's Super League to adopt grand finals as well. Most grand finals involve a prestigious award for the player voted best on field.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The grandfather rule, in sports which usually only permit participants to play for the team of their country of birth, is an exception which gives participants the option to play for the country of any of their ancestors up to the grandparents.  Despite the common name for the rule, grandparents of either sex can be invoked equally and it is sometimes referred to as the grandparent rule or the granny rule.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Grinding is a sliding stunt performed in various sports such as skateboarding or inline skating.  It involves sliding the body, rather than rolling the wheels, of the skate or board against the supporting surface.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Handicapping, in sport and games, is the practice of assigning advantage through scoring compensation or other advantage given to different contestants to equalize the chances of winning.  The word also applies to the various methods by which the advantage is calculated. In principle, a more experienced participant is disadvantaged, or a less experienced or capable participant is advantaged, in order to make it possible for the less experienced participant to win whilst maintaining fairness.  Handicapping is used in scoring many games and competitive sports, including go, shogi, chess, croquet, golf, bowling, polo, basketball, and track and field events.  Handicap races are common in clubs which encourage all levels of participants, such as swimming or in cycling clubs and sailing clubs, or which allow participants with a variety of standards of equipment.  Often races, contests or tournaments where this practice is competitively employed are known as Handicaps.\nHandicapping also refers to the various methods by which spectators can predict and quantify the results of a sporting match.  The term is applied to the practice of predicting the result of a competition, such as for purposes of betting against the point spread. A favored team that wins by less than the point spread still wins the game, but bets on that team lose.\nIn either case the handicapper is the person who sets the handicaps for the activity.  \n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports, a head fake is a type of feint in which someone moves the head to fake an intended change in direction and thereby deceive opponents.The term originated in sports, but it has become applied metaphorically in other senses. In financial markets, a head fake refers to a time when the market appears to be moving in one direction, but ends up moving in the opposite direction. For example, the price of a stock may initially move up, and all indications are that it will continue to move up, but shortly afterward, it reverses direction and starts moving down.\nIn his \"Last Lecture\" entitled \"Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams\" (at Carnegie Mellon on September 18, 2007), Randy Pausch refers extensively to \"head fakes.\" He describes as a \"head fake,\" for example, the phenomenon of parents encouraging their children to play football. Parents tell their children to play sports not because they really want them to become football stars, he says, but to help them develop collaboration and socializing skills. His concluding remarks during the last three or four minutes, present the final head fake of the lecture.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Hearties was a term used for athletic students (particularly rowers) at the University of Oxford and elsewhere, especially in the 19th and early 20th century. The term is often used in contrast to the less athletic \"aesthetes\".\nAt Christ Church in Oxford there is an ornamental pond with a statue of Mercury in the centre of Tom Quad, the main quad in the college and the largest in Oxford. In the past, it was traditional for hearties to throw aesthetes into this pond as a practical joke.\nIn the novel Brideshead Revisited by Evelyn Waugh, Anthony Blanche was \"debagged\" by athletic hearties at Oxford.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In endurance sports such as road cycling and long-distance running, hitting the wall or the bonk is a condition of sudden fatigue and loss of energy which is caused by the depletion of glycogen stores in the liver and muscles. Milder instances can be remedied by brief rest and the ingestion of food or drinks containing carbohydrates. The condition can usually be avoided by ensuring that glycogen levels are high when the exercise begins, maintaining glucose levels during exercise by eating or drinking carbohydrate-rich substances, or by reducing exercise intensity.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "\"Hospital pass\" is a term used in various football codes, including Australian rules football, American football, rugby league, and rugby union, to describe a pass that subjects the recipient to heavy contact, usually unavoidable, from an opposing player \u2014 the expression implying that the recipient of the pass could end up in hospital. The term has also been applied to similar passes between teammates in other sports including ice hockey, lacrosse, and ultimate. However, in ice hockey, a play leading to a hospital pass is typically described as a suicide pass. \nThe phrase hospital pass is now used metaphorically outside of sports.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sport, a huddle is the action of a team gathering together, usually in a tight circle, to strategize, motivate or celebrate.  It is a popular strategy for keeping opponents insulated from sensitive information, and acts as a form of insulation when the level of noise in the venue is such that normal on-field communication is difficult.  Commonly the leader of the huddle is the team captain and it is the captain who will try to inspire other team members to achieve success. Similarly after an event a huddle may take place to congratulate one another for the team's success, or to commiserate a defeat.  The term \"huddle\" can be used as a verb as in \"huddling up.\"\nThe huddle is commonly used in American football and Canadian football to strategize before each play; the offensive team's huddle is almost always led by the quarterback, and the defensive huddle is typically led by one of the linebackers.  It is also popular in basketball, football (soccer), volleyball and cricket.\nThe huddle became more widely used in cricket after the India national team used it to great success during the 2003 Cricket World Cup. The England team has imitated this technique with some success, notably in the 2005 Ashes series.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Hungarian System, or Brodlowsky System, is a set of rules for sporting tournaments which was popular in Eastern Europe in the 1980's. It was created in 1979 by Ivan Brodlowsky, the creator of 2x Hunter Ball. He called it the Hungarian System of Classification, or simply the 'Brodlowsky System'. It was to show that socialists could create their own system of sport management.\nIn 1981, the Hungarian Federation of Basketball adopted his idea, the Ukrainian Pelota Basca tournament soon followed, as did the Bulgarians in their 1987 basketball competition.\nThe Brodlowsky system survived until the end of that decade, there are still some examples of it around the world, such as: - Irish Rugby Union (1998/99); - South African National Badminton Championship (1991 to 1995); - Mexican Casting Party (1989 to 2003); - Texas Amateur Pickleball Prize, and others.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The injured reserve list (abbr. IR list) is a designation used in North American professional sports leagues for athletes who become injured and temporarily unable to play. The exact name of the list varies by league; it is known as \"injured reserve\" in the National Football League (NFL) and National Hockey League (NHL), the \"injured list\" in the Canadian Football League (CFL), and the injured list (historically known as the \"disabled list\") in Major League Baseball (MLB). The National Basketball Association (NBA) does not have a direct analog to an injured reserve list, instead using a more general-purpose \"inactive list\" that does not require a player to be injured.\nInjured reserve lists are used because the rules of these leagues allow for only a certain numbers of players on each team's roster. Designating a player as \"Injured/Reserve\" frees up a roster spot, enabling the team to add a new replacement player during the injured athlete's convalescence.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "An Iron man is an athlete of unusual physical endurance. This durability is generally measured by an athlete's ability to play without missing a game for an extended period of time, sometimes even for an entire career. Some of the more notable athletes with significant streaks in sports history includes baseball's Lou Gehrig and Cal Ripken Jr.,  American football's Brett Favre and Joe Thomas, basketball's A. C. Green,stock car racing's Jeff Gordon and hockey's Phil Kessel & Keith Yandle.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Karate terms come almost entirely from Japanese. The following terms are not exclusive to karate.  They appear during its study and practice, varying depending on style and school.\nKarate terms include:", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Lactate inflection point (LIP), is the exercise intensity at which the blood concentration of lactate and/or lactic acid begins to increase rapidly. It is often expressed as 85% of maximum heart rate or 75% of maximum oxygen intake. When exercising at or below the lactate threshold, any lactate produced by the muscles is removed by the body without it building up.The onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) is often confused with the lactate threshold. With an exercise intensity higher than the threshold the lactate production exceeds the rate at which it can be broken down. The blood lactate concentration will show an increase equal to 4.0mM; it then accumulates in the muscle and then moves to the bloodstream.Regular endurance exercise leads to adaptations in skeletal muscle which raises the threshold at which lactate levels will rise. This is mediated via activation of PGC-1\u03b1, which alters the isoenzyme composition of the LDH complex and decreases the activity of the lactate generating enzyme LDHA, while increasing the activity of the lactate metabolizing enzyme LDHB.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sailboat racing, a layline is an imaginary line extending from the objective (typically a racing mark) to indicate the point at which a boat should tack or jibe in order to just clear the mark on the correct side (weather side if upwind tacking, leeward side if downwind jibing).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Ligang labas is a Tagalog language term for playing in a sports league (almost always basketball) other than where a player's team is primarily playing. Translated as \"outside league\" (or, \"league that's not ours\"), ligang labas are small pocket tournaments outside the televised leagues. This was also a description by former Philippine Basketball Association (PBA) players on the leagues that they've played at after leaving the PBA.Pay at ligang labas is lucrative for ex-professionals. Players such as Val Acu\u00f1a and Lester Alvarez pursued careers via ligang labas after being cut from the PBA rosters. Other players in the ligang labas include Mark Andaya, and former PBA Best Import Jamelle Cornley. Several ligang labas legends found their way in the rosters of the Maharlika Pilipinas Basketball League (MPBL).Being caught playing in ligang labas while actually in an active roster of another team is almost always severely dealt with. Players sign exclusive contracts to play for their team, and playing elsewhere is a violation of that contract. Players have been suspended, and won games have been forfeited upon proving that a player played in a ligang labas game. Examples of suspended players are Vic Manuel and Ping Exciminiano of the Alaska Aces, Jeff Viernes of the Phoenix Fuel Masters, Ben Mbala of the De La Salle Green Archers, Eloy Poligrates of the Southwestern University Cobras, and RK Ilagan of the San Sebastian Stags. Ylagan's case even involved the National Collegiate Athletic Association docking the Stags' two wins in the 2018 tournament.Alaska's Calvin Abueva and Gabby Espinas escaped suspension when caught in a ligang labas game in 2013.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports, a line call occurs when there is doubt as to whether a specific and significant event took place, for example, whether the ball in tennis touched the line rather than landing outside the court.\nThe phrase line call is more generally used to indicate any decision in which the correct course is uncertain.\nThe official rules of most sports indicate how line calls are to be resolved. The actual phrase line call may or may not appear in the official rules.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "This is a list of eponyms in sports, i.e. sports terms named after people.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A lucky loser is a sports competitor (player or team) who loses a match in a knockout tournament or loses in qualifying, but who then enters the main draw, usually when another competitor withdraws during the tournament because of illness, injury, or other reasons. The lucky loser then re-enters the competition, normally in place of the withdrawn competitor.\nIn the event of a lucky loser's re-entry to a competition, it usually occurs before all competitors in the main draw have started their first match in the tournament.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Match penalty is a term used in some sports for a player having committed such a serious offense that he or she is being sent off for the rest of the game. The term is used in bandy, floorball, and ice hockey.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Mental toughness is a measure of individual resilience and confidence that may predict success in sport, education and the workplace. As a broad concept, it emerged in the context of sports training, in the context of a set of attributes that allow a person to become a better athlete and able to cope with difficult training and difficult competitive situations and emerge without losing confidence. In recent decades, the term has been commonly used by coaches, sport psychologists, sports commentators, and business leaders.\nMental toughness and positivity are essential for someone to be successful in life. Whether this is in sports or in the workplace, an individual cannot fold under pressure if they want to thrive in life. When times get hard they have to stay positive and know that if they work hard enough the outcome they are desiring will most likely occur if they can be mentally tough and push through the hard times. This especially applies to sports and athletes, when times get tough you have to keep grinding and do everything in your power to comeback and win the game. An elite athlete must be able to handle pressure, have self-belief and avoid lifestyle distractions. This skill of mental toughness is easiest to learn as a child or during adolescence. The sooner one learns how to mentally tough the easier sports and life will become. Mental toughness is very much applied in sports, but it is also needed for everything done in life. One has to learn how to fight through adversity and not get down on themselves or give up when life gets difficult.They must have that urge to win and know that they have all the capabilities to do anything they desire. This separates good athletes from the elite athletes (Jones et al.,2002).Samples of attributes were taken by Graham Jones to examine differences of success between athletes and which ones possess a strong mentality. It was proven that there were 30 attributes suggesting mental toughness in super elite athlete but only an average of 12 in elite athletes indicating the mental difference to become a super elite performer (Jones et al.,2007). This illustrates how important a positive mentality is for athletes to be successful.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A minor premiership is the title given to the team which finishes a sporting competition first in the league standings after the regular season but prior to commencement of the finals in several Australian sports leagues.\nThe etymology of the term was based on terminology in Australia from the end of the 19th century, where the regular season was referred to as the \"minor rounds\", and the playoffs or finals were referred to as the \"major rounds\" (this terminology is still used in South Australia, but has fallen into disuse in other parts of the country). Emerging from this terminology came the \"minor premiership\", for the top-ranked team in the minor rounds, and the \"major premiership\", often shortened simply to premiership, for the winner of the finals series.\nThe term was important in the early finals systems of the Victorian Football League, an Australian rules football league, where the minor premier had the right to a challenge match for the major premiership if it were eliminated at any stage during the finals.\nThe term is used widely throughout Australian sports, and there is often a separate trophy presented for it. The National Rugby League awards the J. J. Giltinan Shield, the Australian Ice Hockey League awards the H. Newman Reid Trophy and the Australian Football League has (since 1991) awarded the Dr Wm. C. McClelland Trophy. The National Basketball League recognises the minor premiers but no official trophy or award is given. Australia's premier association football competition, the A-League, officially refers to the \"minor premiership\" as the \"premiership\", and the \"major premiership\" as the \"championship\", which is more common with other association football competitions, but \"minor premiership\" is still used colloquially in the sports media even though it is incorrect terminology with regard to the A-League.\nAlthough the concept of a minor premiership exists in North America, and a separate award is often presented for the best record in the regular season, the term \"minor premiership\" is not used. The Presidents' Trophy is awarded by the National Hockey League to the team which finishes first in the standings at the end of the season, as are the Supporters' Shield in Major League Soccer and the NWSL Shield in the National Women's Soccer League.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Nap hand refers to a series of five winning points or five victories in a game or sport.Possibly derived from the card game Nap or Napoleon.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A national championship(s) is the top achievement for any sport or contest within a league of a particular nation or nation state. The title is usually awarded by contests, ranking systems, stature, ability, etc. This determines the best team, individual (or other entity) in a particular nation and in a particular field. Often, the use of the term cup or championship is just a choice of words.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The National Letter of Intent (NLI) is a document used to indicate a student athlete's commitment to participating in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) colleges and universities in the United States.  The NCAA Eligibility Center manages the daily operations of the NLI program while the Collegiate Commissioners Association (CCA) provides governance oversight of the program. Started in 1964 with seven conferences and eight independent institutions, the program now includes 676 Division I and II participating institutions.  There are designated dates for different sports, and these dates are commonly referred to as \"Signing Days\".\nDivision III institutions are specifically banned from using the NLI, or any similar document that is not executed by non-athletes at those institutions.NLIs are typically faxed by the recruited student to the university's athletic department on a National Signing Day. The NLI is a voluntary program with regard to both institutions and student-athletes. No prospective student-athlete or parent is required to sign the National Letter of Intent, and no institution is required to join the program.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A national sport is considered to be an intrinsic part of the culture of a nation. Some sports are de facto (not established by law) national sports, as sumo is in Japan and Gaelic games are in Ireland and field hockey in Pakistan, while others are  de jure (established by law) national sports, as taekwondo is in South Korea.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "No goal is a call made by referees in various goal-scoring sports (football, hockey, lacrosse, etc.) to indicate that a goal has not been scored. It is commonly used to disallow an apparent goal, such as when the ball or puck has entered the net but should not count as a score due to some foul or infraction.\nBecause the decision often depends on a subjective assessment by the referee, and especially if the score might be critical, such calls can be hotly contested. For fans of one of the teams involved, it may thus refer to a goal that was actually disallowed, or one that in their opinion should have been disallowed, but was not. As a result, in recent years most professional sports leagues have implicated protocol allowing for such calls to be subject to video review or to be reviewed because of a coach's challenge.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In North American professional sports, an offer sheet is a contract offered to a restricted free agent by a team other than the one for which he played during the prior season. Different leagues have different ways to handle offer sheets.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The phrase \"on the bubble\" is sports terminology for being on the cusp of something; this could range from a team that is just on the cusp of being in the postseason or postseason conversation (also known as bubble teams), or a player who is considered almost good enough to make a roster (bubble player).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A one-game playoff, sometimes known as a pennant playoff, tiebreaker game or knockout game, is a tiebreaker in certain sports\u2014usually but not always professional\u2014to determine which of two teams, tied in the final standings, will qualify for a post-season tournament. Such a playoff is either a single game or a short series of games (such as best-2-of-3).\nThis is distinguished from the more general usage of the term \"playoff\", which refers to the post-season tournament itself.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "An Open in sports terminology refers to a sporting event or game tournament that is open to contestants regardless of their professional or amateur status, age, ability, gender, sex, or other categorization. In many sports, preliminary qualifying events, open to all entrants, are held to successively reduce the field to a manageable number for participation in a final championship event, which itself may involve elimination rounds (tournaments).\nThe term 'Open' may not be absolute. For example, in the U.S. Open in golf, entrants at qualifying events must have a USGA official handicap of 1.4 or less. Other minimum performance standards or eligibility criteria may apply in other sports.\nOpens are usually found in golf, tennis, bowling, badminton, quizbowl, fighting games, snooker, darts, volleyball, ultimate, squash, CrossFit, Chess, and pickleball.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Page playoff system is a playoff format used primarily in softball and curling at the championship level, the Indian Premier League and Pakistan Super League cricket tournaments.  Teams are seeded using a round-robin tournament and the top four play a mix of a single-elimination and double-elimination tournament to determine the winner. It is identical to a four-team McIntyre System playoff, first used by the WANFL, SANFL and VFL in Australia in 1931, originally called the Page\u2013McIntyre system, after the VFL delegate, the Richmond Football Club's Secretary, Percy \"Pip\" Page, who had advocated its use.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports, parity is when participating teams have roughly equivalent levels of talent. In such a league, the \"best\" team is not significantly better than the \"worst\" team.  This leads to more competitive contests where the winner cannot be easily predicted. The opposite condition, which could be considered \"disparity\" between teams, is a condition where the elite teams are so much more talented that the lesser teams are hopelessly outmatched.\nDifferent major governing organizations attempt to achieve financial and/or competitive parity in different ways. For example, the National Football League (NFL) in the U.S. has established the shared revenue plan, in which all teams equally benefit from television revenue and sales of NFL franchised goods. All of the major leagues of North America use a draft system to ensure that the best prospects are allocated to the teams most in need of them. In much of the world outside North America, parity is enforced through promotion and relegation: the weakest teams in a league are forcibly expelled from the league and switch places with the best teams in a lower league.\nMany consider the NFL to be the most \"fair\" or competitive league, with many different teams having a chance to win each year. In the NFL, complete parity would be a state where on any given Sunday, any given team can win any given game. The appearance of parity in the NFL over the course of the entire season may be something of an illusion; the New England Patriots, in particular, were noted for a prolonged dynasty in the 21st century under starting quarterback Tom Brady and head coach Bill Belichick that league policies failed to break up, while their division rivals, the Buffalo Bills, simultaneously suffered through a 17-season playoff drought (though the Bills may have been harmed by Buffalo's small market, high taxes, and poor reputation as a destination city). A franchise may struggle due to ineptitude in talent evaluation, coaching, player development, organizational structure, or overall team and player operations; a league with parity would, in theory, allow such struggling teams to identify and fix these issues while ensuring that a dynasty cannot take hold.\nExpansion teams are among the most difficult to bring to parity. Especially in sports where team chemistry is an important factor in success, expansion team players (who consist mostly of cast-offs from other teams) must learn to work as a team before success happens, a process that can take years. Two notable exceptions were the Baltimore Stallions, who reached the Grey Cup in both their seasons in the Canadian Football League (winning the latter appearance); and the Vegas Golden Knights, who reached the Stanley Cup Finals in their inaugural season in the National Hockey League.\nAn example of disparity in sports is Portuguese Liga, the top-flight professional football (soccer) league in Portugal, where three clubs have accounted for 75 of the 77 championships in league history.\nSalary cap limits set a maximum amount of money that may be spent on athletes' contracts. These limits exist to different extents in several other leagues as well. For example, Major League Baseball (MLB) in the U.S. does not have a cap, but charges a luxury tax beyond a certain level.\nAnother example of disparity would be demonstrated by the NBA from the 2014\u201315 NBA season to the 2017\u201318 NBA season, where the Golden State Warriors and Cleveland Cavaliers have been the only franchises to reach the NBA Finals during that specific time span and during the 2017 NBA Finals and the 2018 NBA Finals the Golden State Warriors won 8 out of the possible 9 finals games.\nProlonged disparity can be severely detrimental to a sports league. The All-America Football Conference collapsed in part because one of its teams, the Cleveland Browns, dominated the league throughout its four-year existence.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Peak power output (PPO), also known as \"peak work rate\" is a common measure of exercise intensity. For example, researchers may ask subjects to complete an incremental exercise test where VO2max is measured while the person cycles at increasingly difficult power generation levels as measured by a cycle ergometer.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A personal seat license, or PSL, is a paid license that entitles the holder to the right to buy season tickets for a certain seat in a stadium. This holder can sell the seat license to someone else if they no longer wish to purchase season tickets. However, if the seat license holder chooses not to sell the seat licenses and does not renew the season tickets, the holder forfeits the license back to the team. Most seat licenses are valid for as long as the team plays in the current venue.\nAs each PSL corresponds to a specific seat, the venue operator can charge different prices for each individual seat. From the fan's perspective, having a specific seat removed the necessity of searching for an open seat in a filled stadium. Newly built sporting venues often offer PSLs to help pay the debt incurred during the construction of the venue. Opponents of PSLs see this as another way to increase the price that fans must afford to attend the venue.\nSeat licenses have been given various names. In North America, they are primarily called personal seat licenses or permanent seat licenses, while in Europe they are usually called debentures.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The term phoenix club is used in professional team sports to refer to a new entity that is set up to replace that of a club that has failed in business terms but not in sporting terms, and generally involves the continuation of the sporting activity. In some cases, the phoenix club is created by the supporters of the club which has ended, or seems to be on the point of ending.  A phoenix club will often have a very similar (although, for legal reasons, not identical) name and logo to the original club, and will also use a similar playing kit. The term is particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom and Italy in relation to association football, although it is also used in other countries.\nThe term has also been used to refer to a club formed by supporters of a major team when a change of ownership or policy causes them to lose faith in the management of their favoured side. This happened in 2005, when F.C. United of Manchester was formed by some fans of Manchester United, specifically as a protest at the sale of the latter to Malcolm Glazer, and at what they saw as the excessive and unacceptable commercialisation of the club, although the new club's status as a phoenix is open to dispute on the basis that the original club still exists.\nThe term is derived from the mythical phoenix, a bird which was said to resurrect itself from its own ashes. In at least one case, the name of a phoenix club has played on the term itself: in the Australia-New Zealand A-League, the defunct New Zealand Knights were replaced by new club Wellington Phoenix FC.\nIn some cases, phoenix clubs retain the name of the club which they replaced, implying a continuation from the former team. In other cases, name changes occur, perhaps due to proprietorial ownership of the old club's name. An American football example is the Cleveland Browns, the original franchise of which moved to Baltimore in 1995 to become the Baltimore Ravens. However, the NFL stipulated that, as part of the move, the franchise would not be able to keep the history and records of the Browns, a cornerstone NFL franchise.  In 1999, the \"new\" Browns were granted an expansion franchise and were awarded all of the former team's history by the league, even though the extant Ravens had the original Browns players and personnel.  The league and club view the Browns as one single team with a sporting hiatus.The term does not include teams that have relocated as a going concern, and/or have been renamed. Many of the former may list their founding date as the day they moved, but they are considered to be the same club and therefore cannot be seen as a phoenix, unless their previous entity has officially folded.\nHowever, because there is no single, universally-accepted definition, ascribing the term phoenix club can be disputed depending on the criteria used. Furthermore, there may be changes in what each country's football governing body and legal system defines as a phoenix club rather than resurrected club.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports and video games, a pick-up game (also known as a scratch game or PUG) is a game that has been spontaneously started by a group of players.  Players are generally invited to show up beforehand, but unlike exhibition games there is no sense of obligation or commitment to play. Pick-up games usually lack officials and referees, which makes them more disorganized and less structured than regular games, but the total number of players in such games globally is likely to be greater than the number playing in formal competitions and leagues.Without formal rules and regulations, pick-up games are often played with a less rigid set of rules.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A pitch or a sports ground is an outdoor playing area for various sports. The term pitch is most commonly used in British English, while the comparable term in American and Canadian English is playing field or sports field.\nFor most sports the official term is field of play, although this is not regularly used by those outside refereeing/umpiring circles. The field of play generally includes out-of-bounds areas that a player is likely to enter while playing a match, such as the area beyond the touchlines in association football and rugby or the sidelines in American and Canadian football, or the \"foul territory\" in baseball.\nThe surface of a pitch is most commonly composed of sod (grass), but may also be artificial turf, sand, clay, gravel, concrete, or other materials. A playing field on ice may be referred to as a rink, for example an ice hockey rink, although rink may also refer to the entire building or, in the sport of curling, to either the building or a particular team.\nIn the sport of cricket, the cricket pitch refers not to the entire field of play, but to the section of the field on which batting and bowling take place in the centre of the field. The pitch is prepared differently from the rest of the field, to provide a harder surface for bowling.\nA pitch is often a regulation space, as in an association football pitch.\nThe term level playing field is also used metaphorically to mean fairness in non-sporting human activities such as business where there are notional winners and losers.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A play-in game is a game, usually played at the beginning of a tournament or just prior to the tournament depending on how the tournament is defined. In a play-in, the lowest qualifiers and/or participants who have earned conditional qualification compete for qualification to the main portion of the tournament. This gives an added advantage to the higher or direct qualifiers, allowing them to rest and/or play non-elimination games, while the lower teams extend themselves by playing in elimination games. Further, teams that advance from a play-in must usually start the main tournament against the highest qualifier in the tournament and on the road. Having a play-in game allows for a tournament to have a number of teams that is not a power of two without having to grant byes in the main tournament. It also gives extra incentives for most if not all teams to play for, as better performing teams that would otherwise directly qualify relatively quickly instead have to try to continue winning, whether for the right to play a play-in qualifier and/or to avoid having to play in the extra game(s), while teams that would otherwise be eliminated from qualification just as quickly instead remain in contention for at least a play-in berth.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In team sport, a player of the match or man (or woman) of the match award is often given to the outstanding player in a particular match. This can be a player from either team, although the player is generally chosen from the winning team.\nSome sports have unique traditions regarding these awards, and they are especially sought-after in championship or all-star games. In Australia, the term \"best and fairest\" is normally used, both for individual games and season-long awards. In some competitions, particularly in North America, the terms \"most valuable player\" (MVP) or \"most outstanding player\" (MOP) are used. In ice hockey in North America, three players of the game, called the \"three stars\", are recognised.\nIn sports where playoffs are decided by series rather than individual games, such as professional basketball and baseball, MVP awards are commonly given for the series, and in ice hockey's NHL, for performance in the entire playoffs.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Playing period is a division of time in a sports or games, in which play occurs. Many games are divided into a fixed number of periods, which may be named for the number of divisions. Other games use terminology independent of the total number of divisions. A playing period may have a fixed length of game time or be bound by other rules of the game.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "There are a number of formats used in various levels of competition in sports and games to determine an overall champion. Some of the most common are the single elimination, the best-of- series, the total points series more commonly known as on aggregate, and the round-robin tournament.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A pocket schedule or fixtures card is a small card or foldable paper guide which typically fits in a wallet or pocket. A typical pocket schedule may contain a full season match schedule for the team, including dates, match times, and opponent.:\u200a249\u200a It may also include venue information, contact information for purchasing tickets, promotional events, major sponsor advertising,:\u200a104\u200a and radio and television broadcast data.\nIt is most often used by sports clubs or their sponsors for marketing purposes, which often pay for the production and printing of the schedules.:\u200a249\u200aPocket schedules for ice hockey date to at least the early 1900s,:\u200aPocket schedules\u200a and those for baseball to at least 1903.:\u200a15\u200aThey are part of sports memorabilia that are difficult to find in the secondary market because so many are damaged.:\u200aPocket schedules\u200a", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A podium sweep is where a team or nation comes in first, second and third, such as at the Olympics, and wins all available medals, which are recognized by a podium ceremony. The word sweep is commonly used in North American sports such as baseball, basketball, cricket and ice hockey which have playoff or regular season series, to describe a situation where one team wins all the games in a series, for example, with a 4\u20130 victory in a best-of-seven series.\nThe term is also used in a broader sense when a country, team or athlete wins all possible prizes in a competition. At the highest level, that would be when one nation wins all the medals in the Olympics.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Podiuming is a slang term for the action of finishing a contest within the first three places. It is often used during sporting event television broadcasting, especially Olympic Games coverage. The term is commonly heard at Athletics events, bicycling races, marathons and other large-entrant number events. It is also commonly found on various social media posts by users of all backgrounds.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In a group tournament, unlike a knockout tournament, there is no scheduled decisive final match.  Instead, all the competitors are ranked by examining the results of all the matches played in the tournament.  Typically, points are awarded for each match, with competitors ranked based either on total number of points or average points per match. \nUsually each competitor finishes with an equal number of matches, in which case rankings by total points and by average points are equivalent at the end of the tournament, though not necessarily while it is in progress. Examples with unequal numbers of matches include the 1895 County Championship in English cricket, and the U.S. National Football League prior to 1972, when tie games were excluded from the winning percentage used for regular-season standings.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In football, possession value (PV) is a performance metric used to predict the probability of any possession resulting in a goal.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In the United States and Canada, powderpuff football games are flag football or touch football games between girls from junior and senior classes or cross-town school rivals. Funds from the ticket and concession sales for the game typically go to charity, the senior class, or to a dance. The games are an annual tradition at many high schools and universities. The term originates from the powder puff, the soft material used for the application of cosmetic face powder. The games usually occur before homecoming.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The press box is a special section of a sports stadium or arena that is set up for the media to report about a given event. It is typically located in the section of the stadium holding the luxury box and can be either enclosed or open to the elements. In general, newspaper writers sit in this box and write about the on-field event as it unfolds. Television and radio announcers broadcast from the press box as well. Finally, in gridiron football, some coaches (especially offensive coordinators) prefer to work from the press box instead of from the sideline in order to have an \"all 22\" view of both the offensive and defensive players, along with coaching personnel ordered to by physicians due to medical conditions, or injuries which require rehabilitation and prevent them from being on the sidelines due to risk of further injury. For college and professional basketball, a \"press row\" along the sideline across the way from the scorer's table is setup instead for broadcasters and statisticians, while most writers work from a traditional press box position.\nThe press box is considered to be a working area, and writers, broadcasters, and other visitors to press boxes are constantly reminded of this fact at sporting events. Cheering is strictly forbidden in press boxes, and anyone violating rules against showing favoritism for either team is subject to ejection from the press box by security personnel. The rule against cheering is generally enforced only in the writers' area of the press box, and not against coaches and (in many cases) broadcasters who are known to be employed by one of the teams involved.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Pro\u2013am (or pro/am, pro am, ProAm; a contraction of professional\u2013amateur) refers to a sporting event where both professional career athletes and amateurs compete. It could also refer to a collaboration between professionals and amateurs in a scientific discipline such as astronomy.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports leagues, promotion and relegation  is a process where teams are transferred between multiple divisions based on their performance for the completed season. Leagues that use promotion and relegation systems are often called open leagues. In a system of promotion and relegation, the best-ranked team(s) in the lower division are promoted to the higher division for the next season, and the worst-ranked team(s) in the higher division are relegated to the lower division for the next season. In some leagues, playoffs or qualifying rounds are also used to determine rankings. This process can continue through several levels of divisions, with teams being exchanged between adjacent divisions. During the season, teams that are high enough in the league table that they would qualify for promotion are sometimes said to be in the promotion zone, and those at the bottom are in the relegation zone (colloquially the drop zone or facing the drop).An alternate system of league organization, used primarily in Australia, Canada, Singapore and the United States, is a closed model based on licensing or franchises. This maintains the same teams from year to year, with occasional admission of expansion teams and relocation of existing teams, and with no team movement between the major league and minor leagues.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports, a prospect is any player whose rights are owned by a professional team, but who has yet to surpass a threshold where they achieve rookie status (as defined by their respective league), or is not established with the team yet. Prospects can sometimes be assigned to farm teams, or loaned to lower ranked teams. They may also decide to go back to college to play.\nMajor-league professional sports teams also trade prospects, by themselves, with draft picks, or with current major-leaguers, in order to acquire another prospect or an established major league player.  Teams that trade away several of their star players for other teams' prospects are sometimes said to be having a fire sale.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sport, score is a quantitative measure of the relative performance of opponents in a sporting discipline. Score is usually measured in the abstract unit of points, and events in the competition can raise or lower the score of the involved parties. Most games with score use it as a quantitative indicator of success in the game, and in competition, a goal is often made of attaining a better score than one's opponents in order to win.\nIn team sport, the most common point metric is the \"goal\" or \"score\". Goals are accrued by the respective teams, and the match score represents the total score accrued by each team. For example, in association football and hockey goals are achieved by putting the ball in the opposing team's net. Other team sports like rugby, baseball and cricket have more complicated scoring procedures. The winning team is that which has recorded the best score, usually the team with the higher total score; a draw or tie is a result in which the competing teams record an equal score, sometimes requiring a tiebreaker.\nIndividual-based sports, such as golf and tennis, have points-based scoring as well. These may be abstract quantities defined for the sport, or more natural measures such as a distance or duration. Each competing athlete accrues points based on the sport's scoring system, and the athlete with the best score is deemed the winner. In some sports, the best score is that of the competitor with the highest score, such as in tennis or high jump. In other sports, the best score is that of the competitor with the lowest score, such as in golf or the 100 metres sprint.\nMost sports have time limits, which means point-based victories are usually the result of obtaining more points than one's opponent. In others, the winner must achieve a fixed number of points sooner than the rival. In some sports there is a perfect score that is the highest attainable, such as a 6.0 or 10.0. In boxing and mixed martial arts, a match runs an agreed number of timed rounds, each scored at its conclusion with a mandatory 10 points for winning and 9 or fewer for losing, depending on relative inefficiency. If either player scores a knockout or submission, they immediately win the match regardless of points or time.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Raw Run is recognized colloquially within the longboarding community as a recorded video showcasing the entire descent down a hill, from top to bottom. This is typically done all in one take to showcase the rider's consistency and skill.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In North American sports, realignment refers to a major change in the competitive structure of one or more existing leagues. The mechanics differ somewhat between amateur and professional sports.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "'Rebound' is a term used in sports to describe the ball (or puck or other object of play) becoming available for possession by either opponent after an attempt to put the ball or puck into the goal has been unsuccessful. Rebounds are generally considered to be a major part of the game, as they often lead either to a possession change or to a second (and often better) opportunity to score by the side whose initial attempt failed.\nIn sports such as basketball and netball, the term is also used as either noun or verb to describe the successful retrieval of the ball in that circumstance.\nIn sports that have an assigned goalkeeper or goaltender, after that player makes a save, they may (and if they are able, usually should) then retain immediate possession of the ball or puck themselves, thus preventing a rebound from occurring.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Redshirt, in United States college athletics, is a delay or suspension of an athlete's participation in order to lengthen their period of eligibility. Typically, a student's athletic eligibility in a given sport is four seasons, aligning with the four years of academic classes typically required to earn a bachelor's degree at an American college or university. However, in a redshirt year, student athletes may attend classes at the college or university, practice with an athletic team, and \"suit up\" (wear a team uniform) for play \u2013 but they may compete in only a limited number of games (see \"Use of status\" section). Using this mechanism, a student athlete has at most five academic years to use the four years of eligibility, thus becoming what is termed a fifth-year senior.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A replay (also called a rematch) is the repetition of a match in many sports.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports a national representative side or team is one that plays under the national name.  The phrase is often used to indicate that the team is not the official main national team.  Such unofficial or subsidiary teams are usually legitimate but rarely exist for longer than a single game or competition.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A restricted free agent (RFA) is a type of free agent in the National Football League (NFL), National Hockey League (NHL), or National Basketball Association (NBA).  Such players have special restrictions on the terms under which they can retain or change employment status with their athletic club teams.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A ring announcer is an in-ring (and sometimes on-camera) employee or contractor for a boxing, professional wrestling or mixed martial arts event or promotion, who introduces the competitors to the audience.\nIn boxing and mixed martial arts bouts, introductions occur after both fighters have entered the ring or cage. Along with each fighter's name, the announcer typically also announces their height, weight, town, nickname, win\u2013loss record and any current or past titles the fighter has won. In MMA, the fighting discipline is usually announced. In professional wrestling, wrestlers are similarly introduced, though usually before or as they come to the ring (the weight of each female wrestler is unannounced in most promotions). In-ring introductions are sometimes used for title matches or other major bouts, to add a \"big fight feel\".\nThe ring announcer often states the rules of the match. In boxing and MMA, this is usually limited to the number of scheduled rounds and the length of each round. In professional wrestling, the variations are much more numerous and so the announcer may have to explain significantly more to the audience.\nWhen an MMA or boxing bout concludes, the ring announcer announces the winner, time of finish and method. If the fight lasts all scheduled rounds, the announcer will read the fight judges' scorecard totals, before announcing a unanimous, majority, or split decision victory for one of the fighters, or a draw. This is typically done from inside the ring or cage.\nIn professional wrestling, the announcement is usually performed outside the ring, and typically doesn't mention the time or method of victory unless it is from disqualification, submission, or knockout; however, as professional wrestling shows do incorporate an official timekeeper at ringside, much like boxing and MMA, some ring announcers may be informed of the time of the fall at the match's conclusion and will relay that information to the audience as well.\nEven further to this, some professional wrestling matches will stipulate a time limit, within which a wrestler must win if he wishes to avoid a time-limit draw. In cases like this, the ring announcer may inform the audience of how much time has passed (and will ordinarily do so every five minutes) and how much time remains.\nIn a championship match, the announcer specifies that the winner is either still the champion or the new champion.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In fastpitch softball, a rise ball is type of pitch that is thrown on an upward trajectory and with backspin in order to impart a rising motion.  Two factors are primarily responsible for the effectiveness of the rise ball \u2013 movement and velocity.  Pitchers rely on the movement of the rise ball to fool batters into swinging at pitches that appear to be in the strike zone but move up to and out of the upper part of the strike zone where they are more difficult to hit.  Additionally the rise ball may be used in the lower strike zone to induce a batter to not swing at a pitch that they believe will drop out of the strike zone, but in fact travels through the zone causing the hitter to take a strike without swinging.  Rise balls are high velocity pitches, generally thrown at speeds that match or are close to the pitcher\u2019s fastball speed.  At the women\u2019s collegiate level, rise balls typically are thrown in a range of 60 to 70mph with the most dominant pitchers capable of speeds in excess of 70mph. \nAlthough the rise ball has been popularized by Jennie Finch, who famously used it (among other pitches) to strike out some Major League Baseball players including Albert Pujols, Alex Rodriguez and Barry Bonds, most effective softball pitchers use the rise ball in combination with other pitches.  Monica Abbott and Cat Osterman, are widely considered to be among the most dominant pitchers ever to use the rise ball as part of their pitching approach.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Running economy (RE) measures runners' energy utilization when running at an aerobic intensity, and many physiological and biomechanical factors contribute to it.:\u200a33\u200a Oxygen consumption (VO2) is the most commonly used method for measuring running economy, as the exchange of gases in the body, specifically oxygen and carbon dioxide, closely reflects energy metabolism. Those who are able to consume less oxygen while running at a given velocity are said to have a better running economy.\nHowever, straightforward oxygen usage does not account for whether the body is metabolising lipids or carbohydrates,  which produce different amounts of energy per unit of oxygen; as such, accurate measurements of running economy must use O2 and CO2 data to estimate the calorific content of the substrate that the oxygen is being used to respire.In distance running, an athlete may attempt to improve performance through training designed to improve running economy. Running economy has been found to be a good predictor of race performance; it has been found to be a stronger correlate of performance than maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) in trained runners with the same values.The idea of running economy is increasingly used to understand performance, as new technology can drastically lower running times over marathon distances, independently of physiology or even training. Factors affecting running economy include a runner\u2019s biology, training regimens, equipment, and environment. The recent accomplishment of Eliud Kipchoge running a marathon in under two hours has enhanced interest in the subject.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A safeword, as used in sports, is a code word used by a player to avoid impending injury.\nIn certain contact sports, such as rugby and professional wrestling, when a player feels an opposing player's actions will cause the player serious injury, the player may utter a safeword to tell the opponent to stop the actions.\nProfessional rugby union footballers recognize the safeword \"neck\". A player may say \"neck\" during a scrum due to fear of a possible neck injury.  Players on both teams will recognize this and immediately release any downward pressure.A more common example is \"matte\" (pronounced \"mah-teh\", meaning \"Wait!\") in most Japanese martial arts, including judo, which indicates surrender, usually due to an arm lock or a choke. In professional competition, saying \"stop\" or \"help\" does not indicate surrender and the opponent may continue combat. In catch wrestling and early competitive professional wrestling, a wrestler would say \"uncle\" when put in a submission hold to signify that they give up. This has largely been replaced by the more popular \"tapping out\" that is often performed by visibly tapping the floor or the opponent with the hand as seen in mixed martial arts.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A scratch team is a team, usually in sport, brought together on a temporary basis, composed of players who normally play for different sides. A game played between two scratch teams may be called a scratch match.\nThe earliest instance of the term \"scratch team\" recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is a restaurant guide in 1851 (London at table, by an anonymous author, referring to \"'a scratch team' of servants\"). The OED also records the term \"scratch match\" \u2013 defined as an impromptu game played by scratch teams \u2013 being used in the same year in Rev. James Pycroft's The Cricket Field \u2013 one of the earliest books about cricket \u2013 \"...that is the time that some sure, judicious batsman, whose eminence is little seen amidst the loose hitting of a scratch match, comes calmly and composedly to the wicket and makes a stand;...\"Another early and notable use of the term is from 1874, when The Wanderers, who had just lost an FA Cup match for the first time, were due to play a match against Upton Park. In the words of the contemporary report, \"unfortunately the Wanderers failed to put in an appearance. In order, therefore not to disappoint a large number of people who had assembled to witness the play, a scratch team was chosen to represent the missing team.\" The match was lost 11-0, with each of the opposing team scoring a goal..\"The term is listed in the 1913 Nelson's Encyclopedia, among slang terms.The Barbarians is an example of a rugby club that only fields scratch (invitational) teams.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The scudetto (Italian for: \"little shield\") is a decoration worn by Italian sports clubs that won the annual championship of their respective sport in the previous season. The scudetto was created in the 1920s to honour the winner of the national association football league (in 1929 rebranded as Serie A) and the first team to wear it was Genoa C.F.C. in 1924. Later, it was adopted by the teams of other sports.\nThe word scudetto is also used to indicate the Serie A trophy; \"winning the scudetto\" is a synonym of \"winning Serie A.\"\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A seed is a competitor or team in a sport or other tournament who is given a preliminary ranking for the purposes of the draw. Players/teams are \"planted\" into the bracket in a manner that is typically intended so that the best do not meet until later in the competition, usually based on regular season. The term was first used in tennis, and is based on the idea of laying out a tournament ladder by arranging slips of paper with the names of players on them the way seeds or seedlings are arranged in a garden: smaller plants up front, larger ones behind.Sometimes the remaining competitors in a single-elimination tournament will be \"re-seeded\" so that the highest surviving seed is made to play the lowest surviving seed in the next round, the second-highest plays the second-lowest, etc.  This may be done after each round, or only at selected intervals.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In some team sports, a selector is a member of a selection panel which chooses teams or individuals to represent a country or club or other representative team in sporting competitions.\nFor example, a selector in cricket is an administrative position involved in choosing players to represent a particular team in a match. Or, in Gaelic games a selector (sometimes referred to by the Irish term roghn\u00f3ir) is a person who helps pick a team to represent a club or county team.Selectors may be past players, but can also be current coaches. Current captains may also have an influence.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sport a semi-closed league (also referred to as a semi-open league) is a sports league where a group of teams are guaranteed entry into the League every season, while another group of teams have to qualify or stand at risk of relegation following each season. It is considered a hybrid of closed leagues and leagues with promotion and relegation. Semi-closed leagues can lead to a league where its permanent members are richer vis-\u00e0-vis the remaining teams in these semi-closed leagues or teams in more local competitions in which permanent members compete.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The serpentine system (also called snake seeding) is a method employed in the organization of a competition to define the seeded teams and arrange them in pools. The n ranked teams that will be involved in the tournament are distributed in m pools according to the following algorithm:\n\nFor instance, 12 teams would be organized in four-team pools, according to the serpentine   system, as follows:\n\nTo improve competitivity, this method is sometimes used in conjunction with the drawing of lots method: the serpentine system is used only for some of the teams involved in a competition (\"seeds\"); the rest are distributed in pools following a drawing of lots.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Shaughnessy playoff system is a method of determining the champion of a sports league that is not in a divisional alignment. This format is also known as the Argus finals system. It involves the participation of the top four teams in the league standings in a single elimination tournament. While the first round of the playoffs involve the pairing of the first- and fourth-place teams in one contest (whether it be a single game or a series of games) and the second- and third-place teams in the other, a variant of the Shaughnessy playoffs would pair the first- and third-place teams in one semifinal round and the second- and fourth-place teams in the other. In either variant, the winners of the first two games would then compete for the league championship. Some lower-level leagues use a Shaughnessy playoff for purposes of promotion to the next-higher league.\nAnother variant of the Shaughnessy system exempts a certain number of top teams from the playoffs (usually one to three teams) and instead involves the next four teams in the league standings. This variation is almost always used by a lower-level league for promotion purposes. Typically, the exempted top finishers earn automatic promotion and the playoffs determine the final promotion place.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports, shirts vs skins (or shirts and skins) is a common form of denoting team affiliations in a pick-up game or in school; typically, when played by boys on a public court or field, such as in a city park or schoolyard, or during physical education class or intramural sports at school. The practice involves the members of one team wearing shirts while the ones of the other team go shirtless. This is used in the absence of uniforms.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sport, score is a quantitative measure of the relative performance of opponents in a sporting discipline. Score is usually measured in the abstract unit of points, and events in the competition can raise or lower the score of the involved parties. Most games with score use it as a quantitative indicator of success in the game, and in competition, a goal is often made of attaining a better score than one's opponents in order to win.\nIn team sport, the most common point metric is the \"goal\" or \"score\". Goals are accrued by the respective teams, and the match score represents the total score accrued by each team. For example, in association football and hockey goals are achieved by putting the ball in the opposing team's net. Other team sports like rugby, baseball and cricket have more complicated scoring procedures. The winning team is that which has recorded the best score, usually the team with the higher total score; a draw or tie is a result in which the competing teams record an equal score, sometimes requiring a tiebreaker.\nIndividual-based sports, such as golf and tennis, have points-based scoring as well. These may be abstract quantities defined for the sport, or more natural measures such as a distance or duration. Each competing athlete accrues points based on the sport's scoring system, and the athlete with the best score is deemed the winner. In some sports, the best score is that of the competitor with the highest score, such as in tennis or high jump. In other sports, the best score is that of the competitor with the lowest score, such as in golf or the 100 metres sprint.\nMost sports have time limits, which means point-based victories are usually the result of obtaining more points than one's opponent. In others, the winner must achieve a fixed number of points sooner than the rival. In some sports there is a perfect score that is the highest attainable, such as a 6.0 or 10.0. In boxing and mixed martial arts, a match runs an agreed number of timed rounds, each scored at its conclusion with a mandatory 10 points for winning and 9 or fewer for losing, depending on relative inefficiency. If either player scores a knockout or submission, they immediately win the match regardless of points or time.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A silver medal in sports and other similar areas involving competition is a medal made of, or plated with, silver awarded to the second-place finisher, or runner-up, of contests or competitions such as the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, etc. The outright winner receives a gold medal and the third place a bronze medal. More generally, silver is traditionally a metal sometimes used for all types of high-quality medals, including artistic ones.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Sinclair coefficients are a method to compare different weight classes in Olympic weightlifting.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Sociedad an\u00f3nima deportiva (\"Public limited sports company\") is a special type of public limited company in Spain. The new legal status was introduced in 1990 to improve financial management and transparency in sports clubs. Many Spanish football and basketball clubs add the suffix S.A.D. to the end of their official name, e.g. Club Atl\u00e9tico de Madrid, S.A.D.\nEvery club which plays in Segunda Divisi\u00f3n or Liga ACB and remains in the league is obliged to convert to S.A.D. status.\nFor historical reasons, Athletic Club, FC Barcelona, Real Madrid and Osasuna were allowed to retain their status as non-commercial sports associations.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Sociedade An\u00f3nima Desportiva (\"Public limited sports company\") is a special type of public limited company (SA) in Portugal. The new legal status was introduced in the early 1990s to improve financial management and transparency in sports clubs. Many Portuguese football and basketball clubs add the suffix SAD to the end of their official name.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A split season is a schedule format implemented in a variety of sports leagues. The season is divided into two parts, with the winners of both halves playing each other at the end for the overall championship.\nSplit seasons are usually found in sports with longer seasons, such as baseball, basketball, and association football. They are common in scholastic sports, specifically basketball, in the United States. A number of Minor League Baseball leagues also use split seasons. In Latin America, some association football leagues use a similar format known as Apertura and Clausura.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Sporting colours or just colours (sometimes with a modifier, e.g. club colours or school colours) are awarded to members of a university or school who have excelled in a sport. Many schools do not limit their use to sport but may also give colours for academic excellence or non-sporting extra-curricular activities, Colours are traditionally indicated by the wearing of a special tie or blazer.\nMany university colours are known by the name of the colour used, which is usually the colour worn by the university's sports teams, e.g. Blue at Oxford and Cambridge, Palatinate at Durham, Pink at Trinity College Dublin or Purple at London. These are similar to the varsity letters awarded by American universities.\nThe level of representation required for the award of a colour varies between the different schemes. A full Palatinate at Durham, a Royal Blue at Liverpool or Full Colours at Cardiff require a student to have represented their country, while at Oxford the requirement for a full Blue is to have represented the university in a varsity match against Cambridge in an eligible sport. In many colour award schemes, it is possible to receive a half colour. These are normally given for lower levels of achievement than a full colour.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A sports club or sporting club, sometimes an athletics club or sports society or sports association, is a group of people formed for the purpose of playing sports.\nSports clubs range from organisations whose members play together, unpaid, and may play other similar clubs on occasion, watched mostly by family and friends, to large commercial organisations with professional players which have teams that regularly compete against those of other clubs and attract sometimes very large crowds of paying spectators. Clubs may be dedicated to a single sport or to several (multi-sport clubs).\nThe term athletics club is sometimes used for a general sports club, rather than one dedicated to athletics proper.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports broadcasting, a sports commentator (also known as sports announcer or sportscaster) provides a real-time commentary of a game or event, usually during a live broadcast, traditionally delivered in the historical present tense. Radio was the first medium for sports broadcasts, and radio commentators must describe all aspects of the action to listeners who cannot see it for themselves. In the case of televised sports coverage, commentators are usually presented as a voiceover, with images of the contest shown on viewers' screens and sounds of the action and spectators heard in the background. Television commentators are rarely shown on screen during an event, though some networks choose to feature their announcers on camera either before or after the contest or briefly during breaks in the action.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A fan or fanatic, sometimes also termed an aficionado or enthusiast, is a person who exhibits strong interest or admiration for something or somebody, such as a celebrity, a sport, a sports team, a genre, a politician, a book, a movie, a video game or an entertainer. Collectively, the fans of a particular object or person constitute its fanbase or fandom. They may show their enthusiasm in a variety of ways, such as by promoting the object of their interest, being members of a related fan club, holding or participating in fan conventions or writing fan mail. They may also engage in creative activities (\"fan labor\") such as creating fanzines, writing fan fiction, making memes or drawing fan art.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A multi-sport event is an organized sporting event, often held over multiple days, featuring competition in many different sports among organized teams of athletes from (mostly) nation-states. The first major, modern, multi-sport event of international significance was the Olympic Games, first held in modern times in 1896 in Athens, Greece and inspired by the Ancient Olympic Games, one of a number of such events held in antiquity. Most modern multi-sports events have the same basic structure. Games are held over the \ncourse of several days in and around a \"host city\", which changes for each competition. Countries send national teams to each competition, consisting of individual athletes and teams that compete in a wide variety of sports.  Athletes or teams are awarded gold, silver or bronze medals for first, second and third place respectively. Each game is generally held every four years, though some are annual competitions.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A sports league is a group of sports teams or individual athletes that compete against each other and gain points in a specific sport. At its simplest, it may be a local group of amateur athletes who form teams among themselves and compete on weekends; at its most complex, it can be an international professional league making large amounts of money and involving dozens of teams and thousands of players.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A sports team is a group of individuals who play sports (sports player), usually team sports, on the same team. The number of players in the group depends on type of the sports requirements. \nHistorically, sports teams and the people who play sports have been amateurs. However, by the 20th century, some sports teams and their associated leagues became extremely valuable with net worth in the millions. The Dallas Cowboys are rated by Forbes as the world's most valuable sports team at US$4.2 billion. Some individual sports have modified rules that allow them to be played by teams.\nTeam identities can be formed from a number of sources, most often a type of geographic location, e.g., the Dallas Cowboys are named after Dallas, Texas, US. Some teams can also be named after an institution, such as the Alabama Crimson Tide, which are supported by and named after the University of Alabama, or the Yomiuri Giants, who are named after the Yomiuri Group, a Japanese media conglomerate.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A sports ticket derivative is a type of futures contract specifically for sports tickets.  Typical terms of a ticket future contract stipulate that a ticket to a specific game (typically a championship game, such as Super Bowl or World Series) is delivered to the holder of the contract contingent on a specific team making it to that event.  Ticket futures were first offered by yoonew in 2004, under the title of Team Fantasy Seats.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Standings or rankings are listings which compare sports teams or individuals, institutions, nations, companies, or other entities by ranking them in order of ability or achievement. A table or chart (such as a league table, a ladder or a leaderboard) may be employed to display such listings. A league table may list several related statistics, but they are generally sorted by the primary one that determines the rankings. Many industries and institutions may compete in league tables in order to help bring in new customers and clients. Those tables ranking sports teams are generally used to help determine who may advance to the playoffs or another tournament, who is promoted or relegated, or who gets a higher draft pick.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports, stat padding is an action that improves a player's statistics despite being of little benefit to his or her team or its chance of winning. An example would be a gridiron football player throwing long passes with an empty backfield on first down in the fourth quarter of a game in which his team was already leading by a large margin.\nStat padding is also noticeable in online computer games. A group of players might perform a series of actions which generally require little skill in order to raise a player's statistics. For example, in first-person shooters, two or more players might join different teams and constantly kill one another, usually followed by a heal, revive, or respawn. Actions such as these are usually done on password-protected or empty game servers. An example of this in the popular online computer game Battlefield 2 would be when three players collude, one as a medic, another from the other team as a killer, and another person from the medic's team, called the \"dummy\", to be the victim. The killer shoots the dummy, and the medic then heals or revives his teammate. The killer shoots the dummy again and the process continues.\nIt is also possible to stat pad by completing objectives or performing actions in an empty server, or by co-operating with a player on another team. While co-operating with players on another team may pad stats, this is widely considered a form of cheating.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Some team sports put players on different official lists according to circumstances for that player, for example if they are injured. There can be different rules for players on different lists, and the details vary between sports.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Submaximal performance testing is a way of estimating either VO2 max or \"aerobic fitness\" in sports medicine. The test protocols do not reach the maximum of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Submaximal tests are used because maximal tests can be dangerous in individuals who are not considered normal healthy subjects and for elite athletes maximal tests would disrupt training load balance.First submaximal cycle test was developed by \u00c5strand and Ryhming in 1954, and is called \u00c5strand test. Other well-known submaximal cycle test is known as Physical Work Capacity (PWC 170) test.One of the first submaximal running test is well-known Cooper test developed by Kenneth H. Cooper in 1968.Some tests are developed targeting especially tests subjects without exercise background, such as Rockport Fitness Walk and UKK walk test.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In team sports, substitution (or interchange) is replacing one player with another during a match.  Substitute players that are not in the starting lineup (also known as bench players, backups, interchange, or reserves) reside on the bench and are available to substitute for a starter. Later in the match, that substitute may be substituted for by another substitute or by a starter who is currently on the bench.\nSome sports have restrictions on substituting or interchanging players whereas others do not. Australian rules football, American football, ice hockey, and basketball are examples of sports which practice \"unlimited\" substitutions, albeit subject to certain rules. Substitution is unlimited during play in Australian rules and ice hockey. In basketball, substitution is permitted only during stoppages of play, but is otherwise unlimited. In baseball and association football (soccer), substitution is permitted only during stoppages of play, and a player who has been substituted out of a game usually cannot re-enter it.\nIn motorsports, a substitution behind the wheel goes by the term \"relief driver.\"", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Superstar Effect or \"Tiger Woods effect\" refers to the change in performance caused by the presence of a highly ranked player - a superstar - in a rank-order competition.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The sweet spot is a place where a combination of factors results in a maximum response for a given amount of effort. In tennis, squash, racquetball, baseball, cricket or golf a given swing will result in a more powerful hit if the ball strikes the racket, bat or club on the latter's sweet spot. \nThe sweet spot is the location at which the object being struck, usually a ball, absorbs the maximum amount of the available forward momentum and rebounds away from the racket, bat, club, etc. with a greater velocity than if struck at any other point on the racket, bat or club.  \nIn endurance sports such as cycling, sweet spot training aims to maximise training benefit (generally for performance at or near FTP, or Functional Threshold Power) by optimally balancing training effect, physiological strain and maximum duration.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A team sport includes any sport where individuals are organized into opposing teams which compete to win. Team members act together towards a shared objective. This can be done in a number of ways such as outscoring the opposing team. Team members set goals, make decisions, communicate, manage conflict, and solve problems in a supportive, trusting atmosphere in order to accomplish their objectives. Examples are basketball, volleyball, rugby, water polo, handball, lacrosse, cricket, baseball, and the various forms of association football, doubles tennis, and hockey. Team sports require internal coordination between members of the team in order to achieve success.Team sports are practiced between opposing teams, where the players generally interact directly and simultaneously between them to achieve an objective. The objective often involves teammates facilitating the movement of a ball or similar object in accordance with a set of rules, in order to score points. The meaning of a \"team sport\" has been disputed in recent years. Some types of sports have different objectives or rules than \"traditional\" team sports. These types of team sports do not involve teammates facilitating the movement of a ball or similar item in accordance with a set of rules, in order to score points. For example, swimming, rowing, sailing, dragon boat racing, and track and field among others can also be considered team sports.\nIn other types of team sports, there may not be an opposing team or point scoring, for example, mountaineering. Instead of points scored against an opposing team, the relative difficulty of the climb or walk is the measure of the achievement. In some sports where participants are entered by a team, they do not only compete against members of other teams but also against each other for points towards championship standings. For example, motorsport, particularly Formula One. In cycling however, team members whilst still in competition with each other, will also work towards assisting one, usually a specialist, member of the team to the highest possible finishing position. This process is known as team orders and although previously accepted was banned in Formula One between 2002 and 2010. After a controversy involving team orders at the 2010 German Grand Prix however, the regulation was removed as of the 2011 season.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sporting terminology, to telegraph is to unintentionally alert an opponent to one's immediate situation or intentions. The sporting use of the term telegraph draws a direct comparison with the communication device of the same name. \"Telegraphing\" always refers to a reflexive physical action rather than a protracted or intentional give-away. For example, a boxer rotating his shoulders to throw a hook would be telegraphing. A rugby team betraying its line-out plays by using an easily decoded line-out code is not telegraphing.\nWhile telegraphing is a hazard for any sporting event, it is particularly risky at upper levels of competition where talented players are better able to anticipate and react to telegraphed actions. The ability to suppress telegraphing, and pick up on the telegraphing of other players, is often a hallmark of elite athletes.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A third jersey, alternative jersey, third kit, third sweater or alternative uniform is a jersey or uniform that a sports team  can wear instead of its home outfit or its away outfit during games, often when the colors of two competing teams' other uniforms are too similar to contrast easily. Alternative jerseys are also a lucrative means for professional sports organizations to generate revenue, by sales to fans. Of North American sports leagues, the National Football League generates $1.2 billion annually in jersey sales, with the National Basketball Association second, selling $900 million annually. Another use of the alternative uniform is for identifying with causes, like the Central Coast Mariners wear an alternative pink kit on pink ribbon day.Extra alternative uniforms or fourth and fifth kits are not commonly used, but are sometimes required when teams' other uniforms cause color clashes, or the uniforms are unavailable to use. In cases where teams have worn more than three kits in the same season, the extra kits were usually recycled from previous seasons.\nThird-choice jerseys or uniforms are used in all four major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada.\nThird kits are commonplace in professional European association football and in some professional European rugby union clubs. Alternative jerseys are common in Australia's two biggest domestic leagues, the Australian Football League (Aussie rules) and National Rugby League (rugby league).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A third place match, game for third place, bronze medal game or consolation game is a single match that is included in many sporting knockout tournaments to decide which competitor or team will be credited with finishing third and fourth. The teams that compete in the third place playoff game are usually the two losing semi-finalists in a particular knockout tournament.\nMany tournaments use the third place playoff to determine who wins the bronze medal. In some tournaments, a third place playoff is necessary for seeding purposes if three or all four semi-finalists advance to another tournament.\nIn tournaments that do not award medals or have the third place finisher advance to something else, a third place playoff is a classification match that serves little more than as a consolation to the losing semi-finalists. A consolation game also allows teams to play more than one game after having invested time, effort and money in the quest for a championship. Third place playoffs held as such consolation games are subject to debate. Many sports tournaments do not have a third place playoff due to a lack of interest. It has been criticised by some who feel that the match serves little purpose, but others see this game as an occasion for the losing semi-finalists to salvage some pride. How seriously the competitors or teams take a third place playoff, may also be mixed: a heavily favoured team that lost in an upset in the semi-final round may not have as much incentive to win as would a \"Cinderella\" team who was not expected to advance that far.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Three points for a win is a standard used in many sports leagues and group tournaments, especially in association football, in which three points are awarded to the team winning a match, with no points awarded to the losing team.  If the game is drawn, each team receives one point.  Many leagues and competitions originally awarded two points for a win and one point for a draw, before switching to the three points for a win system. The change is significant in league tables, where teams typically play 30\u201340 games per season.  The system places additional value on wins compared to draws such that teams with a higher number of wins may rank higher in tables than teams with a lower number of wins but more draws.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Throwback uniforms, throwback jerseys, retro kits or heritage guernseys are sports uniforms styled to resemble the uniforms that a team wore in the past. One-time or limited-time retro uniforms are sometimes produced to be worn by teams in games, on special occasions such as anniversaries of significant events.\nThrowback uniforms have proven popular in all major pro and college sports in North America, not only with fans, but with the teams' merchandising departments. Because the \"authentic\" uniforms (accurate reproductions) and less-authentic \"replicas\" had been so popular at retail, the professional leagues institutionalized throwbacks as \"third jerseys\".", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In games and sports, a tiebreaker or tiebreak is used to determine a winner from among players or teams that are tied at the end of a contest, or a set of contests.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports, a time-out or timeout is a halt in the play. This allows the coaches of either team to communicate with the team, e.g., to determine strategy or inspire morale, as well as to stop the game clock. Time-outs are usually called by coaches or players, although for some sports, TV timeouts are called to allow media to air commercial breaks. Teams usually call timeouts at strategically important points in the match, or to avoid the team being called for a delay of game-type violation, such as the five-second rule in basketball.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In professional sports within the United States and Canada, a trade is a sports league transaction between sports clubs involving the exchange of player rights from one team to another. Though player rights are the primary trading assets, draft picks and cash are other assets that may be supplemented to consummate a trade, either packaged alongside player rights to be transferred to another team, or as standalone assets in exchange for player rights and/or draft picks in return. Typically, trades are completed between two clubs, but there are instances where trades are consummated between three or more clubs.\nTrades only involve players who are under contract with their current teams; free agent players, whose contracts have expired, cannot be traded by their former teams, and are free to join a different team.\nIn Major League Baseball, a player to be named later can be used to finalize the terms of a trade at a later date, but draft picks are not admissible as trading assets (with one exception). In Major League Soccer, besides current MLS players and draft picks, clubs may also trade MLS rights to non-MLS players, allocation money, allocation rankings, and international player slots.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A transfer window is the period during the year in which a football club can transfer players from other playing staff into their playing staff. Such a transfer is completed by registering the player into the new club through FIFA. \"Transfer window\" is the unofficial term commonly used by the media for the concept of \"registration period\" as described in the FIFA Regulations on the Status and Transfer of Players. According to the rules, each national football association decides on the time (such as the dates) of the 'window' but it may not exceed 12 weeks. The second registration period occurs during the season and may not exceed four weeks.\nThe transfer window of a given football association governs only international transfers into that football association. International transfers out of an association are always possible to those associations that have an open window. The transfer window of the association that the player is leaving does not have to be open.\nThe window was introduced in response to negotiations with the European Commission. The system has been used in many European leagues before being brought into compulsory effect by FIFA during the 2002\u201303 season. English football was initially behind the plans when they were proposed in the early 1990s, in the hope that it would improve teams' stability and prevent agents from searching for deals all year around, but by the time it was eventually introduced they had to be persuaded that it would work. However, the exact regulations and possible exceptions are established by each competition's governing body rather than by the national football association.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In professional team sports, a traveling team (also called a road team) is a member of a professional league that never competes in its home arena or stadium. This differs from a barnstorming team as a barnstorming team competes in exhibition games and not within a league or association framework as a traveling team does. While leagues may designate a traveling team prior to the start of competition, some teams become road teams by simply not scheduling any home games.\nWhile the use of traveling teams has been sparing on the upper levels of professional sports in recent times, the National Football League had such road teams (such as the Hammond Pros, Oorang Indians, and Columbus Panhandles) in the formative years of the league.  Recently, such teams have been almost invariably associated with minor leagues.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "An underdog is a person or group in a competition, usually in sports and creative works, who is largely expected to lose. The party, team, or individual expected to win is called the favorite or top dog. In the case where an underdog wins, the outcome is an upset. An \"underdog bet\" is a bet on the underdog or outsider for which the odds are generally higher.\nThe first recorded uses of the term occurred in the second half of the 19th century; its first meaning was \"the beaten dog in a fight\".In British and American culture, underdogs are highly regarded. This harkens to core Judeo-Christian stories, such as that of David and Goliath, and also ancient British legends such as Robin Hood and King Arthur, and reflects the ideal behind the American dream, where someone who is poor and/or weak can use hard work to achieve victory. Underdogs are most valorized in sporting culture, both in real events, such as the Miracle on Ice, and in popular culture depictions of sports, where the trope is omnipresent. The idea is so common that even when teams are evenly matched, spectators and commentators are drawn to establishing one side as the underdog. Historian David M. Potter explained that underdogs are appealing to Americans not because they simply beat the odds, but overcome an injustice that explains those odds - such as the game being unfairly rigged due to privilege and power. Sometimes a team or competitor may be technically the favorite in a game but be an underdog in the big picture, as they weren't expected to be in that kind of position, such as a Cinderella team in sports.\nIn a story, the Fool is often an underdog if they are the main character. Their apparent ineptitude leads to people underestimating their true abilities, and they are able to win either through luck or hidden wisdom against a more powerful, \"establishment\" villain. An example in film is The Tramp portrayed by Charlie Chaplin.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Uniformed Derby is the name given to football matches that involves Home United and Warriors FC. The derby started since the 90's as both are quite successful teams in Singapore.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In American college athletics, a vacated victory is a win that the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) has stripped from an athletic team, usually as punishment for misconduct related to their sports programs. The team being punished is officially stripped of its victory, but the opposing team retains its loss\u2014thus, vacated victories are different from forfeits, in which the losing team is given the win. The practice of vacating victories has been criticized by players and sports journalists, but remains one of the NCAA's preferred penalties for infractions related to past misconduct. Over 160 college football teams and 270 college basketball teams have had wins vacated.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A varsity letter (or monogram) is an award earned in the United States for excellence in school activities. A varsity letter signifies that its winner was a qualified varsity team member, awarded after a certain standard was met.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Vert is a term used in extreme sports especially vert skating, vert skateboarding, snowboarding and BMX to denote a competition held on a vert ramp which allows the competitors to fly into the air and land back on the ramp. This time in the air allows the competitor to perform moves which would otherwise be extremely difficult. An example of this would be a flip, or a spin.\nThe term itself comes from the word \"vertical,\" the direction in which the competitor is moving after leaving the ramp.\nRamps used in these events are usually vert ramps.\nOutside of competitions, the term vert is not normally used. Instead, the specific type of ramp is denoted. So instead of saying \"I am going to go ride vert,\" one might say \"I am going to go ride a half-pipe.\" However, it would be correct to say \"in competitions, I usually ride vert,\" in order to differentiate from other forms of competition (such as freestyle, park or street).\nESPN's X Games initially eliminated vert from its 2008 competition, due to declining ratings over the last few years, but because of a proposed boycott of the \"Big Air\" event, mainly by the professional skateboarders, it was reinstated.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "VO2 max (also maximal oxygen consumption, maximal oxygen uptake or maximal aerobic capacity) is the maximum rate of oxygen consumption measured during incremental exercise; that is, exercise of increasing intensity. The name is derived from three abbreviations: \"V\u0307\" for volume (the dot  appears over the V to indicate \"per unit of time\"), \"O2\" for oxygen, and \"max\" for maximum. \nThe measurement of V\u0307O2 max in the laboratory provides a quantitative value of endurance fitness for comparison of individual training effects and between people in endurance training. Maximal oxygen consumption reflects cardiorespiratory fitness and endurance capacity in exercise performance. Elite athletes, such as competitive distance runners, racing cyclists or Olympic cross-country skiers, can achieve V\u0307O2 max values exceeding 90 mL/(kg\u00b7min), while some endurance animals, such as Alaskan huskies, have V\u0307O2 max values exceeding 200 mL/(kg\u00b7min).\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A walkover, also W.O. or w/o (originally two words: \"walk over\") is awarded to the opposing team/player etc, if there are no other players available, or they have been disqualified, because the other contestants have forfeited or the other contestants have withdrawn from the contest. The term can apply in sport, elections or other contexts where a victory can be achieved by default. The narrow and extended meanings of \"walkover\" as a single word are both found from 1829.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sport, a whitewash or sweep (N. America) is a series in which a person or team wins every game.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A wild card (also wildcard or wild-card and also known as an at-large berth or at-large bid) is a tournament or playoff berth awarded to an individual or team that fails to qualify in the normal way; for example, by having a high ranking or winning a qualifying stage. In some events, wildcards are chosen freely by the organizers. Other events have fixed rules. Some North American professional sports leagues compare the records of teams which did not qualify directly by winning a division or conference.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Wilks coefficient or Wilks formula is a mathematical coefficient that can be used to measure the relative strengths of powerlifters  despite the different weight classes of the lifters. Robert Wilks, CEO of Powerlifting Australia, is the author of the formula.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In certain sports, such as football, field hockey, ice hockey, handball, rugby union, lacrosse and rugby league, winger is a position. It refers to positions on the extreme left and right sides of the pitch, or playing field (the \"wings\"). In American football and Canadian football, the analogous position is the wide receiver. Wingers often try to use pace to exploit extra space available on the flanks that can be made available by their teammates dominating the centre ground. They must be wary however of not crossing the touchline, or sidelines, and going out of play. In sports where the main method of scoring involves attacking a small goal (by whatever name) in the centre of the field, a common tactic is to cross the ball to a central teammate.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A winning streak, also known as a win streak or hot streak, is an uninterrupted sequence of success in games or competitions, commonly measured by at least 5 wins that are uninterrupted by losses or ties/draws. In sports, it can be applied to teams, and individuals. In sports where teams or individuals represent groups such as countries or regions, those groups can also be said to have winning streaks if their representatives win consecutive games or competitions, even if the competitors are different. Streaks can also be applied to specific competitions: for example, a competitor who wins an event in three consecutive Olympic Games has an Olympic winning streak, even if they have lost other competitions during the period.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Wire-to-wire is a term used in competitive events and sports for a champion who maintained the lead during an entire competition. The term originated from horse racing where a wire would stretch across the start and finish line thus the euphemism describes a horse that lead from wire to wire or start to finish.  The term is most commonly associated with golf referencing a player who wins a title while holding the lowest aggregate score at the close of each round.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A world championship is generally an international competition open to elite competitors from around the world, representing their nations, and winning such an event will be considered the highest or near highest achievement in the sport, game, or ability.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A world cup is a global sporting competition in which the participant entities \u2013 usually international teams or individuals representing their countries \u2013 compete for the title of world champion. There are a number of notable popular team sports competitions labeled \"world cups\", such as the ICC Cricket World Cup, Rugby World Cup, Rugby League World Cup and the Hockey World Cup but perhaps the best known is the FIFA World Cup (an association football tournament, first held in 1930), which is widely known simply as \"the World Cup\".A world cup is generally, though not always, considered the premier competition in its sport, with the victor attaining the highest honour in that sport and able to lay claim to the title of their sport's best. However, in some sports the Olympic title carries at least as much prestige, while other sports such as diving and artistic gymnastics differentiate between their premier competitions, such as World Championships and Olympic Games, and their \"World Cup\", which is organised as a smaller scale but high-level showcase event with small elite fields.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Sports titles system of Albania was based on a government decree of 1967, which replaced prior legislation on sports titles as recognized by the Albanian Government. It was based on government decree Nr.4259, as of 11 April 1967 (On the creation of titles Merited Master of Sports, Master of Sports, Champion of the People's Republic of Albania, and Distinguished Sports Executive).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Unified Sports Classification System of the USSR (Russian: \u0415\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0412\u0441\u0435\u0441\u043e\u044e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0444\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044f) is a document which provided general Soviet physical education system requirements for both athletes and coaches. Similar systems still exist today in several former Soviet republics.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A sports venue is a building, structure, or place in which a sporting competition is held.\nA stadium (Plural: stadiums or stadia) or arena is a place or venue for sports or other events and consists of a field or stage either partly or completely surrounded by a tiered structure designed to allow spectators to stand or sit and view the event.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A ballpark is a place where baseball is played. The playing field is divided into the infield, an area whose dimensions are rigidly defined, and the outfield, where dimensions can vary widely from place to place.Larger venues are usually called baseball stadiums, a term which includes the playing field, spectator seating areas, pedestrian walkways, bathrooms, dining areas, vendor areas, offices, and recreational areas.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Bleachers (North American English), or stands, are raised, tiered rows of benches found at sports fields and other spectator events.  Stairways provide access to the horizontal rows of seats, often with every other step gaining access to a row of benches.\nBenches range from simple planks to elaborate ones with backrests.  Many bleachers are open to the ground below so that there are only the planks to sit and walk on. Some bleachers have vertical panels beneath the benches, either partially or completely blocking the way to the ground.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In cricket, a ground is a location where cricket matches are played, comprising a cricket field, cricket pavilion and any associated buildings and amenities. \nA batter's ground is the area behind the popping crease at their end of the pitch. It is one of the two safe zones that batters run between to score runs.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Field house or fieldhouse is a common name for indoor sports arenas and stadiums, mostly used for college basketball, volleyball, or ice hockey.  Additionally it is known to serve as a support building for various adjacent sports fields, i.e. locker room, team room, coaches' offices, etc.\nThis American English term dates from the 1890s.Notable field houses include:", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A grandstand is a normally permanent structure for seating spectators.  This includes both auto racing and horse racing.  The grandstand is in essence like a single section of a stadium, but differs from a stadium in that it does not wrap all or most of the way around.  Grandstands may have basic bench seating, but usually have individual chairs like a stadium.  Grandstands are also usually covered with a roof, but are open on the front.  They are often multi-tiered.\nGrandstands are found at places like Epsom Downs Racecourse and Atlanta Motor Speedway.  They may also be found at fairgrounds, circuses, and outdoor arenas used for rodeos.\nIn the United States, smaller stands are called bleachers, and are usually far more basic and typically single-tiered (hence the difference from a \"grand stand\"). Early baseball games were often staged at fairgrounds, and the term \"grandstand\" came along when standalone baseball parks began to be built. A covered bleacher may be called a \"pavilion\", also to distinguish from the main \"grandstand\".\nThe term grandstanding, from the notion of playing to the people in the grandstands, is often used as a pejorative to describe someone drawing unwarranted attention to themselves.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A groundshare, also known as a shared stadium or shared arena, is the principle of sharing a stadium between two local sports teams. This is usually done for the purpose of reducing the costs of either construction of two separate facilities and related maintenance.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Gymkhana (Urdu: \u062c\u0650\u0645\u062e\u0627\u0646\u06c1, Sindhi: \u062c\u0645\u062e\u0627\u0646\u0647, Hindi: \u091c\u093f\u092e\u0916\u093c\u093e\u0928\u093e, Assamese: \u099c\u09bf\u09ae\u0996\u09be\u09a8\u09be, Bengali: \u099c\u09bf\u09ae\u0996\u09be\u09a8\u09be) is a British Raj term which originally referred to a place of assembly. The meaning then altered to denote a place where skill-based contests were held. \"Gymkhana\" is an Anglo-Indian expression, which is derived from the Persian word \"Jamat-khana\".  Most gymkhanas have a Gymkhana Club associated with them, a term coined during British Raj for gentlemen's club.\nMore generally, gymkhana refers to a social and sporting club in the Indian subcontinent, and in other Asian countries including Malaysia, Thailand, Burma and Singapore, as well as in East Africa.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The International Association for Sports and Leisure Facilities (IAKS, from its original German name, Internationaler Arbeitskreis Sportst\u00e4ttenbau) is a non-profit organization devoted to sports buildings and leisure centres.\nThe IAKS was founded in Cologne in 1965. It is the only non-profit organization concerned globally with the subject of sports facility development and has therefore been awarded the status of Recognized Organization by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).\nThe IAKS has about 1,000 members in a current 110 countries with seven sections worldwide. These are Germany, Japan, Latin America/Caribbean, Poland, Russia, Switzerland and Spain (status 2016).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A leisure centre in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia (also called aquatic centres), Singapore and Canada is a purpose-built building or site, usually owned and operated by the city, borough council or municipal district council, where people go to keep fit or relax through using the facilities.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A changing-room, locker-room, (usually in a sports, theater, or staff context) or changeroom (regional use) is a room or area designated for changing one's clothes. Changing-rooms are provided in a semi-public situation to enable people to change clothes with varying degrees of privacy.\n\nA fitting room, or dressing room is a room where people try on clothes, such as in a department store.\nSeparate changing-rooms may be provided for men and women, or there may be a non-gender-specific open space with individual cubicles or stalls, as with unisex public toilets. Many changing rooms include toilets, sinks and showers. Sometimes a changing room exists as a small portion of a restroom/washroom. For example, the men's and women's washrooms in Toronto's Dundas Square (which includes a water play area) each include a change area which is a blank counter space at the end of a row of sinks. In this case, the facility is primarily a washroom, and its use as a changing room is minimal, since only a small percentage of users change into bathing suits. Sometimes a person may change their clothes in a toilet cubicle of a washroom. \n\nLarger changing rooms are usually found at public beaches, or other bathing areas, where most of the space is for changing, and minimal washroom space is included. Beach-style changing rooms are often large open rooms with benches against the walls. Some do not have a roof, providing just the barrier necessary to prevent people outside from seeing in.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The luxury box (or skybox) and club seating constitute the most exclusive class of seating in arenas and stadiums, and generate much higher revenues than regular seating. Club ticketholders often receive exclusive access to an indoor part of the venue through private club entrances, to areas containing special restaurants, bars, merchandise stands, and lounge areas of the venue that are not otherwise available to regular ticketholders.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A mobile bleacher or portable bleacher is a type of bleacher that can be moved to different locations to fulfill a need for temporary or reconfigurable seating. Some units incorporate a built-in hydraulic or electric actuation system for raising and lowering the unit. Highway towable units are available, as well as units designed to be moved within a single venue.\n\nIn multi-purpose sports venues, seating arrangements must be adapted to suit different sports' requirements. In indoor arenas, the activity area may vary from the size of a boxing ring to a football pitch. In outdoor sports, field sizes may vary between American football and soccer requirements, or baseball fields. Movable seating arrangements have been created to fill this need. Mobile bleachers provide a lower-cost method of providing such seating with minimal site preparation requirements.\nIn the United States, mobile bleachers are required to meet the same safety standards as fixed, telescopic and temporary bleachers in accordance with CPSC Publication 330.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A Multi Use Games Area (abbreviated MUGA) is usually a steel anti vandal outdoor fenced area with built in goal post units for various types of sports games, such as football, basketball or tennis. The outer fencing makes it easier to keep the ball in play. MUGAs are often installed at schools. MUGAs can be supplied in Half court (Open one end with one combination goal unit), Full court (Fully enclosed with two end goal units) and Key area (Open single goal end with key line markings).\n\nMUGAs are often supplied as ready-made solutions by various manufacturers. Sports MUGAs usually consist of a steel goal post and basketball goal post combination. This can be senior, junior or match quality for basketball. Sports played on MUGAs are varied, hence the term Multi Use. Basketball, football, hockey, netball, and volleyball are usually provided for with appropriate floor line markings for each sport, which are lined in different coloured paints. Multi Use Games Area MUGAs are placed into the ground around a sports surface area including natural grass, artificial sports surfaces, sports tiles, tarmac or concrete. Some MUGAs are open ended, partially closed or fully enclosed. Sizes vary from Key Area 6m x 7.5m. Tarmac key lined. Half Court 7.5m x 15m. Full Court 15m x 30m.\nThe intense activity in a MUGA can increase noise and complaints from neighbours. The noise level depends on the material used for the fencing, and by the location. Positive results from United Kingdom local authorities can provide good evidence that placements of anti vandal Multi Use Games Areas can reduce anti social behaviour and increase fitness within early teen age groups in both cities and parish localities. Multi Use Games Areas (MUGA) can include the production of goal posts, target panels, fencing and seating. They are ideal for the urban areas that would benefit from a contained area in which children can play safely. A MUGA can encourage people to explore the potential of different sports in a safe environment, built solely for that purpose.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Naming rights are a financial transaction and form of advertising or memorialization whereby a corporation, person, or other entity purchases the right to name a facility, object, location, program, or event, typically for a defined period of time.  For properties such as multi-purpose arenas, performing arts venues, or sports fields, the term ranges from three to 20 years.  Longer terms are more common for higher profile venues such as professional sports facilities.The distinctive characteristic for this type of naming rights is that the buyer gets a marketing property to promote products and services, promote customer retention and/or increase market share.\nThere are several forms of corporate sponsored names. For example, a presenting sponsor attaches the name of the corporation or brand at the end (or, sometimes, beginning) of a generic, usually traditional, name (e.g. Mall of America Field at Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome); or, a title sponsor replaces the original name of the property with a corporate-sponsored one, with no reference to the previous name.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In the United States, Canada and Australia, the nosebleed section are the seats of a public area, usually an athletic stadium or gymnasium, that are highest and, usually, farthest from the desired activity. A common tongue-in-cheek reference to having seats at the upper tiers of a stadium is \"sitting in the nosebleed section,\" or \"nosebleed seats.\" The reference alludes to the tendency for mountain climbers to suffer nosebleeds at high altitudes.\nThe term appeared in print as early as 1953 when it was used to describe the last row in the end zone at Philadelphia's Municipal Stadium (later John F. Kennedy Stadium) during that year's Army-Navy football game.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A palaestra ( or ;\nalso (chiefly British) palestra; Greek: \u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1) was any site of an ancient Greek wrestling school. Events requiring little space, such as boxing and wrestling, took place there. Palaestrae functioned both independently and as a part of public gymnasia; a palaestra could exist without a gymnasium, but no gymnasium existed without a palaestra.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A sports complex is a group of sports facilities.  For example, there are track and field stadiums, football stadiums, baseball stadiums, swimming pools, and Indoor arenas. This area is a sports complex, for fitness.  Olympic Park is also a kind of Entertainment complex.\nExamples of a sports complexes:", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A stadium (plural stadiums or stadia) is a place or venue for (mostly) outdoor sports, concerts, or other events and consists of a field or stage either partly or completely surrounded by a tiered structure designed to allow spectators to stand or sit and view the event.Pausanias noted that for about half a century the only event at the ancient Greek Olympic festival was the race that comprised one length of the stadion at Olympia, where the word \"stadium\" originated.Most of the stadiums with a capacity of at least 10,000 are used for association football. Other popular stadium sports include gridiron football, baseball, cricket, the various codes of rugby, field lacrosse, bandy, and bullfighting. Many large sports venues are also used for concerts.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "An event is described as standing-room only when it is so well-attended that all of the chairs in the venue are occupied, leaving only flat spaces of pavement or flooring for other attendees to stand, at least those spaces not restricted by occupancy by fire codes for ingress/egress of crowds. Some venues issue standing-room-only (or SRO) tickets for a reduced cost since it can become uncomfortable to stand through the course of an event.  However, some fans prefer standing-room-only tickets, as the crowds that gather can be more active than people who are sitting down for much of the event.\nFor example, standing-room-only areas known as terraces are very common at football matches around the globe and tickets sold as standing area tickets are sometimes the most popular; i.e., they are not sold merely when all seating tickets have been sold out.  However, the periodic occurrence of tragedies related to standing room only areas at football matches such as at Hillsborough and Guatemala City have led to calls to eliminate such arrangements. In England, standing room, once a staple of most football stadiums there, has been practically eliminated at the highest level; all of the major stadiums have been refurbished as all-seaters. There is a now move towards the provision of safe standing areas, providing bolt-on, fold-away or rail seats.By contrast, standing room tickets are rare at major sports stadiums in the United States and Canada, with only the Dallas Cowboys' AT&T Stadium, the Washington Commanders's FedExField and the Hamilton Tiger-Cats' Tim Hortons Field having such permanent arrangements, though they are usually marketed as part of a 'party deck' where the price of a ticket may come with food and drink along with obstructed picnic table-style seating, and with other amenities to encourage fans to purchase those tickets. The Green Bay Packers have also tested out the standing room concept in 2014 in a select section after the completion of renovations at Lambeau Field. The Little League World Series uses standing room and berm seating at its events, with its flagship venue, Howard J. Lamade Stadium, able to accommodate 12 times as many spectators on its berms (over 40,000) than it does in the 3,300-seat ballpark proper.\nStanding tickets are a key feature of the annual London concert season The Proms, with up to 1,350 \"Promenaders\" buying cheaper tickets to stand in unreserved space in the arena and gallery of the Royal Albert Hall.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Turf management or pitchcare describes the work needed to keep a sporting pitch ready for use. This article looks at the various types of sporting pitches and the type of challenges which they present.\nThe skills needed vary considerably dependent upon the sport and whether or not artificial surfaces are used. Special sets of skills are also needed to care for either sand-based athletic fields or native soil fields.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The participation of women and girls in sports, physical fitness and exercise, has been recorded to have existed throughout history. However, participation rates and activities vary in accordance with nation, era, geography, and stage of economic development. While initially occurring informally, the modern era of organized sports did not begin to emerge either for men or women until the late industrial age.\nUntil roughly 1870, women's activities tended to be informal and recreational in nature, lacked rules codes, and emphasized physical activity rather than competition. Today, women's sports are more sport-specific and have developed into both amateur levels of sport and professional levels in various places internationally, but is found primarily within developed countries where conscious organization and accumulation of wealth has occurred. In the mid-to-latter part of the 20th century, female participation in sport and the popularization of their involvement increased, particularly during its last quarter. Very few organized sports have been invented by women. Sports such as Newcomb ball, netball, acrobatic gymnastics and tumbling, and possibly stoolball, are examples. A more recent example is BasKua.Sports involvement by women is more observable in well-developed countries and is often attributed to the presence of gender parity feminism, a feminist ideology popularized in the United States of America. Today the level of participation and performance still varies greatly by country and by sport. Despite an increase in women's participation in sport, the male demographic is still the larger of the two. These demographic differences are observed globally. Female dominated sports are the one exception. Girls' participation in sports tend to be higher in the United States than in other parts of the world like Western Europe and Latin America. Girls' participation in more violent contact sports is far less than that of their male counterparts.\n\nTwo important divisions exist in relation to female sporting categories. These sports either emerged exclusively as an organized  female sport or were developed as an organized female variant of a sport first popularized by a male demographic and therefore became a female category. In all but a few exceptional cases, such as in the case of camogie, a female variant, or \"women's game\" uses the same name of the sport popularly played by men, but is classified into a different category which is differentiated by sex: men's or women's, or girls or boys. Female variants are widely common while organized female sports by comparison are rare and include team sports such as netball, throwball, artistic (n\u00e9e synchronized) swimming, and ringette. In female sports, the supposed benefits of gender parity, gender equity, and gender equality feminism are controversial. Men dominate the top elite spots in the vast majority of sports worldwide due to their biological advantages and the deliberate exclusion of male athletes prevents male participants from dominating for that reason. The conscious exclusion of male athletes from female sports has enabled them to produce an elite level of female athletes rather than male. In addition, female sports provide women and girls with a unique advantage by affording them the opportunity to feature as the sport's primary athletes rather than have to compete with males for attention, an achievement undermined by the inclusion of males. The Canadian sport of ringette, created in 1963, is the last team sport in history to have been created exclusively for the female sex.\nToday, female sports which have not yet become Olympic sports are blocked from IOC acceptance due to the fact that they must meet the IOC's gender parity quotas. Because the large majority of organized sports are first developed by and played predominantly by males, IOC gender parity strictly favours female variants despite their inability to pioneer an original sports model. Female sports by comparison face direct discrimination from the IOC due to the fact that female sports have a predominately female athlete base. As a result, they face IOC rejection regardless of their numbers because they are considered to be inadequate due to their female oriented programs, meaning they \"do not have enough men\", despite men dominating organized sports internationally. The IOC's Olympic Charter currently rejects any sport that isn't widely practiced by men in at least 75 countries and on 4 continents, and by women in 40 countries and on 3 continents. Due to the IOC's gender parity quotas, sports with a predominately male participation rate rather than female are automatically given priority status by the IOC. In addition, the Charter puts pressure on female sports federations to campaign for the inclusion of more male players rather than female, incentivizes male participation opportunities rather than female, and shuts female dominated sports like netball out.\nExcept in a few rare cases like women's professional tennis, professional women's sport rarely provide competitors with a livable income. In addition, competing for media coverage of the women's variant of a sport which is primarily popular among males, creates complex barriers. More recently, there has been an increasing amount of interest, research, investment and production in regards to equipment design for female athletes. Interest and research involving the identification of sex-specific injuries, particularly though not exclusively among high performance female athletes, has increased as well, such as in the case of concussions and the female athlete triad, a.k.a. \"Relative energy deficiency in sport\", (RED-S).At times female athletes have engaged in social activism in conjunction with their participation in sport. Protest methods have included playing strikes, social media campaigns, and in the case of America, federal lawsuits on grounds of inequality, usually as it relates to gender parity principles, American law and Title IX. Public service oriented promotional campaigns for girls in sport involve a variety of media campaign styles.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "National Collegiate Athletic Association v. Smith, 525 U.S. 459 (1999), was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the NCAA's receipt of dues payments from colleges and universities which received federal funds, was not sufficient to subject the NCAA to a lawsuit under Title IX.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The rate of participation of women in the Olympic Games has been increasing since their first participation in 1900. Some sports are uniquely for women, others are contested by both sexes, while some older sports remain for men only. Studies of media coverage of the Olympics consistently show differences in the ways in which women and men are described and the ways in which their performances are discussed. The representation of women on the International Olympic Committee has run well behind the rate of female participation, and it continues to miss its target of a 20% minimum presence of women on their committee.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "\"The Sporting Spirit\" is an essay by George Orwell published in the magazine Tribune on 14 December 1945, and later in Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays, a collection of Orwell's essays published in 1950. The essay was written on the heels of the 1945 tour of Great Britain by the Soviet football team FC Dynamo Moscow. The essay became famous for Orwell's description of international sporting competitions as \"war minus the shooting\", a phrase that has since been used as a metaphor for sports when referred to in popular media and for actions evoking hyper-nationalism and national pride.Orwell uses the examples of football, cricket, and boxing to argue that sport, while never intended to generate bonds of friendship, generates politicized and hyper-nationalistic emotions that can only stoke ill-will between nations.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The 2003 Women's National Invitation Tournament was a single-elimination tournament of 32 NCAA Division I teams that were not selected to participate in the 2003 Women's NCAA Tournament. It was the sixth edition of the postseason Women's National Invitation Tournament (WNIT).\nIn the championship game, Auburn defeated host Baylor by a score of 64\u201363 to capture their first WNIT title.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The 2021 BWF World Junior Championships, was going to be  the twenty-second edition of the BWF World Junior Championships. It was planned to be held in Chengdu, China but was cancelled in August 2021 owing to widespread outbreaks of the Delta variant of COVID-19.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The 2022 European Championships will be the second edition of the European Championships, set to be held from 11 to 21 August in Munich, Germany. The tournament will begin on 11 August, 3 days after the conclusion of the 2022 Commonwealth Games.Athletics, Cycling and Triathlon, Artistic Gymnastics and Rowing return from appearing in the inaugural Championships in 2018. New to this edition of the Championships are Beach Volleyball, Canoe Sprint, and, for the first time, a full slate of para-sport events, Sport Climbing and Table Tennis.\nUnlike the 2018 European Championships, Swimming, Diving, Artistic swimming and open water swimming will not be part of the program of the event, as the 2022 European Aquatics Championships will be held  at the same time but in Rome, Italy. Golf, in the form of the European Golf Team Championships does not return in 2022.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The 2022 European Youth Olympic Winter Festival was held in Vuokatti, Finland, between 20 and 25 March 2022. The festival was postponed from original dates to December 2021.  Later it was announced that the games will be moved to 2022 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Vuokatti previously hosted 2001 European Youth Olympic Winter Festival.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The 2023 European Youth Olympic Winter Festival will be held in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Italy. The festival will be held between 21 and 28 January 2023. This will be Italy's second time as host of the winter festival after   Aosta 1993. In addition of Italy, several events would be held in Austria and Slovenia.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The 2023 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival will be the 17th edition of the European Youth Summer Olympic Festival, and will be held in Maribor, Slovenia, between 23 and 29 July 2023. The festival was originally supposed to take place in Koper. However, Maribor was confirmed as the new host city in June 2021.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The 2023 Parapan American Games, officially the VII Pan American Games and commonly known as the Santiago 2023 ParaPan-Am Games, is an international multi-sport event for athletes with disabilities. It celebrates the tradition of the Parapan American Games as governed by the Americas Paralympic Committee and is scheduled to be held from November 17 to 25 in Santiago, Chile.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The 2023 FISU Winter World University Games, formally known as the XXXI Winter Universiade, and commonly known as Lake Placid 2023, is a collegiate multi-sport winter sports event scheduled to be held from 12 to 22 January 2023 in Lake Placid, New York, United States. This will be the first edition to be branded under the \"World University Games\" rather than \"Universiade\". The village previously hosted the 1972 Winter Universiade, the 1932  and 1980 Winter Olympics and has a tradition of hosting international sporting events.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Ali on the Run is a fitness podcast hosted by race announcer, blogger and former journalist Ali Feller. Over the podcast's more than four hundred episodes, Feller's subjects have ranged from everyday runners to Olympic marathoners, and she talks about issues that face the entire running community. Feller lives in New Hampshire, but began her podcast in 2017 while living in New Jersey, following a career writing for a number of fitness and dance publications.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Aquabiking (also called Aqua cycling) is the combination of water sports and cycling sports. Two activities share the term. One is an underwater indoor cycling, and the other is a race featuring swimming and cycling stages.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Biathlon Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0562\u056b\u0561\u0569\u056c\u0578\u0576\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of biathlon in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Gyumri.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Darts Federation (Armenian: \u054f\u0565\u0563\u0565\u0580 \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of dart throwing in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Diving Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u057b\u0580\u0561\u0581\u0561\u057f\u056f\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of diving in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Esports Federation (AEF) (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0567\u056c\u0565\u056f\u057f\u0580\u0578\u0576\u0561\u0575\u056b\u0576 \u057d\u057a\u0578\u0580\u057f\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of esports in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Fencing Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u057d\u0578\u0582\u057d\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0574\u0561\u0580\u057f\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), also known as the Fencing Federation of Armenia, is the regulating body of fencing in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Floorball Federation (AFF) (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0586\u056c\u0578\u0580\u0562\u0578\u056c\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of floorball in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Vanadzor.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Kyokushin Karate Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u053f\u056b\u0578\u056f\u0578\u0582\u0577\u056b\u0576 \u056f\u0561\u0580\u0561\u057f\u0565\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of kyokushin karate in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian National Disabled Sports Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0570\u0561\u0577\u0574\u0561\u0576\u0564\u0561\u0574\u0561\u0575\u056b\u0576 \u057d\u057a\u0578\u0580\u057f\u056b \u0561\u0566\u0563\u0561\u0575\u056b\u0576 \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the organizing body of sports in Armenia for athletes with physical disabilities or intellectual impairments, governed by the Armenian Paralympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Powerlifting Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0570\u0566\u0578\u0580\u0578\u0582\u0569\u0575\u0561\u0576 \u0562\u0561\u0580\u0571\u0580\u0561\u0581\u0574\u0561\u0576 \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561) is the regulating body of powerlifting in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Shotokan Karate Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0577\u0578\u057f\u0578\u056f\u0561\u0576 \u056f\u0561\u0580\u0561\u057f\u0565\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of Shotokan karate in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Snooker And Pocket Billiards Federation (ASPBF) (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u057d\u0576\u0578\u0582\u056f\u0565\u0580\u056b \u0587 \u0563\u0580\u057a\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0562\u056b\u056c\u056b\u0561\u0580\u0564\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of snooker and pocket billiards (also known as pool) in Armenia, governed by the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Synchronized Swimming Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u057d\u056b\u0576\u056d\u0580\u0578\u0576 \u056c\u0578\u0572\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), also known as the Artistic Swimming Federation of Armenia, is the regulating body of synchronized swimming in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation are located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Table Soccer Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u057d\u0565\u0572\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0586\u0578\u0582\u057f\u0562\u0578\u056c\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), also known as the Armenian Table Football Federation, is the regulating body of table soccer in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Table Tennis Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u057d\u0565\u0572\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0569\u0565\u0576\u056b\u057d\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of table tennis in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Triathlon Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0565\u057c\u0561\u0574\u0561\u0580\u057f\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of triathlon in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Armenian Weightlifting Federation (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u056e\u0561\u0576\u0580\u0561\u0574\u0561\u0580\u057f\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of weightlifting in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "An assault course (also called trim trail) is a trail (or course) that combines running and exercising. It was more popular in the 1970s than it is now. It is often used in military training. The prime use is to evaluate progress and weaknesses of the individual or the team involved. The term Assault Course is sometimes replaced by Obstacle Course, which some view as more accurate. Confidence Courses is another term used. There are also specific Urban Obstacle Courses and Night Obstacles Courses. An Obstacle Course Race (OCR) is a civilian sporting and fitness challenge event which combines obstacles and cross country running.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Balloon, baloun, balloon-ball or wind-ball is a game similar to the modern game of volleyball, in which a leather ball is batted by the fist or forearm to prevent it from touching the ground.  The game was played in ancient Rome where it was known as follis, the Latin word for a leather bag.  Such a ball made of leather was quite heavy and so protection might be used such as a leather gauntlet or wooden bracer. The Roman game was considered a sport for boys and old men, as Martial wrote:\nOnce rubber became available, modern players in Great Britain played the game with lighter balls of inflated rubber, allowing younger children to join in.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Beach Volleyball Database is an online website that tracks international beach volleyball players, tournaments and history, including results of continental and international tournaments. It is the only website of its kind in the sport of beach volleyball.Volleyball Magazine calls the website \"a reliable source for entries and results.\" The site also collaborates with the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) to provide tournament notes to the FIVB website.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "becoacht was an online platform for sports coaching where users could search, select and book private and public sports courses with professional coaches from a variety of sporting disciplines. The Germany-based enterprise had received strong media coverage within the German sports community as the first to adapt Airbnb's business model to sports coaching.becoacht had received seed funding from Telef\u00f3nica S.A. via Wayra, its start-up accelerator program. \nThe company was founded in 2012 by former investment banker and Rocket Internet Munich CFO Frederik Roever.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A beer league (North American English) or pub league (British English) is a form of sports league primarily funded by sponsorships from pubs, taverns and bars. The bars often provide funding for a team's uniforms and equipment, and often a free drink for each player, in exchange for advertising the establishment on the uniform and usually naming rights to the team itself. Beer leagues can be of virtually any sport but are usually amateur and recreational in nature, not being tied to a larger competitive league system, and contested by adults. The consumption of alcohol is often encouraged during the contest, as the actual competition is secondary. This is beneficial to the adults that compete in these beer league events because not only are they supporting a small business but are also getting physical activity, all while being social. For example, in Beer League Hockey, over 174,000 adults play. The primary goal of these leagues is to have \"organized hockey in its purest form, unencumbered by money, skill, ambition, fans or advancement.\"The phrase \"beer league\" can occasionally be used as a colloquialism for any sports league where alcohol is consumed, regardless of whether a bar or similar business is the sponsor.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Belt-sander racing is the practice of racing belt sanders competitively. Belt sanders may have been one of the first power tools used in the growing field of power tool drag racing wherein a pair of stock or modified belt sanders are placed in parallel wooden channels and fitted with long extension cords. Each heat begins when a common switch or individual switches triggered by the racers energizes them, causing the sanders to race towards the end of the track spitting wood dust along the way.  Both stock sanders  and modified sanders race down a 75 foot (23 m) long track. Sanders of all shapes and sizes can go very fast, or very slow depending on the power of the motor.  The fastest time on a 75-foot track was 2.2103 seconds recorded by Dudley Harper's Sudden Death Racer of San Marcos, Texas.  Sudden Death raced on that date at the Legends Raceway in Rockport, Texas.  The peak velocity of that belt sander at the finish line was in the range of 50\u201360 miles per hour (80\u201397 km/h).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Vladimir Nikolaevich Belyayev (Russian: \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u041d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0411\u0435\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0432, born 20 October 1958) is a Kazakhstani professional ice hockey coach. He is honored coach of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Belyaev was the head coach of HC Astana from 2011 until 2013. His son Maksim Belyayev is an ice hockey player and playing for Yugra Khanty-Mansiysk at the Kontinental Hockey League.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Boar-baiting is a blood sport involving the baiting of wild boars against dogs. .Villagers in Indonesia call the event \"adu bagong\" translated as boar fighting. Boar-baiting began in the 1960s, to test hunting dogs against wild boars. In 2017, an online petition demanding the halt was created by animal rights organizations and the Government of Indonesia banned boar-baiting.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A box score is a structured summary of the results from a sport competition. The box score lists the game score as well as individual and team achievements in the game.\nAmong the sports in which box scores are common are baseball, basketball, football, volleyball and hockey.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Brooklyn Marathon is an NYCRUNS race that debuted in 2011. Originally held in the fall with laps around Prospect Park, it returned in 2022 following the COVID-19 pandemic with a new course that goes from Williamsburg to Prospect Park and added a half marathon on the same day. Plans for a new course first began in 2013.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Cadence in sports involving running is a measure of speed calculated as the total number of full cycles (of both a right and left foot strike) taken within a given period of time, often expressed in steps per minute or cycles per minute. It is used as a measure of athletic performance. \nIt is similar to cadence in cycling. In running and racewalking, increasing cadence can be beneficial.In sports such as weightlifting or bodybuilding, cadence can refer to the speed or time taken to complete a single lift, rather than how many repetitions of a lift are completed.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Catch, or playing catch, is one of the most basic children's games, often played between children or between a parent and child, wherein the participants throw a ball, beanbag, flying disc or similar object back and forth to each other. At early stages in a child's life, having a catch is a good way to evaluate and improve the child's physical coordination. Notably, \"[i]f a child cannot catch a ball that he or she is bouncing, it is unlikely the child will be able to play catch\". Most children begin to be able to play catch around the age of four. Many four-year-olds instinctively close their eyes when a ball is heading towards them, and it can take some time to overcome this. Playing catch can help develop dexterity, coordination and confidence.Because playing catch requires at least two participants, and because participants can be substituted at any point during the game, catch can be used to place children in social situations where they will interact with each other. For example, this can be done by first having one child play catch with an adult, and then bringing other children into the game or substituting another child for the adult, at which point the adult can leave entirely. As children become more adept at the skills used to catch a thrown object and return it to the thrower, these skills are incorporated into more complex games played with larger groups of participants, such as hot potato, dodgeball, and keep away. Playing catch can improve an aptitude for sports that involve catching and throwing, such as bat-and-ball sports, football, and basketball.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A challenge is a request made to the holder of a competitive title for a match between champion and challenger, the winner of which will acquire or retain the title.  In some cases the champion has the right to refuse a challenge; in others, this results in forfeiting the title. The challenge system derives from duelling and its code of honour. While many competitive sports use some form of tournament to determine champions, a challenge match is the normal way of deciding professional boxing titles and the World Chess Championship. Some racket sports clubs have a reigning champion who may be challenged by any other club member; a ladder tournament extends the challenge concept to all players, not just the reigning champion. At elite-level competition, there is usually some governing body which authorises and regulates challenges, such as FIDE in chess. In some cases there is a challengers' tournament, the winner of which gains the right to play the challenge round against the reigning champion; in tennis this was the case at Wimbledon until 1922 and in the Davis Cup until 1972. The FA Cup's official name remains the \"Football Association Challenge Cup\", although not since its second season in 1873 has the reigning champion received a bye to the final. The Stanley Cup, as specified by its donor Lord Stanley in 1892, would be yielded by the holders losing either their regular-season league or a challenge from another league's champion. Such challenges occurred from 1893 until 1914, when interleague competition became standardised. The America's Cup is contested  according to the terms of its 1887 deed of gift between yachts representing the champion yacht club and a challenging club. Since 1970, the usual practice, by mutual consent, is for an initial formal \"challenger of record\" replaced by the actual challenger after a qualifying tournament. However, in 1988 and 2010 there were court cases arising from non-consensual challenges. The World Snooker Championship was contested via intermittent challenge matches between 1964 and 1968, when no commercial sponsor could be found for a scheduled tournament.\nWhen the champion dies or otherwise vacates the title, a tournament among leading contenders may be used to crown a new champion prior to the resumption of challenges.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Ellen Chan Ar-Lun (Chinese: \u9673\u96c5\u502b, born February 16, 1966) is a Hong Kong actress and singer who has appeared in a number of Hong Kong film productions.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "\"Charge\" is a short fanfare frequently played at sporting events.\n\nIt was written by Tommy Walker while a junior at the University of Southern California in the fall of 1946. The fanfare consists of six notes followed by rooters shouting, \"Charge!\" Occasionally, the fanfare is repeated one or more times in the same key or in successively higher keys, or is preceded by a lead-in vamp.\nIn 1958 the Brooklyn Dodgers moved to Los Angeles and in the spring of 1959 the Dodgers put on sale, at $1.50 apiece (equivalent to $14 in 2021), 20,000 toy trumpets capable of playing the six notes of the \"Charge\" fanfare. The fanfare was heard in NBC broadcasts of games 3, 4 and 5 of the 1959 World Series between the Dodgers and the Chicago White Sox and played at Cars (film).\nIt also appeared in the original The Flintstones 1960s television cartoon series (episode dates uncertain), followed by \"Charge!\" or \"Charge it!\", shouted by characters (typically Wilma Flintstone and Betty Rubble) on the way to a shopping spree. Scrappy-Doo, a character that appeared in the 1980s incarnations of the Scooby-Doo franchise, also regularly used the fanfare as a lead-in to his catchphrase, \"puppy power!\"  The fanfare was incorporated into the jingles used on Scott Shannon's Rockin American Top 30 Countdown which ran from 1984 through 1992. In the first-person shooter video game Overwatch, the character Bastion makes a noise similar to this fanfare when it uses its ultimate ability. The fanfare is also used in FIRST robotics competitions as the sound cue for the matches to begin.\nBobby Kent, former musical director of the San Diego Chargers, has claimed he invented the \"Charge\" fanfare in 1978 while working for the Chargers. Kent filed suit against ASCAP for negotiating licenses with MLB, NFL, NBA, NHL, NCAA and NASCAR while failing to secure his consent. The Los Angeles Lakers settled with Kent for $3,000. Kent's claim can be disproven by the fact that Frank Leahy, the Chargers' first general manager in 1960, chose the name \"Chargers\" after the already existing fanfare.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A charity runner is a participant in a road race, usually of half marathon or marathon distance, who raises money or awareness for an established 501(c) organization. For more elite marathons, such as the World Marathon Majors, runners who are unable to obtain a qualifying time for their gender and age group can gain entry by running for an official charity affiliated with the race. Other races provide charity runners with free race entry, training, team shirts, and encouragement as incentive to raise money for local charities.The Boston Marathon allows approximately 6000 runners, out of 30,000 into the annual race who have not qualified. Most of these runners have agreed to raise a minimum of $5000 and greater to gain entry into this race.  In 2017, the charity runners raised $34.2 million for over 200 different non-profit organizations.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Checkers Federation of Armenia (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0577\u0561\u0577\u056f\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), also known as the Armenian Draughts Federation, is the regulating body of checkers (also known as draughts) in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Cliff jumping is jumping off a cliff as a form of sport. When done without equipment, it may be also known as tombstoning. It forms part of the sport of coastal exploration or \"coasteering\".  When performed with a parachute, it is known as BASE jumping. The world record for cliff jumping is currently held by Laso Schaller, with a jump of 58.8 m (193 ft).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The cloud swing is an aerial act that usually combines static and swinging trapeze skills, drops, holds and rebound lifts.\nThe apparatus itself is a soft rope about 25-30mm thick. It can be made from a single rope, or from a cotton-filled sheath. On its simplest level the cloud swing resembles a Spanish web in length and width, with each end braided and spliced-lashed with a thimble, forming a loop. Two high-caliber swivels are required to support the weight; the swivels are anchored to a crane bar or a stationary rig, with the swing itself hanging in a \"V\" shape. Generally, the motion provided to swing the performer is supplied by an assistant pulling on a tether at the bottom of the \"V\".\nThe cloud swing is a relatively new apparatus, and many of the figures performed on it are borrowed or adapted from static and swinging trapeze.\nThe \"Mexican cloud swing\" or corde volante is performed at higher altitude.\nA cloud swing act was featured in the Cirque du Soleil touring production Quidam.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The coach's box (or coaches' box for multiple coaches) is a term used in numerous sports. In baseball, it is the space where the first-base coach and third-base coach stands. \nIt is also common practice for a coach who has a play at his base to leave the coach's box to signal the player to slide, advance or return to a base. This may be allowed by the umpire if the coach does not interfere with the play in any manner.In basketball, it's a line that represents how far a coach may come towards centercourt. In soccer, the coach's box is simply a term for the typical area that the coach or manager is standing.\nIn NCAA basketball, many coaches step out on the floor, leaving the coach's box. The most famous free-roamers are Kentucky coach John Calipari, Baylor coach Scott Drew, and Michigan State coach Tom Izzo.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "College Football News (CFN) is a magazine and website published by College Football News, Inc., headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. News coverage includes scores, statistics, rankings, and reports on college football games. Analysis includes comparisons between teams, predictions of game outcomes and high-school recruiting information. They also give awards to players in various categories.[1][2]The website has fan discussion boards on topics relating to college football. Content from College Football News is used on partner sites, such as that of Fox Sports,[3] and by independent organizations, such as the National Football League.[4]In the summer of 2006, the College Football News website joined the Scout.com Network.[5] However, they maintain separate editorial selections of All-America teams.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Cook Islands competed at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games held in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan from September 17 to 27. 10 athletes competed in 4 different sports. Cook Islands team couldn't receive any medal at the Games.Cook Islands also made its first appearance at an Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games event during the Games along with other Oceania nations.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Cross triathlon, or off-road triathlon, is a form of triathlon, or three-stage race, consisting of a swim stage, mountain-biking stage, and a trail-running stage.\nCross triathlons are distinguished from conventional triathlons in that the terrain for the cycling and running stages are generally unpaved, rough, and hilly. They require different techniques than conventional triathlon races, and in particular the athletes employ mountain bikes rather than road bikes.\nA cross triathlon requires a higher degree of technical biking skill, as opposed to the high speed and endurance demands of road biking in a road triathlon.  Distances for the bike portion of an off-road are much less relevant than for a road triathlon. An off-road bike course may have several severe climbs and descents. It may also have a high degree of technicality, meaning the number, pitch and sharpness of turns through trees, rocks, logs, streams and other obstacles on the bike trail. Because the vertical climbs and technical demands of an off-road course greatly reduce a biker's speed, and because the amount of climbing and technicality vary greatly from one off-road course to another, estimating times for an off-road bike course merely by distance is not reliable.\nCross triathlon swim courses are normally similar to those of road triathlons. Each type of triathlon usually requires competitors to swim a minimum of 800 meters and typically 1500 meters in a lake, river or ocean.\nOff-road run courses often follow part of the off-road bike course, and so often require trail running up and down hills or mountain sides, through forests, streams, riverbeds and other natural and occasionally man-made obstacles. The run distance is at least 5 kilometers and normally 10 kilometers. Again, as in off-road biking, predicting a finish time purely based on distance will not be accurate, due to the climbing and trail turns and obstacles preventing a runner from reaching speeds usually achieved on the road.\nThe International Triathlon Union conducts an annual Cross Triathlon Championship race annually. Additionally, the XTERRA Triathlon is a private off-road series and concluding with a championship each year in Maui.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Cross-training is athletic training in sports other than the athlete's usual sport. The goal is improving overall performance. It takes advantage of the particular effectiveness of one training method to negate the shortcomings of another.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Crowd abuse or barracking refers to the widespread practice of crowds following various sports to criticise or abuse opponents, by shouting, chanting, singing or through the use of banners in the stadium. Motivation for crowd abuse includes gaining a psychological advantage over an opponent, either individually or as a team. Examples of the effectiveness of such techniques can be found in any major sport, including some dangerous outcomes such as the Malice in the palace (Pacers-Pistons Brawl).\nMalice at the Palace featured both physical and verbal crowd abuse, and contributed to many player's careers changing in the blink of an eye. Ron Artest was suspended for the rest of the season, stagnated on his basketball improvements, and was traded 16 games into the next season, ending the era of his Pacers team/dynasty.  On December 8, 2004, five Pacers players and five fans were charged with assault and battery. All of the fans involved were banned from the Palace of Auburn Hills. Security at professional sports games changed drastically after the incident as well, with comments from players such as Jermaine O'Neal stating that \"There was no security. You\u2019re talking about one of the largest arenas in the NBA and you\u2019re talking about...a large group in there that was literally trying to hurt us.\" Sekou Smith (NBA Writer, Indianapolis Star) stated \"There was no security to keep people from jumping over that little rail and getting down to the floor.\" Due to the influence alcohol had on the situation, the NBA banned alcohol sales after the third quarter of any basketball game.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Dead rubber is a term used in sporting parlance to describe a match in a series where the series result has already been decided by earlier matches. The dead rubber match therefore has no effect on the winner and loser of the series, other than the total number of matches won and lost.\nThe term is used in Davis Cup and Billie Jean King Cup tennis, as well as in international cricket, field hockey, the FIFA World Cup, UEFA Champions League, Rugby World Cup and the State of Origin series.\nFor example, in a Davis Cup series, each pair of competing countries play five matches (rubbers) where the winner is decided on a best-of-five basis. Once one team has reached three victories, the remaining match or matches are said to be dead rubbers. International Tennis Federation's last revision of the competition policies on dead rubbers is from 2011.Since the result of a dead rubber has no impact in determining the winner of a series, dead rubbers are typically played in a less intense atmosphere, often allowing the team that has lost the series to obtain a match win. Sometimes, second-string players who have not played many matches in top-level competition are given the opportunity to play a dead rubber in order to gain experience. This practice makes completing a clean sweep of a series less likely.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The German Turnfest 1933 took place in Stuttgart. It was carried out from 21 to 31 July. The patron was President Paul von Hindenburg. The Turnfest attracted 600,000 people, 120,000 taking part in the games.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Dice stacking is a performance art, akin to juggling or sleight-of-hand, in which the performer scoops dice off a flat surface with a dice cup and then sets the cup down while moving it in a pattern that stacks the dice into a vertical column via centripetal force and inertia. Various dice arrangements, colors of dice, scooping patterns and props allow for many degrees of complexity and difficulty. Dice stacking is usually performed with canceled casino dice, as their square edges and heavy weight give them an advantage when being stacked.\nIn Germany, the first national dice stacking championship tournament took place in May 2008. Tournament rules included the use of a special designed DiceBoard for players which shows the different prescribed moves. There are two disciplines: the \"full-area\" discipline and the \"speed-area\" discipline.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Double Full is a trampoline move that comprises a single (normally straight) back somersault with two full twists. This move also may be executed on the ground in rapid succession as part of a cheerleading/gymnastics/acrobatics routine.\nCompared to a full back (full twisting back somersault), a double full is a more advanced move. It's not often seen in high-grade routines because it has only 360\u00b0 of somersault rotation.\nThe performer sharply and tightly brings the arms down to the sides and maintains a straight body position to speed up the rotation generated from a full back. Variations of this twist-acceleration process include folding the arms one above the other across the midsection or crossing the arms to form an \"X\" shape across the chest.  The latter is becoming less common due to debate over its safety.\nDouble fulls are usually performed in the straight position, though they may be performed in both tucked and piked shapes. The straight shape is most common, however, since it helps to slow the somersault rotation down. As somersault rotation is sped up greatly with the addition of twist, keeping rotation low is important, especially as there is a great deal of twist rotation involved in the move.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Double Road Race is a long-distance road running competition consisting of two segments or \"legs\" \u2013 a 10-kilometer road run, followed by a five-kilometer road run, with a short rest break in between. The Double Road Race Federation added additional distances in August 2014.  Other official distances for Double Racing\u00ae include Double 5k (3+2), Double 8k (5+3), and Double 21k (15+6). The race was created by Runner's World magazine founder Bob Anderson.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Duck on a rock is a medieval children\u2019s game that combines tag and marksmanship (via throwing accuracy). James Naismith used the game as an inspiration when he developed the rules of modern basketball.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The ear pull is a traditional Inuit game or sport which tests the competitors' ability to endure pain, and also strength. In the ear pull, two competitors sit facing each other, their legs straddled and interlocked. A two-foot-long loop of string, similar to a thick, waxed dental floss, is looped behind their ears, connecting right ear to right ear, or left ear to left ear.  The competitors then pull upon the opposing ear using their own ear until the cord comes free or the opponent quits from the pain. The game has been omitted from some Arctic sports competitions due to safety concerns and the squeamishness of spectators; the event can cause bleeding and competitors sometimes require stitches.\nThe Inuit ear pull game is a harsh test of physical endurance....[in which] a thin loop of leather is positioned behind the ears of each of two competitors who then pull away from each other until one gives up in pain.\nThe ear pull is one example of Inuit games that \"prepare children for the rigors of the arctic environment by stressing... physical strength and endurance\", as well as helping one keep a mental record of one's endurance levels.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Enduroman Arch to Arc Triathlon is an ultra-distance triathlon. The triathlon starts with an 87-mile run (140 km) from London's Marble Arch to Dover on the Kent coast, then a cross-Channel swim (shortest distance 21 miles/33.8 km) to the French coast, and finishes with a 180-mile (289.7 km) bike ride from Calais to the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. \nThe clock starts at Marble Arch, London and stops at the Arc de Triomphe, Paris. Only 45 athletes have ever completed the challenge. As of August 2019 the record for the course is 50 hours and 24 minutes, set by Mayank Vaid of India, beating the previous record of 52 hours and 30 minutes, set by Julien Deneyer of Belgium. On August 19, 2011, Rachael Cadman became the first woman to complete the challenge, in 97 hours, 37 minutes. Joanne Rodda finished in 78 hours, 39 minutes on 30 September 2014 to become the fastest female finisher.  In August 2015, 25-year-old Freddie Iron became the youngest man to complete the Arch to Arc, in a time of 77 hours, 17 minutes. On 21 September 2015, at 53 years old, Grantley Bridge became the oldest man to complete it, in 88 hours, 7 minutes.In 2018, Frenchwoman Marine Leleu finished the competition in 69h52, setting the new female record for the event. She lost her title a few weeks later to Perrine Fages who finished the competition in 67h21.As of August 2017 the relay record is held by the six-person Team Manchester's Blood Brothers, with an overall time of 33 hours, 5 minutes in September 2014.In August 2017, Douglas Waymark got into difficulty about half-way through the cross-Channel swimming element of the event. After being airlifted to William Harvey Hospital in Ashford, he later died.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "An equaliser (in Commonwealth English) or equalizer (in American English), is a sports term that refers to a goal or run that makes the two teams' scores equal.For example, if Team A is winning 1-0 and Team B scores a goal, making the score 1-1, then that goal is an equaliser.\n\nAccording to Sports Illustrated, one of the most significant goals in United States soccer history was an equalizer scored by Abby Wambach: a header goal off a left-footed long-distance cross from Megan Rapinoe in the 122nd minute of play of the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup quarterfinal in Germany. FIFA called the goal the \"greatest Women's World Cup goal.\"", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "ESPN PPV is the banner for pay-per-view events produced by ESPN. The service primarily serves as the distributor for ESPN College Extra, an Out-of-market sports package that carries college basketball and football events. The service was originally launched in 1999 as ESPN Extra SkyREPORT.COM News and was renamed ESPN PPV in 2001 [1].\nIn March 2005, the unit broadcast its first boxing PPV, headlined by Shane Mosley vs. David Estrada. ESPN's contract with the promoter Top Rank since 2017 includes the possibility of PPV events. In January 2019, ESPN announced its first Top Rank PPV, between Terence Crawford and Amir Khan for the WBO Welterweight title. \nAlthough ESPN had preferred to use its subscription streaming service ESPN+ for larger fights not on linear TV, Bob Arum stated that the fight's scale was too large to be covered by rights fees alone. In December 2019, it was announced that ESPN would jointly produce the Deontay Wilder vs. Tyson Fury II PPV with Fox Sports.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "ESPNscrum was an online news site based in United Kingdom dedicate to providing the latest news in Rugby union. It provided live minute-by-minute updates on major international and club games and kept an in-depth statistics on every international rugby player and nation.Founded in 1997 by EMAP, it began as an independent website under the domain \"scrum.com\". It was later sold to Sportal in 1999 but after its collapse in 2001, the site was set for closure but was saved by a consortium of rugby lovers who bought the site for \u00a3100,000 from Sportal and ran the site under the name \"Scrum Ltd\" and paying for the sites maintenance from their own pocket for the next 6 years\nIn August 2007, American sports media company ESPN bought the site in collaboration with Walt Disney Internet Group.The rugby section on the Spanish-language website ESPN Deportes.com was branded ESPN Scrum in May 2009.By April 2015, ESPN's Rugby section was run by ESPNscrum, but ESPNscrum was no longer its own website.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The European Multisport Club Association (EMCA) is a sports organization representing the interests of multisport clubs in Europe. It was created with an initiative of the multisport club S.S. Lazio.EMCA is also a partner of the House of Sport and member of the European Platform for Sport Innovation.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "eWRC-results.com is a Czech online database website founded in 2006. The website features data and statistics in the motorsport of rallying that ranges from World Rally Championship to national rally events dating back to 1911.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Extratime.ie, now using the domain Extratime.com and stylised as extratime is an Irish association football website, focussing on the League of Ireland. Edited by Gareth Penrose, it began in 2008.The site maintains a register of Irish football players, carries out surveys of fans, and compiles attendance statistics.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "FanDraft is a fantasy sports software application created by FanSoft Media. The application acts as a digital alternative to the traditional \"paper draft boards\" utilized during many live fantasy football drafts. The software has over 27,000 downloads on Download.com, and has been featured on major media sites such as Wall Street Journal, USA Today Online, and Telegram.com, and boasts integration partnerships with RotoWire and MyFantasyLeague \nFanDraft provides software specifically designed to make a draft easier and more aesthetically pleasing. FanDraft is installed into your laptop, then the display can be hooked  up to a big-screen TV or projector, and the entire league has a display for to view. When a pick is made, the commissioner clicks on the player's name, and he is added to the squad. He then joins the scrolling \"bottom line\" that updates picks while the clock starts on the next owner. The software also allows the commissioner to program personal music for each team, which will play when it's their turn to pick.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "FanHouse was a sports website owned by AOL. Launched in September 2006, FanHouse was considered the Internet's most linked sports blog by aggregator BallHype won Editor & Publisher's 2008 EPpy Award for \"Best Sports Blog\", and was named as a finalist for the award in 2009.In January 2009, FanHouse began hiring experienced print journalists, including Jay Mariotti of the Chicago Sun-Times, Kevin Blackistone of the Dallas Morning News, and Lisa Olson of the New York Daily News. FanHouse has continued to bolster its roster, hiring writers away from the Orlando Sentinel, Atlanta Journal-Constitution and Contra Costa Times, among others. FanHouse kept its stable of traditional bloggers as well, including widely published Michael David Smith and Elie Seckbach. Upon its 2006 launch, it became the first sports blog to pay many sports bloggers a per-post fee.\nFanHouse was managed by executive producer Randy Kim. Previous executive producers have moved on to leadership positions at Yahoo! (Jamie Mottram), Yardbarker (Alana Nguyen) and NBC (John Clifford Ness). Many FanHouse bloggers have also moved on to other publications.\nIn January 2011, Sporting News announced a partnership with AOL to take over editorial control of FanHouse; the site was merged into that of Sporting News, and eventually discontinued.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Field sports are outdoor sports that take place in the wilderness or sparsely populated rural areas, where there are vast areas of uninhabited greenfields. The term specifically refer to activities that mandate sufficiently large open spaces and/or interaction with natural ecosystems, including hiking/canyoning, equestrianism, hawking, archery and shooting, but can also extend to various surface water sports such as river trekking, angling, rowing/paddling, rafting and boating/yachting.\nField sports are considered nostalgic pastimes, especially among country folk. For example, participants of field sports such as riding and fox hunting in the United Kingdom frequently wear traditional attires (British country clothing) to imitate landed gentries and aristocrats of the 19th-century English countryside.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "FilGoal.com  (In the Goal) is an Egyptian sports website, owned and managed by Sarmady (a subsidiary of Vodafone Egypt),  FilGoal's main scope is football news. \n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The final of a competition is the match or round in which the winner of the entire event is decided.In sports competitions following a knockout system, where only two individuals or teams compete in each match, the final is usually played between the winners of two semi-finals. However, if more than two entrants are required for each match, then qualification for the final may be through some other process such as winning heats.\nThe final is usually, but not always, the last match in a tournament to be played, and the winner of this match is declared the winner of the whole tournament. In many contests, the winner(s) and runner(s)-up receive gold and silver medals respectively. Another game, or competition, between the two players who lost in the semi-finals is done to determine who receives the bronze medal.\nIf the final round is contested in a \"best-of\" format (like \"best-of-7\"), the term is sometimes called \"finals,\" (playoffs) to denote that there is more than one game (like \"the NBA Finals\"). The NHL has referred to the \"Stanley Cup Final\" in the singular since the 2005\u201306 season, although media outlets typically use the term \"Stanley Cup finals\" (with a lowercase \"f\") or the traditional name \"Stanley Cup Finals.\" The NHL refers to its semi-final round as the Conference Finals, because there are two separate ones being contested.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The FIS Ski Flying World Championships 2020 were the 26th Ski Flying World Championships, held between 10 and 13 December 2020 in Planica, Slovenia.It was originally scheduled between 19 and 22 March 2020, but on 12 March 2020, it was postponed to the next season due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Fitness Blender is an American digital fitness content publisher founded by personal trainers Kelli and Daniel Segars. The company offers free and paid at-home exercise videos through their website and YouTube channel. In 2017, it was the most-watched fitness channel on YouTube.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Five Stand is a type of shotgun sport shooting similar to sporting clays, trap and skeet.  There are five stations, or stands and six to eighteen  strategically placed clay target throwers(called traps). Shooters shoot in turn at various combinations of clay birds. Each station will have a menu card that lets the shooter know the sequence of clay birds (i.e. which trap the clay bird will be coming from). The shooter is presented with 5 targets at each station, first a single bird followed by two pairs. Pairs can be either \"report pairs,\" in which the second bird will be launched after the shooter fires at the first; or \"true pairs\" when both birds launch at the same time. After shooting at the 5 birds on the menu at that station, the shooter proceeds to the next stand, where they find a new menu of 5 targets.\nTypical five stand targets are a rabbit, chandelle, overhead, standard skeet high house and low house shots, teal (launched straight up into the air), trap (straight ahead from ground level), and an incoming bird.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Footbag net is a sport in which players kick a footbag over a five-foot-high net. Players may use only the feet. Any contact knee or above is a foul. The game is played individually and as doubles.\nFootbag net combines elements of tennis, badminton, and volleyball. Specifically, the court dimensions and layout are similar to those of doubles badminton; the scoring is sideout scoring (you must be serving to score); and serves must be diagonal, as in tennis. Footbag net games can be played to eleven or fifteen points, although the winners must win by at least two points.\nFootbag net is governed by the International Footbag Players Association (IFPA). Competitions take place all over the world, but primarily in North America and Europe. The World Footbag Championships is an annual, week-long event held in a different city each year.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "See Kata for \"Form\" as used in the context of martial arts.Form is a specific way of performing a movement, often a strength training exercise, to avoid injury, prevent cheating and increase strength.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The K- Way 4Peaks Mountain Challenge is a rugged 24 kilometres (15 mi) mountain skyline route for trail runners, held every September since 2002 in the Witteberge 32 kilometres (20 mi) NNE of Ficksburg in South Africa's Free State province near the Lesotho border.\nA record field of 210 mountain runners tackled the route in 2010. The large number of entrants necessitated a start of 3 batches at 15 min intervals. Ryan Sandes, the 2010 men's winner, set a new record time of 2h 41m 58s. Fit athletes complete the course in about 6hrs with the backmarkers finishing in about 9hrs.The skyline route runs clockwise around an amphitheatre curving around the valley of Moolmanshoek. Starting at 1750m, the first high peak is 'The Pyramid' at 2167m. There are some sections of fairly flat terrain along the high ridges. Grassy tussocks form a large part of the landscape, broken by rock bands and steep scrambles to reach the saddles and high points.The route rates as extremely demanding, but is made bearable by spectacular mountain scenery. The start and finish are at the Moolmanshoek Private Game Reserve.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Frog jumping is a competitive pastime for humans in which frogs are entered into competitions to jump certain distances. Frog jumping contests are held in small communities scattered around the United States, as part of the folk culture.\nFrog jumping was made famous in a short story \"The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County\" by Mark Twain. An event, inspired by the Twain story, has been held annually in Angels Camp, in California's Calaveras County, since 1928, with other events held in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Washington, Maine, Missouri, Louisiana, New York, Wisconsin, and also in Manitoba, Canada.\nWith 4,000 contestants in 2007, the Calaveras County contest has imposed strict rules regulating the frog's welfare, including limiting the daily number of a frog's jumps and mandating the playing of calming music in their enclosures. Entering specimens of the California red-legged frog in the competition, since it is an endangered species, is illegal. (It is also illegal, and likewise considered poor sportsmanship, for any competing frog to be weighted down by any means, as the frog in the Twain story was by the stranger who cheated in the contest as described.) Participants entering the longest-jumping frog were to win a $750 prize, or $5,000 if their frog were to break the 1986 record of 21 feet 5+3\u20444 inches (6.547 m), set by \"Rosie the Ribeter\".", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A frontbend is a contortion position where the body is curved forward at the hips and spine. In an extreme frontbend, some contortionists can place the backs of their knees behind their shoulders.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "fussballdaten.de is a German-language website that predominantly collects comprehensive statistics on the top five tiers of German football.\nThe website offers statistics on every Bundesliga, 2. Bundesliga and 3. Liga match and team since the leagues' foundation in 1963, 1974 and 2008, respectively.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Hoofdklasse is the second level women's futsal league in the Netherlands, organized by the Royal Dutch Football Association. The competition, which is played under UEFA rules, currently consists of 76 teams.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A gainer is the acrobatic trick of performing a backwards somersault while still moving forward. In diving, this is known as reverse rotation (as opposed to front, back, or inward).  Many stunt performers and martial artists are capable of performing a similar skill on the ground, sometimes in combination with a midair inverted kick.\nA half gainer involves the same motion, except the ending position is with the head downward. A half gainer can also be performed starting with walking on the hands and ending with the head upwards, although this is quite difficult.\nIn gymnastics, the maneuver is performed while standing on the side of a balance beam by kicking one foot forwards while flipping backwards.A professional wrestling move called a shooting star press is very similar to a gainer, as it involves a wrestler performing a variation of a gainer from a standing position, onto an opponent (causing the wrestler to land chest first). This maneuver has many variations, ranging from different locations, different tuck styles/turns and also additional degrees of rotation, however the standard shooting star press is essentially a 3\u20444 gainer.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Gamercize is an example of an exergaming accessory, connecting exercise machines such as stationary cycles and steppers to video games consoles. \nThese consoles are supported by the following variationsGZ Sport - Xbox, GameCube, PlayStation, PlayStation 2GZ Pro-Sport - Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 3 GZ PC-Sport - PC, Mac.The exercise machines packaged with the above interfaces are GZ Endurance Cycle - A portable mini exercise cycle used while seated.GZ Power Stepper - A portable mini step machine used standing or seated for PC desk exercise.GZ Family Fit - A folding recumbent cycle and rower combination machine.\nGamercize, protected by international patent applications in 2004, was first shown to the public at Leisure Industry Week in 2006.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "David Gething is an Australian ultramarathoner based in Hong Kong. He was born in Melbourne but raised in Sydney before moving to Perth for university.Relentless is the story of his 2015 World Marathon Challenge win, including setting the record for the fastest marathon in Antarctica.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Gladiaattorit is a Finnish competition television program part of the international Gladiators franchise.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Gong.bg is a sports media website based in Bulgaria. Over 80% of users are in Bulgaria, where it has an internet traffic rank of 35.It was launched in 2007. The chief editor is Nikolai Alexandrov, a longstanding sports journalist with Darik Radio and Radio Gong.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Grappling Federation of Armenia (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0533\u0580\u0561\u0583\u056c\u056b\u0576\u0563\u056b \u0556\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of grappling in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Grassboarding is a sport that has been invented in Costa Rica by Omer Villalobos Villar since 1990. A patent was presented to the local Intellectual Property Office in 1995. It uses a special concave board designed for use over a grass hill.\nIt belongs to the same family as surfing, snowboarding and sand boarding. It doesn't use any wheels, which makes it different from skateboarding or all-terrain skate boarding (ATS)  or mountain boarding.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Great City Race is an annual road running event over 5 km which takes place in July in the City of London and London Borough of Islington. The race starts and ends at the Artillery Ground.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Hack slap is a game that utilises a footbag or 'Hacky Sack'.  The game is similar to the Australian handball rules \npeople and the object is to keep the 'footbag' in the air by any means necessary, excluding hands.  When someone fails to keep the footbag in the air, hit it with an upward trajectory, or the 'footbag' fails to make it to an opponents square, they are eliminated.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In professional sports, a holdout (also written as hold out) occurs when a player fails to report to their team\u2014usually before the start of a season\u2014or fails to perform the services outlined in the terms of their contract. Players holdout for various reasons, however the desired outcome is usually to renegotiate their contract to more favorable terms. Players have also failed to report to a team after being drafted out of college, usually because they do not want to play for that team or want to play another sport. Although a player in this scenario has not signed a contract, they are usually considered a holdout because the team that drafted them secures exclusive rights to sign them to contract. A famous example of this was the Tampa Bay Buccaneers drafting Bo Jackson with the first pick of the 1986 NFL Draft; Jackson did not report to the team because he wanted to pursue a career as a baseball player. The length of a holdout can range from just a few days to an entire season, or even indefinitely. Some players have utilized just the threat of a holdout to try to gain leverage in contract negotiations.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Michael Howell (born 4 August 1982) is a former professional rugby league footballer who played for the St. George Illawarra Dragons from 2002 to 2004  and Toulouse Olympique in 2006.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Hyperextension means a movement where extension is performed at any joint beyond its normal range of motion. A back extension is an exercise that works the lower back as well as the mid and upper back, specifically the Erector spinae. Each of us have two Erector spinae muscles, one of either side of the spine that run along the entire length of the spine. Erector spinae muscles are actually formed of 3 smaller muscles - spinalis, longissimus, and iliocostalis.The name hyperextensions are being used for back extension exercises that are done using a hyperextension bench in a fitness gym. However the name 'hyperextensions' is a misnomer, because what you are trying to do here is only to extend the spine within its normal range and not beyond its normal range of motion. When you extend the back from the flexed position, at the end range, your head and neck stays in neutral position. In fact, back extension beyond the normal range of motion has been found to be detrimental for the exerciser. Hyperextensions during dead lift have been found to lead to lumbar disc pathologies and muscular spasms.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Ice Breaker Road Race, held annually in Great Falls, Montana in April of each year, is a road race that draws over 3,000 walkers, joggers and marathoners. The race was established in 1980 and has been run annually ever since.Prizes are awarded between the top finishers in the 5-mile (TAC-RRCA Certified) and 3-mile races.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Ilgan Sports (Korean: \uc77c\uac04\uc2a4\ud3ec\uce20; The Daily Sports or 1S for short)  is a South Korean daily sports and entertainment newspaper founded in 1969. Formerly under Hankook Ilbo, it is now owned by the JoongAng Media Network through JTBC Plus.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Kuwait as Independent Olympic Athletes (IOA) competed under the IOA flag at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games which was held in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan from September 17 to 27. Only 2 competitors represented the IOA team during the event.The Independent Olympic Athletes team won 1 bronze medal in the Kurash.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Indian Creek is a prominent climbing area in the northern part of the Bears Ears National Monument in the canyonlands area of San Juan County, Utah, United States (northwest of Monticello and south of Moab) that is renowned for its sandstone crack climbing. It has an elevation of 5,765 feet (1,757 m).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Inline sledge hockey is a sport with similar rules to inline hockey, and the same equipment with the exception of a sledge and an additional stick. Like inline hockey, which is essentially ice hockey played off ice using inline skates, inline sledge hockey is played in a sports hall and not on ice. \nThe sport was invented by British Paralympian Matthew Lloyd, and developed through several organizations including the Hull Stingrays ice hockey team, sports wheelchair manufacturers RGK, the British Sledge Hockey Association, Wheelpower, Paralympians United, and the British Inline Puck Hockey Association. Unlike other team sports such as Wheelchair Basketball and Wheelchair Rugby, there is no classification points system to determine who can be involved in play within inline sledge hockey. The sport is being developed to allow everyone, whether they have a disability or not, to compete up to World Championship level based on ability. \nThe first games of inline sledge hockey were played at the Veterans Inline Puck Hockey Tournament in Bisley, Surrey, England, on 19 and 20 December 2009. The games were played between the Hull Stingrays (captained by Nigel Wright) and Grimsby Redwings (captained by Natalie Calthorpe).\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Inside the Games (also known as insidethegames and insidethegames.biz) is an Olympic news website edited by the British sports journalist Duncan Mackay.Mackay launched the site in 2005, originally as insidethegames.com, following the announcement that London has been chosen to host the 2012 Summer Olympics. The name of the site was changed to insidethegames.biz in 2009.Inside the Games is based in Bletchley, near Bletchley Park.Mackay was a winner of the 2009 Internet writer of the year award at the British Sports Journalism Awards by the Sports Journalists' Association  for his work on insidethegames.The insidethegames site was involved in a court litigation in 2010 with Zulu Creative, a web design company previously used by insidethegames.The site is currently published by Dunsar Media. In addition to the Olympics, the site now covers Paralympics, Commonwealth Games, and a variety of other sporting events. Inside the Games forms official media partnerships with the organizers of some of the sporting events that it covers.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The International Rafting Federation (IRF) is the official umbrella International Sports Federation for national rafting organizations worldwide, and administers all aspects of rafting sport worldwide.  The World Rafting Championships (WRC) the European Rafting Championships (ERC), the Pan American Rafting Championships, and the Euro Cup rafting series are governed by the IRF.  The IRF works closely with national organisations and government bodies by offering the only raft guide certification program accepted worldwide. In 2019 the IRF was awarded Observer Status by the Global Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The International Winter Sports Week (French: Semaine Internationale des Sports d'Hiver) were a winter multi-sport event (Nordic skiing and Ice skating) which was held from 1907 to 1929 in France.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A jackknife is an abdominal exercise. This exercise is also known as a \"V-Up\". Jackknife exercises are designed to strengthen the upper and lower abdominal muscles, particularly the transversus abdominis muscle. There are a number of variations of jackknife exercises that allow people of different ages and ability to work their abdominal muscles. This exercise can be modified by using an exercise ball. The jackknife can be done by lying flat on your back with your arms extended overhead and your feet raised slightly above the floor. The jackknife is completed by slowly bringing your straight arms toward your hips, and lifting your upper torso off the floor.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Jeu proven\u00e7al ('game of Provence'; also known as boule lyonnaise, \"boules of Lyon\") is a  French form of boules.\nIn Italy, the sport bocce volo, which is played with bronze balls, follows a similar set of rules.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Kabaddi at the 2016 South Asian Games were held in Guwahati, India from 10 to 15 February 2016.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Kabaddi was introduced in 1985 Games. There were no Kabaddi tournament in 1984 version. India is the most successful team.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The King of the Channel (KOTC) is a yearly dragon boat race in the Netherlands between University College Roosevelt (UCR); the Hogeschool Zeeland (HZ) and Scalda represented by CIOS Goes. Although not a real rowing race, the concept mimics the well known Boat Race.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Kiribati competed at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games held in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan from September 17-27. Kiribati sent a delegation of 12 competitors in 3 different sports. Kiribati couldn't receive any medal at the Games.Kiribati made its first appearance at an Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games for the first time along with other Oceania nations.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Kite skating, sometimes referred to as Kiteblading, is a land-based extreme sport that uses powerful and controllable kites to propel riders of inline skates or off-road skates. They can reach speeds up to 60+ mph across parking lots, desert dry lakes, grassy fields, and sandy beaches.\nFour-line, steerable para-foil kites are used as the power source. Typically used in rough terrain, kite skates use large pneumatic tires (8 to 12 inch diameter). Similar to Kite ice skating.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Korfball Federation of Armenia (KFA) (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u056f\u0578\u0580\u0586\u0562\u0578\u056c\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of korfball in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Kraus\u2013Weber test (or K\u2013W test) is a fitness test devised in the 1940's by Hans Kraus and Sonja Weber of New York Presbyterian Hospital.  The poor tests results of American children versus children from European countries gained attention in the 1950's from American media and the US Government.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Kudu dung-spitting (Bokdrol Spoeg in Afrikaans) is a sport practiced by the Afrikaner community in South Africa.  In the competition small, hard pellets of dung from the kudu antelope, are spat, with the farthest distance reached being the winner.\nKudu dung-spitting is popular enough to have an annual world championship competition, with the formal sport beginning in 1994. Contests are held at some community bazaars, game festivals or tourism shows in the bushveld, Natal and Eastern Cape. Unlike many similar sports, the distance is measured from the marker to the place the dung pellet comes to rest, rather than where it initially hit the ground.The world record in the sport is a distance of 15.56 metres (51.0 ft) set as of 2006 by Shaun van Rensburg of Addo. It is said that hunters began using the pellets in spitting competitions to \"retaliate\" at their prey, as the kudu is a notoriously difficult animal to hunt, and infamous for leaving a trail of dung pellets while managing to elude the hunter.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Ko'sso is a fast-paced ball game played by the Afar people. The ball is made up of rolled goatskins.  The object of the game is to keep the ball away from players on the opposing team. In the past, Ko'sso teams could be quite large; in fact, they could be made up of over one hundred players.  There is still no set number of players per team.\nWilfred Thesiger describes a very similar games played by the Afar which he calls gaso. However, his description varies from Ko'sso in that there are no teams\u2014every player is against all others\u2014and once the ball is taken out of the reach of the other players, the player in control of the ball then must bounce it and catch it on the back of his hand.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Lampadephoria was an ancient Greek type of relay race using a torch which was passed between the runners. The race was run usually on foot, but sometimes it was also on horses by ephebi (a Greek youth entering manhood). The winner was the first team to pass the torch over the finish line. If a torch went out the team would lose the race.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "L\u00e4nsiv\u00e4yl\u00e4juoksu is an annual running event held in Espoo, Finland since 1976. L\u00e4nsiv\u00e4yl\u00e4juoksu is organised in conjunction by several private sporting clubs, and is open for everyone, both men and women, both adults and children, for a small participation fee.\nThere are three different options available in L\u00e4nsiv\u00e4yl\u00e4juoksu:\n\nLong-distance run (the main L\u00e4nsiv\u00e4yl\u00e4juoksu event): 17.4 km\nShort-distance run: 6.5 km\nWalk: 6.2 kmAll options start and finish in Otaniemi, Espoo. From there all routes go to Tapiola, after which the short-distance run and walking routes turn back to Otaniemi. The long-distance run route goes from Tapiola to Mankkaa, then to Lepp\u00e4vaara and Laajalahti, crosses the municipality border to Munkkiniemi, Helsinki, then to Kuusisaari and Lehtisaari, crosses the municipality border back to Keilaniemi, Espoo and finally back to Otaniemi.\nParticipants in the running events are given individual participant numbers and RFID tags which provide real-time recordings of their running times. Participants of the walking event do not get any individual participant identification. All participants who successfully finish any event are given a commemorative medal as a reward.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A league system is a hierarchy of leagues in a sport. They are often called pyramids, due to their tendency to split into an increasing number of regional divisions further down the system. League systems of some sort are used in many sports in many countries.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The leg curl, also known as the hamstring curl, is an isolation exercise that targets the hamstring muscles. The exercise involves flexing the lower leg against resistance towards the buttocks. There are three types of leg curls. There are seated leg curls, lying leg curls, and standing leg curls.  \nOther exercises that can be used to strengthen the hamstrings include the glute-ham raise and the deadlift.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The leg extension is a resistance weight training exercise that targets the quadriceps muscle (m. quadriceps femoris) in the legs. The exercise is done using a machine called the Leg Extension Machine. There are various manufacturers of these machines and each one is slightly different. Most gym and weight rooms will have the machine in their facility. The leg extension is an isolated exercise targeting one specific muscle group, the quadriceps. It should not be considered as a total leg workout, such as the squat or deadlift.\nThe exercise consists of bending the leg at the knee and extending the legs, then lowering them back to the original position.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Live scores is a type of service offered by many sports-related websites and broadcasters as well as online sports betting operators. The idea of live scores is to provide real time information about sports results from various disciplines. Live scores are usually free and are very popular among sports betting enthusiasts, as they allow viewing collected data on many sports events. In the past, live score services were only available on TV through teletext or on the radio. There are now many websites providing live scores. It is possible to follow live results of many events at the same time. Some sites provide additional information, such as a player list, card details, substitution and an online chat where sports fans can gather and discuss the current event. Several sports organizations such Major league baseball and the National Football League have set up their own networks to deliver live scores via mobile phones.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In professional sports, a lockout is the shutdown of a professional sports league by team owners, usually due to a failure to come to agree on a collective bargaining agreement. When a lockout occurs, owners close facilities and prevent any team activities, which can result in missed games, loss of paychecks, and unhappy fans. Notable lockouts  include the 1972 Major League Baseball strike, the 1981 Major League Baseball strike, the 1982 NFL strike, 1987 NFL strike, the 1994\u201395 NHL lockout, the 1994\u201395 Major League Baseball strike, the 1998\u201399 NBA lockout, the 2004\u201305 NHL lockout, the 2011 NBA lockout, the 2012 NFL referee lockout, the 2012-13 NHL lockout and the 2021\u201322 Major League Baseball lockout.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Lofting (by a bowler) in bowling is throwing a bowling ball a short or long distance down the lane. This is usually done with the bounce-pass technique, but can also be done with a straight ball.  Lofting is sometimes discouraged by the bowling community and bowling alley employees, because it can sometimes cause damage to the ball and lanes. However, this is somewhat untrue. Loft will almost never cause major damage to a ball, nor will lofting cause damage to (synthetic) lanes. Many bowling alleys that use wooden lanes will either have signs that tell the bowlers not to loft, or an employee will inform the bowlers not to do so, because wooden lanes can be dented by a lofted ball. Lofting the ball before the arrows in some bowling alleys is not against the rules. Some professional bowlers do loft a considerable amount under certain lane conditions. Crankers and other high-rev players may be forced to loft under dry conditions in order to delay the ball's reaction and prevent it from over-hooking. Lofting over the gutter is known as \"lofting the gutter cap,\" and is sometimes done when a bowler has to hook the whole lane on a very broken-down oil pattern. It's common for this to happen at qualifying rounds for the US Open.\nIn the sport of candlepin bowling, \"lofting\" a ball beyond a lob line situated ten feet (3.05 m) down the lane from the main foul line, without it touching the lane anywhere on the bowler's side of it, is called a lob, and is considered a ball foul, resulting in no counted pinfall from a ball delivered in such a manner, as the ball must first touch the lanebed anywhere on the bowler's side of the lob line to be considered a legal delivery.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Longue paume, or jeu de longue paume, is an outdoor version of jeu de paume, an ancestor of modern lawn tennis.  Hundreds of years ago it was quite popular, particularly in France. It is a game of gain-ground as Balle \u00e0 la main\nIt was part of the Paris 1900 Summer Olympics, but its medal status is disputed. Today, the sport is most played in the region of Picardy.  The governing body of the sport is the F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Fran\u00e7aise de Longue Paume, with its headquarters in Amiens.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Richard Luke (17 May 1948 \u2013 27 August 2014) was an Australian rules footballer who played with South Melbourne in the Victorian Football League (VFL).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Mallard and Claret is a popular fishing fly in the United Kingdom.  Also known as the 'M and C' it is a good general pattern that imitates a wide range of trout food items.  The Mallard and Claret fly was created in the 1850s by Aberdeen fly tyer William Murdock.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Marathon Sports, Inc. is an American chain of sporting goods retailers founded in 1975. It is headquartered in Waltham, Massachusetts, and operates 11 stores in Massachusetts under the Marathon Sports brand, 4 locations in Connecticut operating under the SoundRunner brand and three locations in New Hampshire operating under the Runner's Alley brand. The chain mainly sells running/walking footwear and athletic apparel.\nAll stores that fall under the Marathon Sports, Inc. umbrella are considered run specialty stores. Run specialty stores specialize in all aspects related to running including running shoes, socks, nutrition, hydration and apparel. Employees are trained in how to fit customers for running and walking shoes and are very knowledgeable on any injuries related to running. The stores under Marathon Sports, Inc. umbrella are involved with their local running communities. Many stores have training groups for races, from 5ks to half marathons.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Mas-Wrestling Federation of Armenia (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0574\u0561\u057d-\u0568\u0574\u0562\u0577\u0561\u0574\u0561\u0580\u057f\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of mas-wrestling in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Maximum Time Aloft (MTA) is a type of boomerang competition involving specially engineered boomerangs. They are launched high, and enter a stable hover. In the official USBA (United States Boomerang Association) competition throwers get five throws, and the times of the best three attempts are scored. Normally, the catch must be made for the time to be counted. Internationally, the highest time from the five throws is the accepted means of scoring.Currently the maximum time aloft for a boomerang throw that was successfully caught is 3 minutes and 49 seconds.The MTA100 record that is more commonly competed (i.e. the throw and catch must be within the same 100 metre diameter circle) is 1 minute and 44.87 seconds, by Eric Darnell in Portland, USA, on 21 September 1997.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Kristin McGee (born August 31, 1973) is an American fitness instructor and yogi who launched Peloton Interactive yoga classes. She is a mom of three boys and a fitness influencer who advocates for the benefits of movement.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A media guide, historically also known as a dope book, is a sports-related press kit, distributed as a book or binder, and published by sports teams before the start of the sporting season. It features information relating to the team players, history, statistical records and other similar items. Media guides are usually distributed to sports journalists to assist in their broadcasting of the team game.While generally not sold in retail stores, media guides for professional sports teams are often available in their online stores or home web sites, along with being sold in physical form to the game attending public with game programs at in-stadium stands. Many major college and university sport media guides are available in PDF or other electronic formats for free on their home web sites. Following the end of the season, the printed media guides are often discarded or given to fans of the team. \n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Miniten (a portmanteau word, derived from mini+tennis) is a tennis-like game created by naturists.    It was devised in the 1930s, in order to provide a suitable game for naturist clubs which often lacked sufficient land to create full-sized tennis courts. Mr R. Douglas Ogden, a Manchester-based businessman with an interest in sporting activities drew up the original rules.The rules and scoring are similar to tennis and standard tennis balls are used, but the court is much smaller, and instead of racquets, players use wooden bats known as thugs, which are shaped like a box around the player's hand.The sport is run by the Amateur Miniten Association. Miniten: Rules of the Game was published in 2017 by Wolfbait Books. The book was illustrated by Colin Gordon.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In the world of model aircraft there are several competition classes to signify engine displacement.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Motoball (also known as motorcycle polo) is a motorsport similar to association football, with the main differences being that all players (except goalkeepers) are riding motorcycles, and the ball is much bigger. Motorcycle polo first began as an officially organized sport in the mid-1930s. In France, there are organized motoball competitions, and the sport was included in the inaugural Goodwill Games.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Mustache Dashe is a 5k running race that started in Seattle, Washington but now operates in a number of United States cities.  It is organized by BTO Multisports and is an all-ages event.  A portion of each entry fee goes to prostate cancer research and other men's health causes, and each participant is engaged to conduct further fundraising.  The Mustache Dashe takes place each November, the same month as Movember.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Naisten kymppi (Finnish for \"the women's ten\") is an annual running or walking event for women, held in Helsinki, the capital of Finland at the end of May.\nThe idea of Naisten kymppi is to run or walk a distance of ten kilometres through a pre-determined route in central Helsinki. The route varies slightly every year. Naisten kymppi has been held every year since 1983 and is today the most popular women-only sport event in Finland. Over ten thousand women participate in the event, with the record being 32 thousand women in 1990, when the event was held in Kaivopuisto. Currently the event is held in T\u00f6\u00f6l\u00f6, starting and ending near the Helsinki Olympic Stadium.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Nakukymppi is a nude sport event in Finland, held in the municipality of Padasjoki one week before Midsummer every year.\nParticipants run or walk either 10 kilometres or a full marathon naked. Participants tend to wear only shoes, socks and headwear. Women wear a top if their breasts are shaking too much. It has been held annually since 2003. It usually draws about 100 to 150 participants, of which one-tenth to one-fifth are women. Even though the event isn't organised by naturists and not only for naturists, half of the participants are naturists.\nThe event is organized by Aarne Heino together with local village community.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The National High School Drill Team Championships is a Drill Team Competition, held in Daytona Beach, Florida in the month of May each year at the ocean center. Drill teams from across the nation converge to compete in both the Master's and the Challenge level competitions. This event is currently the largest centralized drill team event. The company which runs the competition is Sports Network International, which hosts football and other Junior ROTC events as well. Although it has been held since 1982, it only became an official when the Army Cadet Command became the sponsor in 1988.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The National Kendo Federation of Armenia (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0561\u0566\u0563\u0561\u0575\u056b\u0576 \u0584\u0565\u0576\u0564\u0578 \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of kendo in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The National Sports Collectors Convention is an annual trade show held in the United States devoted to sports memorabilia. Also known as The National, the convention has been held annually since 1980 when a small handful of sports card collectors convened at a hotel located adjacent to the Los Angeles International Airport.  It is considered to be among the largest and most well known sports collector shows, and the 2021 show drew approximately 100,000 attendees.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Naval pentathlon is  a multisport which is practiced only by military athletes at the World Military Championships and Military World Games, both events organized by the international federation that governs military sport, the Conseil International du Sport Militaire.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "NCAA Season 98 is the 2022-2023 athletic year of the National Collegiate Athletic Association in the Philippines. It will be hosted by Emilio Aguinaldo College and is slated to open on 10 September 2022.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "New Caledonia competed at the  2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games held in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan from September 17 to 27. New Caledonia sent a delegation of 2 competitors for bowling event.They couldn't receive any medal at the Games.\nNew Caledonia along with other Oceania nations competed in the Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games for the first time in history despite the suspension of the IOC of New Caledonia.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Nikkan Sports (\u65e5\u520a\u30b9\u30dd\u30fc\u30c4, Nikkan Sup\u014dtsu) is the first-launched Japanese daily sports newspaper founded in 1946.\nIt has a circulation of 1,965,000, and is an affiliate newspaper of the Asahi Shimbun.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The North Yosemite League is a high school athletic league that is part of the CIF Central Section.  It covers public high schools in Fresno County and Madera, California\nThe current NYL was formed before the start of the 1996-97 school year when the Central Section broke up the Northeast Yosemite League and Northwest Yosemite League.. \nThe old NYL was a conference formed in 1951, and was considered the premier athletic league in the Central Section up until 1994, when it devolved into the NEYL and NWYL. Original members of the NYL include: Fresno, Roosevelt, Merced, Visalia, Madera, Hanford and Edison. \nIn 1955, Visalia split up into Redwood and Mt. Whitney High Schools and followed Hanford out of the NYL, leaving it with 5 teams. Clovis joined the league in 1957, Bullard and McLane came on in 1959, Hoover in 1963. Merced bolted to the Sac-Joaquin Section in 1968. Clovis West joined the NYL in 1979 and Sanger in 1981 to complete the 10-school roster.\nWith Buchanan and Central being upgraded to Large School status (D-I) in 1994, the Central Section decided to split up the NYL into two leagues of six. Buchanan, Clovis, Hoover, McLane, Roosevelt, and Sanger made up the NEYL. While Bullard, Central, Clovis West, Edison, Fresno, and Madera made up the NWYL.\nFor the 2022-2023 school year, Reedley High School will be moved to the Tri-County Athletic Conference. Madera South High School, Matilda Torres High School, and Sanger West High School will be added to the North Yosemite League", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Northern Ireland competed at the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games in Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011.The Commonwealth Games Council for Northern Ireland selected 4 competitors. Northern Ireland won three gold, two silver and three bronze medals and finished tenth overall.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Nutrient timing is a sports dieting concept which suggests that time may be a missing dimension in improved muscular development. This concept represents a change over the previous school of thought that focused on protein loading without emphasizing the synchronicity between eating and exercising.\nProper nutrient timing takes into account two dimensions that directly correlate to performance: \n\nThe consumption of the substrates in ideal proportions.\nThe timing between exogenous fueling and exercise. When the right substrates are present at the ideal times, the result might be improved performance and growth.Nutrient timing may enhance performance of exercise, competition, and daily life expectations. The amount of each nutrient plays a role in performance and recovery. Recovery is essential to keep going in daily routines, competitions, and fitness in general. Fueling recovery and fitness may be enhanced by using the timing of nutrients around a performance aspect of life. This timing is not essential to good performance, but it is a small detail that may help if one is looking to gain strength.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "NYCRUNS, sometimes styled NYCRuns and formally New York City Runs, Inc. is a New York City race organizer founded by Steve Lastoe that produces races throughout the five boroughs. They average three dozen races that serve 50,000 runners each year.Among their most well known are the Empire State Building Run-Up and the Brooklyn Marathon. From 2011-2016 they produced the Yonkers Marathon, the second oldest in the United States. In August 2020, they hosted New York City's first in-person race following the COVID-19 shutdown.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Howard R. O'Daniels (December 19, 1907 \u2013 January 23, 1991) was an American football, basketball, and baseball coach and college athletics administrator. He served as the head football (1933\u20131941, 1946\u20131947), men's basketball (1941\u20131942), and baseball (1942, 1956\u20131957) coach at California Polytechnic School\u2014now known as California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo.O'Daniels was born on December 19, 1907 in Seattle. He played college football at Santa Clara University in the late 1920s. O'Daniels died on January 23, 1991, at a hospital in San Luis Obispo, California.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports, offense (American spelling) or offence (Commonwealth spelling, see spelling differences; pronounced with first-syllable stress; from Latin offensus), known as attack outside of North America, is the action of attacking or engaging an opposing team with the objective of scoring points or goals. The term may refer to the tactics involved in offense, or a sub-team whose primary responsibility is offense.\nGenerally, goals are scored by teams' offenses, but in sports such as American football it is common to see defenses and special teams (which serve as a team's offensive unit on kicking plays and defensive on returning plays) score as well. The fielding side in cricket is also generally known as the bowling attack despite the batting side being the side that scores runs, because they can prevent batting players from scoring by getting them out, and end the batting team's scoring turn by getting them all out.\nIn countries outside North America, the term offence is almost always taken to mean an infraction of the rules, a penalty or foul, and attack is more likely to be used where Americans would use offense.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Olympic Project for Human Rights (OPHR) was an American organization established by sociologist Harry Edwards and others, including noted Olympians  Tommie Smith and John Carlos, in October 1967. The aim of the organization was to protest against racial segregation in the United States and elsewhere (such as South Africa), and racism in sports in general.Smith said that the project was about human rights, of \"all humanity, even those who denied us ours.\" Most members of the OPHR were African American athletes or community leaders.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Open bowling is a term used by bowlers and bowling establishments to describe non-sanctioned play. Open bowling has numerous purposes, including competition, practice, and recreation.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "An open frame in ten-pin bowling refers to a frame in which the player makes neither a strike nor a spare. Bowling an open frame in a professional game is typically devastating enough to one's score to cause a loss. In bowling video games, open frames typically affects the player's in-game reputation, level, or experience points negatively, especially when a player's level is high enough; in some games, it may even cause the player's ranking or level to drop.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Oregon Sports Network (also known as \"Oregon Sports Net\" and \"OSN\") is a local sports network made up of radio stations and TV network NBC Sports Northwest. The channel is the official flagship for the University of Oregon's athletic program. The network began in 1987 including radio (KUGN in Eugene). Coverage is often available as part of ESPN Plus.\nOSN's programming airs on NBC Sports Northwest, and The O-Zone. Select games are simulcast on KLSR or KEVU for viewers that do not have access to NBC Sports Northwest.\nSpecial shows featuring coaches of various UO sports air on NBC Sports Northwest, formerly Comcast Sportsnet (CSN) Northwest.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Osborn Engineering, is an architectural and engineering firm based in Cleveland, Ohio.  Founded in 1892, it is noted mostly for designing sports stadiums.  More than 100 stadiums have been designed by Osborn, including such famous parks as Fenway Park in Boston, the original Yankee Stadium in New York City, Tiger Stadium in Detroit, and numerous minor league, collegiate, and major league sports facilities in all sports.  They also design other structures, including infrastructure and public sector buildings, industrial and manufacturing, and parking structures.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A competitive pace race is a timed race in which the objective is not to finish in the least time, but to finish within the prescribed time and in the best physical condition.  In some races, the prescribed time is very narrowly defined and the winner is the competitor who finishes closest to the prescribed time.  In other races, the prescribed time is a \"window\" and competitors who finish outside the window (too early or too late) are penalized or disqualified.\nAs a rule, pace races use staggered starts.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Pan-American Korfball Championship is the korfball competition played by Pan-American national teams.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In horse tack, a panic snap is a mechanism often used between a lead and a horse harness or halter. They are useful because, unlike swivels or carabiners and similar fittings, they can be disconnected under load, as the panic snap is specially built so that the latching mechanism is separate from the load-bearing structure. \nThey are sometimes dangerous, however, because leads or ropes under load can flail when freed. Panic snaps also find some use in suspension situations involving relatively light weights. Heavier masses are unsafe with most panic snaps because of the possibility of injury from flailing cordage. They will usually require the services of a millwright.\nIn BDSM and bondage panic snaps are used to secure bottoms in a safe way. They allow for a single hand to be used to release a bottom in an emergency. In some cases the panic snaps can be placed within reach of the bottom's hand in case the top should have an emergency, although this is not typical.  In both cases, there is a potential risk if the release of the panic snaps allows the bottom to fall while unsupported.\nPanic snaps are also used on certain types of BDSM leather suspension gear for the same reasons as their use with rope. They are sometimes called quick release cuffs.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Papi fut or Papi futbol is a popular Central American variety of football played on specially constructed outdoor courts also usable for regulation basketball. It is similar to FIFA football, but goals must be scored from within the goal area. There is also frequently a rule that a ball over head height counts as out-of-bounds.\nThis game can also be played at indoor facilities and inclusively in artificial grass courts, very common in countries like Costa Rica, where it is commonly referred to as Futbol 5 (\"5\" as a reference to the number of players per team that the game consists of).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "P\u00e4rk or Paerk is a game, somewhat similar to a game of baseball but where the aim is to gain ground like in American football, that has been played for centuries on the island of Gotland in Baltic Sea. The game is played with two teams of 7 people on a field that is 30 m (98 ft) wide and that can vary in length. The players hit the ball with their hands or feet. The  paerk, or serve area, is marked off with wooden laths and measures 2.1 m \u00d7 0.7 m (6.9 ft \u00d7 2.3 ft).The ball is made of a tight ball of yarn that has been dressed in sheepskin.P\u00e4rk is one of the disciplines at the annual St\u00e5nga Games (St\u00e5ngaspelen).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "PHA training or peripheral heart action training is a form of bodybuilding circuit training that was popularized by former AAU Mr. America and Mr. Universe Bob Gajda in the 1960s. The smaller muscles around the heart are worked on first before the larger muscles around the body's periphery.The technique requires the exerciser to continuously exercise over a long period of time with no breaks. It is typically performed using multi-muscle exercises such as squats, pulls and presses and follow a specific strategy so that no one muscle is covered in two corresponding exercises.A common approach with PHA training is to alternate from upper body to lower body and back again. This is different from many other circuit-style approaches.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Physically unable to perform (PUP) is a roster designation used in the National Football League (NFL) for players who suffered injuries during football-related activities prior to the start of training camp. Players on the PUP list may participate in team meetings, and use team training and medical facilities, but cannot practice with their team.  There are two separate PUP lists: an active PUP list used prior to the start of the regular season, and a reserve PUP list used during the regular season.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A picnic game is a game played at an outdoor meal or picnic.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Pig Olympics are for specially bred and trained piglets. The competition is organized by the Sport-Pig Federation, which claims over 100 members.Events within the competition include pig-racing (over an obstacle course), pig swimming (introduced at the 2006 Pig Olympics), and 'pigball' or 'swineball' which is much like football or soccer.The \"pig-letes\" in the games are not eaten, instead, they are bred for the next generation of piglet athletes.\nThe 2005 Pig Olympics were held in China and the 2006 games were held in Moscow, Russia. The last Pig Olympics were in 2009 in St. Louis.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "There are at least four main types of competitive pigeon sport:\nPigeon racing\nTumbling\nHighflying\nTippler (Endurance)Though not quite a sport, fancy breeds of pigeons are also bred to standards and judged in a competitive fashion. Levi in his book The Pigeon describes all aspects of pigeon keeping. For exhibition purposes sport pigeons are sometimes grouped as Flying/Sporting Pigeons.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Pistol-Flex or Pistol Double-Slot is a hybrid of two well-known American football formations: the pistol and flexbone formations. It was pioneered in 2009 by Paul Markowski, who is currently an offensive consultant for Chestnut Hill College. By combining the strengths of each offensive set, the end result is a formation that is very effective for both passing and running. The triple option can be used from this set very effectively. Markowski has developed a true quadruple option play run out of the Pistol-Flex formation.The base formation of the Pistol-Flex has the QB in a shotgun set four yards behind the center. The B-back is in a three-point stance with his down hand two yards behind the QB's feet. The two slotbacks are set one yard directly behind the offensive tackles to their side. The offensive line splits are all three feet. There are multiple formations that the Pistol-Flex can be run from (Open, Tight, Bone, Box, Twins).\nAt any given time, there are at least four eligible receivers within one yard of the line of scrimmage, which bodes well for the passing attack.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Piterbasket (ru. - \u041f\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442, lt. - piterbolas, trikrep\u0161is) is a team sport closely resembling basketball. The game was initially created for kindergarten children, but is now played by adults and handicapped athletes.Piterbasket was created by Anatolij Nesmejanov in Saint Petersburg, Russia in 2002. In 2010 in Kaunas, Lithuania held the world's first international piterbasket match between Kaunas and Saint Petersburg teams. In 2011, piterbasket was included in Lithuania's national Olympic kindergarten festival programme.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "PiYo is an 8-week exercise program that is a blend of Pilates and Yoga.  Developed by Chalene Johnson as part of The Beachbody Company, PiYo is marketed as a low-impact workout that strengthens and sculpts the body, and enhances flexibility.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Portland Nitro is a professional American ultimate team based in Portland, Oregon. The Nitro are members of the American Ultimate Disc League's West Division. The Nitro's first season was 2022.  They play at Providence Park.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Position in team sports is the joint arrangement of a team on its field of play during a game and to the standardized place of any individual player  in that arrangement. Much instruction, strategy, and reporting is organized by a set of individual player positions that is standard for the sport. \nFor information about team or player positions in some particular sports, see:", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A post-game, postgame, or post-match show is a TV or radio presentation that occurs immediately after the live broadcast of a major sporting event.\nContents may include:\n\nreplays of key moments in the game.\ninterviews with players, coaches and managers.\nanalysis of the game by sports commentators.\nfootage of celebrating or demoralized fans.\npreviews of the next game or series.\nchampionship and/or MVP trophy presentations.Postgame shows are generally shorter and less structured than pre-game shows, especially for national broadcasts. In many cases, especially in prime time matchups, there may be virtually no post-game show at all. This is partially due to the unpredictability of the length of a typical sporting event, which can vary in length by a considerable amount depending on clock stoppages and overtime. The post-game show is expected to fill the gap between the end of the game and the start of regularly scheduled programming. A team's success may also portend whether a post-game show is detailed or merely a summary of the box score and highlights.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Power is an American men's 3-on-3 basketball team that plays in the BIG3 league.They are the 2018 BIG3 season champions.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Preoperative rehabilitation, or prehab, is a form of multidisciplinary healthcare interventions which aim to dampen side effects of medical or surgical intervention.  Multidisciplinary team involvement can range from physiotherapists, occupational therapists, respiratory therapists, doctors, pharmacologists, psychologists, psychiatrists and sports physiologists.Prehab can be applied to surgical populations in oncology, cardiorespiratory, cardiovascular and orthopaedic settings. The intention is that increasing baseline fitness prior to  surgery will allow for relatively higher fitness post-operatively. Prehabilitation interventions are tailored to the patient so that even those with high amounts of comorbidities can receive a positive outcome.  Research evidence is mixed, but suggests that prehabilitation reduces hospital stays and therefore risk of hospital acquired infections such as pneumonia.In 2013, a pilot study of prehabilitation in colorectal surgery found that it improved postoperative functional recovery, measured in terms of the walking capacity at 4 weeks and 8 weeks (although the time in hospital and post-operative complications were similar), is also being considered for use in some cardiovascular interventions, and may also be of some benefit for preventing lung complications, such as pulmonary atelactasis, in general surgery.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Primera Divisi\u00f3n Sala is the top level women's futsal league in Spain, organized by the Royal Spanish Football Federation. The competition, which is played under UEFA rules, currently consists of 16 teams.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Pro-Football-Reference.com is a website providing a variety of statistics for American football.  It is one of the few sites that provides information on both active and retired players. The site provides statistics for teams dating back to 1920.  It has statistics for quarterbacks, running backs, receivers, kickers, returners, and punters, as well as some defensive statistics, and Pro Bowl rosters.  It also has each team's game-by-game results.\nThe website is maintained by Sports Reference, and Fantasy Sports Ventures maintains a minority stake in the organization. The website has been used as a reliable source of information by publishers such as Bloomberg Businessweek, Forbes, The New York Times, and ESPN.The company also publishes similar statistics websites for basketball, baseball, and hockey.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The progress toward degree rule, commonly referred to as the 40-60-80 rule, is a piece of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) legislation designed to increase retention and graduation rates of NCAA Division I student athletes.  The legislation, that took effect for first time freshmen in 2003, states that by the beginning of the student-athlete's third year of college enrollment, they must have completed 40% of the classes required toward a specific degree.  This rate of progress toward a specific degree must continue so that by the beginning of the student-athlete's fourth year, they must have completed 60% and by the beginning of their fifth year, they must have completed 80% of their required coursework toward a specific degree.  This legislation, part of many academically oriented rules the NCAA has put into place over the past 20 years, was written in response to several calls for reform of \"big time\" college athletics including, most notably, the Knight Commission.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Przegl\u0105d Sportowy (Polish pronunciation: [\u02c8p\u0282\u025b\u0261l\u0254nt sp\u0254r\u02c8t\u0254v\u0268], Sports Review) is the oldest and now the only Polish sports daily, founded in 1921 in Krak\u00f3w. In 1926 it initiated an annual, popular plebiscite for the Polish Sportspersonality of the Year. Its current editor-in-chief is Pawe\u0142 Wo\u0142osik.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The pullover is an exercise that is performed with either a dumbbell or a barbell. Pullovers can be made to affect either the chest or the back depending on how wide the grip is (barbell) and the position of the shoulders. A research done on the pullover movement using a barbell suggested more effect on the pectoralis major muscle as compared to the latissimus dorsi.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Pump and Run is a sporting event which consists of a strength challenge followed by a race. Typically a bench press event is followed by a 5K running event. Participants receive a deduction from their overall run time for each repetition of the strength exercise. The person with the lowest adjusted run time wins the\nevent.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Pundit Arena (styled as PUNDIT ARENA) with url punditarena.com, is an Irish sports website focusing on association football, rugby union, gaelic sports, mixed martial arts and golf. It was co-founded by University College Cork graduates, Richard Barrett and Ross O'Dwyer. In June 2019 the website was announced as the exclusive broadcaster of the LGBT+ inclusive Dublin 2019 edition of the Union Cup rugby tournament.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A push-down is a strength training exercise used for strengthening the triceps muscles in the back of the arm.  \nThe exercise is completed by pushing an object downward against resistance. This exercise is an example of the primary function of the triceps, extension of the elbow joint.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Pushcart derby is a popular sporting event held every August in Jamaica where homemade carts that are used for street vending, to transport items or as a racing cart take part in races like the American soap box races. The carts have been clocked at up to 60 miles per hour on a downhill homestretch.\nThe venue of the event is the Kaiser's Sports Club for the finals of the annual Push Cart Derby. The pushcart derby in Jamaica is credited as the inspiration for the Jamaica national bobsled team.The pushcart derby is also featured in the 1993 movie Cool Runnings.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Raid Gauloise or The Raid is considered by many to be the first modern expedition adventure race and was first held in 1989 in New Zealand as \"la grande travers\u00e9e\". Its creator, G\u00e9rard Fusil, took the existing concept of long distance endurance races like the Whitbred Round the World Yacht Race, and focused on the team aspects, requiring each competitor to be part of a five-person co-ed team supported by a two-person logistics crew. The Raid had no set course, with competitors being required to rely on their wits and judgment to reach the specified checkpoints. The Raid was named after its original sponsor, the Gauloises Cigarette Company.\nGeoff Hunt and his expat French partner Pascale Lorre replicated the event as the Southern Traverse in 1991. Hunt and Lorre went on to create the Discovery Channel World Championships in 2001 after Eco-Challenge left the network for the USA Network. The event later changed its name to the Adventure Racing World Championships and was taken over by an Australian event production company Geocentric Pty Ltd in 2011.\nIn 1996, Fusil left the Raid to begin a new adventure race series, the Elf Authentic Adventure. Patrick Brignoli and Alain Gaimard continued to organize the Raid with their company RGO and Saga d'Aventures (The 1998 Raid in Ecuador was the first raid organized without Fusil). 2003 was the last year for the Raid Gauloises.  In 2004 the Raid Gauloises was retooled into the Raid World Championship.\nEntrepreneur Mark Burnett competed in the Raid in 1993 and secured a license from Fusil to run the race in the United States under the name Eco-Challenge, first held in Utah in 1995.\nNew Zealand adventure racer John Howard entered and won four Raid Gauloises, including 1989, 1991, 1994 and 1998. Howard also won three Eco-Challenges, the ESPN X-Games, and Southern Traverse, one of only two people to do so. The other is Australian athlete Ian Adamson.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Red Sports Federation (Spanish: Federaci\u00f3n Roja del Deporte) was a workers' sport organization in Uruguay. Politically it was aligned with the Communist Party of Uruguay. The Red Sports Federation was founded in 1924, through the help of the Young Communist League of Uruguay. Sports clubs affiliated with the Red Sports Federation carried names such as 'Lenin', 'Club Atl\u00e9tico Leningrado' ('Leningrad Athletic Club'), 'Hacia la igualdad' ('Towards equality'), 'La Comuna' ('The Commune'), 'Aurora Roja', 'Guardia Roja' and 'La Checa'. The Red Sports Federation was an affiliate of the Red Sport International (Sportintern).The Uruguayan Red Sports Federation participated in the first World Spartakiad, held in the Moscow, Soviet Union in 1928.As of 1935, the Red Sports Federation had around 3,000 members.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Refugee Team will participate in the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games which take place in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan from 17-27 September 2017.\nThe five athletes will compete under the Olympic Council of Asia flag as the \"Refugee Team\". Three of the athletes competed at the 2016 Summer Olympics with the remaining two competing internationally for the first time. All athletes are from South Sudan with most of them from the Kakuma Refugee Camp in Kenya.The organizers of the games invited the team to compete. Tegla Loroupe of Kenya will serve as the delegation's chef de mission.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Repetition (repeat) \u2014 re-performing a specific movement exercises with the burden in one approach (set) in bodybuilding, powerlifting, weightlifting and some other strength sports. The repetition of the exercises is a kind of methods and principles of strength training, which are resorted to by athletes with a long experience of training for the new \"shock\" of muscles, contributing to the release of \"stagnation\" (plateau effect), the continuation of muscle growth, as well as recovery from overtraining (that is, a kind of \"rest\"), or, conversely, consciously bringing yourself to a state close to overtraining, for example, before performances, when you need a gradual increase in the intensity of training and muscle to strength fixation and / or \u201cdrying\u201d for performance in competitions \u2014 lifting extra-large weights or demonstrating muscle relief.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The first version of this article has been based in the text ofel:\u03a1\u03af\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 of the Greek Wikipedia published under\nGFDL.\nRhieia (Greek: \u03a1\u03af\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1, modern transliterations: Rieia or Riia) was a sporting event that took place during the ancient times.  The game was held in the town of Antirrio.  Little information about the games is now available and manuscripts are now lost.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Cody Rigsby (born June 8, 1987) is an American fitness instructor, dancer, and television personality.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Ripper is a racquetball racquet. It is labeled with the word titanium, the slogan \"Crushing power\", the registered trademark \"Wilson\", as well as the \"U.S. Pat. No. 6,935,975\". According to the on-line United States Patent and Trademark Office as of May 11, 2007, there were only two \"live\" trademarks for the full mark, \"Ripper\". The racquet is also labeled with \"Ripper\" followed by the trademark symbol \"TM\". Wilson Sporting Goods claims that the racquet is made in China and has a:\n\nweight of 215 grams,\nhead size of 108 square inches,\nstring tension of 33 to 35 lbf, and\nan even balance.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Roadwalking is a thru-hiking term, indicating a walk on a road instead of a trail. It usually provides an easier way to reach a farther point on the trail, e.g. by avoiding steep mountain ascents.  A roadwalk is an unavoidable part of some long trail systems, such as the partially unfinished Continental Divide Trail and North Country Trail.\nRoadwalking is not to be confused with \"yellow blazing\", or traveling in a car instead of by foot.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Rob Kearney is an American professional strongman competitor. He has won Giants Live and the Arnold International World Series Australia, and qualified three times for the World's Strongest Man competition.Kearney is the first out gay strongman, calling himself the \"world's strongest gay\". He lives near Springfield, Massachusetts with his husband Joey.In 2022, Hachette Book Group published Strong, a children's picture book about Kearney's journey and identity. The book was the result of a collaboration with  author and LGBTQ+ activist Eric Rosswood.Kearney is an ambassador for fitness clothing brand Gymshark.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Rocball is a non-contact team net game derivative of volleyball and a Meso-American sport once played by the athletes of the Aztec civilization of what is now the country of Mexico. Rocball has existed since 1979 and was founded by James Feger, a Physical Education teacher at Marianas High School located in The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The sport is getting popular  in many Asian countries, especially India. Delhi , the capital city of India is becoming the epicenter of development of the game .  Any volleyball court can be converted into a Rocball arena by simply placing two goalposts at two sides .", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "RotoGrinders is a web-based daily fantasy sports community and daily content website co-founded by Cal Spears, Riley Bryant and Cameron MacMillan in 2010.Since 2012, RotoGrinders has hosted the \u201cTournament Player of the Year\u201d race, which is designed to recognize the best large-field, daily fantasy tournament player each year. The Tournament Player of the Year rankings are calculated by aggregating results from contests across all major daily fantasy gaming sites. Participants are awarded points using a formula based on their top-50 finishes in tournaments with prize pools greater than $10,000.\nIn addition to ranking the top players, the site offers news, tips, forums, daily shows, tips and tools for creating daily fantasy lineups. In October 2014, NBC Sports announced the creation of a partnership with RotoGrinders for daily fantasy content.  RotoGrinders was named the 2015 Best News & Analysis Site in the Daily Fantasy Sports category by the Fantasy Sports Trade Association.In October 2018, RotoGrinders created the RG Network. The purpose of the network is to establish player rankings systems similar to the Tournament Player of the Year in other online gaming industries, including poker and sports betting. The RG Network consists of RotoGrinders and three other platforms owned by the company: PocketFives, Fantasy Insiders and SharpSide.\nIn May 2019, Copenhagen-based Better Collective purchased a controlling interest in RotoGrinders. In the terms of the agreement, Better Collective acquired a 60% stake in RotoGrinders for a fee of $21 million and will acquire the remaining 40% between 2022 and 2024. In light of 2018 legislative changes legalizing sports gambling on a state-by-state basis, the transaction created a strategic crossover between daily fantasy sports and sports betting for both companies. On November 04, 2021, Better Collective decided to complete the acquisition of the remaining 40% share stake in the US based RotoGrinders Network at a total price of 33 mEUR. The acquisition of the remaining 40% of the shares were paid through a 22 mEUR cash consideration and the remaining part in shares or cash. This brought the expected transaction price for 100% of the shares in RotoGrinders Network to a total of 51 mEUR, an equivalent to 7.5x the expected 2021 EBITDA. On January 1, 2022, Dan Back took on a new role as the Senior Vice President of Operations at RotoGrinders. In a corresponding move, Cal Spears and Cameron MacMillan stepped back, and into advisory roles.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In strength training, rowing (or a row, usually preceded by a qualifying adjective \u2014 for instance a seated row) is an exercise where the purpose is to strengthen the muscles that draw the rower's arms toward the body (latissimus dorsi) as well as those that retract the scapulae (trapezius and rhomboids) and those that support the spine (erector spinae).  When done on a rowing machine, rowing also exercises muscles that extend and support the legs (quadriceps and thigh muscles).  In all cases, the abdominal and lower back muscles must be used in order to support the body and prevent back injury.\nMany other weight-assisted gym exercises mimic the movement of rowing, such as the deadlift, high pull and the bent-over row.  An effective off-season training programme combines both erg pieces and weight-assisted movements similar to rowing, with an emphasis on improving endurance under high tension rather than maximum strength.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Rugby League Samoa are the governing body for rugby league in Samoa. They are based in the capital Apia, the League has suffered financially due to member leagues not paying affiliation fees.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Abdelatif Sadiki (Arabic: \u0639\u0628\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0637\u064a\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062f\u064a\u0642\u064a; born 15 January 1999) is a Moroccan runner.He won the silver medal in the 1,500 meters at the Pan Arab Athletics Championships 2021 in Rades.Sadiki represented Morocco at the 2020 Summer Olympics, where he competed in the men's 1500m.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Sambo Federation of Armenia (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u057d\u0561\u0574\u0562\u0578\u0575\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of sambo in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Samoa women's national rugby league team, also known as the Fet\u016b Samoa (means Samoa Stars), represents Samoa in Women's rugby league. They are administered by the Rugby League Samoa.Fetu Samoa has made appearances at the 2003 and 2008 Women's Rugby League World Cup's.\nSamoa's last international Test Match was against the New Zealand Kiwi Ferns in June 2019, Auckland, New Zealand.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A scheduling alliance is an agreement between collegiate athletic conferences or independent college athletic teams to guarantee a set number of games to each member, or to create a competitive challenge between athletic conferences. Although it is not formally recognized by the governing body (usually the NCAA), it resembles a conference in many respects. The scheduling alliance may be very informal, only involving guaranteed games, or it may have awards, such as player of the week, MVP and a championship title. It can also involve a school agreeing to play a set number of games against members of a given conference in a particular sport, although not being a member of that league.\nFBS College Football Scheduling Alliances\nThe most notable example of such an arrangement in FBS football involves the University of Notre Dame and the Atlantic Coast Conference. In 2013, Notre Dame joined the ACC as a full but non-football member, wishing to retain its status as an FBS independent in football. Notre Dame and the ACC agreed that in football, the Fighting Irish would play five games each season against other ACC schools, and also would play each ACC school at least once every three years. In 2020, however, due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic causing the Power Five conferences to enforce restrictions on non-conference play, the Fighting Irish played a full ACC schedule with eligibility for the ACC Championship Game, for which they qualified, ultimately losing to the Clemson Tigers.\nIn future years, due to the formation of the PAC-12-ACC-Big Ten Alliance, it has been rumored that the PAC-12 and Big Ten conferences could move from a 9-game conference schedule to an 8-game conference schedule, in order to create a 8-2 scheduling method that would allow members of this alliance to play at least 2 other teams from the 2 other conferences in the PAC-12-ACC-Big Ten alliance every season. Moreover, this is not the first time the Big Ten and PAC-12 have tried to create a scheduling alliance in football. In 2011, the Big Ten and PAC-12 conferences announced a scheduling alliance that was set to fully become the first conference challenge in football by the year 2017. While notable matchups were played as scheduled, including Oregon-Michigan State, California-Ohio State, and Michigan-Utah, the planned scheduling alliance that was to start in 2017 never happened after the Big Ten announced a move to a 9-game conference schedule starting in 2016.Division 1 College Basketball Scheduling Alliances\nIn NCAA Division 1 men\u2019s and women\u2019s basketball, there are several prominent examples of scheduling alliances currently in place. These include the Big Ten-ACC challenge and the Big 12-SEC challenge. While these are the most well-known scheduling alliances in college basketball, other scheduling alliances in place include the SEC-American scheduling alliance, in which the 4 SEC teams that do not participate in the SEC-Big 12 challenge(due to the Big 12 only having 10 teams until the year 2023) play against teams from the American Athletic conference instead.Other Collegiate Examples\nThe COVID-19 pandemic impacted all college sports heavily, particularly on the scheduling side. Independent teams that lacked a conference found themselves on the outside looking in as many conferences had their members transition to a conference-only schedule for the season in the interest of safety. In college hockey, the two independent teams at the time, Arizona State and LIU, entered into scheduling alliances with the Big Ten Conference and Atlantic Hockey, respectively, in order to continue playing for the 2020-21 season. These alliances were disbanded the following year.\nAnother example is the New England Women's Hockey Alliance, which began in 2017 as a scheduling alliance between the six schools that then competed as independents at the National Collegiate level (in practice, NCAA Divisions I and II) in women's ice hockey. The NEWHA lost one member after its first season of 2017\u201318, but picked up a future sixth member in the form of a school that was set to launch a women's hockey program in 2019\u201320. Before the start of the 2018\u201319 season, the NEWHA formally organized as a conference and began the process of gaining official NCAA recognition.  It operated with five members in 2018\u201319, and received NCAA recognition upon the arrival of the sixth member in 2019\u201320.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "School classification is the categorization of secondary schools by officially sanctioned bodies for athletic competition. Across North America, the classes have often been based on enrollment levels of the schools, with many leagues using classifications named A, AA, AAA, etc.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Scout Media is an integrated sports publishing company that produces Internet content covering hundreds of professional and college teams across America. The company was founded in 2001 and was acquired by Fox Sports in 2005. In 2013, Fox Sports sold Scout to North American Membership Group which later rebranded to Scout Media. Scout filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in December 2016 and was then acquired by CBS Corporation (now Paramount Global) in February 2017 for $9.5 million after submitting the only bid for the bankrupt company.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Senior sport (or masters sport or veteran sport) is an age category of sport, that usually contains age groups of those 35 and older. It may concern unaltered or adapted sport activities, with and without competitions.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Serie A Elite is the premier women's futsal league in the Italy, organized by the Italian Football Federation.The competition, which is played under UEFA rules, currently consists of 17 teams.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Shadowboxing is a combat sport exercise in which a person throws punches at the air as though there is an opponent. Practised primarily in boxing, it is used mainly to prepare the muscles before the person training engages in stronger physical activity. Muhammad Ali once performed a now famous shadowboxing routine next to Howard Cosell for ABC's Wide World of Sports television cameras. Black Nova Scotian boxer George Dixon is widely credited for developing the technique.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Jenn Sherman (born December 1, 1969) is an American fitness instructor who was the very first cycling instructor hired at Peloton Interactive.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Shooting events formed part of the 1987 Pan American Games in Indianapolis.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The \"sidelines\" are the white or colored lines which mark the outer boundaries of a sports field, running parallel to each other and perpendicular to the goal lines. The sidelines are also where the coaching staff and players out of play operate during a game. The area outside the sidelines is said to be out of bounds. The term is predominantly in use in American football, Canadian football, field lacrosse and basketball.\n\nIn rugby union, rugby league and association football, they are known as touch-lines. The foul line is a similar concept in baseball. In cricket, the boundary lines can be marked by a rope. Sports in which the playing surface is bounded by walls, such as ice hockey, box lacrosse, and indoor football, do not use sidelines; in these sports, coaches and reserve players are positioned in recessed benches behind the walls.\nThe sideline can be used metaphorically to refer to players who have been \"benched\", meaning that they have been taken out of the game purposefully by the coaching staff due to poor performance in the game or previous play.  Establishing shots of these players may be used by televised sports programs to indicate potential roster switches, or to build a narrative of the failure or success of the coaching staff's decision.  Likewise, images of the sideline may suggest that the highlighted player had done something of interest outside the confines of play.  For example, in American football, dousing the head coach with water or sports drink is a popular way of celebrating crucial victories, established as a tradition by the New York Giants of the National Football League in the mid-1980s.\nThe term \"to be sidelined\" refers to a player in a sports event who is unable to play (e.g. confined to the sideline) for injury, suspension, or other similar reasons.  This term has spread into a business context; a project that has been \"sidelined\" is no longer a major concern or objective of the proponent company.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Sidesurf is the term given to roller skaters or inline skaters who skate by placing their heels facing each other but separated by roughly shoulder width. In the sidesurf position, a straight line can be drawn through both heels and toes with the toes pointing away from each other. The motion is similar to being on a snow board however the toes are both turned outwards. Another term used for sidesurfing is \"crabbing,\" as this is similar to the perpendicular style in which a crab moves.\nSidesurfing may be done while skating down hills, just like snowboarding, finding natural side hits because gravity naturally accelerates the skater. However, sidesurfers can learn to propel themselves forwards by rotating their hips from side to side while pushing their skates perpendicular to their direction of motion. It is also used in a variety of other roller skating sports, ranging from roller derby to vertical (aggressive and park) skating.  Initially, sidesurfing is quite hard and a lot of practice is required, starting with groin stretches.\nA more advanced version of the sidesurf is called the Sidesurf Royale also known as the Heel-heel side Surf. This is a modification of the sidesurf move where the blader sidesurfs with his or her toes off the ground.\nThere are claims that sidesurf stance was used for slalom cone skating in the early 70's, and that Kenny Means was the first to popularize the style of skating.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Simod are an Italian sportswear manufacturer, based in Piove di Sacco. The company specialises in sports footwear, such as training shoes, running shoes and football boots, although they also design casual footwear not intended for use in sport.\nSimod sponsored the English Full Members Cup professional football competition from 1987 to 1989, during which time the competition was known as the Simod Cup.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Sipa (literally, \"kick\") is the Philippines' traditional native sport which predates Spanish rule. The game is related to Sepak Takraw. Similar games include Footbag net, Footvolley, Bossaball and Jianzi. \nThe game is both played by two teams, indoors or outdoors, on a court that is about the size of a tennis court. The teams consist of one, two or four players in each side. The aim of the game is to kick a soft ball made out of rattan fragments, back and forth over a net in the middle of the court. The sport requires speed, agility and ball control.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A ski season is a period when skiing, snowboarding and other alpine sports are viable in an alpine resort. The season corresponds to when ski lifts are running and lift passes are available. Depending on the latitude and altitude of the resort, the season will typically run from early to mid-winter until mid- to late spring. Ideally the season will be over before the thaw begins.\nA typical ski season has three stages, and therefore three levels of lift ticket pricing:\nOff-peak, at the very beginning and ending of the season, when the number of lifts open is limited and the snow cover in the lower sections of the mountain is typically patchy.\nShoulder, during which the mountain is entirely snow-covered but lift pass sales are not sufficiently lucrative to justify opening all lifts or areas of the mountain.\nPeak, during which all lifts and most if not all runs are open. These periods are usually at the height of the season or during school or public holidays.Typically in the United States, a ski season lasts from late November to early April, however larger resorts in Colorado and California are known to spin the lifts as late as the 4th of July.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In sports, a slump is a period when player or team is not performing well or up to expectations. It is essentially a dry spell or drought (e.g. a losing streak), though it is often misused to define a player's decline that is natural during their career.There are various theories behind the cause of a slump. Some attribute it simply to the reasons behind a gambler's bad luck. While a player's or team's average collective statistics over a career or season may be quite respectable, there may be peak times when performance is really spectacular, while there are also expected low points with an inevitable drought.\nOthers believe there are psychological issues behind a slump. At times, a player, or all the key players on a team, may feel less motivated or may not be adept to handling clutch situations.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In the terminology of professional sports in North America, teams are often said to be based not in a city but in a media market.  The size of the media market is usually a good indication of the potential viability of a major league team.  A small market team is likely to struggle to compete financially against teams from larger markets and may therefore also be outbid in the competition for top talent.  This has led to calls for revenue sharing, luxury taxes, and / or salary caps in most North American sports leagues in order to ensure competitive balance or parity.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Matt Smith is an Australian duathlete from Perth, Western Australia. He is the 2015 Sprint (16-19) and 2016 Standard (20-24) Age Group Duathlon World Champion. He was also the Australian Duathlon Champion in 2014 and 2015 (16-19), and 4th place elite in 2016. He is currently ranked number 15 in the Powerman Duathlon world rankings.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Smolov Squat Routine is a weight training program for increasing your squat strength, originating from Russia. It is named after its creator, Sergey Smolov \u201cthe Russian Master of Sports\u201d.\nThe squat routine is a strength program broken down into four phases which last for a total of 13 weeks.\nThe four phases are:\n\nPhase In \u2014 A two-week phases that uses a variation of squats and lunges.\nBase Cycle \u2014 A 4-week segment which requires 4 squat sessions a week. You will re-test your 1 repetition maximum at the end of this cycle.\nSwitching Cycle \u2014 Squat negatives and Olympic type lifts such as the power clean are utilized.\nIntense Mesocycle \u2014 3 squat sessions a week are programmed leading up to the final squat test to measure your strength gains.It is considered one of the most difficult squat routines around with recommendations that only elite level athletes use the program due to the high frequency and volume.\nThroughout the program, Smolov demands three to four days per week, with some weeks squatting back to back days.\nStrength gains have been noted between 50\u2013130 pounds (22\u201358 kg).\nPopularized by Pavel Tsatsouline through his books.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The World Snowshoe Federation (WSSF), formerly the International Snowshoe Federation (ISF or ISSF), is the world governing body for Snowshoe running.In 2015, the organization changed its name to the World Snowshoe Federation, so as not to be confused with other existing international federations: ISSF (International Shooting Sport Federation) and ISF (International Skyrunning Federation).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Solomon Islands competed at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan from September 17 to 27. Solomon Islands sent a delegation consisting of 18 competitors competing in 3 different sports. The athletes couldn't receive any medal in the competition.Solomon Islands along with other Oceania nations competed in the Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games for the first time in history.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Specific Physical Preparedness (abbreviated SPP), also referred to by Sports-specific Physical Preparedness is the status of being prepared for the movements in a specific activity (usually a sport).\nSpecific training includes movements specific to a sport that can only be learned through repetition of those movements. For instance, shooting a free throw, running a marathon, and performing a handstand all require dedicated work on those skills. An SPP phase generally follows a phase of General Physical Preparedness, or GPP, which lays out an athletic base from which to build.\nRelated movements that mimic certain aspects of the movement which can be specialized in and put together to form it are also part of specific training.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Speedcabling is a competitive sport. Steven Schkolne devised the sport, which originated in the United States. In the standard rules, competitors are challenged to separate a mass of either six or twelve tangled Cat 5 Ethernet cables in the fastest possible time. Either two or four each of red 7-foot, blue 14-foot, and yellow 21-foot cables are tangled. According to the regulations, the cables are tangled by forming a figure-eight and placing them in a clothes dryer on high heat for three minutes. They are then allowed to cool. Schkolne says this allows them to achieve a \"natural\" entanglement.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A speedsuit is an item of unisex exercise attire or an industrial uniform used when quick clothing changes are necessary. It is either a single piece of clothing which tightly fits the torso and, optionally, varying amounts of the arms and legs; overall, it is similar to a leotard, though intentionally made especially tight and constricting to hug the body for varying purposes of warmth (when used in snowboarding or skiing) and hydrodynamics (when used in swimming and other water sports), or it is a tight fitting collared jumpsuit similar to coveralls.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A split draw is an outcome in several full-contact combat sports, including boxing, mixed martial arts, and other sports involving striking. In a split draw, one of the three judges scores the contest in favor of one fighter, another judge scores it in favor of the other fighter, and the third judge scores the contest as a draw. The decision is announced as a draw.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A split jump (also known as lunge jump, jumping lunge, plyometric lunge or simply plyo lunge. Not to be confused with the split jump used by dancers, gymnasts and figure skaters) is a form of exercise which focuses on the upper leg muscles, especially the quadriceps:\n\nassume an upright squatting position with one foot forward and the other back\nwith a jumping motion, simultaneously move the rear foot forward and the front foot back, ending as position 1 with the feet reversed\nrepeatThe exercise is often used for increasing lower body strength and overall athleticism.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Sport Review (thesportreview.com) is a sport news website founded in 2008 and based in London.\nThe site primarily covers the most popular sports in the United Kingdom, including football, tennis, rugby union, cricket and Formula 1.\nIt was created in November 2008 and was founded by two journalists, Martin Caparrotta and Kieran Beckles.\nRegular features on the site include 'The Grapevine' - an interactive football transfer gossip column, and 'Short and Tweet' - a round-up of Twitter updates from sports stars and celebrities following headline sporting events.\nThe site, which has a readership of around two million unique users a month, won the 2010 Bright Ideas Award at University College London.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Sportal.bg is a sports media website. It was launched on March 15, 2006 in Sofia, Bulgaria. It employs over 40 journalists delivering over 300 daily news items from all over the world. The site currently receives over 1,000,000 page views daily. It is the first Bulgarian website to launch its own streaming television service.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Sports Car Club of British Columbia (SCCBC) is a motorsport club based in British Columbia, Canada. The club was founded in 1951 as a non-profit society and is currently active at Mission Raceway Park.\nEarly days saw the membership host races at airports in Cassidy and Abbotsford. In the late 1950s, the club built a new road racing circuit on the remote, rural hillside in Coquitlam, a suburb of Vancouver. The track became known as Westwood Motorsport Park and was the first permanent, purpose-built road circuit in Canada. Built through volunteer hours and money raised through the sale of debentures, the track was the focal point of the club for over thirty years until encroaching urban development forced it to permanently close in 1990. During the Westwood years, the club held successful events that attracted later well-known drivers such as Gilles Villeneuve, Keke Rosberg, and Bobby Rahal.\nIn the early years, the SCCBC also held hill climbs, rallies, and gymkhanas at various venues around BC. The club promoted the sport and their organisation through participation in car shows and other public events.\nIn 1994, the SCCBC opened a 2 km road circuit referred to as River's Edge Road Course, part of Mission Raceway Park. The club has operated at this venue since then, hosting events throughout the racing season.\nThe club publishes a monthly newsletter called Pit Pass.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Sports Hochi (\u30b9\u30dd\u30fc\u30c4\u5831\u77e5, Sup\u014dtsu H\u014dchi), previously known as Hochi Shimbun (\u5831\u77e5\u65b0\u805e, H\u014dchi Shinbun), is a Japanese-language daily sports newspaper. In 2002, it had a circulation of a million copies a day.It is an affiliate newspaper of Yomiuri Shimbun.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Sports Network was a wire service providing sports information in real time. Based in Hatboro, Pennsylvania, The Sports Network was especially noted for its coverage of the NCAA's Football Championship Subdivision in college football; it presented that group's major end-of-season awards\u2014the Walter Payton Award for the top offensive player, the Buck Buchanan Award for the top defensive player, the Jerry Rice Award for the top freshman and the Eddie Robinson Award for the top coach. It served a list of clients that included Viacom, Yahoo, and the Canadian television channel The Sports Network, and was a partner with United Press International.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A sports novel is a literary genre that focuses on the theme of sports and athletics in general.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Sportvision was a private company that provided various television viewing enhancements to a number of different professional sporting events. They worked with NFL, NBA, NASCAR, NHL, MLB, PGA and college football broadcasts.In 1996, Rick Cavallaro, working for Stan Honey at Etak (then owned by Fox/News America) developed a way to track hockey pucks with a blue halo as seen by television viewers. It was assumed at that time that viewers had a hard time keeping track of the puck. Released as the FoxTrax puck, it was not a success but led to the 1998 formation of the Sportvision company and later that year the development of the 1st & Ten computer system, which generates and displays the yellow first down line that a TV viewer sees during a live football broadcast. The system became a major hit with television viewers when used during a broadcast of the Super Bowl. It has since become part of all standard American professional and college football and Canadian pro football broadcasts.\nAnother popular Sportvision product is seen in broadcasts of NASCAR races. It is called RACEf/x, and creates virtual flags above the cars to make them easier to follow by the viewers.\nSportvision also created the PITCHf/x system used by Major League Baseball to provide pitch data to users of MLB.com GameDay and viewers of Fox, Fox Sports Net, Rogers Sports Net and TBS, until its replacement by Statcast in 2017.The latest attempt for hockey was tested for deployment during the 2015 NHL All-Star weekend. The new system used computer chips to standardize and increase the volume of data tracked during the course of a game.In a deal finalized Oct. 4, 2016, Sportvision was acquired by SMT.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Spot the ball is a traditional newspaper promotion, where the player has to guess the position of a ball which has been removed from a photograph of a ball sport, especially association football.\nA spot-the-ball competition may be classed as betting, a prize competition, or a lottery, depending on its form. If it is classed as a prize competition, the promoter does not need a betting operating licence to run it.In the United Kingdom, the last big payout was in 2004.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Squash was among the sports at the 8th All Africa Games held in October 2003 in Abuja, Nigeria. Play featured both a men's and women's singles and team tournaments.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The squat thrust is a calisthenic exercise. It typically is performed as follows:\n\nBend your knees and drop into a squat position, then fall forward, placing your hands on the ground, into the push-up position.\nThrowing your feet back, fall forward into a push-up position.\nAgain pull the feet forward to a squat position with hands on the floor.This series of steps should be repeated many times. Performing the exercise quickly maximizes its effectiveness.\nA variation is the alternate leg or split-squat thrusts. This is performed by starting in the same position as the normal squat thrust and then splitting the legs in motion; keeping on your toes during the exercise, take one leg from the rear, up towards the chest in a smooth motion, once the foot of this leg reaches the ground, the other leg should then start to come up towards the chest, and at the same time the leading leg should go back to the starting position.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Squirrel fishing is the sporting practice of \"catching\" squirrels and attempting to lift them into the air using a nut (preferably a peanut) tied to a string or fishing line, and optionally some kind of fishing pole.There has been some debate over where modern squirrel fishing originated. Avon Lake natives Bob Kish and Greg Pavlovcic brought the sport to The Ohio State University in 1988 when they fished out their dorm room window in Siebert Hall on South Campus their freshman year.  Both Kish and Pavlovcic had a net ready, in the event a squirrel was successfully captured.  Neither man had truly contemplated what they would have done with a captured squirrel in their dorm room. \nThe practice was popularized by Nicholas Middleton and Zmira Zilkha during their summers at Middlebury College Italian Language School, by Nikolas Gloy and Yasuhiro Endo at the Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences at Harvard University, and by the Berkeley Squirrel Fisher's Club (BSF), an official student group at the University of California, Berkeley, that has been featured in the campus newspaper. As of 2009, Ohio State University also had a squirrel fishing club. Michigan State University was late to join in 2015.Squirrel fishing occurred at least as early as 1889 in the United States.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "StatSheet was an online sports content network based in Durham, North Carolina, which was powered by an automated publishing platform.  The network included 345 sites - one for every Division 1 college basketball team.  The company had previously announced that the network would continue to grow, and would include sites covering nearly every college and professional sport by the end of 2011.StatSheet was founded in 2007 by Robbie Allen, a 13-year veteran of Cisco, where he worked as an engineer in their IT department. The company provided detailed statistics for NCAA basketball, college Football, NASCAR, and the NBA. In addition, the company provided a service called Embed StatSheet, which allowed customers to integrate historical or real-time stats, charts, and other graphical elements on a website or blog.\nEach sponsored site provided real time updates, game previews, game recaps, injury updates and other reports, all published automatically using no human journalists, bloggers, or other writers.  StatSheet also provided users with access to its data visualization platform designed to organize, generate, and deliver relevant real-time and historical statistics through a central portal.  Users could query these statistics, build custom graphs and charts, and receive real-time updates on specific players and teams. Data was available for leagues, teams, players, coaches, and referees.StatSheet changed its name to Automated Insights in 2011 to mark its expansion into non-sports topics such as finance and real estate.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A strength athlete is a person who trains for or competes in events in which muscular strength and power play a primary role. Such events include weightlifting and powerlifting, strength athletics and strongman competitions, and arm wrestling, as well as the \"heavy throws\" of track and field: shot put, discus, and hammer. The players at certain positions in other sports are also considered strength athletes, including linemen in American football and forwards in rugby football.\nThe term is also sometimes used to refer to any athlete who participates in regular strength training or weight training, as well as bodybuilders.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Strike Out (also called Fast-Pitch) is a street game involving a rubber ball that is thrown at a wall against a painted square with an x, usually outdoors with rules similar to baseball. The game originated in the Chicagoland area and was popular in the 20th century.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The StumpJump 50k is an ultramarathon in the Southeastern United States that features a grueling course of extreme elevation changes and technical trail sections. The annual event takes place the first Saturday in October on the Signal Mountain, Tennessee, portion of the Cumberland Trail. In 2007 the race field was limited to 400 participants to limit the impact on this wilderness area. The race benefits the Cumberland Trail Conference, and in 2007, raised $4,000 for CTC's for trail-building and maintenance programs.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Super League Show is the BBC's principal rugby league programme, shown on BBC One in the North of England on Monday evenings, repeated nationally on BBC Two on Tuesday lunchtimes and also on BBC iPlayer. The programme, produced by PDI Media at BBC Yorkshire's studios in Leeds, is presented by Tanya Arnold with match commentary from Dave Woods and Andy Giddings and analysis from a variety of studio guests from Super League.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Survival training is a theoretical and physical practice where participants aim to survive in the wilderness with as little means as possible. Survival training is used to teach survival skills or as a form of recreational activity in which individuals are generally challenged to sustain their basic needs, such as food, water and shelter, in a unpopulated area, with little or only natural resources. This could include taking long hikes, lighting fires, setting camps, sailing in canoes or rafts, fishing, biking (for example with mountain bikes) and so on. Survival trainings are mostly held in forests, mountain ranges and hilly areas, such as the Alps and Scandinavia.\nDifferent organizations coordinate recreational survival trainings, some of which are for children. They are popular as business excursions, team building exercises or as a holiday activity. Survival training in a recreational context has the intention to help expand team work or strengthen the bond of a group by challenging team members, but can also be practiced alone.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Sweatworking is business networking while taking physical exercise and so working up a sweat.  This way of working originated in the USA and started to be promoted in London in 2012, where gyms offered facilities and sessions of this kind.Journalist Lucy Kellaway tried sweatworking with the chairman of Wiggle, Andy Bond, who had experience of similar activity at Asda, playing five-a-side football with Archie Norman.  While there was little opportunity to talk during their spinning session at Fitness First, they agreed that the shared experience of suffering was effective in establishing a bond.Golf is a traditional sporting activity which is often used for business networking but women have felt especially excluded from this.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The swimming competition at the 1993 South Asian Federation Games  in Dhaka, Bangladesh.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The swimming competition at the 1995 South Asian Federation Games  in Madras, India.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The swimming competition at the 2004 South Asian Games held in Islamabad, Pakistan.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The swimming competition at the 2010 South Asian Games held in Dhaka, Bangladesh.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The boys' 400 metre freestyle event at the 2010 Youth Olympic Games took place on August 15, at the Singapore Sports School.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Switzerland participated at the 2015 Summer Universiade in Gwangju, South Korea.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Tachikara is a Japanese sports ball brand. It was established in Tokyo in 1915 by Toyaburo Iimuro.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Tajikistan will compete at the 2017 World Championships in Athletics in London, Great Britain, from 4\u201313 August 2017.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Tarawera Ultramarathon is a trail running event which includes a 21km, 50km, 102km and a 100-mile ultramarathon trail race, with the inaugural even held in 2009, it is part of the Ultra-Trail World Tour. It is held annually in February and takes place in Rotorua, New Zealand.  Awards are given to top men and women finishers in each category.\nThe race was created by Paul Charteris.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The term Team Asia is used in a number of sports to designate a unified team of Asian countries in several sports competitions and sports tournaments.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "World Team or Team World is a designation for a sports team in many competitions. It is usually equivalent to a \"rest of the world\" team, which is pitted against a particular territory.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "In amateur wrestling, a technical fall, or technical superiority, is a victory condition satisfied by outscoring one's opponent by a specified number of points. It is wrestling's version of the mercy rule. It is informally abbreviated to \"tech\" as both a noun and verb.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Tely 10 Mile Road Race (generally known as the Tely 10) is a 10 mile road race held in the communities of Paradise, Mount Pearl and St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada that attracts over 4500 runners annually. The race course often gets mistaken as 10 km. The race began in 1922 making it one of the oldest road races in all of Canada. The race was not run from 1940 to 1945 because of World War II; thus, the 2019 race was the 92nd in the event's history. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the in-person 2020 edition was also cancelled, and the 2021 event has been delayed until at least October 31.\nCourse record holders are Paul McCloy (47:04 in 1985) and Anne Johnston (54:25 in 2019).The sponsor of the race is The Telegram, from which the race draws its name. The race commences on McNamara Road in the Town of Paradise and continues into the city of Mount Pearl then into St. John's where it ends at Bannerman Park in the heart of St. John's. The majority of the course follows Topsail Road (Newfoundland and Labrador Route 60).The race is held every 4th Sunday of July. The most recent Tely 10 was held on October 31st, 2021. For this race, Colin Fewer won a record-extending 13 Tely 10 titles.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Tennis Federation of Armenia (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0569\u0565\u0576\u056b\u057d\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), also known as the Armenian Tennis Federation, is the regulating body of tennis in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Teqball Federation of Armenia (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b Teqball \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), also known as the National Teqball Federation of Armenia, is the regulating body of teqball in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation are located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Thighmaster is an exercise product designed to shape one's thighs. The device is essentially two pieces of metal tube bent in a loop and connected with a hinge. The intended use is to put the Thighmaster between the knees and squeeze them together. This exercises the hip adductors. The simple mechanism allows exercising any suitable muscle where a small angle can be created to press it, for example the biceps (elbow flexion) or the hamstrings (knee flexion).As with most fitness products marketed to homes, advertisements often emphasized that the Thighmaster could be used while doing something else. The infomercials featured people watching television and exercising with the Thighmaster at the same time. It was mainly advertised in the 1990s by the actress Suzanne Somers.The Thighmaster was invented in Sweden by then-physical medicine intern (later \"Dr.\") Anne Marie Bennstrom (Prescott) as the \"V-Bar\" physical therapy device. It later received US design patent number 343882S as \"physical exerciser.\" It achieved commercial success when marketed under the \"Thighmaster\" name by Joshua Reynolds (often erroneously credited as the inventor), who also made a great deal of money with his version of the Mood ring. Reynolds is an heir to the fortune of R. J. Reynolds, founder of R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Thraex (pl. Thraeces), or Thracian, was a type of Roman gladiator, armed in the Thracian style with a small rectangular, square or circular shield called a parmula (about 60 x 65 cm) and a very short sword with a slightly curved blade called a sica (like a small version of the Dacian falx), intended to maim an opponent's unarmoured back.  His other armour included armoured greaves, a protective belt above a loincloth, and a helmet with a side plume, visor and high crest.\nLudia's female gladiators used the same weapons and armour.\n\nHe and the hoplomachus, with his Greek equipment, were usually pitted against the murmillo, armed like a legionary, mimicking the opposition between Roman soldiers and their various slaves. In essence, these slaves were not trained well and died a gruesome death.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Tokyo Sports (\u6771\u4eac\u30b9\u30dd\u30fc\u30c4, T\u014dky\u014d Sup\u014dtsu) is a Japanese daily sports newspaper founded in 1960.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Totem tennis (also known as tether tennis or swingball) is a game where two players use racquets to strike a tennis or sponge ball which has been attached with string to the top of a vertical pole. The pole is either driven into soft ground or anchored with a heavy base.\n\nTether tennis has been known since the early 1900s.The British company Mookie Toys claims that in 1993 it acquired the global rights for the  Swingball brand, the product sold since 1974. In Mookie Toys Swingball,  there is a helical coil of wire at the top of the pole and the competitors hit the ball clockwise or anticlockwise around the pole to make it go up or down the coil, the winner being the person who gets the ball to their end of the coil, top or bottom.Other commercial swingball toys have a rotating component to attach the string, so that it does not wrap around the pole. The mother of British tennis star Andy Murray asserts that part of Andy's success may be attributed to swingball he used to play at their home in Scotland in early childhood.The game was once sold in the United States under the name Zimm Zamm.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A tournament director (TD) is an official at a competitive sporting or gaming event, who typically perform a number of key functions.  The extent of the tournament director's duties varies depending on the size of the tournament, the nature of the competition, and the number of other officials to whom roles can be delegated.\nExamples often include:\n\nDeclaring that competition may begin\nRefereeing game play\nOrganizing elimination tournament brackets, or pairings of a Swiss system tournament\nTracking scores and statistics\nEnforcing rules and regulations\nArbitrating disputes\nOfficiating awards ceremoniesTournament directors often refer to individual sports like tennis and golf, where each competition is organized separately.\nIn motorsport, the position is called race director. In fencing, the tournament director is known by the French name, directoire technique (commonly abbreviated to DT).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The Traditional Wushu Federation of Armenia (Armenian: \u0540\u0561\u0575\u0561\u057d\u057f\u0561\u0576\u056b \u0561\u057e\u0561\u0576\u0564\u0561\u056f\u0561\u0576 \u0578\u0582\u0577\u0578\u0582\u056b \u0586\u0565\u0564\u0565\u0580\u0561\u0581\u056b\u0561), is the regulating body of wushu in Armenia, governed by the Armenian Olympic Committee. The headquarters of the federation is located in Yerevan.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Trout binning is a method of fishing, possibly fictional, described in the English periodical \"The Mirror of Literature, Amusement, and Instruction\" (Vol. 12, Issue 328, August 23, 1828). It is described as:\n\n...a peculiar method of taking trout. A man wades any rocky stream with a sledge-hammer, with which he strikes every stone likely to   contain fish. The force of the blow stuns the fish, and they roll from under the rock half dead, when the \"binner\" throws them out with his hand.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The U.S. National Water Ski Championships is an annual water ski competition that has taken place since 1939. Hosted by the American Water Ski Association (AWSA) and taking place every year since its inception, with the exception of 1942-1945, the competition is the oldest and longest-running water ski competition in the world. The U.S. Nationals is one of the sport's three major championships along with the Water Ski World Championships (since 1949), and the Masters Water Ski Tournament (since 1959).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The women's dual was an event at the annual UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships. It was held between 2000 and 2001, being replaced by the four-cross event in 2002. Anne-Caroline Chausson of France was the most successful rider with two gold medals.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Ultimate Tazer Ball, also known as UTB and UTB Live, is an extreme sport involving the use of stun devices.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Umstead 100, sometimes called the Umstead 100 Ultra is an ultramarathon held annually in April in William B. Umstead State Park in Raleigh, North Carolina. The race features 50 and 100 mile distances over a 12.5 mile loop.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Under-soil heating is a method used in various sports stadia (with a grass surface) which heats the underside of the pitch to avoid any elements from bad weather, such as snow and ice, from building up and ultimately helps the club avoid having to postpone any matches.\nMost English Premier League teams now have this installed in their stadium. While it is not an official requirement, it avoids any financial loss that a club might face in having to postpone any matches due to bad weather. The first ground in England to have under-soil heating installed was Goodison Park in 1958. The pitch at Old Trafford has 18.4 miles (29.6 km) of under-soil heating and at Elland Road there is an under-soil heating system installed beneath the surface, consisting of 59 miles (95 km) of piping.\nIn Germany under-soil heating is mandatory for division 1 and 2 Bundesliga clubs. The first ground to have it installed was the Olympic Stadium of Munich in 1972.\nIn the Czech Republic, despite the league having a winter break, the Czech First League requires all participating teams to play on surfaces with under-soil heating.Several American football teams in the National Football League also have such a system installed. With American football, it is more a matter of player safety, since NFL games are never postponed on account of cold weather.\nThere have been numerous occasions where under-soil heating's effectiveness has been questioned. One notable incident happened on December 27, 2005 when three stadia in the FA Premier League, supposedly equipped with under-soil heating, failed to stop their pitches being covered in thick snow - this led to the matches being postponed. Subsequently, on January 1, 2006, the Premier League investigated as to why the pitches at Macron Stadium (Bolton Wanderers), Ewood Park (Blackburn Rovers) and St. James' Park (Newcastle United) were not able to repel the snow. In the U.S., a notable example of the failure of an under-soil heating system occurred in 1967, when a newly installed system at Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin failed before the NFL Championship game. The game would go on to be remembered as the \"Ice Bowl\".", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The United States Futsal Federation (USFF) is one of the Futsal leagues in the United States. It is a body sanctioned by FIFA in the United States, and is a member of the United States Soccer Federation.\nThe USFF was formed in 1981.  It was founded to promote the sport of futsal in the United States and to ensure that sport standards were followed.  According to the USFS's website, there are 110,000 members of the federation. In 1986, the Boys & Girls Clubs of America adopted futsal, under USFF government, as an \"Olympic Focus Sport\", and began introducing it to the various clubs throughout the country. In that same, year, the American Youth Soccer Association became an associate member of the federation.\nThe USFF also works to introduce the sport to various YMCA chapters, the National High School Association of America, the NCAA and the National Junior College Association.\nThe federation sponsors sports clinics, national championships, and American teams in international competitions. The federation is made up of individual state associations, which are responsible for promoting futsal at the local level.\nThe current coach of the United States national futsal team is Serbian Du\u0161an Jakica.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The upright row is a weight training exercise performed by holding a weight with an overhand grip and lifting it straight up to the collarbone. This is a compound exercise that involves the trapezius, the deltoids and the biceps. The narrower the grip the more the trapezius muscles are exercised, as opposed to the deltoids.\nBarbells, dumbbells, kettlebells or a cable machine can be used.\nDue to the amount of internal rotation of the humerus during this movement, this exercise may worsen shoulder impingement syndrome.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Varpa is an outdoor game that dates back to the Viking Age and survived in Gotland. It is similar to boules and horseshoes but is played with a flat and heavy object called a \"varpa\" instead of balls. Varpas used to be well-shaped stones, but nowadays, aluminium is more popular. A varpa can weigh between one-half and five kilograms (one and eleven pounds). The object of the game is to throw the varpa as close to a stick as possible. The stick is fifteen metres (sixteen yards) away for women and twenty metres (twenty-two yards) away for men. The game can be played individually or in teams.\nNo official nationally sponsored varpa teams exist; however, unofficial leagues are growing in popularity among youth in suburban areas of Sweden and Norway.\"Varpa\" is an old word which simply means \"to throw\".\nVarpa is one of the disciplines at the annual St\u00e5nga Games (St\u00e5ngaspelen).\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Vice-captain, alternate captain (ice hockey) or vice-skip (curling) may refer to a role in a number of sports immediately below the role of captain. The vice-captain may have a number of different roles, including substituting as captain when the regular captain is injured or unavailable, or becoming the new captain if the original captain can't actually be the captain anymore. In some instances, vice-captain can be a similar role to a co-captain, in which there are at least two people who equally share the responsibilities of being the vice-captain. For more information on the role in particular sports, see:\n\nVice-captain (association football)\nCaptain (Australian rules football)\nCaptain (cricket)\nCaptain (ice hockey)\nVice (curling)", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "F\u00f3tbolti.net is an Icelandic website that focuses on football. Headquartered in Reykjav\u00edk, it was founded in 2002 by Hafli\u00f0i Brei\u00f0fj\u00f6r\u00f0 and quickly established itself as one of the most popular websites in Iceland.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Volksmarching (from German \"Volksmarsch\", people's march) is a form of non-competitive fitness walking that developed in Europe in the mid-late 1960s. By 1968, the International Federation of Popular Sports (better known as the \"IVV\") was formed by Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Switzerland. The national emblems of these four countries were placed in a wreath to form the symbol IVV. The IVV Headquarters is located in Alt\u00f6tting, Germany (Bavaria) and the official languages of the IVV are English and German, though French is also used unofficially.Though walking is the primary activity, the volkssporting movement also includes bicycling, swimming, cross-country skiing or snow-shoeing, and other approved activities. Special provisions also allow for people with disabilities to participate in most events. Participants typically walk 5 kilometers (3.1 mi), 10 kilometers (6.2 mi), 20 kilometers (12 mi) or longer, on a pre-determined outdoor path or trail, with the aid of posted signs or markings, or a map and a set of written directions. Volksmarching associations offer incentive awards (including certificates, pins and patches) for participating in a certain number of events and for covering different cumulative distances over time. Volksmarching participants enjoy recording distances and event participation in international record books.IVV members around the world organize more than 7,500 events each year for an estimated participation of 10,000,000 people. People of all ages and abilities participate. As of 2019, IVV Membership includes 29 National Federations (Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland/Liechtenstein, Southern Tyrol, Taiwan and the United States) as well as 12 additional \"direct members\" in Andorra, CapVerde, Croatia, Ireland, Indonesia, Lithuania, New Zealand, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia and Spain\u2014representing 4,000 local clubs and making volkssporting available in at least 40 countries worldwide. Members are loosely organized under three geographic groupings: IVV-Europe, IVV-Asia and IVV-Americas.Less frequently used terms are Volkswanderung and Volkswalk.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "vV\u0307O2max (velocity at maximal oxygen uptake) is an intense running or swimming pace. In a constant rate exercise, this is the minimum speed for which the organism's maximal oxygen uptake is reached (after a few minutes of exercise at this intensity) ; at higher paces, any additional increase in power is provided by anaerobic processes. In an incremental exercise, it is the first speed at which any increase in exercise intensity fails to elicit an increase in oxygen consumption. \nThe vV\u0307O2max of world class middle- and long-distance runners may exceed 24 km/h or 2:30/km pace (15 mph or about 4:00/mile), making this speed slightly comparable to 3000 m race pace. For many athletes, vV\u0307O2max may be slightly slower than 1500 m or mile race pace.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The  WDSF World Formation Latin Championship is the main annual formation International Latin dancesport championship worldwide.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "WikiBaseball (Chinese: \u81fa\u7063\u68d2\u7403\u7dad\u57fa\u9928) is a Taiwanese baseball website. It was created on April 14, 2005. Its major contents are people, event, time, place, and merchandise of Taiwanese baseball.\nWikibaseball runs on MediaWiki software. It is written collaboratively by volunteers. Besides feature story, all content is available under CC-BY-NC.Because many people browse this website. United Daily News, Formosa Television and some Taiwan media introduce this website to Taiwanese people in March 2006.[1] After several month, Wikibaseball teamed up with Chinese Taipei Baseball Association to digitize their relic. In addition, two Wikibaseball contributors contributed to Liberty Times and interviewed by Uonline reporter in March 2007.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A windsport is any type of sport which involves wind-power, often involving a non-rigid airfoil such as a sail or a power kite. The activities can be land-based, on snow, on ice or on water. Windsport activity may be regulated in some countries by aviation/maritime authorities if they are likely to interfere with other activities. Local authorities may also regulate activity in certain areas, especially on crowded beaches and parks.\n\nIce boating - using a masted sail attached to a vessel with skates\nKite boating - sailing a boat in displacement or planing mode using a kite\nKite landboarding - using a power kite with a wheeled board while standing\nKite buggy - using a wheeled buggy with seats attached to a power kite\nKite flying - flight of a small airfoil by a standing ground operator using 1-4 flying lines\nKite jumping - brief acrobatic flight using a large kite\nKite skating - as for kite jumping but while using specialized skates\nKite surfing - using a surfboard attached to a power kite\nLand sailing - a masted sail attached to a land vehicle - see also land yacht\nSailing - navigating a boat with sail attached to a mast\nSnowkiting - skiing/snowboarding under the power of a kite\nWindsurfing - sailing using a masted sail attached via a gimbal to a surfboard\nSail biking - using a power kite to pull a specialized bicycle (like land sailing)\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The 2007 Winter Deaflympics, officially known as the 16th Winter Deaflympics, is an international multi-sport event that was celebrated from 3 to 10 February 2007 in Salt Lake City, United States.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "World Armwrestling Championships is the main arm wrestling championship in the World. It is organized by the World Armwrestling Federation, founded in 1977. The first WAF World Armwrestling was hosted by John Miazdzyk in Wetaskiwin, Alberta, Canada in 1979.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The World Aunt Sally Open Singles Championship (WASOSC) is an annual competition that takes place at the Charlbury Beer Festival in Charlbury, West Oxfordshire. Aunt Sally is a traditional English throwing game played in pub gardens or fairgrounds dating back to the 17th century, in which players throw sticks or battens at a model of an old woman's head.\nThe tournament is a knock out competition for individuals, with the winner's name then engraved onto the Finings Cup Trophy. The 2018 WASOSC event attracted a record number of 72 competitors, travelling from as far afield as Germany.The event returned on 25 June 2022, after being cancelled for 2 years because of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The World Beach Games is an international multi-sport event organized by the Association of National Olympic Committees (ANOC). The games are held every two years. The first edition was planned to be held in San Diego, United States from 10 to 15 October 2019, but was later relocated to Doha, Qatar after San Diego failed to raise the necessary funding.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "World Blind Cricket Council (WBCC) is an administration of blind cricket to manage it at international level. The WBC was established in September 1996 when a meeting held in Delhi, India to promote and control the blind cricket globally. George Abraham is the founding chairman of WBC.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The World Triathlon consists of a 275-mile (about 442.6 kilometers) swim along the length of the River Thames and across the English Channel, then an 8,875 mile bike ride from Calais, France to Calcutta, India. Next comes a run from Calcutta to the base of Mount Everest (about 950 miles or 1529 kilometers), which will then be attempted to summit. The total distance is about 70 times longer than an Ironman Triathlon.  So far, only one man has attempted to do this; Charlie Wittmack, a 33-year-old Iowan lawyer. Wittmack was also the first Iowan to climb Mount Everest. He is also creating a yearlong school program which will cover geology and other various school subjects, which is being funded by all of the sponsors that have backed him and all the donations he has received. He worked with Des Moines University to promote safe motherhood.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "A world record is usually the best global and most important performance that is ever recorded and officially verified in a specific skill, sport, or other kind of activity. The book Guinness World Records and other world records organizations collates and publishes notable records of many.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The World RX of Abu Dhabi is a rallycross event held in Abu Dhabi for the FIA World Rallycross Championship. The event made its d\u00e9but in the 2019 season, at the Yas Marina Circuit.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The World RX of Catalunya is a Rallycross event held in Spain for the FIA World Rallycross Championship. The event made its debut in the 2015 season, at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya in the town of Montmel\u00f3, Catalonia.\nIn 2015 and 2016, the event was called \"World RX of Spain\", changing its name in 2017 and 2018 to \"World RX of Barcelona\". From 2019 onwards, it's called \"World RX of Catalunya\".\nDue to COVID-19 pandemic which affected the 2020 FIA World Rallycross Championship season calendar, the circuit hosted a double-header season finale. The first race was named as World RX of Pirineus-Barcelona 2030 as mark of support for Pyrenees-Barcelona bid for the 2030 Winter Olympics. The second race was held under World RX of Catalunya name.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The World RX of Hockenheim is a Rallycross event held at the Hockenheimring in Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg, Germany for the FIA World Rallycross Championship. The event made its debut in the 2015 season.", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The World RX of Russia is a rallycross event held in Russia for the FIA World Rallycross Championship. The event is due to make its d\u00e9but in the 2020 season, at the Igora Drive circuit in Sosnovo. The event was cancelled due to financial issues.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The World Snowshoe Championships are annual snowshoe running competition, held for the first time in 2006 and organised by the World Snowshoe Federation.\n\n", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "The World Urban Games (WUG) is a multi-sport event featuring both competition and showcase urban sports alongside a cultural festival. The first edition was held in Budapest, Hungary from 13 to 15 September 2019. The event is organised by the Global Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF).", "label": "Sports"}, {"sentence": "Bicomponent fiber is made of two materials, utilizing desired properties of each material.Such fibers can be created by extrusion spinning.One or both materials may remain in the finished product, or one material may be dissolved, leaving only one material remaining.  For example, DuPont created the highly coiled elastic fiber called cantrese having two different nylon polymers side-by-side.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The BIM Collaboration Format (BCF) is a structured file format suited to issue tracking with a building information model. BCF is designed primarily for defining views of a building model and associated information on collisions and errors connected with specific objects in the view. The BCF file format allows users of different BIM software, and/or different disciplines to collaborate on issues with the project. The use of the BCF format to coordinate changes to a BIM are an important aspect of OpenBIM.\nThe format was developed by Tekla and Solibri and later adopted as a standard by buildingSMART. Most major BIM modelling platforms support some integration with BCF, typically through plug-ins provided by the BCF server vendor.\nAlthough BCF was originally conceived as a file base there are now many implementations using the server based collaborative workflow described in the bcfAPI, including an Open Source implementation as part of the Open Source BIMcollective.\nResearch work has been done in Denmark looking into using BCF for a broader range of information management and exchange in the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) sector.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "BIPU (Bioremediation Infield Personnel Unit) is a sanitation method suitable for disaster relief and for temporary or isolated locations. It consists of flat-packed plastic panels which fit together to make a box, which is buried in the ground, and a large plastic bag to be placed inside the box. It is quick to set up but also suitable for longer term use if required.[1]\nA latrine, (Western style, or squat style) pour-flush latrine, is placed over the top. The S-shaped water seal improves hygiene, compared to pit latrines.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The BiteStrip is a disposable self-use home test for Sleep Bruxism. Its indications correlate well with comparable indications from formal sleep lab studies.\nThe device is a miniature but complete sleep EMG (electromyography) monitor, including two pre-gelled EMG electrodes, an amplifier, a micro-processor-based real time data acquisition and analysis hardware and software, and a permanent chemical display unit. The entire system is integrated on a small piece of lightweight plastic film attached to the user's cheek. By analyzing the jaw muscles\u2019 EMG waveforms in real time during the night and presenting the result on the built-in display, the device doesn't need a large data memory, and the downloading and analysis phases, common to all current sleep recorders, are eliminated. Test results indicate the number of bruxing events detected per hour of sleep (bruxing index or BI). This indication appears as permanent numbers encoded onto the electro-chemical display for easy reading. The device itself can serve as the medical record of the test. Self-test letters indicate technical and clinical validity of the study.\nSleep Bruxism (SB) is a serious medical disorder, characterized by involuntary grinding and clenching of teeth during sleep. It is often accompanied by unpleasant grinding sounds heard by the bed-partner or roommate. Symptoms include wearing of teeth, temporomandibular joint (TMJ) dysfunction or pain, chewing difficulties, headaches and daytime sleepiness. The prevalence of SB is estimated at 14\u201320% in children and 8% in adults. Diagnosis of SB is usually based on clinical examination and patient history. However, none of the signs and symptoms may be considered conclusive. Another alternative has been to send the patient to a sleep lab for an overnight test.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Video black level is defined as the level of brightness at the darkest (black) part of a visual image or the level of brightness at which no light is emitted from a screen, resulting in a pure black screen.\nVideo displays generally need to be calibrated so that the displayed black is true to the black information in the video signal. If the black level is not correctly adjusted, visual information in a video signal could be displayed as black, or black information could be displayed as above black information (gray). \nThe voltage of the black level varies across different television standards. PAL sets the black level the same as the blanking level, while NTSC sets the black level approximately 54 mV above the blanking level. \nUser misadjustment of black level on monitors is common. It results in darker colors having their hue changed, it affects contrast, and in many cases causes some of the image detail to be lost.\nBlack level is set by displaying a testcard image and adjusting display controls. With CRT displays:\n\n\"brightness\" adjusts black level\n\"contrast\" adjusts white level\nCRTs tend to have some interdependence of controls, so a control sometimes needs adjustment more than once.In digital video black level usually means the range of RGB values in video signal, which can be either [0..255] (or \"normal\"; typical of a computer output) or [16..235] (or \"low\"; standard for video).\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A bladder tank is a large, flexible container used to store many types of liquids. When maximum capacity is reached, the bladder tank takes the form of a large pillow, hence it is also called a pillow tank.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A bored cylindrical lock is a lockset which is installed by boring two circular holes in the door. Door handles may also use the same installation.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Borehole imaging logs are logging and data-processing methods used to produce two-dimensional, centimeter-scale images of a borehole wall and the rocks that make it up .These tools are limited to the open-hole environment. The applications where images are useful cover the full range the exploration and production (E&P) cycle from exploration through appraisal, development, and production to abandonment.\nSpecific applications are sedimentology, structural geology/tectonics, reservoir geomechanics and drilling, reservoir engineering.\nThe tools can be categorized a number of ways: energy source (electrical, acoustic, or nuclear); conveyance (wireline or logging while drilling (LWD)); and type of drilling mud  (water-based mud (WMD) or oil-based mud (OBM)).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Bowler Communications System is an open protocol developed by Neuron Robotics for simplified communications between components in cyber-physical systems.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Bubbleator was a large, bubble-shaped hydraulic elevator with transparent acrylic glass walls operated from an elevated chair built for the 1962 World's Fair in Seattle. These transparent walls gave the illusion of looking through an actual 'soap bubble' by refracting light to obtain a rainbow-like effect for the riders inside. It was originally part of the Washington State Coliseum (now a sports venue known as Climate Pledge Arena), where it lifted 100 passengers at a time up one floor through a structure of interlocking aluminum cubes to the \"World of Tomorrow\" exhibit. T. C. Howard of Synergetics, Inc. designed the Bubbleator and the exhibit.  After the fair, the Bubbleator was relocated to the Center House at Seattle Center. By 1984, it had been removed and put in storage to make way for the Seattle Children's Museum. It was sold to a private owner in Des Moines, Washington, who recycled the upper part of the dome into a greenhouse. The control chair, which had also been in private hands, was donated to the Museum of History and Industry in 2005.\nWhile boarding the Bubbleator, passengers were commanded by an ethereal female voice to \"Please move to the rear of the sphere\", or the \"Martian type\" male elevator operator would say, \"Step to the rear of the Sphere\" in a creepy sci-fi type voice.\nThe soundtrack for the Bubbleator was conducted by Attilio Mineo and released as Man in Space with Sounds.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In geographic information systems (GIS) and spatial analysis, buffer analysis is the determination of a zone around a geographic feature containing locations that are within a specified distance of that feature, the buffer zone (or just buffer). A buffer is likely the most commonly used tool within the proximity analysis methods.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A building maintenance unit (BMU) is an A building maintenance unit is an automatic, remote-controlled, or mechanical device, usually suspended from the roof, which moves systematically over some surface of a structure while carrying human window washers or mechanical robots to maintain or clean the covered surfaces. Wikipedia, but can also be used on interior surfaces such as large ceilings (e.g. in stadiums or train stations) or atrium walls.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A bullwheel or bull wheel is a large wheel on which a rope turns, such as in a chairlift or other ropeway. In this application, the bullwheel that is attached to the prime mover is called the drive bullwheel, and the other is the return bullwheel. One of the bullwheels is usually attached to a cable tensioning system, which is usually either hydraulic or fixed counterweights.\nA double-grooved bullwheel may be used by some ropeways, whereby two cables travelling at the same speed, or the same cable twice, loop around the bullwheel.\nThe bullwheel began use in farm implements with the reaper.  The term described the traveling wheel, traction wheel, drive wheel, or harvester wheel. The bullwheel powered all the moving parts of these farm machines including the reciprocating knives, reel, rake, and self binder.  The bullwheel's outer surface provided traction against the ground and turned when the draft animals or tractor pulled the implement forward. Cyrus McCormick used the bullwheel to power his 1834 reaper and until the early 1920s when small internal combustion engine gasoline engines like the Cushman Motor began to be favored.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Camfrog is a video chat and instant messaging client that was created by Camshare in October 2003. It allows people to meet others worldwide in video chat and find partners in chat rooms. Camfrog users with broadband internet connections can host and moderate their own video chat rooms. The Camfrog Server software allows users to host video chat rooms based on user interests. In 2008, Camfrog introduced Virtual Gifts. On October 19, 2010, it was announced that Paltalk acquired Camfrog. In 2015, Camfrog announced the introduction of a new software, called Ribbit, which allows people to meet others by swiping through live videos.Over 150K audio and video calls occur and 72 years of video is watched daily.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Capacity loss or capacity fading is a phenomenon observed in rechargeable battery usage where the amount of charge a battery can deliver at the rated voltage decreases with use.In 2003 it was reported the typical range of capacity loss in lithium-ion batteries after 500 charging and discharging cycles varied from 12.4% to 24.1%, giving an average capacity loss per cycle range of 0.025\u20130.048% per cycle.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The carbon button lamp is a single-electrode incandescent lamp invented by Nikola Tesla.  A carbon button lamp contains a small carbon sphere positioned in the center of an evacuated glass bulb.  This type of lamp must be driven by high-frequency alternating current, and depends on an electric arc or perhaps a vacuum arc to produce high current around the carbon electrode.  The carbon electrode is then heated to incandescence by collisions by ions which constitute the electric current.  Tesla found that these lamps could be used as powerful sources of ionizing radiation.\nIn February, 1892, Tesla gave a lecture to the Institution of Electrical Engineers, in which he described the carbon button lamp in detail.  He also described several variants of the lamp, one of which uses a ruby drop in place of the carbon button.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A carriage clock is a small, spring-driven clock, designed for travelling, developed in the early 19th century in France, where they were also known as \"Officers' Clocks\". The first carriage clock was invented by Abraham-Louis Breguet for the Emperor Napoleon in 1812. The case, usually plain or gilt-brass, is rectangular with a carrying handle and often set with glass or more rarely enamel or porcelain panels. A feature of carriage clocks is the platform escapement, sometimes visible through a glazed aperture on the top of the case. Carriage clocks use a balance and balance spring for timekeeping and replaced the larger pendulum bracket clock. \nThe factory of Armand Couaillet, in Saint-Nicolas d'Aliermont (France) made thousands of carriage clocks between 1880 and 1920. \nA carriage clock has in the past been a traditional gift from employers to retiring or long-serving staff. However, in modern times, with changing work patterns and changing desires, this is much less the case.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Cordless Advanced Technology\u2014internet and quality (CAT-iq) is a technology initiative from the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) Forum, based on  ETSI TS 102 527 New Generation DECT (NG-DECT) European standard series.\nNG-DECT contains backward compatible extensions to basic DECT GAP functionality which allow bases and handsets from different vendors to work together with full feature richness expected from SIP terminals and VoIP gateways.\nCAT-iq defines several profiles for high quality wideband voice services with multiple lines,  as well as low bit-rate data applications.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "CBEFF (Common Biometric Exchange Formats Framework) is a set of ISO/IEC standards defining an approach to facilitate serialisation and sharing of biometric data in an implementation agnostic manner. This is achieved through use of a data structure which both describes, and contains, biometric data.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Combined Exhibition of Advanced Technologies   (also known as CEATEC) is an annual trade show in Japan. It is regarded as the Japanese equivalent of Consumer Electronics Show.  It is Japan's largest IT and electronics exhibition and conference.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A cellular digital accessory (CDA) number identifies the software version and customization of a Mobile phone.\nCustomization, among others, relates to operator-customized startup and shutdown videos, user greeting, web browser's home page and preinstalled bookmarks and also language packs that come preinstalled with the phone. CDA version depends on the country of purchase as well as on the network operator.\nThe Sony Ericsson Update Service will only allow software updates within one group of CDA numbers.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Cement-mortar lined ductile iron pipe is a ductile iron pipe with cement lining on the inside surface, and is commonly used for water distribution.\nCement-mortar lined ductile iron pipe is governed by standards set forth by DIPRA (Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association), and was first used in 1922 in Charleston, South Carolina.\nDuctile Iron is commonly used in place of cast iron pipe for fluid distribution systems, the idea of lining the formerly cast iron and currently ductile iron was put into practice for the first time in Charleston, South Carolina in 1922. The purpose of installing a cement/mortar lining to the interior wall of the pipe is to reduce the process of tuberculation inside the pipe network. The cement/mortar lining provides an area of high pH near the pipe wall and provides a barrier between the water and the pipe, reducing its susceptibility to corrosion.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The CECED Convergence Working Group has defined a new platform, called CHAIN (Ceced Home Appliances Interoperating\nNetwork), which defines a protocol for interconnecting different home appliances in a single multibrand system.\nIt allows for control and automation of all basic appliance-related services in a home: e.g., remote control of appliance operation, energy or load management, remote diagnostics and automatic maintenance support to appliances, downloading and updating of data, programs  and services (possibly from the Internet).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A change machine is a vending machine that accepts large denominations of currency and returns an equal amount of currency in smaller bills or coins.  Typically these machines are used to provide coins in exchange for paper currency, in which case they are also often known as bill changers.\nIn the US, these devices are typically seen in the vicinity of machines that will not accept paper currency. This can be in a parking facility that has parking meters, in laundromats, or near vending machines that lack bill validators and don't accept paper currency.\nBefore the advent of coinless slot machines, casinos would sometimes have change machines that would accept paper currency and return coins or tokens that could be used in the machines.  A similar arrangement has often been found at video arcades.\nIn some cases, a machine may subtract a small amount (e.g. 5 cents) as a surcharge for the transaction.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Charge contrast imaging is a scanning electron microscope imaging mode which can produce images of otherwise invisible microstructures in insulating materials and in fossils.  While the technique clearly illustrates changes in minerals which reflect genuine compositional differences, the method by which such phenomena occur is not understood.  It is thought to involve the interaction of several electronic forces, including the incoming electrons emitted by the SEM machine, local charge variations in the sample being imaged, the flow of ions in the sample, and any electric fields existing; these may be controlled by structures within the sample which assist in the accumulation of charge.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Chebyshev Lambda Linkage is a four-bar linkage that converts rotational motion to approximate straight-line motion with approximate constant velocity.  It is so-named because it looks like a lowercase Greek letter lambda. The precise design trades off straightness, lack of acceleration, and the proportion of the driving rotation that is spent in the linear portion of the full curve.The example to the right spends over half of the cycle in the near straight portion. Coupler point stays within 1% positional tolerance with intersecting the ideal straight line 6 times.\nThe linkage was first shown in Paris on the Exposition Universelle (1878) as \"The Plantigrade Machine\".\nThe Chebyshev Lambda Linkage is a cognate linkage of the Chebyshev linkage.\nThe Chebyshev Lambda Linkage used in vehicle suspension mechanisms, walking robots and rover wheel mechanisms. In 2004, a study completed as a Master of Science Thesis at Izmir Institute of Technology, a new mechanism design introduced by combining two symmetrical Lambda linkages to distribute the force evenly on to ground with providing the straight vertical wheel motion. It was then designed, manufactured and tested in the Earth Rover Project of Los Angeles City College Electronics Club.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "CHFS is a file system developed at the Department of Software Engineering, University of Szeged, Hungary. It was the first open source flash memory-specific file system written for the NetBSD operating system.  Intended usage is over raw flash devices on embedded systems like ARM and MIPS, the filesystem is less suitable for use on consumer SSD (because consumer SSDs already make sure to not use the same physical blocks for writing modified data).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Chronocinematograph is an astronomical instrument consisting of a film camera, chronometer and chronograph.:\u200a15\u200a:\u200a284\u2013285\u200a The device records images using a more precise timetable for observing an eclipse. It was invented in 1927 by a Polish astronomer, mathematician and geodesist Tadeusz Banachiewicz for observing total solar eclipses.:\u200a15\u200a:\u200a284\u2013285\u200a During the same year, Banachiewcz used his device for solar observations in Lapland (Sweden), then in USA (1932) and Greece, Japan and Siberia (1936).:\u200a15\u200a:\u200a286\u200aThe invention enhanced the precision for determining the time of an eclipse, due to more precisely timed photos of Baily's beads,:\u200a15\u200a:\u200a284\u2013285\u200a and quantifying the duration of totality. This could not have been observed as closely as before due to the brightness of the sun.:\u200a15\u200a:\u200a284\u2013286\u200a", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "C-Bus is a home-automation product range from the Clipsal brand owned by Schneider Electric.  Since 1994 it has grown to include approximately 400 products.  It is primarily used as a Lighting control system but also supports other automation functions such as irrigation and security.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A clout is a relatively short, thick nail with a large, flat head used for attaching sheet material to wooden frames or sheet. A typical use is fixing roofing felt to the top of a shed. Clouts are also used in timber fence palings. They are usually made of galvanised mild steel, but copper clouts are also available.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Based in Brazil, Clube do Hardware (meaning \"Hardware Club\" in Brazilian Portuguese) is one of the largest websites about computers in South America and also one of the biggest in the world. According to Alexa, as of 2018, Clube do Hardware is the 185th most accessed website in Brazil.Clube do Hardware publishes tutorials, articles, reviews, and news about computer hardware and has a very active forum where users can discuss technology topics.\nIt has a very engaged community, with the largest Brazilian team at the Folding@Home project.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Coiled tubing umbilicals are a type of piping used in oil and gas wells.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Collapse action is a device behaviour that snaps a switch into place, usually using a bistable element. When flipping a light switch, strain on one spring increases until it flips position, pulling down the switch.  Collapse action allows one to remove their hand from the switch without risk of it falling to the down position, as the force needed to overcome the resistance is too great. The action also does not exert force in the lower position, avoiding a spontaneous rise to the up position.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A colloid mill is a machine that is used to reduce the particle size of a solid in suspension in a liquid, or to reduce the droplet size in emulsions.  Colloid mills work on the rotor-stator principle: a rotor turns at high speeds (2000 - 18000 RPM).  A high level of hydraulic shear stress is applied on the fluid which results in disrupting and breaking down the  structure. Colloid mills are frequently used to increase the stability of suspensions and emulsions, but can also be used to reduce the particle size of solids in suspensions. Higher shear rates lead to smaller droplets, down to approximately 1 \u03bcm which are more resistant to emulsion separation.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A color magazine is a fixture attached to a follow spot that places different color filters in the path of the beam. Instead of working with comparatively cumbersome gel frames, the color magazine allows the spot operator to easily slide color frames in or out of place using a series of levers.\nThe term boomerang is also used to describe a color magazine.Color magazines are now becoming rarer with the widespread availability of programmable-colour LED lighting.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A combined storage tank combines hot water storage both for heating support and drinking water heating in a larger tank. As a result, warm water, typically from solar thermal energy, is stored temporarily for both purposes for later consumption. Breaks in sunshine can thus be bridged without any additional heating, depending on the heating requirement and storage size. This generally takes up less space than two individual buffer tanks and thermal losses are thereby reduced. These storage tanks are mostly insulated on the outside and designed for the lowest possible heat losses. Usually, it is a tank-in-tank system, that is, a two-compartment system arranged one inside the other. It is thus a combined buffer storage tank with a heat exchange plate in between. Above is a smaller interior tank for drinking water, i.e. water for showers, washing etc. and around it on the outside is a much larger storage volume for heating water for room heating.\nAn alternative is the layer charge storage tank, where the warmest storage layer is located at the top of the tank and colder layers below. The advantage of this is that different temperatures cannot be mixed and warm water can be used for longer. The layer storage tank is considered the most modern type of storage in this field. For drinking water heating, a fresh water station is used in the throughflow principle with a heat exchanger, which reduces the risk of legionella formation and is therefore even more hygienic.\nThis leads to efficiency optimisation together with an intelligent loading and unloading control. Both are especially useful if combined with what is called a low-temperature heating system and good building insulation, which makes the energy more effective.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Commotion Wireless is an open-source wireless mesh network for electronic communication. The project was developed by the Open Technology Institute, and development included a $2 million grant from the United States Department of State in 2011 for use as a mobile ad hoc network (MANET), concomitant with the Arab Spring. It was preliminarily deployed in Detroit in late 2012, and launched generally in March 2013. The project has been called an \"Internet in a Suitcase\".Commotion 1.0, the first non-beta release, was launched on December 30, 2013.Commotion relies on several open source projects: OLSR, OpenWrt, OpenBTS, and Serval project.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Compact surveillance radar are small lightweight radar systems that have a wide coverage area and are able to track people and vehicles in range and azimuth angle. They weigh less than 10 pounds, consume less than 15 Watts of power and are easily deployed in large numbers.  \nCompact surveillance radar have the same characteristics of the larger Ground Surveillance Radar (GSR) namely; the ability to track many moving targets simultaneously, all weather day & night operation, wide coverage areas and the ability to track targets and cue cameras automatically.\nCSR Manufacturers \n\nMagos Systems\nBlighter Surveillance Systems\nElta\nSpotterRf\nAdvanced Protection Systems", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "CompEx (meaning Competency in Ex atmospheres) is a global certification scheme for electrical and mechanical craftspersons and designers working in potentially explosive atmospheres. The scheme is operated by JTLimited, UK and is accredited by UKAS to ISO/IEC 17024.The scheme was created by EEMUA (Engineering Equipment and Materials Users' Association) to satisfy the general competency requirements of BS EN 60079 (IEC 60079), parts 10, 14 and 17. The requirements are currently explicitly detailed in IEC 60079 Part 14 Annex A, detailing knowledge/skills and competency requirements for responsible persons, operatives and designers.\nThe scheme is broken down to twelve units covering different actions and hazardous area concepts.\nIn 2017, CompEx 01-04 was introduced to the NEC Standard.  NEC500 & also NEC505, along with Ex \"f\" Foundation Courses.   There are provided by Eaton.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Concatenative synthesis is a technique for synthesising sounds by concatenating short samples of recorded sound (called units). The duration of the units is not strictly defined and may vary according to the implementation, roughly in the range of 10 milliseconds up to 1 second. It is used in speech synthesis and music sound synthesis to generate user-specified sequences of sound from a database (often called a corpus) built from recordings of other sequences.\nIn contrast to granular synthesis, concatenative synthesis is driven by an analysis of the source sound, in order to identify the units that\nbest match the specified criterion.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A concept recently championed by International Business Machines (IBM), consumability is a description of customers' end-to-end experience with technology solutions (although the concept could easily apply to almost anything).  The tasks associated with consumability start before the consumer purchases a product and continue until the customer stops using the product.  By improving the consumability of the product, the value of that product to the client can be increased.\nUnderstanding product consumability requires an in-depth understanding of how clients are actually trying to use the product, which is why consumability is so closely aligned with the user experience and  Outside-in software development.  While usability addresses a client's ability to use a product, consumability is a higher-level concept that incorporates all the other aspects of the customer\u2019s experience with the product.\nKey consumability aspects of the user experience include:\n\nIdentifying the right product\nAcquiring the product\nInstalling and configuring the product\nUsing and administering the product\nTroubleshooting problems with the product\nUpdating the product (e.g.  installing fix packs)How efficiently and effectively clients can complete these tasks affects the value they get from the product.  Missteps anywhere along this path can have direct impacts on the customer's ability to complete the task they set out to do.  By focusing on consumability, developers can smooth the path, allowing technology solution consumers to focus on the needs of their business, improving their perception and satisfaction with the product or solution.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Consumer Electronics Hall of Fame, founded by the Consumer Electronics Association (CEA), honors leaders whose creativity, persistence, determination and personal charisma helped to shape the industry and made the consumer electronics marketplace what it is today. According to the CEA, the Consumer Electronics Hall of Fame inductees have made a significant contribution to the world, and without these people, people's lives would not be the same.The CEA announced the first 50 inductees into the Hall of Fame at the 2000 International Consumer Electronics Show. The first class of inductees was in 2000. Each year another group of inventors, engineers, business leaders, retailers and journalists are inducted into the Consumer Electronics Hall of Fame.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Control and indicating equipment is equipment for receiving, processing, controlling, indicating and initiating the onward transmission of information as used in fire alarm systems. The fire detection and fire alarm system subcommittee of ISO/TC 21, Equipment for Fire Protection and Fire Fighting, had oversight for development of five standards covering detectors, control and indicating equipment. ISO 7240-2:3003 specifies requirements, test methods and performance criteria for control and indicating equipment (c.i.e.) for use in fire detection and fire alarm systems installed in buildings.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A cool warehouse or cold storage warehouse is a warehouse where perishable goods are stored and refrigerated. Products stored can be, amongst other things, food, especially meat, other agricultural products, pharmaceutical drugs, other chemicals and blood.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A coordinatograph is an instrument which mechanically plots X and Y coordinates onto a surface, such as in compiling maps or in plotting control points such as in electronic circuit design.\nOne historic application of a coordinatograph was a machine that precisely placed and cut rubylith to create photomasks for early integrated circuits including some of the earliest generations of the modern PC microprocessor. The coordinatograph produced layout would then be photographically reduced 100:1 to create the production photomask.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Corporate Technology Directory also known as the CorpTech directory of technology companies was a directory of technology companies published from 1986-2004 by CorpTech. It listed thousands of technology companies including software, services, and hardware as well as developers.\nThe directory was later made available in digital form as a cd and subsequently database subscription.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Courreges Zooop was a three-seat electric concept car built in 2006 by the Paris-based fashion house Maison de Courr\u00e8ges.The Zooop's electric powertrain produced 150 kW (201 hp) and reportedly had a range of 450 km (280 mi), with a curb weight of 690 kg (1,521 lb). The car was not produced for a car manufacturer, but by the fashion design house Maison de Courr\u00e8ges, which did not promote the car outside of France.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In integrated circuit design, a critical area refers to the area of a circuit design wherein a particle of a particular size can cause a failure.  It measures the sensitivity of the circuit to a reduction in yield.\n\nSee EE Times", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "CRYSTAL is a quantum chemistry ab initio program, designed primarily for calculations on crystals (3 dimensions), slabs (2 dimensions) and polymers (1 dimension) using translational symmetry, but it can also be used for single molecules. It is written by V.R. Saunders, R. Dovesi, C. Roetti, R. Orlando, C.M. Zicovich-Wilson, N.M. Harrison, K. Doll, B. Civalleri, I.J. Bush, Ph. D\u2019Arco, and M. Llunell from Theoretical Chemistry Group at the University of Torino and the Computational Materials Science Group at the Daresbury Laboratory near Warrington in Cheshire, England. The current version is CRYSTAL17. Earlier versions were CRYSTAL88, CRYSTAL92, CRYSTAL95, CRYSTAL98, CRYSTAL03, CRYSTAL06, CRYSTAL09 and CRYSTAL14 (latter was released in June 2014).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Cut-off factor (AKA \"cut-off length\") is a factor  used to calculate the length of a hose cut to achieve the desired overall length of hose plus fittings. It is commonly seen in hydraulic hose and fitting specifications. The cut-off factor is specific to a particular hose fitting.\nThe formula used in calculating the optimum overall length is:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        C\n        u\n        t\n         \n        H\n        o\n        s\n        e\n         \n        L\n        e\n        n\n        g\n        t\n        h\n         \n        =\n        H\n        o\n        s\n        e\n         \n        A\n        s\n        s\n        e\n        m\n        b\n        l\n        y\n         \n        O\n        v\n        e\n        r\n        a\n        l\n        l\n         \n        L\n        e\n        n\n        g\n        t\n        h\n        \u2212\n        C\n        1\n        \u2212\n        C\n        2\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Cut\\ Hose\\ Length\\ =Hose\\ Assembly\\ Overall\\ Length-C1-C2}\n  .\nIn this formula, C1 represents the cut-off factor of the first hose end and C2 represents the cut-off factor of the second hose end.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Cyber geography is mapping the physical network of broadband cables.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Cyclic pump is an apparatus which moves a fluid in a periodic uni-directional direction from one containment system to another while overcoming static conditions that would, without intervention, not move.  The intervention predicated by the pump alters pressures, volumes and sometimes temperatures of fluids (gaseous, liquid, colloidal, plasmic, etc.) in such a way that the fluids are transported to other chambers or enclosures (including pipes), thus \"flowing\" in a consistent direction, usually having characteristics of pulsation (as is the case with the Human heart) or of uniform motion (as is the case with an Automobile motor oil pump).  Cyclic pumps are generally incorporated into machines to deal with all sorts of fluids associated with that machine's functionality.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Cylinder Head Temperature gauge (CHT) measures the cylinder head temperature of an engine. Commonly used on air-cooled engines, the head temperature gauge displays the work that the engine is performing more quickly than an oil or water temperature gauge. As the engine works at high speed or uphill, head temperature will increase quickly. The meter can be digital or analog.\nAn air-cooled engine requires a steady flow of air for cooling. Most air-cooled engines have thermostats controlling air doors or flaps to help the engine reach operating temperature as quickly as possible. Any failure of the cooling system will cause engine failure via scuffed piston skirts. Air-cooled engines are used in aircraft engine control and other air-cooled engines as in cars and air-cooled motorcycles.\n\nThe CHT sender usually has a K-type thermocouple that is mounted under the spark plug. The K-type thermocouple is a pair of two dissimilar metals that produce a small voltage signal when heated. The metal closest to the spark plug is called the hot junction and the other, closest to the head, the cold junction. The ring under the spark plug is used to transfer the heat from the plug to the thermocouple. The gauge and cold junction are usually calibrated at room temperature,  72 \u00b0F (22 \u00b0C).  Because the thermocouple is calibrated for room temperature, the gauge readings will only be 100% accurate at that engine compartment temperature. If the engine compartment temperature is colder, the CHT temperature will display higher. If the engine compartment temperature is higher, the reading will be lower.  The error can be corrected with a cold-junction compensating thermistor, which measures the temperature at the cold junction so the gauge can adjust the reading. Low budget gauges do not have this compensating thermistor.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The neXt Generation program or XG is a technology development project sponsored by DARPA's Strategic Technology Office, with the goals to \"develop both the enabling technologies and system concepts to dynamically redistribute allocated spectrum along with novel waveforms in order to provide dramatic improvements in assured military communications in support of a full range of worldwide deployments.\" It is financed by the United States government within the aim of developing a de facto standard for cognitive radio and dynamic spectrum regulation.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Data auditing is the process of conducting a data audit to assess how company's data is fit for given purpose. This involves profiling the data and assessing the impact of poor quality data on the organization's performance and profits. It can include the determination of the clarity of the data sources and can be applied in the way banks and rating agencies perform due diligence with regard to the treatment of raw data given by firms, particularly the identification of faulty data.Data auditing can also refer to the audit of a system to determine its efficacy in performing its function. For instance, it can entail the evaluation of the information systems of the IT departments to determine whether they are effective in protecting the integrity of critical data. As an auditing tool, it can detect fraud, intrusions, and other security problems.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "dBc (decibels relative to the carrier) is the power ratio of a signal to a carrier signal, expressed in decibels. For example, phase noise is expressed in dBc/Hz at a given frequency offset from the carrier. dBc can also be used as a measurement of Spurious-Free Dynamic Range (SFDR) between the desired signal and unwanted spurious outputs resulting from the use of signal converters such as a digital-to-analog converter or a frequency mixer.\nIf the dBc figure is positive, then the relative signal strength is greater than the carrier signal strength.  If the dBc figure is negative, then the relative signal strength is less than carrier signal strength.\nAlthough the decibel (dB) is permitted for use alongside SI units, the dBc is not.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "DC Rainmaker is a blog by Ray Maker that reviews technology used for runners, cyclists, and triathletes. It was started in September 2007.In the February 2015 web traffic chart of ad-supported bike websites, DC Rainmaker was listed sixth in terms of North American traffic and overall traffic by Bicycle Retailer & Industry News (BRAIN). BRAIN described DC Rainmaker as the \"paper of record\" for bicycling technology and highlighted his strong ethical independence: Maker does not accept free product or travel from companies, nor does he accept advertising from them. However DC Rainmaker does earn money from links provided to the products on Amazon and receives products in beta stage  from companies.\nMaker lives in Amsterdam and is from Seattle, Washington.\nMaker was listed in Runner's World as one of \"The 50 Most Influential People In Running\".", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The US DCL (Detection Classification and Localisation) demonstrator program is aimed at proving that an active torpedo detection system is able to resolve a salvo of torpedoes with sufficient time and accuracy that an anti-torpedo torpedo may be fired back to hit and destroy the threat.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A debubblizer is a surface tension reducing agent that is used to reduce the prevalence of bubbles in industrial processes such as wax casting. In some manufacturing operations, it is also referred to as surfactant or a wetting agent that is sprayed on the set impression material (e.g. to improve wettability). Its reduction of surface tension allows adherence of investment to pattern or cast. Without this solution, air bubbles tend to be trapped in plaster slurries once they are cast against impression materials (e.g. silicone rubbers) or wax casting patterns.In engineering, debubblizer pertains to an individual or a device that removes bubbles from plastic tubing or rods.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Decapping (decapsulation) or delidding of an integrated circuit is the process of removing the protective cover or integrated heat spreader (IHS) of an integrated circuit so that the contained die is revealed for visual inspection of the micro circuitry imprinted on the die. This process is typically done in order to debug a manufacturing problem with the chip, or possibly to copy information from the device, to check for counterfeit chips or to reverse engineer it. Companies such as TechInsights and ChipRebel decap, take die shots of, and reverse engineer chips for customers. Modern integrated circuits can be encapsulated in plastic, ceramic, or epoxy packages.\nDelidding may also be done in an effort to reduce the operating temperatures of an integrated circuit such as a processor, by replacing the thermal interface material (TIM) between the die and the IHS with a higher-quality TIM. With care, it's possible to decap a device and still leave it functional.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Decontamination (sometimes abbreviated as decon, dcon, or decontam) is the process of removing contaminants on an object or area, including chemicals, micro-organisms or radioactive substances. This may be achieved by chemical reaction, disinfection or physical removal. It refers to specific action taken to reduce the hazard posed by such contaminants, as opposed to general cleaning.\nDecontamination is most commonly used in medical environments, including dentistry, surgery and veterinary science, in the process of food preparation, in environmental science, and in forensic science.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In engineering, defect tracking is the process of tracking the logged defects in a product from beginning to closure (by inspection, testing, or recording feedback from customers), and making new versions of the product that fix the defects. Defect tracking is important in software engineering as complex software systems typically have tens or hundreds or thousands of defects: managing, evaluating and prioritizing these defects is a difficult task. When the numbers of defects gets quite large, and the defects need to be tracked over extended periods of time, use of a defect tracking system can make the management task much easier.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "DMIF, or Delivery Multimedia Integration Framework, is a uniform interface between the application and the transport, that allows the MPEG-4 application developer to stop worrying about that transport. DMIF was defined in MPEG-4 Part 6 (ISO/IEC 14496-6) in 1999. DMIF defines two interfaces: the DAI (DMIF/Application Interface) and the DNI (DMIF-Network Interface). A single application can run on different transport layers when supported by the right DMIF instantiation.\nMPEG-4 DMIF supports the following functionalities:\n\nA transparent MPEG-4 DMIF-application interface irrespective of whether the peer is a remote interactive peer, broadcast or local storage media.\nControl of the establishment of FlexMux channels\nUse of homogeneous networks between interactive peers: IP, ATM, mobile, PSTN, narrowband ISDN.\nSupport for mobile networks, developed together with ITU-T\nUserCommands with acknowledgment messages.\nManagement of MPEG-4 Sync Layer informationDMIF expands upon the MPEG-2 DSM-CC standard (ISO/IEC 13818-6:1998) to enable the convergence of interactive, broadcast and conversational multimedia into one specification which will be applicable to set tops, desktops and mobile stations. The DSM-CC work was extended as part of the ISO/IEC 14496-6, with the DSM-CC Multimedia Integration Framework (DMIF). DSM-CC stands for Digital Storage Media - Command and Control. DMIF was also a name of working group within Moving Picture Experts Group. The acronym \"DSM-CC\" was replaced by \"Delivery\" (Delivery Multimedia Integration Framework) in 1997.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A device under test (DUT), also known as equipment under test (EUT) and unit under test (UUT), is a manufactured product undergoing testing, either at first manufacture or later during its life cycle as part of ongoing functional testing and calibration checks. This can include a test after repair to establish that the product is performing in accordance with the original product specification.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "DEX (data exchange) is a format for collecting audit and event data from vending machines.\nDEX was introduced in the late 1980s by bottlers who provided product to vending machines.  It was intended to improve auditing of vending machines, simplify inventory management. DEX records cash in/out, product movement and other audit data. The format was adopted as a standard by the National Automatic Merchandising Association Technology Committee after it was already in use by bottlers.  It was included in NAMA VDI version 1.0, announced in 2009.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Diablo Data Systems was a division of Xerox created by the acquisition of Diablo Systems Inc. \nfor US$29 million in 1972, a company which had been founded in 1969 by George E. Comstock, Charles L. Waggoner and others.\n\nThe company was best known for the HyType I and HyType II typewriter-based computer terminals, the Diablo 630 daisywheel printers, as well as removable hard disk drives that were used in the Xerox Alto computer and resold by DEC as the RK02 and RK03.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A digicon detector is a spatially resolved light detector using the photoelectric effect directly.  It uses magnetic and electric fields operating in a vacuum to focus the electrons released from a photocathode by incoming light onto a collection of silicon diodes.  It is a photon-counting instrument, so most useful for weak sources. One of digicon's advantages is its very large dynamic range and it results from the short response and decay times of silicon diodes.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Digital component video is defined by the ITU-R BT.601 (formerly CCIR 601) standard and uses the Y'CbCr colorspace. The specific encoding of ITU-R BT.656 was used to transmit uncompressed analog standard-definition television component signals in a multiplexed digital format.\nLike analog component video, it gets its name from the fact that the video signal has been split into two or more components, that are then carried on multiple conductors between devices.\nDigital component video is used in both computer and home-theatre applications, such as . It was the internal signalling (as opposed to, e.g. RGB) in MiniDV, DV, and Digital Betacam\nComponent video can carry signals such as 480i, 480p, 576i, 576p, 720p, 1080i and 1080p, although many TVs do not support 1080p through component video.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Digital Fine Contrast is a contrast-enhancing display technology introduced in 2006 by LG Display. It is used in the company's \"Flatron\" line of TFT monitors and implements a 'smart function' whereby it dynamically detects the characteristics of each frame to be displayed and automatically adjusts its contrast to obtain a sharper and more vivid image. The system comprises three units: ACR (Auto Contents Recognition), DCE (Digital Contrast Enhancer) and DCM (Digital Contrast Mapper).The initial announcement claimed monitors with DFC could achieve a contrast ratio of 1600:1, while later products have been presented as capable of ratios even as high as 2,000,000:1, and there are SAMSUNG LCD TV sets that claim 500,000:1 with LCD monitors claiming 5,000,000:1.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Digital integration is the idea that data or information on any given electronic device can be read or manipulated by another device using a standard format. From the digital culture perspective, on the other hand, it is defined as an organization drive to leverage the broad capabilities and vast efficiencies of digital technology and media in order to provide consumers relevance and value. It is also employed in digital governance and could refer to the inter-agency cooperation and intergovernmental collaboration across units at multiple levels of government. The phenomenon is considered a basic megatrend in the so-called knowledge civilization.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Digital Serial Interface (DSI) is a protocol for the controlling of lighting in buildings (initially electrical ballasts).  It was created in 1991  by Austrian company Tridonic and is based on Manchester-coded 8-bit protocol, data rate of 1200 baud, 1 start bit, 8 data bits (dimming value), 4 stop bits, and is the basis of the more sophisticated protocol Digital Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI).\nThe technology uses a single byte to communicate the lighting level (0-255 or 0x00-0xFF). DSI was the first use of digital communication in lighting control, and was the precursor to DALI.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Digital transition refers to the process of moving an existing analog system to a digital format. Used without further qualifiers, the term normally refers to the move from analog television to digital television, the digital television transition. Other examples include digital radio services and the conversion of other broadcast standards.\nThe term is sometimes used to describe the digitization of other formats like the conversion of books to electronic format, but these tasks normally fall under the topic of digital transformation.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A DIP reader (Document Insertion Processor) is an electronic device for reading an electronically encoded card that is inserted and then removed from the device.\nA typical dip reader is used for reading credit cards where the data are either encoded on a magnetic stripe or an internal computer chip. The magnetic stripe on a card is typically read as the card is extracted. If the card is a smart card, then the data transfer typically takes place when the card is fully inserted. In this case, the card is held while data transfer is taking place.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A disc filter is a type of water filter used primarily in irrigation, similar to a screen filter, except that the filter cartridge is made of a number of plastic discs stacked on top of each other like a pile of poker chips.  Each disc is covered with small grooves or bumps.  The discs (or rings) each have a hole in the middle, forming a hollow cylinder in the middle of the stack. The water passes through the small passages in between and the impurities are trapped behind.The filtration quality is based on the quantity and size of particles that the filtering element is able to retain.  Higher quality filtration simply means cleaner water.  This depends on the geometry of the channels, including the size, length, angle, and number of generated intersection points.  The discs are typically color coded to denote the level of filtration.  Filtration quality is usually measured in microns, based on the smallest size particle filtered.  The typical range is from 25 microns for the finest level of filtration to 400 microns for the coarsest.  Sometimes the filtration quality is given as the equivalent mesh size of a comparable screen filter.  Typical mesh sizes range from 40 to 600.  When using mesh sizes, 40 is the coarsest and 600 is the finest or highest level of filtration.\nDisc filters range in size from small units with a 3/4\" inlet and outlet used for landscape drip irrigation systems to very large banks of multiple filters manifolded together used for filtering large volumes of water for agricultural and industrial applications.Some disc filters, especially the smaller ones, must be taken apart and cleaned by hand.  Many of the larger ones can be backflushed in such a way that the discs are able to separate and spin during the cleaning cycle. In some cases, a booster pump may be required for backflushing.  Disc filters can be used for many types of contaminants, including fine sand and organic matter.  However, when used to filter organic matter, they will clog more quickly than a media filter and will have to be cleaned more often.  One advantage that the disc filter has over the media filter is that it can backflush more quickly with less flush water.Disc filters used in agricultural irrigation are covered by the ISO 9912-2 standard.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In theoretical computer science, a discrete system is a system with a countable number of states. Discrete systems may be contrasted with continuous systems, which may also be called analog systems. A final discrete system is often modeled with a directed graph and is analyzed for correctness and complexity according to computational theory. Because discrete systems have a countable number of states, they may be described in precise mathematical models.\nA computer is a finite state machine that may be viewed as a discrete system. Because computers are often used to model not only other discrete systems but continuous systems as well, methods have been developed to represent real-world continuous systems as discrete systems. One such method involves sampling a continuous signal at discrete time intervals.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Dishmaker is a machine which thermoforms cups, bowls, and plates from acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate) plastic discs and then thermoforms them back into discs when they are done being used. It was about the size of a home dishwasher, and could store hundreds of discs for potential dishes.\nIt was designed by Leonardo Bonanni for the Counter Intelligence Group, which was active from January 1999 to January 2007 as part of the MIT Media Lab. The Media Lab is an antidisciplinary laboratory, and the Counter Intelligence Group was focused on \"developing a digitally connected, self-aware kitchen with knowledge and memory of its activities\".Returning the dishes to disc form was aided by the shape-memory property of acrylic.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "DocHub is an online PDF annotator and document signing platform that can work on desktop platforms and mobile platforms; founded by DocHub and Macroplant CEO Chris Devor in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, with headquarter regions in the Greater Boston Area, East Coast, and New England. DocHub has several features that lets users add text, draw, add signatures and make document templates.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Doom9 is a website featuring information on digital audio and video manipulation (mostly video) and digital copyrights. It is also the forum username of the author of the page, an Austrian who was a college student at the time of the creation of the site. The site's tagline is \"The Definitive DVD Backup Resource\".\nStarted in March 2000, the site has expanded to contain a wide range of information on the subject of digital video encoding and DVD backup (or ripping). The most popular sections of the site were the guides to DVD ripping and the annual codec comparisons, where popular digital video codecs were compared on the basis of quality, speed, and compression. The forum is frequented by many developers of the tools and codecs featured on the site, such as FairUse4WM.\nThe VirtualDubMod project began after many modifications to VirtualDub were posted on the Doom9 forums.Doom9 gained notoriety as a result of its involvement in the AACS encryption key controversy. The utility BackupHDDVD was first posted by a Doom9 poster using the alias muslix64. The earliest information on how to find title and volume keys was also first revealed on Doom9 forums, by other users. The key that set off the controversy was also first posted by a user using the name arnezami.Doom9 is also known for being the main discussion forum for many major video encoding tools, such as x264, AviSynth and MeGUI.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The double-density compact disc (DDCD) is an optical disc technology developed by Sony using the same laser wavelength as a compact disc, namely 780 nm. The format is defined by the Purple Book standard document. Unlike the compact-disc technology it is based on, DDCD was designed exclusively for data with no audio capabilities. For a 12 cm disc, it doubles the original 650 MB to 1.3 GB capacity of a CD on recordable (DDCD-R) and rewritable (DDCD-RW) discs by narrowing the track pitch from 1.6 to 1.1 micrometers, and shortening the minimum pit length from 0.833 to 0.623 micrometers. The DDCD was also available in read-only format (DDCD-ROM). The specification allowed for both 12 cm and 8 cm discs, although it appears no 8 cm media was ever released.\nThe technology, released years after rewritable DVD technology, failed to acquire significant market share. The only DDCD recorder introduced was the Sony CRX200E. While the initial launch price of the drive and the disc ($249 and $2-3 respectively) was lower than the prices of DVD-RW drives and media ($1000 and $10 respectively), an 85% increase in storage compared to the standard 700 MB CDs was not enough to entice customers. A similar technology, however, was used in the GD-ROM discs primarily used for Sega Dreamcast software. DVD offered a significantly higher capacity - nearly four times more than DDCD-R with 4.7 GB on single layer discs and six and a half times more with 8.5 GB on double layer discs and would drop significantly in cost in the years after DDCD's launch.\nThe DDCD technology was marked as 'legacy' in the 2006-edition of the SCSI Multimedia Commands set (MMC).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A duckbill valve is a check valve, usually manufactured from rubber or synthetic elastomer, and has 2 (or more) flaps, usually shaped like the beak of a duck.   It is commonly used in medical applications to prevent contamination due to backflow.\n\nOne end of the valve is stretched over the outlet of a supply line, conforming itself to the shape of the line, usually round.  The other end, the duckbill, retains its natural flattened shape.  When a fluid is pumped through the supply line and therefore the duckbill, the flattened end opens to permit the pressurized fluid to pass.  When pressure is removed, however, the duckbill end returns to its flattened shape, preventing backflow. \nThe duckbill valve is similar in function to the mitral valve in the heart. See also Heimlich valve.\nA trifold form of this valve, known as a joker valve, is used in one popular marine toilet.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The DVD6C Licensing Agency or DVD6C Licensing Group is an industry consortium which licenses a portfolio of patents required to produce DVD discs, players, drives, recorders, decoders, and encoders.\nThe group comprises 9  members: Hitachi, JVC, Matsushita (Panasonic), Mitsubishi, Sanyo, Sharp, Toshiba,  Warner Home Video and Samsung.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Editcam is a professional digital camera system manufactured by Ikegami and first introduced in 1995, available both as professional camcorders and modular dock recorders. It is the first ever tapeless field acquisition device and has evolved into a range of SD and HD cameras. As a portable camera system, it can record digital video data direct to a hard disk drive (HDD).The editcam's most distinguishing feature is the recording medium: The FieldPak, which is a cartridge that contains an IDE hard disk with up to 120 GB of storage, or its compatible companion, the RAMPak, a flash memory module with up to 16 GB. A 120 GB capacity FieldPak translates to some 9 hours of DV25 video.  Both, unlike tape-based formats, allow random access to the video data, and both standalone Video cassette recorder (VCR) replacement players and computer adaptor racks are available for the Paks. This made the Editcam a pioneer in the field of non-linear acquisition, but the earliest incarnations of the Editcam were plagued with high power consumption and weight and sold only about 50 units[1]. These problems were addressed with the Editcam II in 1999. \nThe latest generation of the Editcam system, Editcam3, can record in the formats Avid JFIF, DV and optionally MPEG IMX and DVCPRO50. HDTV variants are now also available, which record in the Avid DNxHD format.  Introduced at NAB 2005, the Editcam HD allows for video capture at 145 Mbit/s.  Employing CMOS sensors, the camera record files natively in 1080i or 720P and at several bitrates. One of its most notable products is the HDN-X10 Editcam HD camera, which was adopted by the American Idol production company in its bid to save drive space. It is capable of storing images in full resolution on the FieldPak2 removable media using the Avid DNxHD codec in MXF file format.The Editcam product family is a result of the development of CamCutter technology developed jointly by Ikegami and Avid Technology.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An electric boiler is a device that uses electrical energy to boil water.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An electric dragbike is an electric motorcycle used for drag racing.\nElectric dragsters have come of age with new developments in battery and motor technology. Electric motors powered by lithium cells can deliver power-to-weight ratios similar to high performance gasoline engines. Drag races last around ten seconds so battery range is not an issue. A number of electric dragbikes and dragsters (cars) are competing with Top Fuel classes.  Electric drag racing records are listed at NEDRA.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Electric tweezers are an electronic device intended to permanently remove hair. The design incorporates a pair of tweezers at the tip. A button on the side of the handle is used to simultaneously close the tweezer tips and turn on the high-frequency electrical signal. The electrical signal is intended to cause the connection of the hair to its root to be weakened and to stop hair growth from the root in a manner similar to electrolysis.\nSome electric tweezers have been described using the term electrolysis tweezer epilator or tweezer epilator, but their operation is quite different from that of epilators.\nThe US FDA has a definition of permanent hair removal, which these devices have been unable to meet. The FDA definition is such that a device can qualify and yet be ineffective for some people.\nPlucking (tweezing) is often described as time consuming. Because the tweezers operate on only one hair at a time and it requires several seconds of application on each hair, this technique is even slower than normal tweezing. The US FDA suggests that, because of the difficulty of using these devices, many people end up effectively only using them as tweezers, with no permanent hair removal.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Electro-stimulation is stimulation using electricity.  \nIt can be used in the context of:\n\nAnimal husbandry as part of the artificial insemination process\nBioelectromagnetics\nCranial electrotherapy stimulation\nTranscranial magnetic stimulation\nElectrical muscle stimulation\nBio-electric stimulation therapy\nFunctional electrical stimulation\nErotic electrostimulation, sometimes a form of BDSM", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The electro-kinetic road ramp is a method of generating electricity by harnessing the kinetic energy of automobiles that drive over the ramp. In June 2009, one of the devices was installed in the car park at a Sainsbury's supermarket in Gloucester, United Kingdom, where it provides enough electricity to run all of the store's cash registers. The ramp was invented by Peter Hughes, an electrical and mechanical engineer who is employed by Highway Energy Systems Ltd. The company says that under normal traffic conditions, the apparatus will produce 30 kW of electricity. Other proposed applications for the road ramps include powering street and traffic lights, heating roads in the winter to prevent ice from forming, and ventilating tunnels to reduce pollution.The idea was dismissed as Talk of 'kinetic energy plates' is a total waste of energy in the Guardian  by David MacKay, the professor of natural philosophy in the department of Physics at the University of Cambridge. MacKay wrote, \"The savings from parking at the green car park thus amount to one four-thousandth of the energy used by the trip to the supermarket.\"", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Electrolier is a fixture for holding electric lamps. Normally, the term designates an elaborate light fixture suspended from above,  such as a large, multi-bulb pendant light.  Additionally, the term is used by architects in the United States to refer to electric street lights or any exterior light fixture mounted on a pole or standard.  The word is analogous to chandelier, from which it was formed.An example usage of the term is found in Sir John Betjeman\u2019s poem \"The Metropolitan Railway - Baker Street Station Buffet\" from his collection \"A Few Late Chrysanthemums\" (1954): \n\"Early Electric! With what radiant hope / Men formed this many-branched electrolier, / Twisted the flex around the iron rope / And let the dazzling vacuum globes hang clear, / And then with hearts the rich contrivance fill\u2019d / Of copper, beaten by the Bromsgrove Guild.\"", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Electromagnetic Source Imaging is a functional imaging technique, which uses Electroencephalography and/or Magnetoencephalography measurements to map functional areas of the Cerebral cortex.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The purpose of electromechanical modeling is to model and simulate an electromechanical system, such that its physical parameters can be examined before the actual system is built. Parameter estimation utilizing different estimation theory coupled with physical experiments and physical realization by doing proper stability criteria evaluation of the overall system is the major objective of electromechanical modeling. Theory driven mathematical model can be used or applied to other system to judge the performance of the joint system as a whole. This is a well known and proven technique for designing large control system for industrial as well as academic multi-disciplinary complex system. This technique is also being employed in MEMS technology recently.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An electronic badge (or electronic conference badge) is a gadget that is a replacement for a traditional paper-based badge or pass issued at public events. It is mainly handed out at computer (security) conferences and hacker events. Their main feature is to display the name of the attendee, but due to their electronic nature they can include a variety of software. The badges were originally a tradition at DEF CON, but spread across different events.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is the electronic transfer of money from one bank account to another, either within a single financial institution or across multiple institutions, via computer-based systems, without the direct intervention of bank staff.\nAccording to the United States Electronic Fund Transfer Act of 1978 it is \"a funds transfer initiated through an electronic terminal, telephone, computer (including on-line banking) or magnetic tape for the purpose of ordering, instructing, or authorizing a financial institution to debit or credit a consumer's account\".EFT transactions are known by a number of names across countries and different payment systems.  For example, in the United States, they may be referred to as \"electronic checks\" or \"e-checks\". In the United Kingdom, the term \"bank transfer\" and \"bank payment\" are used, in Canada, \"e-transfer\" is used, while in several other European countries \"giro transfer\" is the common term.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The electronic personal dosimeter (EPD) is a modern electronic  dosimeter  for estimating uptake of ionising radiation dose of the individual wearing it for radiation protection purposes. The electronic personal dosimeter has the advantages over older types that it has a number of sophisticated functions, such as continuous monitoring which allows alarm warnings at preset levels and live readout of dose accumulated. It can be reset to zero after use, and most models allow near field electronic communications for automatic reading and resetting. \nThey are typically worn on the outside of clothing, such as on the chest or torso to represent dose to the whole body.  This location monitors exposure of most vital organs and represents the bulk of body mass.  \nThese are especially useful in high dose areas where residence time of the wearer is limited due to dose constraints.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Eltro information rate changer was an analog recording tool used to modulate pitch without changing speed and vice-versa. Patents for the device date back to the 1920s. The Eltro was the first technology capable of changing audio pitch (frequency) and speed (time) independently from one another.\nThe technology was developed in Germany by engineer Anton Marian Springer (1909-1964). The Eltro was an accessory device that worked in conjunction with a reel-to-reel tape recorder. Recorders compatible with the Eltro became widely available in the 1950s. The device was first publicly demonstrated in 1953. By the mid 1960s the Eltro was a relatively common piece of equipment in many recording studios.\nThe Eltro was often used to adjust the timing of radio commercials to fit them into 30 second or 60 second slots. By using the Eltro a recording engineer could have greater control over the exact length of a commercial, while at the same time leaving pitch unaltered. It could also be used for a variety of musical effects.\nMusician and recording engineer Wendy Carlos used an Eltro Mark II machine at Gotham Recording Studios in New York City in the 1960s. The Beach Boys used it to create high pitch vocal effects on the song She's Goin' Bald recorded in Los Angeles in 1967.\nThe Eltro is probably best known from use in the 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey. The effect of the Eltro was applied to the voice of actor Douglas Rain, playing the part of the HAL 9000 computer. In the film, both the pitch and speed of HAL's voice gradually drop at different rates while the computer is deactivated. The final effect was created by passing the actor's voice through the Eltro two times.\nThe Eltro worked with mono recordings and processed only one audio channel at a time. It fell out of common use during the 1970s. Later devices were developed to shift pitch by using a variety of electronic technologies. Many of these had stereo capability. With the widespread availability of digital recording in the 1980s it became possible to more easily control pitch and speed with software, while avoiding expensive and highly specialized analog equipment. Digital audio workstation software can now achieve the same effects more easily and at lower cost.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An embedded flashing-light system or an in-pavement flashing-light system is a type of device that is used at existing or new pedestrian crosswalks to warn drivers of oncoming pedestrian traffic. The device usually consists of LED lights that are embedded into the roadway alongside the crosswalk and are oriented to face oncoming traffic. When a pedestrian approaches the crosswalk, the system is activated and the LED lights begin to flash simultaneously. These lights are programmed to flash for a period of time that is sufficient for an average pedestrian to cross.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An Emergency Disconnect Package (EDP) is a piece of equipment used in the drilling and work-over (servicing or modification) of deep sea oil & gas wells, by Mobile Offshore Drilling Rigs (MODU's) and Well Intervention Vessels (WIV's). The EDP is designed for use in an emergency, when the MODU or WIV needs to quickly disconnect, and move away from the oil/gas well that it is drilling or working-over.  Examples of when this might be necessary include unexpected extreme weather that exceeds the MODU/Vessel's capability to maintain its position. \nUnder normal operating conditions, the MODU/WIV (which is floating on the sea surface) is connected to the oil/gas well (which is drilled in the sea bed) by a vertical (or near-vertical) piece of steel pipe, called a marine riser.  Tools and fluids are moved within the marine riser as required to/from the well. At the bottom of the marine riser, the EDP and other components that connect the riser to the well and allow the well to be shut-in when required, constitute a 'Lower Riser Package' (LRP). \nWhen required to do so, the EDP disconnects from the LRP and isolates the riser from the environment. Thus the EDP allows the MODU/WIV to safely and quickly disconnect from the subsea well and move away in an emergency.  The EDP is designed to carry out its function while under load with a high disconnection angle.\nAn EDP consists of a connector to the rest of the LRP, an isolation valve, an accumulator, a subsea control module and a connection point at the top for connection to the riser pipe. A production retainer valve shuts in the riser and the annulus master valve shuts in the riser. A crossover valve allows circulation of the riser after disconnection.\n<refs. IADC Drilling Lexicon / API RP 17G, Recommended Practice for Completion/Workover Risers /  API RP 96, Deepwater Well Design and Construction / GSO Engineering>", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The EmTech (short for \"Emerging Technologies\") conference, produced by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Technology Review magazine, is an annual conference highlighting invention and new developments in engineering and technology.  Started in 1999, the 2011 conference is planned for October 18\u201319 at MIT. Emtech is also organised in different regions such as in Europe, MENA, Latin America, Asia Pacific, China and India.In addition to two days of presentations, the conference highlights the winners of the annual TR35 award, recognizing the world's top 35 innovators under the age of 35. Some of the most famous winners of the award include Larry Page and Sergey Brin (creators of Google), Mark Zuckerberg (creator of Facebook), Jack Dorsey (creator of Twitter), and Konstantin Novoselov, who later won the Nobel Prize in Physics.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Encompass, the Enterprise Computing Association, was the original computer user group for business customers of Hewlett-Packard. Encompass's history began with DECUS, founded in 1961, for customers of the Digital Equipment Corporation, which was acquired in 1998 by Compaq.\nThe U.S. Chapter incorporated as the user group Encompass U.S.\nHewlett-Packard acquired Compaq in 2002. Encompass continued as an HP user group, aimed at business customers of all of HP's hardware, software, and services.\nThe Encompass mission was to promote technical information exchange among its members and between the members and Hewlett-Packard.\nThe Connect User Group Community, formed from the consolidation in May 2008 of Encompass, Interex EMEA, and ITUG is Hewlett-Packard's largest user community representing more than 50,000 participants. See Connect (users group) for more information.\nThe Encompass Board at the time of the consolidation consisted of Nina Buik, Kristi Browder, Glen Kuykendall, Anthony Ioele, Steve Davidek, Dena Wright, John Maynen, Clyde Poole, and Bill Johnson.  Two former directors were credited with being instrumental in facilitating the consolidation, Chris Koppe and Jim Becker.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Engine turning, also known as jewelling, is a fine geometric pattern turned onto metal as a finish. Aluminium is often the metal chosen to inscribe, but any appropriate surface can be finely machined to produce intricate repetitive patterns that offer reflective interest and fine detail.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Equivalent input (also input-referred, referred-to-input (RTI), or input-related), is a method of referring to the signal or noise level at the output of a system as if it were an input to the same system. This is accomplished by removing all signal changes (e.g. amplifier gain, transducer sensitivity, etc.) to get the units to match the input.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Euronorm (also referred to as the European Standard) is an international technical standard for a wide variety of commercial and industrial activities that has been recognized as applicable in the European Union. It has been prepared by CEN member states. The standards may be identical to international standards of the ISO or IEC, or have editorial or technical content changes for applicability in the European Union, with changes annexed to the international standard, or may be originated by a European standards organization. \nThe organizations recognized by EU regulations to establish standards include CEN, CENELEC and ETSI.  The current trend in Europe is oriented towards the harmonization of national standards under the Euronorm family. Here, Euronorm becomes the equivalent of a national standard in all member countries and replaces any prior conflicting national standard. For instance, the United Kingdom is gradually replacing its British standards with the BS EN Standards, which is the English language version of the Euronorm.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An excitation filter is a high quality optical-glass filter commonly used in fluorescence microscopy and spectroscopic applications for selection of the excitation wavelength of light from a light source. Most excitation filters select light of relatively short wavelengths from an excitation light source, as only those wavelengths would carry enough energy to cause the object the microscope is examining to fluoresce sufficiently. The excitation filters used may come in two main types \u2014 short pass filters and band pass filters. Variations of these filters exist in the form of notch filters or deep blocking filters (commonly employed as emission filters). Other forms of excitation filters include the use of monochromators, wedge prisms coupled with a narrow slit (for selection of the excitation light) and the use of holographic diffraction gratings, etc. [for beam diffraction of white laser light into the required excitation wavelength (selected for by a narrow slit)].\nAn excitation filter is commonly packaged with an emission filter and a dichroic beam splitter in a cube so that the group is inserted together into the microscope. The dichroic beam splitter controls which wavelengths of light go to their respective filter.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An exhaust gas temperature gauge (EGT gauge or EGT sensor) is a meter used to monitor the exhaust gas temperature of an internal combustion engine in conjunction with a thermocouple-type pyrometer.  EGT gauges are found in certain cars and aeroplanes. By monitoring EGT, the driver or pilot can get an idea of the vehicle's air-fuel ratio (AFR).\nAt a stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, the exhaust gas temperature is different from that in a lean or rich air-fuel ratio. At rich air-fuel ratio, the exhaust gas temperature either increases or decreases depending on the fuel. High temperatures (typically above 1,600 \u00b0F or 900 \u00b0C) can be an indicator of dangerous conditions that can lead to catastrophic engine failure.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An explosive-driven ferroelectric generator (EDFEG, explosively pumped ferroelectric generator, EPFEG, or FEG) is a compact pulsed power generator, a device used for generation of short high-voltage high-current pulse. The energies available are fairly low, in the range of single joules, the voltages range in tens of kilovolts to over 100 kV, and the powers range in hundreds of kilowatts to megawatts.[1] They are suitable for delivering high voltage pulses to high-impedance loads and can directly drive radiating circuits.\nECFEGs operate by releasing the electrical charge stored in the poled crystal structure of a suitable ferroelectric material, e.g. PZT, by an intense mechanical shock.[2] They are a kind of phase transition generators.\nThe structure of an EDFEG is generally a block of a suitable high explosive, accelerating a metal plate into a target made of ferroelectric material.[3]\nFEGs find multiple uses due to their compact character; charging banks of capacitors, initiation of slapper detonator arrays in nuclear weapons and other devices, driving nuclear fusion reactions, powering pulsed neutron generators, seed power sources for stronger pulse generators (e.g. EPFCGs), electromagnetic pulse generators, electromagnetic weapons, vector inversion generators, etc.\nA 2.4 megawatt HERF generator (an EDFEG with a pulse forming network directly driving a dipole antenna) with peak output frequency at 21.4 MHz was demonstrated.[4]", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Extended newsvendor models are variations of the classic newsvendor model involving production capacity constraints, multiple products, multiple production cycles, demand dependent selling price, etc. that appear in the Operations management literature.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Facebook Bluetooth Beacon is a hardware beacon released by Facebook in 2015. The beacon uses a bluetooth connection to communicate with the Facebook app on the user's smartphone, informing it of the phone's location. The technology allows location-specific advertising to be pushed to the user's Facebook feed.In June 2015, Facebook gave free beacons to a number of businesses in the United States.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A fail-silent system is a type of system that either provides the correct service, or provides no service at all (becomes silent).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In structural engineering and material science, fast fracture is a phenomenon in which a flaw (such as a crack) in a material expands quickly, and leads to catastrophic failure of the material. It proceeds in high speed and requires a relatively small amount of accumulated strain energy, making it a dangerous failure mode.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In document ISO 10303-226, a fault is defined as an abnormal condition or defect at the component, equipment, or sub-system level which may lead to a failure.\nIn telecommunications, according to the Federal Standard 1037C of the United States, the term fault has the following meanings: \n\nAn accidental condition that causes a functional unit to fail to perform its required function. See \u00a7 Random fault.\nA defect that causes a reproducible or catastrophic malfunction. A malfunction is considered reproducible if it occurs consistently under the same circumstances. See \u00a7 Systematic fault.\nIn power systems, an unintentional short circuit, or partial short circuit, between energized conductors or between an energized conductor and ground.   A distinction can be made between symmetric and asymmetric faults. See Fault (power engineering).\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A fiber-optic display is a light-emitting display that uses fiber optics to display images or text.  Fiber-optic displays can either be static or dynamic, with the typical lighting source being halogen light bulbs.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP or FC/IP, also known as Fibre Channel tunneling or storage tunneling) is an Internet Protocol (IP) created by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) for storage technology.\nAn FCIP entity functions to encapsulate Fibre Channel frames and forward them over an IP network. FCIP entities are peers that communicate using TCP/IP.\nFCIP technology overcomes the distance limitations of native Fibre Channel, enabling geographically distributed storage area networks to be connected using existing IP infrastructure, while keeping fabric services intact. The Fibre Channel Fabric and its devices remain unaware of the presence of the IP Network.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A field emission gun (FEG) is a type of electron gun in which a sharply pointed M\u00fcller-type emitter:\u200a87\u2013128\u200a is held at several kilovolts negative potential relative to a nearby electrode, so that there is sufficient potential gradient at the emitter surface to cause field electron emission. Emitters are either of cold-cathode type, usually made of single crystal tungsten sharpened to a tip radius of about 100 nm, or of the Schottky type,:\u200a1\u201328\u200a in which thermionic emission is enhanced by barrier lowering in the presence of a high electric field. Schottky emitters are made by coating a tungsten tip with a layer of zirconium oxide (ZrO2) decreasing the work function of the tip by approximately 2.7 eV.In  electron microscopes, a field emission gun is used to produce an electron beam that is smaller in diameter, more coherent and with up to three orders of magnitude greater current density or brightness than can be achieved with conventional thermionic emitters such as tungsten or lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6)-tipped filaments. The result in both scanning and transmission electron microscopy is significantly improved signal-to-noise ratio and spatial resolution, and greatly increased emitter life and reliability compared with thermionic devices.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The fill factor of an image sensor array is the ratio of a pixel's light sensitive area to its total area.  \nFor pixels without microlenses, the fill factor is the ratio of photodiode area to total pixel area,\nbut the use of microlenses increases the effective fill factor, often to nearly 100%, by converging light from the whole  pixel area into the photodiode.Another case that reduces the fill factor of an image is to add additional memory beside each pixel, so as to achieve a global shutter on CMOS sensors.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A video filter is a software component that performs some operation on a multimedia stream. Multiple filters can be used in a chain, known as a filter graph, in which each filter receives input from its upstream filter, processes the input and outputs the processed video to its downstream filter.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A fire basket is an iron basket in which wood can be burned to make a bonfire.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Fire Protection Fluid is a fluid that acts like water, looks like water, and flows like water, but does not get things wet in the same way as water.  When discharged from a fire apparatus, it converts to a gas, due to its thermodynamic properties and suppresses fire when used at its extinguishing concentration to remove heat.  It is often used to extinguish fires as part of automatic fire suppression systems, especially in facilities housing electronic equipment and will not damage electronics in the way that water will.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Fire suppression systems are used to extinguish, control, or in some cases, entirely prevent fires from spreading or occurring. Fire suppression systems have an incredibly large variety of applications, and as such, there are many different types of suppression systems for different applications being used today. Of these, there are some that are still in use but are no longer legal to manufacture and produce.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Flame treatment is the application of a gas flame to the surface of a material to improve adhesion.Polyolefins, especially polyethylene and polypropylene bond poorly, because they consist of long non-polar molecules.  Without special treatment, adhesives, ink, and other coatings cannot be applied to these materials.  By rapidly applying intense heat to a surface, molecular chains are broken and polar functional groups are added.  Flame treatment also burns off dust, fibers, oils, and other surface contaminants.\nFlame treatment is faster than corona treatment, but requires more complicated and expensive equipment.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Fujitsu FLEPia is a discontinued e-reader capable of displaying up to 260,000 colors. Released in Japan in 2009.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Hollow-core is a type of precast, prestressed concrete floor slab.  It is often used in construction of multi-storey buildings.  The advantages it has over cast-in-place concrete floor are that it is lighter in weight and often cheaper.  Also, wet concrete needs to be pumped or carried up to higher floors. The slabs which are manufactured off site are simply lifted with a crane and set in place. Disadvantages are an increased overall floor thickness (due to the requirement of steel supporting beams), the cost of a steel frame over the cost of concrete columns and increased cranage requirements.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A float switch is a type of level sensor, a device used to detect the level of liquid within a tank. The switch may be used to control a pump, as an indicator, an alarm, or to control other devices.\nOne type of float switch uses a mercury switch inside a hinged float. Another common type is a float that raises a rod to actuate a microswitch. One pattern uses a reed switch mounted in a tube; a float, containing a magnet, surrounds the tube and is guided by it.  When the float raises the magnet to the reed switch, it closes.  Several reeds can be mounted in the tube for different level indications by one assembly.\nOpened float switch from a sump pump\n\t\t\n\t\t\nA very common application is in sump pumps and condensate pumps where the switch detects the rising level of liquid in the sump or tank and energizes an electrical pump which then pumps liquid out until the level of the liquid has been substantially reduced, at which point the pump is switched off again. Float switches are often adjustable and can include substantial hysteresis. That is, the switch's \"turn on\" point may be much higher than the \"shut off\" point. This minimizes the on-off cycling of the associated pump.Some float switches contain a two-stage switch. As liquid rises to the trigger point of the first stage, the associated pump is activated. If the liquid continues to rise (perhaps because the pump has failed or its discharge is blocked), the second stage will be triggered. This stage may switch off the source of the liquid being pumped, trigger an alarm, or both.\n\nWhere level must be sensed inside a pressurized vessel, often a magnet is used to couple the motion of the float to a switch located outside the pressurized volume. In some cases, a rod through a stuffing box can be used to operate a switch, but this creates high drag and has a potential for leakage. Successful float switch installations minimize the opportunity for accumulation of dirt on the float that would impede its motion. Float switch materials are selected to resist the deleterious effects of corrosive process liquids. In some systems, a properly selected and sized float can be used to sense the interface level between two liquids of different density.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Florn was a German company which made small manual travel and desk alarm clocks. Most examples are \u201cclam\u201d or \u201coyster\u201d compact styles for travel. The clocks were made beginning from at least 1936.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A flow limiter or flow restrictor is a device to restrict the flow of a fluid, in general a gas or a liquid. Some designs use single stage or multi stage orifice plates to handle high and low flow rates. Flow limiters are often used in manufacturing plants as well as households. Safety is usually the main purpose of using a flow limiter. An example is manufacturing facilities and laboratories using flow limiters to prevent injury or death from noxious gases that are in use. The flow limiter prevents gases from causing injury or death by reducing its cross-sectional area where gas flows.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Fluorescent microthermography (FMT) is a microscopy technique for infrared imaging of temperature distribution in small scale; the achievable spatial resolution is half micrometer and temperature resolution of 0.005 K. Time-dependent measurements are possible, as the fluorescence lifetime is only about 200 microseconds.\nA thin film of a phosphor, europium thenoyl-trifluoroacetonate, is applied on the surface (e.g. an integrated circuit die) and illuminated by ultraviolet light at 340\u2013380 nm, stimulating fluorescence at mainly 612 nm line. The quantum efficiency of fluorescence decreases exponentially with temperature, differences in emitted light intensity can be therefore used to assess differences on surface temperature, with hot areas showing as darker.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Foilbacks, in vintage jewellery, is the practice of inserting metal foil behind gemstones or faux gemstones, to enhance their sparkle and reflective properties. When this foil darkens or peels, these gemstones are often considered dead or lacking in sparkle.  Modern jewelers seldom use foiling behind actual gemstones, but faux gems are made in a similar fashion even today.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Footbonaut is a football training machine which fires balls at different speeds and trajectories at players, who must control and pass the ball into a highlighted square. In addition to honing ball skills, the machine is designed to improve a player's reaction time.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Forensic audio enhancement is the scientific analysis and improvement of audio clarity, typically to improve intelligibility.\nAlthough the term is \"enhancement\", the process is almost entirely composed of filtering away unwanted sounds in order to leave a more understandable version.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The FP3 Player was a digital audio player designed for preschool children, made by Fisher-Price from 2006\u20132007. It had some of the functionality of \"grown-up\" players including an online store with music and story downloads. It was built with a rugged body, had large buttons, and displayed a visual icon for each song. According to CNET the device was not compatible with Mac computers. CNET also said that \"the foam earpieces come off too easily,\" and that it was \"pretty pricey for a 128 MB player.\"", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A free standard or libre standard is a standard whose specification is publicly available.  The concept of Free/Libre standards emerged in the software industry as a reaction against closed de facto \"standards\" which served to reinforce monopolies.\nUsers of a free standard have the same four freedoms associated with free software, and the freedom to participate in its development process. The standardisation process typically requires a complete free software reference implementation, which demonstrates that it is implementable and renders it usable. A libre standard is not patent-encumbered.\nThe Free Standards Group, for example, developed standards and released them under the GNU Free Documentation License with no cover texts or invariant sections. Reference implementations and test suites, etc. were released as Free software.\nSimilar processes are now followed by the various \"open\" standards bodies, the word \"open\" having been popularised by the \"open source\" movement in order to engage powerful industry players", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Friction tape is a type of woven cloth adhesive tape, historically made of cotton, impregnated with a rubber-based adhesive.  Sticky on both sides, it is mainly used by electricians to insulate splices in electric wires and cables. The rubber-based adhesive provides a degree of protection from liquids and corrosion, while the cloth mesh protects against punctures and abrasion. It has been universally supplanted by PVC-based electrical tape.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The European Future and Emerging Technologies (FET) Flagship projects include the Graphene Flagship, Human Brain Project, the Blue Brain Project, and the Quantum technology Flagship.Other major projects proposed as part of the Future and Emerging Technologies competition include the Living Earth Simulator Project.  European Future and Emerging Technologies Flagship projects are funded through Horizon 2020. In August 2018, European Commission funds $3.5 Million to FET.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Future Soldier 2030 Initiative was a US Army program that was launched in 2009 with the mission to research and develop future soldiers' equipments, weapons and body armors. The program investigates various futuristic technologies, including mind boosting drugs, powered exoskeletons and artificially intelligent assistants.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "ITU-T Recommendation G.983 is a family of recommendations that defines broadband passive optical network (BPON) for telecommunications Access networks. It originally comprised ten recommendations, G.983.1 through G.983.10, but recommendations .6\u2013.10 were withdrawn when their content was incorporated into G.983.2. \nThe current view is that the BPON standards are mature, and no further work will be done on them after the 2007 round. The GPON OMCI definition has been revised to stand alone, rather than citing G.983.2.\nAlthough G.983 is directed at BPON, the GPON recommendations draw heavily on it, especially G.984.4, which defines the management model for GPON ONTs.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In hydraulic engineering, a gate is a rotating or sliding structure, supported by hinges or by a rotating horizontal or vertical axis, that can be located at an extreme of a large pipe or canal in order to control the flow of water or any fluid from one side to the other. It is usually placed at the mouth of irrigation channels to avoid water loss or at the end of drainage channels to elude water entrance.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Gate capacitance is the capacitance of the gate terminal of a field-effect transistor.  It can be expressed as the absolute capacitance of the gate of a transistor, or as the capacitance per unit area of an integrated circuit technology, or as the capacitance per unit width of minimum-length transistors in a technology.\nIn generations of approximately Dennard scaling of MOSFETs, the capacitance per unit area has increased inversely with device dimensions.  Since the gate area has gone down by the square of device dimensions, the gate capacitance of a transistor has gone down in direct proportion with device dimensions.     With Dennard scaling, the capacitance per unit of gate width has remained approximately constant; this measurement can include gate\u2013source and gate\u2013drain overlap capacitances.  Other scalings are not uncommon; the voltages and gate oxide thicknesses have not always decreased as rapidly as device dimensions, so the gate capacitance per unit area has not increased as fast, and the capacitance per transistor width has sometimes decreased over generations.The intrinsic gate capacitance (that is, ignoring fringing fields and other details) for a silicon-dioxide-insulated gate can be calculated from thin-oxide capactiance per unit area as:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          C\n          \n            \n              G\n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          A\n          \n            \n              G\n            \n          \n        \n        \n          C\n          \n            \n              o\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle C_{\\mathrm {G} }=A_{\\mathrm {G} }C_{\\mathrm {ox} }}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          A\n          \n            \n              G\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle A_{\\mathrm {G} }}\n   is the gate area, and the thin-oxide capacitance per unit area is \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          C\n          \n            \n              o\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                \u03f5\n                \n                  \n                    S\n                    i\n                    \n                      O\n                      \n                        2\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                \n              \n              \n                \u03f5\n                \n                  0\n                \n              \n            \n            \n              t\n              \n                \n                  o\n                  x\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle C_{\\mathrm {ox} }={\\frac {\\epsilon _{\\mathrm {SiO_{2}} }\\epsilon _{0}}{t_{\\mathrm {ox} }}}}\n  , with \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03f5\n          \n            \n              S\n              i\n              \n                O\n                \n                  2\n                \n              \n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        3.9\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\epsilon _{\\mathrm {SiO_{2}} }=3.9}\n   the relative permittivity of silicon dioxide, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03f5\n          \n            0\n          \n        \n        =\n        8.854\n        \u00d7\n        \n          10\n          \n            \u2212\n            12\n          \n        \n         \n        \n          F\n          \n            /\n          \n          m\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\epsilon _{0}=8.854\\times 10^{-12}\\ \\mathrm {F/m} }\n   the vacuum permittivity, and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          t\n          \n            \n              o\n              x\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle t_{\\mathrm {ox} }}\n   the oxide thickness.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "GENtle is a free software under GPL license.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "GESMES/TS (GEneric Statistical MESsage for Time Series) is a data model and message format\nappropriate for performing standardised exchange of statistical data and related metadata.\nIt is based on the GESMES message (a UN/CEFACT standard using the EDIFACT syntax).\nIts most common use is in the exchange of official statistics.\nThe data model is optimised to represent multi-dimensional arrays of floating point numerical data where one dimension is time.\nThe essential design pattern resembles a star schema.\nGESMES/TS promotes automation by its ability to explicitly declare the dimensions and allowable metadata fields in a standardised way.\nSoftware can then translate these declarations into a database schema suitable to hold the multi-dimensional data.\nThis mechanism makes GESMES/TS versatile enough for efficient use in many domains.\nThe initial name of GESMES/TS was GESMES/CB (GEneric Statistical MESsage for Central Banks),\nbut has been changed in order to reflect its wider application.\nThe model and format are maintained under the auspices of the SDMX initiative.\nIn this context, GESMES/TS is known as SDMX-EDI.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Gesture-enhanced single-touch, also known as \"dual control\", \"gesture touch\", and often \"dual-touch\", describes the ability of a touchscreen to register certain two-finger gestures, despite lacking hardware that would allow it to fully register all two-finger movements. A very common application of gesture-enhanced single-touch technology is the pinch-to-zoom gesture, which allows the user to zoom in or out by moving two fingers farther apart or closer together while touching the display.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Gezel is a hardware description language, allowing the implementation of a Finite State Machine + Datapath (FSMD) model. The tools included in Gezel allows for simulation, cosimulation as well as compiling into VHDL code. It is possible to extend Gezel through library-blocks written in C++.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Gigster provides a service that allows users to get tech projects built on demand. It was co-founded by Roger Dickey and Debo Olaosebikan and based in San Francisco, California. They received seed funding from Greylock Partners, Bloomberg Beta, as well as notable angel investors and founders Naval Ravikant of AngelList, Justin Waldron of Zynga, and Emmett Shear of Twitch, among others. They were a part of Y-Combinator's Summer 2015 class.On December 7, 2015, Gigster announced its $10m Series A funding round led by Andreessen Horowitz, which will be used to further build the startup's AI and machine learning technology. The company announced on August 29, 2017, that they had raised $20 million in investments led by RedPoint Ventures for its Series B funding round, which included existing investor, Andreessen Horowitz and first time tech investor and retired basketball star, Michael Jordan. By this time the company had received a total funding of $32.5 million.On May 26, 2021, Gigster announced that it had been acquired by Ionic Partners, an Austin-based firm that buys and operates enterprise software businesses.  \n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Goal structuring notation is a graphical argument used to document and present proof that safety goals have been achieved, in a clearer format than plain text. The notation is a diagram that builds its safety case through logic-based maps. Originally developed at the University of York during the 1990s, it gained popularity in 2012 and has been used to track safety assurances in industries such as traffic management and nuclear power. By 2014, it had become the standard format for graphic documentation of safety cases and was being used in other contexts such as patent claims, debate strategy, and legal arguments.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Government spin-off is civilian goods which are the collateral result of military or governmental research. One prominent example of a type of government spin-off is technology that has been commercialized through NASA funding, research, licensing, facilities, or assistance.  NASA spin-off technologies have been publicized by the agency in its Spinoff publication since 1976.\nThe Internet is a specific example of a government spin-off resulting from DARPA funding.In some fields, such as computer hardware, private sector development has outpaced government and military research, and the government procures commercial off-the-shelf products for many applications.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "GPS puck has two meanings.\nIt is a term for the antenna on GPS navigation devices, which receives GPS signals from GPS satellites.  The early antennas were round, and thus had the appearance of a hockey puck. The GPS puck is commonly used in the boating electronic industry. The reason the boating industry uses the GPS puck is because they give a true signal of direction so you can tell where you're at and where you're going on the water or land.\nAlternatively, a GPS puck is a full puck-sized GPS system (receiver and antenna).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Gruvi was a short-lived memory card format compatible with microSD developed by Sandisk in 2006. It used the company's TrustedFlash card technology, which functioned like the conventional SD card but it could be extended to on-demand content. The cards were intended for the distribution of music and videos and had a variety of special Digital rights management features including the ability to pre-load content that could be 'unlocked' at a later date. The announced objective was the replacement of CDs, which was highlighted by the involvement of music publisher EMI when the product was launched. The little cards featured a picture of the artist whose music was pre-loaded. They were compatible with mobile phones, t, and laptop computers. Only a handful of Gruvi cards were ever released, one of them was the album A Bigger Bang by the Rolling Stones.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Gryphon is a military wingpack that currently allows paratroopers to exit an aircraft at an altitude of 10 kilometres, then fly 40 kilometres while carrying up to 100 pounds of equipment. The system is still in development and the goal, according to Elektroniksystem- und Logistik-GmbH (Electronic System and Logistics Group or ESG), is to allow paratroopers to fly up to 200 kilometres per hour, thus enabling them to penetrate enemy airspace without compromising the safety of the aircraft or being detected by radar.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The SMG GSM 02.07 Technical Specification (Version 7.1.0 Release 1998) called Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Mobile Stations (MS) features\ndefines Mobile Station (MS) features and to classifies them according to their type and whether they are mandatory or optional. The MS features detailed in this TS do not represent an exhaustive list.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Head-coupled perspective is a technique to show 3D imagery on 2D devices. The perspective of the scene on the screen is based on the position of the user\u2019s eyes, simulating a 3D environment. When the user moves their head, the perspective of the scene changes, creating the effect of looking through a window to the scene instead of looking at a flat projection of a scene.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A heat meter or energy meter is a device which measures thermal energy provided by a source or delivered to a sink, by measuring the flow rate of the heat transfer fluid and the change in its temperature (\u0394T) between the outflow and return legs of the system. It is typically used in industrial plants for measuring boiler output and heat taken by process, and for district heating systems to measure the heat delivered to consumers.\nIt can be used to measure the heat output of say a heating boiler, or the cooling output from a chiller unit.\nIn Europe heat meters have to comply with the measuring instruments directive MID Annex VI MI-004 if the meters are used for custody transfer.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A heating mantle, or isomantle, is a piece of laboratory equipment used to apply heat to containers, as an alternative to other forms of heated bath.  In contrast to other heating devices, such as hotplates or Bunsen burners, glassware containers may be placed in direct contact with the heating mantle without substantially increasing the risk of the glassware shattering, because the heating element of a heating mantle is insulated from the container so as to prevent excessive temperature gradients.  \nHeating mantles may have various forms.  In a common arrangement, electric wires are embedded within a strip of fabric that can be wrapped around a flask.  The current supplied to the device, and hence the temperature achieved, is regulated by a rheostat.  This type of heating mantle is quite useful for maintaining an intended temperature within a separatory funnel, for example, after the contents of a reaction have been removed from a primary heat source.\nAnother variety of heating mantle may resemble a paint can and is constructed as a \"basket\" within a cylindrical canister (often made of plastic or metal such as aluminium).  The rigid metal exterior supports a \"basket\" made of fabric and includes heating elements within the body of the heating mantle.  To heat an object, it is placed within the basket of the heating mantle.\nIn further contrast to other methods of applying heat to a flask, such as an oil bath or water bath, using a heating mantle generates no liquid residue to drip off the flask.  Also, heating mantles generally distribute heat evenly over the surface of the flask and exhibit less tendency to generate harmful hotspots.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Helicopter dynamics is a field within aerospace engineering concerned with theoretical and practical aspects of helicopter flight. Its comprises helicopter aerodynamics, stability, control, structural dynamics, vibration, and aeroelastic and aeromechanical stability.By studying the forces in helicopter flight, improved helicopter designs can be made. In 2013, stereophotogrammetry was used to measure the dynamics of a Robinson R44 helicopter during the hover.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Higher Education User Group (HEUG) is a global nonprofit organization whose mission is \u201cThe Higher Education User Group is the leading global user community in higher education, collaborating to realize the maximum value from investment in people, business processes and technologies.\" HEUG represents over 900 campuses and over 30,000 individuals from 37 countries on 6 continents, making it the largest independent User Group in the world.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "High lead logging is a method of cable logging using a spar, yarder and loader. It was developed by Oscar Wirkkala.  It is accomplished with two lines (cables) and two winches (or cable drums).  The mainline or yarding line extends out from one winch, while a second usually lighter line called the haulback line extends out from the other winch to a 'tail block' or pulley at the tail (back) end of the logging site, and passes through the tail block and connects to the main line.   Butt rigging is installed where the two lines join and the logs are hooked to the butt rigging with chokers.  The procedure is to wind up the main line and the logs are pulled in, wind up the haulback and the butt rigging is pulled out for more logs or another 'turn'.\nThe \"high lead\" feature is added by elevating both lines near the winch or 'head' end.  This is accomplished by running the lines through a block (pulley) called the \"head block\" because it is on the head end of the project.  Early on, it was customary to trim and top a tree making it into a 'spar pole' or 'spar tree' for the purpose of supporting the head blocks but gradually the use of wooden spars gave way over the 20th century to the use of steel spars stood up for the purpose. In any event the spars are supported by a number of guy wires.The reason for elevating the lines (cables) at the head end is to assist in pulling the logs free of obstructions on the ground.  Also if the trees are being partially lifted as they are transported it is less disruptive to the ground which can be an environmental issue.\nHigh lead is a popular method of logging on the West Coast of America.\nFirst used in 1904, with Lidgerwood winches, and a spar tree.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "High Speed Serial Link (HSSL) is a proprietary communications protocol and was primarily developed by Alcatel.  It is now owned by Alcatel-Lucent.\nCapable of transmitting data at rates up to 10 Gbit/s, HSSL is chiefly used in electronic system backplanes for inter-board communication.\nXilinx, among other integrated circuit vendors, currently supports the standard.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "High-Definition Versatile Disc (HVD) is an Asian standard of advanced high-definition technology originally developed in China by AMLogic Inc., for high-definition video. The format supports 720p, 1080i, or 1080p video on version 1 discs. Version 2 of the format added high-resolution beyond the standard fare of HD for use on non-TV monitors that support higher resolutions, up to 1080p. \nA modified MPEG-2 MP@HL video-codec is used and the format supports audio encoded in Dolby AC3, DTS, Dolby Digital EX, DTS ES, and Prologic 2 audio formats. \nAll HVDs use standard DVD discs.  While the format is referred to as HVD it has no relation to the Holographic Versatile Disc format that came along later and used the same acronym.  There are only a few DVD players which support this format. Nero Showtime, Media Player Classic, PowerDVD, VLC media player, and XBMC are the few known software packages to handle the format as the MPEG2 files are non-standard. \nThough popular in China, the format, much like VCD, has had little acceptance outside Asia and  discs are rarely found for sale outside Asia.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "History and Technology is a quarterly peer reviewed academic journal devoted to publishing papers on all aspects of the history of technology. It was established in 1983. One of the founding editors was Pietro Redondi. The subjects range from ancient and classical times to the present day. Previously published by Gordon & Breach, the current publisher is Taylor & Francis.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Hoecken linkage is a four-bar linkage that converts rotational motion to approximate straight-line motion. It is named after Karl Hoecken (1874\u22121962).\nThe linkage was first published in 1926.A generalization of the Hoecken linkage is Wittgenstein's rod.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A hogel (a portmanteau of the words holographic and element) is a part of a light-field hologram, in particular a computer-generated one. It is considered a small holographic optical element or HOE and that its total effect to that of a standard hologram only that the resolution is lower and it involves a pixelated structure. An array of these elements form the complete image of a holographic recording, which is typically displayed in 3D free-viewing device.In contrast to 2D pixels, hogels contain the direction and intensity of light rays from many perspectives and is in essence what is referred to as a micro-image in plenoptic imaging terms. Synthetic hogels are typically rendered through double-frustum, oblique slice & dice or polygonal/voxel ray-tracing/ray-casting. Research into efficient generation and compression of hogels may allow holographic displays to become more widely available.\nAn array of hogels can be used to reconstruct a light-field by emitting light through a microlens array or by reflective/transmissive photo-polymer holograms. The use of hogels eliminates the limitation on the number and size of pixels as well as the size of the lenses that constitute the lens array because the holograms are no longer physical entities. Recorded information in a hogel is through the object beam.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A hoist controller is the controller for a hoist.  The term is used primarily in the context of electrically operated hoists, but it is apparent that the control systems of many 20th century steam hoists also incorporated controllers of significant complexity.  Consider the control system of the Quincy Mine No. 2 Hoist. This control system included interlocks to close the throttle valve at the end of trip and to prevent opening the throttle again until the winding engine was reversed.  The control system also incorporated a governor to control the speed of the hoist and indicator wheels to show the hoist operator the positions of the skips in the mine shaft.\nThe hoist controllers for modern electric mining hoists have long included such features as automatic starting of the hoist when the weight of coal or ore in the skip reaches a set point, automatic acceleration of the hoist to full speed and automatic deceleration at the end of travel.\nHoist controllers need both velocity and absolute position references taken, typically taken from the winding drum of the hoist.  Modern hoist controllers replace many of the mechanical analog mechanisms of earlier controllers with digital control systems.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Home entertainment server systems differ from traditional media center systems in that they designed from inception for storage, management and sharing of entertainment content, much as a file server is mission designed to share traditional computer files.  These systems are optimized for entertainment file sharing allowing libraries to be accessed across multiple servers from multiple rooms. They also integrate a range of content acquisition facilities including shared networking, built-in optical drives and tuners. These systems are operated from a simple TV-based menu. Individual servers feature secure volume managed expandable storage including internal, and external drives and arrays of drives into the multi-terabyte range.\nThe Telly (home entertainment server) is an example of such a device.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "HomeKit is a software framework developed by Apple Inc., made available in iOS and iPadOS that lets users configure, communicate with and control smart-home appliances using Apple devices. It provides users with a way to automatically discover such devices and configure them. By designing rooms, items, and actions in HomeKit, users can enable automatic actions in the home through a simple voice command to Siri or through the Home app. With HomeKit, developers are able to create complex applications in order to manage accessories at a high level. HomeKit is simply a communication protocol, which integrates and operates several types of accessories within the home.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Honeywell AGT1500 is a gas turbine engine. It is the main powerplant of the M1 Abrams series of tanks. The engine was originally designed and produced by the Lycoming Turbine Engine Division in the Stratford Army Engine Plant. In 1995, production was moved to the Anniston Army Depot in Anniston, Alabama, after the Stratford Army Engine Plant was shut down.Engine output peaks at 1,500hp (1,120 kW), with 2750 lb-ft (3728.5 Nm) of torque at that peak, which occurs at 3000 rpm. The turbine can provide torque in excess of 5000 ft-lb (6779 Nm) at significantly lower RPMs.\nThe engine can use a variety of fuels, including jet fuel, gasoline, diesel and marine diesel.Development had started by 1964 with a contract given to Chrysler in 1976, originally as an engine for the later cancelled MBT-70.In the early 1970s, the AGT1500 was developed into the PLT27, a flight-weight turboshaft for use in helicopters. This engine lost to the General Electric GE12 (T700) in three separate competitions to power the UH-60, AH-64, and SH-60.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Honeywell T87 Round Thermostat is a thermostat that Honeywell International, Inc. first manufactured in 1953. Henry Dreyfuss designed the thermostat based on a concept by Honeywell engineer Carl Kronmiller.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Honor 6 Plus is a flagship Android smartphone produced by Honor, when it was still a sub brand of Huawei.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Hook gauge evaporimeter is a precision instrument used to measure changes in water levels due to evaporation. It is used \nto precisely measure the level of a free water surface as an evaporation pan or a tank. The main users are  meteorologists and water engineers, especially in hot, arid countries where water conservation is of vital importance.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Introduced by HP for students, the HP 10s (F2214A) is a scientific calculator with more than 240 built-in functions, with 2 lines x 10 digits LCD. It is permitted to use on SAT and ACT tests.It has a standard scientific layout and function set that very closely correlates with the Casio fx-85MS, allowing for calculations to be done in a short time.\nThe 10s was replaced by the HP 10s+ (NW276AA).\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "HP-17B is an algebraic entry financial and business calculator manufactured by Hewlett-Packard, introduced on 4 January 1988 along with the HP-19B, HP-27S and the HP-28S. It was a simplified business model, like the 19B. There were two versions, the US one working in English only, and the international one with a choice of six languages (English, German, Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "HP-19B, introduced on 4 January 1988, along with the HP-17B, HP-27S and the HP-28S, and replaced by the HP-19BII (F1639A) in January 1990, was a simplified Hewlett Packard business model calculator, like the 17B. It had a clamshell design, like the HP-18C, HP-28C and 28S.Two common issues with the clamshell case were the plastic surrounding the battery door would break under pressure from the batteries; and the ribbon connecting the two keyboards would begin to fail after numerous case openings.\nThe calculator included functions for solving financial calculations like time value of money, amortizing, interest rate conversion and cash flow.  Business functionalities included percentage change, markup, currency exchange and unit conversions. It also had math capabilities such as trigonometry and graphing. Upscale functionality, at the time of release, included the ability to design your own problem solving equations and storing text directly in the calculator using the letter keyboard on the left side. The calculator could also print via a built-in infrared transmitter to a supported infrared printer such as the HP 82240A or HP 82240B; which allowed you to print out the generated graphs.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The HP-22S is an electronic calculator from the Hewlett-Packard company which is algebraic and scientific. This calculator is comparable to the HP-32S.  A solver was included instead of programming. It had the same constraints as the 32S, lacking enough RAM for serious use. Functions available include TVM and unit conversions. Only single letter variable names are allowed. Marketed as a student calculator, the 22S uses infix notation rather than the reverse polish notation used on some higher-end HP calculators of the same era.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "HTC RE refers to a series of products made by HTC, including the RE Camera camera device, Vive virtual-reality headset, and the Grip fitness tracker.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Hughes AN/ASG-18 Fire Control System was a prototype airborne fire control radar system for the planned North American XF-108 Rapier interceptor aircraft, and the Lockheed YF-12 for the United States Air Force. It was the US's first Pulse-Doppler radar, giving it look-down/shoot-down capability, and was also the first track while scan radar (could track one target at a time). This was paired with an infrared search and track (IRST) system. Range of the radar was estimated at between 200 and 300 miles (322 to 482 km), with reliable detection of bomber-sized targets at 100 miles. The installation itself was massive, weighing 2,100 lb (953 kg), and taking up most of the nose of the aircraft. The system was to be used with the Hughes AIM-47 Falcon missile, which also had a range of about 100 miles.\nWhile development work was done with the XF-108, the AN/ASG-18 and Falcon missiles were first tested on a highly modified Convair B-58 Hustler bomber. To fit the radar, the nose was lengthened nearly 7 feet (2.13 m), and the infrared sensors were mounted on either side of the forward fuselage. The resulting nose shape led to it being nicknamed \"Snoopy\". A single missile was housed in a specially built pod underneath the fuselage.\nBefore the test \"Snoopy\" could fly, the XF-108 program was cancelled, and the proposed Lockheed YF-12 interceptor was to instead receive the radar/missile system pair. Tests of the system were conducted first in 1960 and until 1963 only on the modified B-58, after which the YF-12 took over until the cancellation of the whole program in 1966.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Christian Huitema (born 1953 in Nantes, France) was the first non-American chair of the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), serving from April 1993 to July 1995. He currently is a consultant focused on privacy on the Internet.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Hum is a vehicle diagnostic and tracking system from Verizon Communications. The system is composed of two devices: a diagnostics reader which connects to a vehicle's OBDII and a speaker with Bluetooth connectivity that can be clipped to the visor. A monthly subscription is required, but also includes a mobile application for reviewing collected data and receiving alerts as well as roadside assistance. The Hum was first revealed in January 2015 under the name Verizon Vehicle, but was rebranded before its release in August of that year.The initial product launch included features such as maintenance reminders, parking assistance, incident alerts, emergency assistance and stolen vehicle location assistance. In 2016 Verizon added location-based features that were marketed to parents as a way of keeping track of teen driving habits. The newer features allow users to set alerts for when the vehicle exceeds certain speeds or goes outside of set geographical boundaries (called geo-fencing).  A new model, Hum X, was launched in March 2017, featuring Wi-Fi hotspot capability, and priced at $15/month.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Hybrid drone is a type of unmanned aerial vehicle using two or more energy sources to power its flight propulsion system.\nUAV systems often use BLDC motors as means of propulsion due to their high efficiency and great controllability, their main energy source is usually a LiPo battery with targets for battery packs for electric vehicles of 235 Wh/kg and 500 Wh/L in 2020.With the present commercially available cells, the multirotor configurations can only sustain an average flight time of 20 to 30 minutes this limits the range of the operations and the usage of such aerial vehicles.\nA common solution to this issue is adding a hybrid generator which usually consists of an internal combustion engine coupled with an electric machine, optimized to have a high power-to-weight ratio. The generator transforms the chemical energy stored inside the fuel by converting it to mechanical energy, and then electrical which is then used to power the aircraft.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Hybrid fibre-optic is the connection used by some television studio and field production video cameras that combine all video, audio, data, control, power, and other signals onto two single mode optical fibres and a few copper conductors in one jacket, therefore allowing one cable to provide all the necessary signals a camera needs for the television production environment.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Hybrid Insect Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (HI-MEMS) is a project of DARPA, a unit of the United States Department of Defense.   Created in 2006, the unit's goal is the creation of tightly coupled machine-insect interfaces by placing micro-mechanical systems inside the insects during the early stages of metamorphosis.    After implantation, the \"insect cyborgs\" could be controlled by sending electrical impulses to their muscles.    The primary application is surveillance.  The project was created with the ultimate goal of delivering an insect within 5 meters of a target located 100 meters away from its starting point.  In 2008, a team from the University of Michigan demonstrated a cyborg unicorn beetle at an academic conference in Tucson, Arizona.  The beetle was able to take off and land, turn left or right, and demonstrate other flight behaviors.  Researchers at Cornell University demonstrated the successful implantation of electronic probes into tobacco hornworms in the pupal stage.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Hydrargyrum quartz iodide (HQI) is a trademark name of Osram's brand of metal halide lamps made for general floodlighting, arena floodlighting, shop and commercial and industrial lighting. Hydrargyrum is the Latin name for the element mercury.  When heated, mercury vapour is created inside the lamp, and deposited when it cools.\nAn HQI lamp consists of a protective outer glass shield surrounding two heavy wires which are inserted into each end of a smaller inner bulb containing a gas. The lamp is powered by an electrical ballast, which regulates the current flow through the arc in the smaller inner lamp. Like all HID lamps, HQI lamps operate under high pressure and temperature, and require special light fixtures for safe use.\nHQI lamps can produce different color temperatures when manufactured with different metal halides.  They are relatively efficient light sources producing a high lumen per watt ratio (approximately 6x that of incandescent lamps).\nLike HMI, HQI lamps are a subset (or type) of metal halide lamps, which in turn are a subset of high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps.  They should not be confused with quartz halogen lamps, which are a specialized type of incandescent lamp.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A hydraulic manifold is a manifold that regulates fluid flow between pumps and actuators and other components in a hydraulic system. It is like a switchboard in an electrical circuit because it lets the operator control how much fluid flows between which components of a hydraulic machinery. For example, in a backhoe loader a manifold turns on or shuts off or diverts flow to the telescopic arms of the front bucket and the back bucket. The manifold is connected to the levers inside the operator's cabin which the operator uses to achieve the desired manifold behaviour.\nA manifold is composed of assorted hydraulic valves connected to each other. It is the various combinations of states of these valves that allow complex control behaviour using a manifold.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A hydroscope is any of several instruments related to water:\n\nOne kind is an instrument for making observations below the surface of water, such as a long tube fitted with various lenses arranged so that objects lying at the bottom can be reflected upon a screen on the deck of the ship that carries it. These are built with a large tire tube that supports the screen and covered by an acrylic dome for protection.\nAnother kind detects subsurface water through nuclear magnetic resonance using the surface nuclear magnetic resonance technique.\nAn instrument (likely a hydrometer) described by Synesius in his Letter 15 to Hypatia, written in 402 AD. There are references to such instruments as early as the fourth century.\nAnother ancient Greek instrument: a water clock or clepsydra.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Hydroskimming is one of the simplest types of refinery used in the petroleum industry and still represents a large proportion of refining facilities, particularly in developing countries.  A hydroskimming refinery is defined as a refinery equipped with atmospheric distillation, naphtha reforming and necessary treating processes. A hydroskimming refinery is therefore more complex than a topping refinery (which just separates the crude into its constituent petroleum products by distillation, known as atmospheric distillation, and produces naphtha but no gasoline) and it produces gasoline. The addition of catalytic reformer enables a hydroskimming refinery to generate higher octane reformate; benzene, toluene, and xylene; and hydrogen for hydrotreating units. However, a hydroskimming refinery produces a surplus of fuel with a relatively unattractive price and demand.Most refineries, therefore, add vacuum distillation and catalytic cracking, which adds one more level of complexity by reducing fuel oil by conversion to light distillates and middle distillates. A coking refinery adds further complexity to the cracking refinery by high conversion of fuel oil into distillates and petroleum coke.\nCatalytic cracking, coking and other such conversion units are referred to as secondary processing units. The Nelson Complexity Index, captures the proportion of the secondary conversion unit capacities relative to the primary distillation or topping capacity. The Nelson Complexity Index typically varies from about 2 for hydroskimming refineries, to about 5 for the Cracking refineries and over 9 for the Coking refineries.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Hyper CD-ROM is an optical data storage device similar to the CD-ROM with a multilayer 3D structure, invented by Romanian scientist Dr. Eugen Pavel.\nThe technology is similar to FMD discs. The bit of data being held as a change in fluorescence characteristics once irradiated with one or two lasers. The target is irradiated with a pulse of laser(s) then a CCD or photodiode wait for an emitted light by the medium due to the Fluorescence effect (bit value set to \"1\" if emitted, else \"0\").", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Hyper-interactive teaching technology or H-ITT is a form of technology used primarily to interact between the students and teachers.  Students generally are given an H-ITT transmitter, which is similar to a remote control, which allows them to answer questions in poll or quiz form.\nIt also means that the interaction between the teacher, the students and among the students is very high. The term is frequently used to denote a constant conversation among the students themselves, and learning with each other, which is not usually the case in a conventional teaching medium.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Founded in 2001 and based in Norwich, Hypertag is a supplier of proprietary proximity marketing technology. It predominantly sells this to brands, allowing them to connect to consumers\u2019 mobile phones based on their proximity to a physical location using short-range mobile wireless technologies such as Bluetooth, Infrared, Wi-Fi and NFC.The Hypertag allows digital content such as wallpapers, video clips, games, music clips, vouchers, documents, web links or mobile applications to be downloaded direct to consumers\u2019 mobile phones quickly and for free. Hypertag sells its proximity marketing solutions to major brands, their agencies, visitor attractions and through a network of international resellers. Hypertag also integrates its systems with third party infrastructure providers such as in-store advertising display screen providers and has been used by brands such as O2, Vodafone, Peugeot and CNN, and has installed systems at visitor attractions owned by the Royal Institution and English Heritage.\nAn example campaign in 2005, posters advertising the new Gorillaz single, DARE, were established in Sydney and Melbourne, Australia in September 2005. The posters contained Hypertag technology, allowing passers-by to download a 40-second ringtone of the song DARE to their mobile phones.\nThe technology was also used by the band New Order in advertisements for their album Waiting for the Sirens' Call, and in 2008, Hypertag won the gold award for best location-based advertising technology at the Mobile Advertising and Marketing Awards.\nHypertag was bought by Proxama Ltd on 14 January 2011.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Immersion silver plating  (or IAg plating) is a surface plating process that creates a thin layer of silver over copper objects.  It consists in dipping the object briefly into a solution containing silver ions.\nImmersion silver plating is used by the electronics industry in manufacture of printed circuit boards (PCBs), to protect copper conductors from oxidation and improve solderability.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The IBM 416 was a tabulating machine released in 1941 and produced in Milan.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The IBM Leapfrog is a tablet computer prototype by IBM. It was designed by Sam Lucente and Richard Sapper. It is part of the collection of the Museum of Modern Art. It won the Compasso d'Oro in 1994. When the tablet computer was announced, it was mistakenly described by design magazines as a product that could be bought.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Secure Blue is a type of computer hardware designed by IBM that enables data encryption to be built into a microprocessor. It can be added to existing processors, and encrypts and decrypts data as it passes through them, without requiring any power from the processors themselves.  Possible uses of the technology are to protect data on stolen devices and enforcement of Digital Rights Management (DRM).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Rodel Banez Capinig For data storage, identification is the capability to find, retrieve, report, change, or delete specific data without ambiguity. This applies especially to information stored in databases. In database normalisation, the process of organizing the fields and tables of a relational database to minimize redundancy and dependency, is the central, defining function of the discipline.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "iFanzy is a personalized EPG that is being developed by Stoneroos, a Dutch Interactive Television Developer, in cooperation with the Eindhoven University of Technology. The personalized EPG provides the viewer with an offer of programs selected especially for this person, based on his or her personal interests and the mood he or she is in. iFanzy can be used next to the regular EPG. iFanzy is the result of a government subsidized project, led by Philips.\niFanzy has ceased operation, according to the site, due to the change in needs for the public.\nThe iFanzy TV Guide was introduced in 2009, and published in the Google Play Store and App Store.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "IKEA pencils are small pencils provided for free in IKEA stores worldwide. They are found in small boxes attached to poles, together with maps, measuring tapes and shopping forms. The IKEA pencil has been known for the wide variety of designs. Through the years the color changed from blue, to yellow to the natural color of wood. Despite the different colors, its dimensions have always been 7\u00d787mm.It is said that the IKEA pencil was introduced to rival the Argos pen, which was also given for free at Argos stores in the United Kingdom. During this time, the competitor only provided six pens for each catalogue stand while Ikea offered them in large dispensers. Ikea orders 5.2 million pencils yearly for its Canadian stores alone, and the company does not disapprove of customers that put them to other uses such as craft projects or works of art. The Dutch artist Judith Delleman constructed a chair out of hundreds of them. When an Ikea store first opened in South Korea, two years' worth of free pencils were consumed in the span of two months.Being disposable, the pencils are also used by surgeons to mark osteotomy cuts in craniofacial and maxillofacial surgery. Another application of pencils is to draw electronic circuits, and IKEA pencils have been used in the fabrication of free chlorine sensors for drinking water.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Image differencing is an image processing technique used to determine changes between images. The difference between two images is calculated by finding the difference between each pixel in each image, and generating an image based on the result. For this technique to work, the two images must first be aligned so that corresponding points coincide, and their photometric values must be made compatible, either by careful calibration, or by post-processing (using color mapping). The complexity of the pre-processing needed before differencing varies with the type of image.\nImage differencing techniques are commonly used in astronomy to locate objects that fluctuate in brightness or move against the star field.\nThe Hutchinson metric can be used to \"measure of the discrepancy between two images for use in fractal image processing\".", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Impulse noise is a category of (acoustic) noise that includes unwanted, almost instantaneous (thus impulse-like) sharp sounds (like clicks and pops)\u2014typically caused by electromagnetic interference, scratches on disks, gunfire, explosions, and synchronization issues in digital audio. High levels of such a noise (200+ decibels) may damage internal organs, while 180 decibels are enough to damage human ears.\nAn impulse noise filter can enhance the quality of noisy signals to achieve robustness in pattern recognition and adaptive control systems. A classic filter used to remove impulse noise is the median filter, at the expense of signal degradation. Thus it's quite common to get better performing impulse noise filters with model-based systems, which are programmed with the time and frequency properties of the noise to remove only impulse obliterated samples.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "IMUnited was a coalition of instant messaging service providers, including Yahoo! and Microsoft, that wanted AOL to open its proprietary AIM network to them. It appears to have disappeared, possibly because both Yahoo!'s and Microsoft's instant messaging services started to gain popularity.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In-Cell Charge Control or I-C3 is a method for very rapid charging of a Nickel-metal hydride battery, patented by Rayovac. Batteries using this technology are commonly sold as \"15-minute rechargeables\".\nThe charge control consists of a pressure switch built into the cell, which disconnects the charging current when the internal cell pressure rises above a certain limit (usually 200 to 300 psi or 1.4 to 2.1 MPa). This prevents overcharging and damage to the cell.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "India paper is a type of paper which from 1875 has been based on bleached hemp and rag fibres, that produced a very thin, tough opaque white paper. It has a basis weight of 20 pounds, yet bulks 1,000 pages to the inch.It became popular in particular for the printing of Bibles, which could be made relatively small and light while remaining legible. The 1911 Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica boasted, \"Printed on thin, but strong opaque India paper, each volume but one inch in thickness.\" The process was used particularly by the Oxford University Press and its paper suppliers. The name arose because the paper imitated fine papers imported from the Indian subcontinent.India paper has also often been used for the printing of die proofs of postage stamps.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An indoor antenna is a type of radio or TV antenna placed indoors, as opposed to being mounted on the roof. They are usually considered a simple and cheap solution to receive transmissions. An indoor antenna is prone to picking up electrical noise, but digital broadcasts are resistant to this noise.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An inertial platform, also known as a gyroscopic platform or stabilized platform, is a system using gyroscopes to maintain a platform in a fixed orientation in space despite the movement of the vehicle that it is attached to. These can then be used to stabilize gunsights in tanks, anti-aircraft artillery on ships, and as the basis for older mechanically based inertial navigation systems. See Inertial measurement unit\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An inertial reference unit (IRU) is a type of inertial sensor which uses gyroscopes (electromechanical, ring laser gyro or MEMS) and accelerometers (electromechanical or MEMS) to determine a moving aircraft\u2019s or spacecraft\u2019s change in rotational attitude (angular orientation relative to some reference frame) and translational position (typically latitude, longitude and altitude) over a period of time. In other words, an IRU allows a device, whether airborne or submarine, to travel from one point to another without reference to external information.\n\nAnother name often used interchangeably with IRU is Inertial Measurement Unit. The two basic classes of IRUs/IMUs are \"gimballed\" and \"strapdown\". The older, larger gimballed systems have become less prevalent over the years as the performance of newer, smaller strapdown systems has improved greatly via the use of solid-state sensors and advanced real-time computer algorithms. Gimballed systems are still used in some high-precision applications where strapdown performance may not be as good.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "InfoCamp is a global movement of collaborative unconferences addressing topics in information science and related fields. These so-called unconferences are unstructured, face-to-face meetings where the agenda and activities such as discussions, workshops, and presentations are determined by the participants. The informal nature of these gatherings empower the participants by shifting the power from the presenters to the people.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Information access is the freedom or ability to identify, obtain and make use of database  or information effectively.There are various research efforts in information access for which the objective is to simplify and make it more effective for human users to access and further process large and unwieldy amounts of data and information.\nSeveral technologies applicable to the general area are Information Retrieval, Text Mining, Machine Translation, and Text Categorisation.During discussions on free access to information as well as on information policy, information access is understood as concerning the insurance of free and closed access to information. Information access covers many issues including copyright, open source, privacy, and security.\nGroups such as the American Library Association, the American Association of Law Libraries, Ralph Nader's Taxpayers Assets Project have advocated for free access to legal information. The vendor neutral citation movement in the legal field is working to ensure that courts will accept citations from cases on the web which do not have the traditional (copyrighted) page numbers from the West Publishing company.  There is a worldwide Free Access to Law Movement which advocates free access to legal information. The Wired Magazine Article Who Owns The Law is an introduction to the access to legal information issue. Postsecondary organizations such as K-12 work to share information. They feel it is a legal and moral obligation to provide access (including to people with disabilities or impairments) to information through the services and programs they offer.Some effects of charging for information access, such as literature searches for physicians, is studied in the article \"Fee or Free: The Effect of Charging on Information Demand\". In this study, a $5 charge resulted in a 77% decrease in searches.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An informative sign is a very legibly printed and very noticeable placard that informs people of the purpose of an object, or gives them instruction on the use of something.  An example is a traffic sign or a stop sign.\nInformation signs have been growing in visibility due to the explosion of sign technologies. For hundreds, if not thousands of years, signs were crafted out of wood. Words and images were then hand-painted on the sign. The other traditional way of producing signs dealt with individual constructed letters carved from wood, molded or wrought from metal, which were then individually placed in the appropriate sequence.\nWhile both of these methods are still employed, technology has moved in around them. Woodworking machinery can now be controlled by computers, leading to much greater consistency. Molded signage has changed dramatically with the advent of plastics, which are far more flexible than metal as well as significantly cheaper to produce. Additionally, all new sign technologies have come into being, such as computer-cut vinyl signage.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An infoscope is a handheld device composed of a digital camera and wireless internet access. The device can be used to translate foreign languages by photographing the text then sending the image to a remote computer via the internet for translation. The device is in the prototype stage and was conceived and developed by Ismail Haritaoglu at IBM's Almaden Research Center.  It was named as one of Time Magazine's 2002 \"Best Inventions.\"", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Infratek is a system for removing ice from aircraft using heat (infrared radiation).\nInfrared panels powered by natural gas are installed inside a big hangar-like tent with openings in both ends. When the aircraft is inside, the infrared rays will melt the ice off its wings and body. The advantage is that no chemical deicing fluids such as glycol, which is harmful to the environment and very expensive, need to be used. A minor drawback might be that natural gas adds to CO2 pollution.\nInfratek systems exist at New York's JFK and Newark airports. It was also set up at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen in January 2006, but as of February 2007 the system was still unsuccessful, due to the cold Norwegian winter climate.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Ingress cancellation is an advanced physical layer technology that digitally removes in-channel ingress. If a carrier appears in the middle of the upstream data signal, ingress cancellation can remove the interfering carrier without causing packet loss. \nIngress cancellation also removes one or more carriers that are higher in amplitude than the data signal. Ingress cancellation eventually will break if the in-channel ingress gets too high.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Inherent risk, in Risk management, is an assessed level of raw or untreated risk; that is, the natural level of risk inherent in a process or activity without doing anything to reduce the likelihood or mitigate the severity of a mishap, or the amount of risk before the application of the risk reduction effects of controls. Another definition is that inherent risk is the current risk level given the existing set of controls, which may be incomplete or less than ideal, rather than an absence of any controls.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An inkjet spittoon is a component in electronic inkjet printers. Inkjet printers commonly experience a problem of drying out which blocks the flow of ink. To restore flow, it is necessary to clean the inkjet head by spraying (or \"spitting\") excess ink through all the jets to reapply moisture and unblock the adjacent clogged jets. The excess ink used for cleaning needs to be collected somewhere to avoid creating a mess below the printer, so inkjet printers have a \"spittoon\" hidden inside to collect this ink.\nThe inkjet printer spittoon is usually a permanent component designed to last the life of the printer, not removable or replaceable by the user. A spittoon overfilled with partially dried ink can cause inkjet printer failures. Some professional inkjet printers have replaceable spittoons.Different printer manufacturers use different spittoon technology. Hewlett-Packard uses a small plastic tray below the cleaning station and cartridge storage dock, while Epson uses an absorbent fiber pad in a large shallow tray below the width of the printer.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The term inrunner refers to an electric motor where the rotor (runner) is inside the stator. The term is in particular used for brushless motors to differentiate them from outrunners that have their rotor outside the stator. The vast majority of electric motors are inrunners.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Argentine Normalization and Certification Institute (Spanish: Instituto Argentino de Normalizaci\u00f3n y Certificaci\u00f3n, IRAM) is the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) member body for Argentina.\nIt was founded on May 2, 1935, under the name Instituto Argentino de Racionalizaci\u00f3n de Materiales, IRAM, and is still known as IRAM even though its name was changed in 1996 to Argentine Normalization and Certification Institute.\nThe organization has branches in various provinces throughout Argentina.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Integral windup, also known as integrator windup or reset windup, refers to the situation in a PID feedback controller where a large change in setpoint occurs (say a positive change) and the integral term accumulates a significant error during the rise (windup), thus overshooting and continuing to increase as this accumulated error is unwound (offset by errors in the other direction). The specific problem is the excess overshooting.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Intelligent automation, or alternately intelligent process automation, is a software term that refers to a combination of artificial intelligence (AI) and robotic process automation (RPA). Companies use intelligent automation to cut costs by using artificial-intelligence-powered robotic software to replace workers who handle repetitive tasks. The term is similar to hyperautomation, a concept identified by research group Gartner as being one of the top technology trends of 2020.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Intellipublia is a pilot effort to implement production process reform within the United States Intelligence Community.  Based on the MediaWiki engine, Intellipublia introduces a review capability to the existing collaborative environment, similar to that of Intellipedia.\nA sub-system of Intellipublia is the Joint Product Line.\n\nIntellipublia's Joint Product Line (JPL) combines official agency review with emergent content for joint or \"purple\" output. Users can consume and compare \"authorized\" versions to the emergent \"living\" version. Agency logos quickly denote that official vetters have reviewed the content. In addition to agency logos, the \"authority\" and roles of vetters are denoted by color-coded stamps such as \"team leader\" and \"final authority.\" Once the official vetters sign off on the content, their agency logo will become un-ghosted at the top. Ghosted logos show that someone from that agency has made edits but doesn't have a higher vetting function. This is modified MediaWiki software and shown in the edit history mode.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Interactive video compositing, or IVC, is an interactive media production technique that uses pre-rendered videos and images to create visual coherence, allowing interactive environments to be created without the heavy processing load incurred by real-time 3D graphics.\nThe most popular examples of IVC are in video games using the technique prior to the propagation of real-time 3D graphics. On the Internet, some websites (generally in Adobe Flash) make use of this technique for visual rendering with other effects.The differences with interactive video compositing, as opposed to real-time graphics, lies in the finality of the product. IVC is used with the goal of creating an enriched interactive experience from a product's constituent media in a simple manner.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Interconnect User Part (IUP) is a national specific Signaling System 7 protocol for interconnect between public telephone networks in the United Kingdom. This protocol was formerly known as BTNUP.\nIt is specified in document PNO-ISC/SPEC/006 which is published by the NICC as ND1006:2007/05.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Internal hard-drive defect management is a system present in hard drives for handling of bad sectors. The systems are generally proprietary and vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, but typically consist of a \"P\" (for \"permanent\" or \"primary\") list of bad sectors detected in the manufacturing stage and a \"G\" (for \"growth\") list of bad sectors that crop up after manufacturing. Many disk/controller subsystems reserve storage to remap defective disk sectors. The drive automatically creates its initial remapping information and has the additional ability to dynamically remap \"grown\" defects. Because the drive is remapping its own bad sectors, software may not detect growing numbers of bad sectors until later stages of gradual hard-disk failure (which in some cases may not be until after the warranty period has expired.)", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The International Symposium for Personal and Commercial Spaceflight (ISPCS) is an annual conference held in Las Cruces, New Mexico. The conference (started in 2005) is organized by the New Mexico Space Grant Consortium a member of the congressionally funded National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program which is administered by NASA in  1989.Day one each year starts with the Sugerman Forum, a public portion of the event that discusses and highlights the personal and commercial spaceflight industry. Other elements of ISPCS include workshops, tours and events at Spaceport America.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "ISPSD (International Symposium on Power Semiconductor Devices and ICs) is an annual conference established in 1988 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) on a wide range of power technologies.  Host to over 500 experts from across the world, ISPSD is the premier forum for technical discussions in all areas of power semiconductor devices and power integrated circuits, recently focusing on gallium nitride and silicon carbide devices.\nThe conferences are held in Asia, North America, and Europe on a rotating basis. ISPSD celebrated its 30th anniversary in Chicago, United States from May 13 to 17, 2018. The previous year's conference was held in Sapporo, Japan from May 28 to June 1, 2017. ISPSD 2016 was held in Prague, Czech Republic in June 2016. ISPSD 2019 was held in May 2019 in Shanghai, China.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The LG Internet Digital DIOS (also known as R-S73CT) is an internet refrigerator released by LG Electronics in June 2000. The technology is the result of a project that started in 1997 and staffed by a team of 55 researchers with a budget cost of 15 billion won (US$49.2 million).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "IonSense, Inc. is a Massachusetts-based company that is developing technology for the analysis of materials by direct analysis in real time or DART mass spectrometry.  DART MS provides rapid qualitative and quantitative sample analysis of bioanalytical, medicinal, forensic, and chemical synthesis products by ambient mass spectrometry.\nIonSense provides the DART Ion Sources which are interfaced to mass spectrometry systems manufactured by JEOL, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bruker, Applied Biosystems, Agilent, and Waters.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An IP Multimedia Services Identity Module (ISIM) is an application residing on the UICC, an IC card specified in TS 31.101. This module could be on a UMTS 3G or IMS VoLTE network. It contains parameters for identifying and authenticating the user to the IMS. The ISIM application can co-exist with SIM and USIM on the same UICC making it possible to use the same smartcard in both GSM networks and earlier releases of UMTS.\nAmong the data present on ISIM are an IP Multimedia Private Identity (IMPI), the home operator domain name, one or more IP Multimedia Public Identity (IMPU) and a long-term secret used to authenticate and calculate cipher keys. The first IMPU stored in the ISIM is used in emergency registration requests.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology (IPHT \u2014 German: Institut f\u00fcr Photonische Technologien) is a non-university research facility in Jena, Thuringia, Germany.  Focused on applications for various physical systems, the Institute's mandate is to find solutions to challenges in high technology systems.  IPHT carries out research in the following areas: magnetics, quantum electronics, optics, microsystems, biophotonics and laser technology.  The Institute works with both universities and companies. \nThe IPHT coordinates several EU-Projects funded by the European Commission:\n\nPhotonics4Life\nS-Pulse\nHigh-EF\nRod-Sol\nFiblys", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An iron roughneck is a piece of hydraulic machinery used to \"handle\" (connect and disconnect) segments of pipe in a modern drilling rig. The segments can be manipulated as they are hoisted into and out of a borehole. This type of work was previously performed manually by workers using tongs, and was one of the most dangerous jobs in a drilling operation. However, with iron roughnecks and modern technology, much of this can be done remotely with minimal manual handling.Automated roughnecks became common in deep-water drilling and were later adopted by onshore rigs.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "IronKey is the brand name of a family of encrypted USB portable storage devices owned by Kingston Digital, the flash memory affiliate of Kingston Technology Company, Inc.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Irritant Horn was a surveillance operation plan with the goal of compromising smartphones through usage of Google and Samsung application stores. The operation was developed by the US National Security Agency in alliance with agencies from Britain, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. The operation was based on Edward Snowden leaked documents.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "iSeeYou is a security bug affecting iSight cameras in some Apple laptops.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "ISO 8178 is a collection of steady state test cycles used for defining emission standards for non-road engines in the European Union, United States, Japan and other countries.  Test cycle ISO 8178 C1 is also referred to as \"Non-Road Steady Cycle\" and used extensively.  The Non-road Transient Cycle is supplementing it in some modern emission standards.\nIt is defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "IT RPM, or IT resource performance management, is a concept employed within the discipline of IT service management. In practice, it is a combination of technologies and processes which combine social collaboration, mobility tools and gamification in order to provide higher quality support in a service desk environment. It is typically under-pinned by best practices like ITIL, COBIT or Lean Six Sigma for Service Management.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SAE protocol J1922 is a standard for \"Powertrain Control Interface for Electronic Controls Used in Medium- and Heavy-Duty Diesel On-Highway Vehicle Applications\" (published December 4, 2008).  This SAE Recommended Practice provides a development or possibly interim production communication protocol between engine, transmission, ABS/traction control, and retarder systems until higher speed communication links are established.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The first practical Japanese typewriter (Japanese: \u548c\u6587\u30bf\u30a4\u30d7\u30e9\u30a4\u30bf\u30fc, Hepburn: wabun taipurait\u0101) was invented by Kyota Sugimoto in 1915. Out of the thousands of kanji characters, Kyota's original typewriter used 2,400 of them. He obtained the patent rights to the typewriter that he invented in 1929. Sugimoto's typewriter met its competition when the Oriental Typewriter was invented by Shimada Minokichi. The Otani Japanese Typewriter Company and Toshiba also released their own typewriters later.The Japanese typewriter was bulky and laborious to use. Unlike the English-language typewriter, which allows the typist to key in text quickly, one needed to locate and then retrieve the desired character from a large matrix of metal characters. For instance, to type a sentence, the typist would need to find and retrieve around 22 symbols from about three different character matrices, making the sentence longer to type than its romanized version. For this reason, typists are required to undergo specialized training and word processing was not part of the duties of the ordinary office workers.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Jeffree cell was an early acousto-optic modulator, best known for its use in the Scophony system of mechanical television. It was invented by J.H. Jeffree in 1934, and was a major improvement over the Kerr cell modulators used up to that time by allowing more than 200 times the available modulated light.Using ultrasonic sound waves travelling perpendicular to the light, the modulator created areas of varying refractive index leading to advancement and retardation of portions of the light wavefront. This led to constructive and destructive interference among the light waves, modulating their intensity.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The  joint probabilistic data-association filter (JPDAF) is a statistical approach to the problem of plot association (target-measurement assignment) in a target tracking algorithm. Like the probabilistic data association filter (PDAF), rather than choosing the most likely assignment of measurements to a target (or declaring the target not detected or a measurement to be a false alarm), the PDAF takes an expected value, which is the minimum mean square error (MMSE) estimate for the state of each target. At each time, it maintains its estimate of the target state as the mean and covariance matrix of a multivariate normal distribution. However, unlike the PDAF, which is only meant for tracking a single target in the presence of false alarms and missed detections, the JPDAF can handle multiple target tracking scenarios. A derivation of the JPDAF is given in.The JPDAF is one of several techniques for radar target tracking and for target tracking in the field of computer vision.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In information theory, joint source\u2013channel coding is the encoding of a redundant information source for transmission over a noisy channel, and the corresponding decoding, using a single code instead of the more conventional steps of source coding followed by channel coding.\nJoint source\u2013channel coding has been proposed and implemented for a variety of situations, including speech and videotransmission.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "JORDY or Joint Optical Reflective Display is an optical viewing device developed based on NASA technology. It is used to help the visually impaired see and read.\nThe name is inspired by the Star Trek character, Geordi La Forge.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Jott was a web-based voice-to-text transcription service which allowed its users to call a toll-free telephone number and speak for up to 30 seconds. The speech was then transcribed to text using a combination of computerized speech recognition software and human transcribers who worked in a \"sterile environment which also includes medical dictation.\"  The message could be sent back to oneself, turned into a reminder, sent to a contact or group, or sent to a third-party \"Jott link\" such as LiveJournal.\nTranscribed messages could be delivered to recipients via email, text message, or both. After completing its beta stage, Jott services were offered according to several subscription plans: Jott Basic (free); Jott ($4/month) and Jott Pro ($13/month). There were other plans such as the $9.95 per month package, which included forty transcribed voice mails.Jott was founded in April 2006 and gained $5.4 million in venture capital in May 2007. Investors in the firm included Ackerley Partners and Draper Richards.As of July 14, 2009, the company was purchased by Nuance Communications.On April 4, 2011, it was announced that the Jott.com service would be ending on May 3, allowing the company to instead \"focus our voice-to-text service investments on carrier and enterprise distribution\".", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The KAF-10500 is a CCD imaging sensor designed by US photographic company Eastman Kodak. In September 2006 it was announced that the sensor was to be used in the Leica M8 digital rangefinder camera, having been specifically designed for this application. Its size is 18x27 mm (APS-H) and it has 10.3 million pixels of size 6.8 \u03bcm. Compared to 35mm film, it has a 1.33 crop factor. It is calibrated for an ISO sensitivity range of 160\u20132500.\nThe sensor includes indium tin oxide as a constituent material, which Kodak claims leads to low noise, high sensitivity, and wide dynamic range. It is designed for use with lenses with short back focal lengths \u2013 such as those common to rangefinder cameras \u2013 by including a microlens array to reduce fall off in intensity from the center to corners of the image. Further details and aspects of the sensor were unveiled during the course of photokina 2006.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Kaiser effect is a phenomenon observed in geology and material science that describes a pattern of acoustic emission (AE) or seismicity in a body of rock or other material subjected to repeated cycles of mechanical stress. \nIn material that exhibits an initial seismic response under a certain load, the Kaiser effect describes the absence of acoustic emission or seismic events until that load is exceeded. The Kaiser effect results from discontinuities (fractures) created in material during previous steps that do not move, expand, or propagate until the former stress is exceeded.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "KAoS is a policy and domain services framework created by the Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition. It uses W3C's Web Ontology Language (OWL) standard for policy representation and reasoning, and a software guard technology for efficient enforcement of a compiled version of its policies. It has been used in a variety of government-sponsored projects for distributed host and network management and for the coordination of human-agent-robot teams, including DARPA's CoABS Grid, Cougaar, and Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) models.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Karbonite gears are a reinforced plastic composite material used  in Hitec RC servos that show almost five times the strength of nylon gears and better wear resistance. Cycle times of over 300,000 have been observed, with these gear trains showing virtually no wear. Karbonite-geared servos are more expensive than nylon ones but are highly durable.  Hobbyists are advised to avoid thread locking compounds on Karbonite as this will cause the plastic to fail.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Katana is the name given to a Ricoh photocopier. It is a high volume machine that is able to copy at speeds of up to 135 pages per minute, while the slowest Katana copier can copy at 90 copies per minute.  It is a black and white machine but has a color scanner fitted to it. It can be used as both a photocopier and printer at the same time.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Keyword Protocol 2000, abbreviated KWP2000, is a communications protocol used for on-board vehicle diagnostics systems (OBD). This protocol covers the application layer in the OSI model of computer networking. The protocol is standardized by International Organization for Standardization as ISO 14230. KWP2000 also covers the session layer in the OSI model, in terms of starting, maintaining and terminating a communications session.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Kinematic determinacy is a term used in structural mechanics to describe a structure where material compatibility conditions alone can be used to calculate deflections. A kinematically determinate structure can be defined as a structure where, if it is possible to find nodal displacements compatible with member extensions, those nodal displacements are unique. The structure has no possible mechanisms, i.e. nodal displacements, compatible with zero member extensions, at least to a first-order approximation. Mathematically, the mass matrix of the structure must have full rank. Kinematic determinacy can be loosely used to classify an arrangement of structural members as a structure (stable) instead of a mechanism (unstable). The principles of kinematic determinacy are used to design precision devices such as mirror mounts for optics, and precision linear motion bearings.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A kit is a set of components that has to be assembled by the buyer or at the site of use to get the definitive product.\nExamples:\n\nElectronic kit, a package of electrical components used to build an electronic device.\nKit car (\"component car\"), an automobile that the buyer assembles into a functioning car\nKit bike\nFolding kayak\nTent\nPrefabricated building of houses\nprovisional military engineering constructions like\nMabey Logistic Support Bridge\nSpace station\nMuch of IKEA furniture\nA lot of kits are sold for model building", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Kitchener Range (c. 1802) is a closed-top range patented by George Bodley, a Devon iron-founder. It had a cast-iron hotplate over the fire with removable boiling rings. The second image is more common that the final one, having an oven only to one side. The term Kitchener appears to be applicable to either the single or double oven design.\nA further claim, that the Kitchener range was designed by William Flavel in 1829, and lives on in the modern interpretation by Rangemaster, who are still based at Flavels original foundry in Royal Leamington Spa, England.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Knudsen absolute manometer is an instrument to measure absolute pressures. Named after Martin Knudsen.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A knurled nut is a nut with a knurled outside surface. This facilitates tightening by hand (thumb nut) or secures the nut into a handle or cover (insertion nut).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Kobian is a robot created by scientists at Waseda University in Japan. It is capable of displaying expressions of emotion and was developed to realize culture-specific greetings. It can also simulate human speech including the movement of the lips and the oscillations of the head.Kobian is based on the WABIAN-2R robot and the emotion expression humanoid robot called WE-4RII and is 1,470 mm tall and weighs 62 kilograms. The robot's two eyeballs are outfitted with CMOS cameras. It is a bi-pedal standalone robot with control units such as motor drivers placed in the robotic head, making this particular part larger than the human head. The robotic head for the Kobian-R, the newer and more downsized version of the robot, has 24 degrees of freedom (DoFs) and a blue facial color due to an electro luminescence sheet. The original Kobian robot has a DoF of 48. Two versions of the Kobian-Rs have been built - a Western and a Japanese variant - to develop the system that produces the robot's facial cues.The Kobian robot has another version called Debian, which has a slightly different facial and body color to provide these robots distinctions when interacting with each other and with other subjects. The color has no cultural significance.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Kyocera Strobe is a cellular phone from Kyocera Wireless. It was released on June 30, 2006. Service providers such as Alltel, Bluegrass Cellular, Cricket Wireless, NTelos, Verizon, U.S. Cellular, and Virgin Mobile carry this phone. The Strobe looks like a regular candy bar phone, but it flips into a hidden QWERTY keyboard. It has dual-color displays, keypad, built-in polyphonic ring tones, screen savers, caller alerts, a loop antenna, speaker phone, headset jack, and a VGA camera with flash and 5x zoom.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Laboratory ovens are a common piece of equipment that can be found in electronics, materials processing, forensic, and research laboratories. These ovens generally provide pinpoint temperature control and uniform temperatures throughout the heating process. The following applications are some of the common uses for laboratory ovens: annealing, die-bond curing, drying or dehydrating, Polyimide baking, sterilizing, evaporating. Typical sizes are from one cubic foot to 0.9 cubic metres (32 cu ft). Some ovens can reach temperatures that are higher than 300 degrees Celsius. These temperatures are then applied from all sides of the oven to provide constant heat to sample.Laboratory ovens can be used in numerous different applications and configurations, including clean rooms, forced convection, horizontal airflow, inert atmosphere, natural convection, and pass through.\nThere are many types of laboratory ovens that are used throughout laboratories. Standard digital ovens are mainly used for drying and heating processes while providing temperature control and safety. Heavy duty ovens are used more in the industrial laboratories and provide testing and drying for biological samples. High temperature ovens are custom built and have additional insulation lining. This is needed for the oven due to its high temperatures that can reach up to 500 degrees Celsius. Other forms of the laboratory oven include vacuum ovens, forced air convection ovens, and gravity convection ovens.Forensic labs use vacuum ovens that have been configured in specific ways to assist in developing fingerprints. Gravity convection ovens are used for biological purposes such as removing biological contaminants from samples. Along with forced-air ovens, they are also used in environmental studies to dry out samples that have been taken. These samples are weighed before and after to calculate the amount of moisture in the sample.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A large technical system (LTS) is a system or network of enormous proportions or complexity.  The study of LTSs is a subdiscipline of history of science and technology.\nThe book Rescuing Prometheus by Thomas P. Hughes documents the development of four such systems, including the Boston central artery tunnel and the Internet.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Mostly large-format projection (or large-image projection) is used for the use of large-format slide projectors or extremely powerful video projectors for producing still-standing or dynamic images on projection areas of about 100\u201310,000 m2 and more. Sometimes the use of slide projector and video projector is combined to reach a kind of \"picture in picture\" projection to enable larger projections with a dynamic part inside. But that is a speciality of projection artists which have a lot of detailed know how of the projection parameters.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "For industrial processes, Laser converting or laser digital converting is a production technology that enables device manufacturers to produce features that otherwise would be problematic or even impossible to die-cut, without the need for tooling.\nIn contrast to traditional mechanical converting, laser digital converting utilizes the features of lasers and advance software technology to convert parts in extremely high accuracy. In production environment, the laser digital converting is the economics of scale when the production run is short, as there is virtually no 'up-front' cost associated with machine tools making and storage. Also, the turnaround time is minimal as it only involves software interpretation on the imported engineering diagram of the part.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Laser Dynamic Range Imager (LDRI) is a LIDAR range imaging device developed by Sandia National Laboratories for the US Space Shuttle program.  The sensor was developed as part of NASA's \"Return to Flight\" effort following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster to provide 2-D and 3-D images of the thermal protection system on the Space Shuttle Orbiter.\nThe LDRI generates 3-dimensional images from 2-dimensional video.  Modulated laser illumination is demodulated by the receive optics, and the resulting video sequences can be processed to produce 3-d images.  The modulation produces a flickering effect from frame-to-frame in the video imagery.\nAs part of the Orbiter Boom Sensor System, the LDRI is mounted at the end of the boom on a pan-tilt unit (PTU) along with an intensified video camera (ITVC).  During 2-dimensional imaging of the reinforced carbon-carbon panels on the leading edge of the shuttle's wings, the LDRI is capable of seeing damage as small as a 0.020-inch crack.During the mission STS-114, the LDRI was used to obtain 3-D measurements of a loose gap filler on the underside of the orbiter.  The LDRI also flew on the subsequent mission, STS-121.  On this mission, NASA TV broadcast live raw video from the LDRI of the entire wing leading edge and nosecap surveys on flight day 2.\nAn earlier version of the LDRI originally flew as a DTO on STS-97.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A latching switch is a switch that maintains its state after being activated. A push-to-make, push-to-break switch would therefore be a latching switch \u2013 each time you actuate it, whichever state the switch is left in will persist until the switch is actuated again.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Lazy linear hybrid automata model the discrete time behavior of control systems containing finite-precision sensors and actuators interacting with their environment under bounded inertial delays. The model permits only linear flow constraints but the invariants and guards can be any computable function.\nThis computational model was proposed by Manindra Agrawal and P. S. Thiagarajan. This model is more realistic and also computationally amenable than the currently popular modeling paradigm of linear hybrid automaton.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The LG Lancet is a low-end budget smartphone made by LG Electronics. It was first launched as a Windows Phone 8.1 device in July 2015 and was made available in an Android 5.1 version in October of that year. Both devices are available from Verizon Wireless.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The LG Watch Urbane is a smartwatch released by LG Corporation on April 27, 2015. There are gold and silver models, each with a 22mm-wide interchangeable strap. The watch has IP67 dust and water resistance.The  LG Watch Urbane was equipped with a Qualcomm Snapdragon 400 SoC, 512MB of LPDDR2 RAM, and 4GB of eMMC storage. The OLED display is a POLED variant, with an equivalent resolution to a square display of 320x320, with capacitive touch input.\nThe watch communicates with its companion Android phone or iPhone using Bluetooth v4.1LE, and has 2.4 GHz 802.11b/g/n WiFi for synchronizing Google Services data.\nThe watch has 9 axis movement sensors (gyro, accelerometer, compass), barometer, and heart rate sensor. The watch has a microphone which is used with Google Assistant's speech recognition. Unlike newer Wear devices it doesn't have a speaker, it can only vibrate for alerts.\nThe watch charges through contacts on its back, which connect via sprung \"pogo\" pins to a magnetically clamped puck, and the puck has a microUSB connector and thus requires an external power source.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Lifting equipment, also known as lifting gear, is a general term for any equipment that can be used to lift and lower loads. Types of lifting equipment includes heavy machinery such as the patient lift, overhead cranes, forklifts, jacks, building cradles, passenger lifts, and can also include smaller accessories such as chains, hooks, and rope. Generally, this equipment is used to move material that cannot be moved with manual labor, and are tools used in most work environments, such as warehouses, and is a requirement for most construction projects, such as bridges and buildings. This equipment can also be used to equip a larger number of packages and goods, requiring less persons to move material. Lifting equipment includes any form of equipment that is used for vertical lifting, and equipment used to move material horizontally is not considered lifting equipment, nor is equipment designed to support. As lifting equipment can be dangerous to use, it is a common subject of safety regulations in most countries, and heavy machinery usually requires certified workers to limit workplace injury.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A light booth is an apparatus which simulates lighting conditions. This apparatus is used to test products under a variety of lighting conditions, meaning that the user can accurately show how that product will appear under a variety of conditions independent of environmental influences.  Light booths are primarily used in the painting industry to test the finish of products under controlled conditions.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A light table is a viewing device that is used to review photographic film or artwork placed on top of it. A horizontal form of a self-standing lightbox, it provides even illumination of the subject from below through a translucent cover and fluorescent lights that emit little heat.\nSome light tables may be like big light boxes horizontally standing on some type of support (legs) allowing to lay sheets of paper or films on their work surface to easily view or trace them while being comfortably seated on an office chair, but others are big complicated affairs with stereoscopes integrated as an autosupported unit. That kind is used by Tomcat TARPS squadrons for interpreting aerial photographs.\n\nThey are mainly used in the trades of graphics to trace designs, especially in the world of cartoon or comics. Another use is for example to review film negatives, photoliths or any kind of artwork that can be placed on top of a table for working with it.\nIn general: professional tracing, animation, cartoons, design and drawing creation, education, architecture, interior design, fashion, in hospitals for viewing radiographs (X-rays, MRI, etc. ..)", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A light-addressable potentiometric sensor (LAPS) is a sensor that uses light (e.g. LEDs) to select what will be measured. Light can activate carriers in semiconductors.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Light-induced voltage alteration (LIVA) is a semiconductor analysis technique that uses a laser or infrared light source to induce voltage changes in a device while scanning the beam of light across its surface. The technique relies upon the generation of electron-hole pairs in the semiconductor material when exposed to photons.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A lightning machine was a special effects device used in the film industry to simulate lightning flashes. It is part of the array of devices used to reproduce weather, exterior scenes, and other natural phenomena. These include the fog machine, wind machine, and storm towers. These devices were also employed in live showings of some cinemas, and in popular science exhibits. Accounts cited that the lightning machine requires a considerable amount of electricity, causing a noticeable drain on the lights. There was an incident when the enormous flashes it produced was interpreted as desperate calls for assistance by the fire department.One of the earliest forms of lightning machines was recorded in ancient Greece. A list of stage contraptions, for instance, was described by Julius Pollux in his Onomasticon and part of this was the keraunoskopeion, which was a lightning machine.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Lilian date is the number of days since the beginning of the Gregorian Calendar on October 15, 1582, regarded as Lilian date 1.  It was invented by Bruce G. Ohms of IBM in 1986 and is named for Aloysius Lilius, who devised the Gregorian Calendar. Lilian dates can be used to calculate the number of days between any two dates occurring since the beginning of the Gregorian calendar. It is currently used by date conversion routines that are part of IBM Language Environment (LE) software and in IBM AIX COBOL.The Lilian date is only a date format: it is not tied to any particular time standard. Another, better known, date notation that is used for similar purposes is the Julian date, which is tied to Universal time (or some other closely related time scale, such as International Atomic Time). The Julian date always begins at noon, Universal time, and a decimal fraction may be used to represent the time of day. In contrast, Ohms did not make any mention of time zones or time of day in his paper.If the Lilian date was to be reckoned in Universal Time, and if the Lilian date is taken to begin at midnight, the Lilian date can be obtained from the Julian date by subtracting 2,299,159.5 from the Julian date, and ignoring the decimal fraction in the result.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A linchpin, also spelled linch pin, lynchpin, or lynch pin, is a fastener used to prevent a wheel or other part from sliding off the axle upon which it is riding. The word is first attested in the late fourteenth century and derives from Middle English elements meaning \"axletree pin\".Securing implements onto the three-point hitch of a tractor is an example of application.  Linchpins may also be used in place of an R-clip for securing hitch pins.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The line information database (LIDB) is a collection of commercial databases used in the United States and Canada by telephone companies to store and retrieve Calling Name Presentation (CNAM) data used for caller ID services. In Canada, it is common for the client to apply their own Caller ID information, and this is allowed (and common in PBXs), provided the regulations regarding spoofing and fraud are not violated. The databases map telephone numbers to 15-character strings of caller names. Class 5 telephone switches, which provide end-office services in exchange areas, use the Signaling System 7 (SS7) signaling protocol to query the database.The data submitted to the Line Information Database is maintained by a customer's carrier, and most incumbent local exchange carriers (ILECs) like the Baby Bells, and competitive local exchange carriers (CLECs) provide access for customers. In addition, LIDB databases were available from Intelco, Neustar, TNS, Qwest, Sprint and Verisign in North America. Some carriers do not provide a database, and CNAM lookups are provided using alternate methods, aggregated data from other sources, such as social media.\nIn the USA, caller ID name information is not transmitted from the originating office to the destination office. It is the terminating carrier that is responsible for providing the caller ID information to its customers. The carrier performs a database lookup using the caller's telephone number to obtain the name information for the caller ID service. If the data is with another carrier, then the terminating carrier must perform a lookup and pay a small dip fee to the carrier hosting the information. Wholesale rates for the fee are on the order of $200 to $600 per 100,000 lookups.Per carrier policy, the name of a person or business may be automatically added to the Line Information Database and the customer must opt-out to remain anonymous. Other carriers exclude identity information by rule, and require the subscriber to opt-in. If the identity information is not available, then the maintainer of the database often returns geographic information, such as the city and state. In case of a failure, the maintainer of the database may also return \"NOT AVAILABLE\".\nThe CNAM databases are independent databases operated by LECs and other private companies. The called party's carrier has the responsibility to perform the CNAM lookup, and it is possible that lookups for the same telephone number from different locations return different name information.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme or LCAS is a method to dynamically increase or decrease the bandwidth of virtual concatenated containers. The LCAS protocol is specified in ITU-T G.7042.\nIt allows on-demand increase or decrease of the bandwidth of the virtual concatenated group in a hitless manner. This brings bandwidth-on-demand capability for data clients like Ethernet when mapped into TDM containers.\nLCAS is also able to temporarily remove failed members from the virtual concatenation group. A failed member will automatically cause a decrease of the bandwidth and after repair the bandwidth will increase again in a hitless fashion. Together with diverse routing this provides survivability of data traffic without requiring excess protection bandwidth allocation.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Link Labs is an American asset tracking technology company headquartered in Annapolis, Maryland. In 2014, a group of veteran engineers from the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab founded the company that is now an award-winning innovator in low power, wide-area network devices. The startup first began primarily offering solutions to the hospitality industry, but within the last couple of years has diversified into other industries such as construction, healthcare, logistics, manufacturing, and warehousing. Link Labs places an emphasis on offering businesses an affordable, unique solution that has proven results.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Linotronic imagesetters are a now common type of high-quality printer, capable of printing at resolutions of up to 2540 dots per inch. The Linotronic allowed graphic artists to cheaply set type that exceeded the quality of many phototypesetting systems in use at the time.  Although too expensive for homes or most offices, but cheaper than many other alternatives of printing, it was the graphic designer's dream: output by taking a PostScript file on a removable disk to a service bureau for output on the bureau's Linotronic.\nManufactured by Mergenthaler Linotype Company and popularized by the Adobe RIP, enabling PostScript language files to be imaged by the Linotronic imagesetter. Although it was the first commercial usage of PostScript, which began the emergence of graphics applications dominance by Adobe, the first popular use of PostScript was the Apple Laserwriter (succeeded a few months later by the LaserWriter Plus).\nAdobe's RIPs have, generally, been named for United States rockets (Atlas, Redstone, etcetera), but Apple's RIP was of its own design, and was implemented using remarkably few integrated circuits (ICs), including PALs for most combinatorial logic, with the subsystem timing, DRAM refreshing, and rasterization functions being implemented in very few medium-integration PALs. Apple's competitors (i.e., QMS, NEC, and others) have generally used a variation of one of Adobe's RIPs with their large quantity of low-integration (i.e., Texas Instruments' 7400 series) ICs.\nThe latest RIPs are stand-alone fast PCs executing an x86 implementation of PostScript, with a special video output interface to the imagesetter.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Liquid cooling refers to cooling by means of the convection or circulation of a liquid. \nExamples of liquid cooling technologies include:\n\nCooling by convection or circulation of coolant, including water cooling\nLiquid cooling and ventilation garments, worn by astronauts\nLiquid metal cooled reactors\nRadiators (engine cooling)\nCooling towers", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The LiquidPiston engine is a pistonless rotary engine that operates on the high-efficiency hybrid cycle. This cycle consists of compressing air (with no fuel) to a very high ratio, as is typical in the Diesel cycle. The air is then isolated in a constant volume chamber. Fuel is injected and allowed to combust fully under constant volume conditions, which is how Otto cycle combustion is modeled. Finally, the combustion products are expanded to atmospheric pressure, utilizing the Atkinson cycle.\nIn the Wankel engine, the only successful pistonless rotary engine to date, an oval-like epitrochoid housing surrounds a curved sided triangular rotor. The three operating chambers thus formed are separated by seals installed on the three apexes of the rotor. These seals move in and out during each rotation, and are subjected to high stresses and wear; as a result they have been the limiting factor in longevity of such engines.\nThe LiquidPiston design reverses the shapes: an oval rotor moves within a triangular housing. The required seals (both face and apex) are mounted on the stationary housing, and are lubricated directly.\nIn order to use the Diesel cycle efficiently, high compression ratios are required. Typical piston diesel engines use between 15:1 and 24:1. The projected compression ratio of the LiquidPiston engine is 26:1.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The LTR x86 instruction stands for load task register and is used in operating systems that support multitasking.  LTR is supported only in protected mode and long mode, not in real mode or virtual 8086 mode.  It must be executed when the Current Privilege Level (CPL) is 0, and therefore cannot be used by application programs.  LTR loads the special x86 task register with a segment selector that points to a task state segment (TSS).  After executing the LTR instruction, the TSS pointed to by the argument is marked busy, but no hardware task switch occurs.\nThe opposite of the LTR instruction is the STR instruction, which means store task register and copies the value of the task register to the specified location.  Note that the x86 task register is only accessible directly through the LTR and STR instructions.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Location inference is the method of identifying the location profiles of users on social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook from their message content, friends' network and social interaction even when they did not explicitly disclose such on their account profiles or geotag their messages.\nApplications of location inference includes disaster management such as locating victims of earthquakes, consumer profiling for targeted advertising, tailored news content and for law enforcement such as detection of cyberbullying culprits.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A lock ring is a threaded washer used to prevent components from becoming loose during rotation. They are found on an adjustable bottom bracket and a track hub of a bicycle.\nLokring is another form of fastener used in the automotive and air condition industries: these fittings are often confused with lockrings.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A log house moulder is a machine to prepare logs to be suitable for building a log home. In general, the logs are first sawn to a square beam, then the moulder makes the groove. Often fitted to a portable sawmill that enables direct profiling of round or squared logs. The log house moulder is usually powered by electricity, but for portable sawmills they are sometimes using a chainsaw as power head. One of the more common, especially in Europe, is the\nLogosol log house moulder.\nOther type of log house moulder is a log through-pass machine. Through-pass log home moulders are highly productive and mighty machines able to turn truck load of logs into house logs during a work shift. Barked or debarked green or dry logs are fed into such machine one after other on one side and the machine processes logs, turning them into profiled roundish or squarish house logs, taken from outfeed of the machine. Such log home milling machine can shape logs into different profiles: Swedish cope, Tongue&groove, D-log, bevel-edged logs, etc.\nOne of moulders of through-pass type are Woodlandia' Rotary Log Moulders (USA, Canada, Russia)", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Lower Riser Package is a mechanical device to protect an oil well located underwater (subsea) and used during an oil well intervention. The LRP is essentially a mini blow out preventer (BOP). The lower riser package consists of a connector to the subsea oil well, a series of safety valves and a connection point at the top for connection to the riser pipe. The riser pipe is essentially a mini Marine riser and has a maximum inside diameter of 7 inches. A marine riser has a maximum inside diameter of 19 inches.\nThe LRP is used within what is called a workover system. A workover system is basically a series of valves and high strength pipe connecting a floating drilling rig to the subsea Christmas tree.\nThis device is also known as a lower marine riser package (LMRP).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Long Range Kinematic (LRK) technology is a sophisticated kinematic method developed by Magellan (formerly Thales) Navigation that optimises the advantages of dual-frequency GPS operation. Other conventional methods use the dual-frequency only during initialisation. LRK makes solving ambiguities during initialisation easy and continuous dual-frequency kinematic operation possible at distances up to 40 kilometres.\nConventional dual-frequency kinematic operation is limited to about 10 kilometres, using a combined observation on GPS L1 and L2 frequencies to produce an initial wide lane solution, ambiguous to around 86 centimetres. During a second phase, the conventional kinematic method uses measurements from the L1 frequency only. This method only allows for kinematic operation as long as the de-correlation of atmospheric errors is compatible with a pure phase single-frequency solution.\nSimilar to the KART process, LRK is a simple and reliable method that allows any initialisation mode, from a static or fixed reference point, to On The Fly ambiguity resolution, when performing dual-frequency GPS positioning. LRK technology reduces initialisation times to a few seconds by efficiently using L2 measurements in every mode of operation. LRK maintains optimal real-time positioning accuracy to within a centimetre at a range up to 40-50 kilometres, even with a reduced number of visible satellites.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "26 September 2021\n\nA luggage scale, also called a baggage scale or a suitcase scale, is used to weigh luggage to avoid luggage being overweight.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Magnetic developer is a fluid which makes the magnetic information written on magnetic tape or the magnetic stripe of a credit card or ATM card visible to the naked eye.\nMagnetic developer can be found in liquid or aerosol form. When applied to a magnetic stripe, suspended metal particles will be attracted to the magnetically charged regions of the stripe as the liquid evaporates.\nMagnetic developer can be used to troubleshoot problems with magnetic stripes and the equipment that encodes and reads them. By making the encoding visible, one can see how encoding head alignment affects the position of the data tracks, and observe any possible magnetic damage that has occurred on the magnetic stripe.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Magnetic induction tomography is an imaging technique used to image electromagnetic properties of an object by using the eddy current effect. It is also called electromagnetic induction tomography, electromagnetic tomography (EMT), eddy current tomography, and eddy current testing.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Magnetic secure transmission (MST) is the name for mobile payment technology in which devices such as smartphones emit a signal that mimics the magnetic stripe on a traditional payment card.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The K108ME-C is a proposed low speed two-stroke turbocharged marine diesel engine for marine propulsion and power generation applications. It is designed by the Danish department of the German diesel engine supplier MAN SE.\nIf the engine, or a possible newer derivate of it (claimed by some to be the G108ME-C) is ever built, the largest version will be the most powerful reciprocating engine ever, with more than 130,000 brake horsepower (96,941 kW) in Mark 9 or Mark 10 versions. The engine's cylinder bore will be 1,080 millimetres (42.5 in), and the stroke was initially proposed to be 2,660 millimetres (105 in). It will be used in new container ships of more than 20,000 twenty-foot equivalent unit (TEU) in order to achieve around 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph) cruising speed. The thermodynamic efficiency of the engine will surpass 50%.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A map analysis is a study regarding map types, i.e. political maps, military maps, contour lines etc., and the unique physical qualities of a map, i.e. scale, title, legend etc.\nIt is also a way of decoding the message and symbols of the map and placing it within its proper spatial and cultural context.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Mapscape BV is a Netherlands-based independent business-to-business digital maps service provider. The company was founded in 2007 by Henk Eemers and Ralf Stollenwerk. It is active in the navigation and automotive industry. Mapscape is involved in content aggregation, compilation and testing of digital maps for navigation purposes. The maps are targeted for use in the automotive industry in e.g. online and offline navigation and location-based services.\nThe company's automotive customers include BMW and Volkswagen, as well as navigation system suppliers, such as Continental, TomTom, Harman International, NNG, Bosch, and Elektrobit.  The company uses raw navigation data from companies such as HERE Technologies, TeleAtlas, NavInfo, and MapMyIndia which it compiles into the proprietary formats used by various navigation systems.Furthermore, Mapscape is involved in testing and certifying a new proposed industry standard automotive map format, called the Navigation Data Standard (NDS) initiative.In January 2011, Mapscape was acquired by and is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Chinese digital map supplier NavInfo.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The MASTAR (Model for Analog Simulation of subThreshold, saturation and weak Avalanche Regions)\nis an analytical model of Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors, developed using the voltage-doping transformation (VDT) technique. MASTAR offers good accuracy and continuity in current and its derivatives in all operation regimes of the MOSFET devices. The model has been successfully used in CAD/EDA simulation tools.The official ITRS definition of the acronym MASTAR is Model for Assessment of CMOS Technologies And Roadmaps. This software is developed by STMicroelectronics and is freely distributed on ITRS organization web site.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A matte display is an electronic display with a matte surface. Matte displays feature a light-scattering antireflection layer, which reduces reflectivity at the cost of decreased contrast and color intensity under dimly lit conditions. If the steep nanostructures are used \u2013 etched in the surface \u2013 a matte display can achieve an effect that is similar to continuous refraction index reduction.The image quality in displays with matte finish is not as sharp or bright as a glossy screen but it is easier to color-match and calibrate with a printer. It is preferred by those who do a lot of imaging and color correction.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The MAZ-541 was a Soviet aircraft tug. \n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Mean square quantization error (MSQE) is a figure of merit for the process of analog to digital conversion.\nIn this conversion process, analog signals in a continuous range of values are converted to a discrete set of values by comparing them with a sequence of thresholds.\nThe quantization error of a signal is the difference between the original continuous value and its discretization, and the mean square quantization error (given some probability distribution on the input values) is the expected value of the square of the quantization errors.\nMathematically, suppose that the lower threshold for inputs that generate the quantized value \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          q\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle q_{i}}\n   is \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          t\n          \n            i\n            \u2212\n            1\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle t_{i-1}}\n  , that the upper threshold is \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          t\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle t_{i}}\n  , that there are \n  \n    \n      \n        k\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle k}\n   levels of quantization, and that the probability density function for the input analog values is \n  \n    \n      \n        p\n        (\n        x\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle p(x)}\n  . Let \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              x\n              ^\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\hat {x}}}\n   denote the quantized value corresponding to an input \n  \n    \n      \n        x\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle x}\n  ; that is, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              x\n              ^\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\hat {x}}}\n   is the value \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          q\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle q_{i}}\n   for which \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          t\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n        \u2212\n        1\n        \u2264\n        x\n        <\n        \n          t\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle t_{i}-1\\leq x<t_{i}}\n  .\nThen\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \n                MSQE\n              \n              \n                \n                =\n                E\n                \u2061\n                [\n                (\n                x\n                \u2212\n                \n                  \n                    \n                      x\n                      ^\n                    \n                  \n                \n                \n                  )\n                  \n                    2\n                  \n                \n                ]\n              \n            \n            \n              \n              \n                \n                =\n                \n                  \u222b\n                  \n                    \n                      t\n                      \n                        0\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                  \n                    \n                      t\n                      \n                        k\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                \n                (\n                x\n                \u2212\n                \n                  \n                    \n                      x\n                      ^\n                    \n                  \n                \n                \n                  )\n                  \n                    2\n                  \n                \n                p\n                (\n                x\n                )\n                \n                d\n                x\n              \n            \n            \n              \n              \n                \n                =\n                \n                  \u2211\n                  \n                    i\n                    =\n                    1\n                  \n                  \n                    k\n                  \n                \n                \n                  \u222b\n                  \n                    \n                      t\n                      \n                        i\n                        \u2212\n                        1\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                  \n                    \n                      t\n                      \n                        i\n                      \n                    \n                  \n                \n                (\n                x\n                \u2212\n                \n                  q\n                  \n                    i\n                  \n                \n                \n                  )\n                  \n                    2\n                  \n                \n                p\n                (\n                x\n                )\n                \n                d\n                x\n                .\n              \n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\operatorname {MSQE} &=\\operatorname {E} [(x-{\\hat {x}})^{2}]\\\\&=\\int _{t_{0}}^{t_{k}}(x-{\\hat {x}})^{2}p(x)\\,dx\\\\&=\\sum _{i=1}^{k}\\int _{t_{i-1}}^{t_{i}}(x-q_{i})^{2}p(x)\\,dx.\\end{aligned}}}", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In a system the mean time between outages (MTBO) is the mean time between equipment failures that result in loss of system continuity or unacceptable degradation. \nThe MTBO is calculated by the equation,\n\n  \n    \n      \n        M\n        T\n        B\n        O\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              M\n              T\n              B\n              F\n            \n            \n              1\n              \u2212\n              F\n              F\n              A\n              S\n            \n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle MTBO={\\frac {MTBF}{1-FFAS}}}\n  \nwhere MTBF is the nonredundant mean time between failures and FFAS is the fraction of failures for which the failed equipment is automatically bypassed. \n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Mechanical heat treatment (MHT) is an alternative waste treatment technology. This technology is also commonly termed autoclaving. MHT involves a mechanical sorting or pre-processing stage with technology often found in a material recovery facility. The mechanical sorting stage is followed by a form of thermal treatment. This might be in the form of a waste autoclave or processing stage to produce a refuse derived fuel pellet. MHT is sometimes grouped along with mechanical biological treatment. MHT does not however include a stage of biological degradation (anaerobic digestion or composting).\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A mechanical organ is an organ that is self-playing, rather than played by a musician. For example, the barrel organ is activated either by a person turning a crank, or by clockwork driven by weights or springs.Usually, mechanical organs are pipe organs although some instruments were built using reeds similar to those found in a harmonium. Since the 1950s, some instruments have been built using electronics to generate the sound, though still operated by mechanical or pneumatic means. From the 1990s pipe organs have been built that are operated by MIDI rather than the earlier mechanical means.\nOriginally, the music for mechanical organs was stored by pins on a large barrel.  Such instruments were called barrel organs. Such organs only have a very limited repertoire, both in the number of musical selections that could be stored, and the length of tune that could be accommodated.\nIn the 1890s, book music was invented.  This meant that the length of music was no longer constrained. Being physically much smaller than a barrel for a similar instrument, it is much easier to manipulate the music, and so a greater variety of music could be played.\nRather than the book music, some instruments are operated by a music roll.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A mechanical probe station is used to physically acquire signals from the internal nodes of a semiconductor device. The probe station utilizes manipulators which allow the precise positioning of thin needles on the surface of a semiconductor device. If the device is being electrically stimulated, the signal is acquired by the mechanical probe and is displayed on an\noscilloscope or SMU. The mechanical probe station is often used in the failure analysis of semiconductor devices.\n\nThere are two types of mechanical probes: active and passive. Passive probes usually consist of a thin tungsten needle. Active probes utilize a FET device on the probe tip in order to significantly reduce loading on the circuit.\nMicroworld Semi-automatic probing stations for full wafer characterization", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Mercedes-Euklid is a German-invented calculator from the early twentieth century. It was built by Mercedes B\u00fcro-Maschinen Werke AG in Thuringia, Germany in 1905. The first manual mechanical models utilized a proportional-lever design invented by Christel Hamann in 1903.\nAn electric model, the Mercedes Euklid 30, was released circa 1945, though it may not have been the company's first electric calculator. In the 1960s, another electric model was released under the name \"Cellatron.\"\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A methanometer  is an instrument used to measure methane gas in the air of a mine.  The Mine Safety Appliances Company Ltd. manufactured the first type - W8 Methanometer around 1950 and it was approved for use by the Ventilation Regulations of 1947. The Methanometer could be powered by an Edison battery cap lamp and it could be carried on a miner's belt with other tools. Methane is the main gas present in firedamp. It is highly explosive and had previously been detected by the blue halo effect it gave to the flame of a safety lamp.\nBy 1983, several instruments for measuring methane concentration in air had been developed. These relied on such methods as the differential heating of an incandescent platinum filament, or by measuring the higher absorption of infrared radiation by gas containing methane.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A micro gallery was a computer-based guide to archives and museum collections, first developed for the collections at the National Gallery in London, UK. It took three years to develop by the company Cognitive Applications, and opened in July 1991 as part of the facilities in the Sainsbury Wing. Visitors could use the system to determine which pictures they would like to see in the gallery. It was possible to print out personalised information for use during the visit. The Micro Gallery ran for 14 years and a CD-ROM with similar facilities was produced.\nIn 1995, a similar facility was produced for the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., USA.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Micro power sources  and nano power sources are units of RFID, MEMS, microsystems and nanosystems for energy-power generation, harvesting from ambient, storage and conversion.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Introduced in the early 1990s, the Micro Solutions Backpack was a device allowing users to attach a peripheral drive, namely hard drives, CD-ROM drives, and DVD\u00b1RW drives, to their system. When the original model was released, USB ports did not yet exist, so the drive plugged into a system's printer port. Backpacks could be daisy-chained and still allow for printer usage. Some models also offered audio capability via expansion. Later models introduced faster connectivity to the host system by means of a proprietary PC Card, and later USB.  MicroSolutions was located in DeKalb, Illinois, USA.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A micro-loop heat pipe or MLHP is a miniature loop heat pipe in which the radius of curvature of the liquid meniscus in the evaporator is in the same order of magnitude of the micro grooves' dimensions; or a miniature loop heat pipe which has been fabricated using microfabrication techniques.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Microchannel in microtechnology is a channel with a hydraulic diameter below 1 mm, usually 1\u201399 \u03bcm. Microchannels are used in fluid control (see Microfluidics), heat transfer (see Micro heat exchanger) and cell migration observation. They are more efficient than their 'marco' counterparts, because of a high surface-area to volume ratio yet pose a multitude of challenges due to their small size.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Microoptomechanical systems (MOMS), also written as micro-optomechanical systems, are a special class of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) which use optical and mechanical, but not electronic components.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Micropatterning is the art of miniaturisation of patterns. Especially used for electronics, it has recently become a standard in biomaterials engineering and for fundamental research on cellular biology by mean of soft lithography. It generally uses photolithography methods but many techniques have been developed.In cellular biology, micropatterns can be used to control the geometry of adhesion and substrate rigidity. This tool helped scientists to discover how the environment influences processes such as the orientation of the cell division axis, organelle positioning, cytoskeleton rearrangement cell differentiation and directionality of cell migration.\nMicropatterns can be made on a wide range of substrates, from glass to polyacrylamide and Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The polyacrylamide and PDMS in particular come into handy because they let scientists specifically regulate the stiffness of the substrate, and they allow researchers to measure cellular forces (traction force microscopy). Advanced custom micropatterning allow precise and relatively rapid experiments controlling cell adhesion, cell migration, guidance, 3D confinement and microfabrication of microstructured chips. Using advanced tools, protein patterns can be produced in virtually unlimited numbers (2D/ 3D shapes and volumes).\nNanopatterning of proteins has been achieved through using top-down lithography techniques.Aerosol micropatterning for biomaterials uses spray microscopic characteristics to obtain semi-random patterns particularly well adapted for biomaterials.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Microphotonics is a branch of technology that deals with directing light on a microscopic scale and is used in optical networking. Particularly, it refers to the branch of technology that deals with wafer-level integrated devices and systems that emit, transmit, detect, and process light along with other forms of radiant energy with photon as the quantum unit.Microphotonics employs at least two different materials with a large differential index of refraction to squeeze the light down to a small size.  Generally speaking, virtually all of microphotonics relies on Fresnel reflection to guide the light.  If the photons reside mainly in the higher index material, the confinement is due to total internal reflection.  If the confinement is due many distributed Fresnel reflections, the device is termed a photonic crystal.  There are many different types of geometries used in microphotonics including optical waveguides, optical microcavities, and Arrayed waveguide gratings.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A mid-life update, particularly in the context of defence, is maintenance or renovation designed to extend the usefulness and capability of an item.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Miller\u2013Casella thermometer was a Six's thermometer with a double bulb used extensively by the Challenger expedition during the late nineteenth century. The thermomemeter was used for water temperature readings along 360 different research stations around the world's oceans.\nThe thermometer, about nine inches (23 cm) in length, was enclosed in a copper case and filled with a solution of creosote in spirit. A U-shaped mercury tube recorded maximum and minimum temperature as the thermometer was lowered and raised into the ocean. This design assumed accurate measurements could be taken as long as the water closer to the surface of the ocean was always warmer than that below.\nAfter the return of the Challenger, C.W. Thomson asked Peter Tait (physicist) to solve a thorny and important question: to evaluate the error in the measurement of the temperature of deep waters caused by the high pressures to which the thermometers were subjected. P. Tait solved this question and continued his work with a more fundamental study on the compressibility of liquids.Scientists aboard HMS Challenger later questioned this assumption and made temperature measurements with reversing thermometers instead which wouldn't require the coldest water to be at the ocean's bottom.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Millisecond Furnace is a device used for cracking naphtha into ethylene, by extremely short (50 to 100 millisecond) exposure to temperatures of about 900 degrees Celsius, followed by a rapid quenching below 750 degrees Celsius.\nIt was developed by M. W. Kellogg and Idemitsu in the 1970s.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In 1914\u201316, the A.B. Dick Company patented the mimeoscope. A mimeoscope, which is basically a light table, had an electrically illuminated glass top on which the operator traced drawings onto mimeograph stencils. The stencil took the place of tracing paper. The electric light was needed because the stencils were heavier and less transparent than tracing paper.\nMimeoscopes were used for a lot of illustrations and in promotional work as well. Designs, maps, and plans could be easily drawn and copied for quick production and distribution. Customers could add these visuals to their instructions or announcements. Those who did not have time to read the entire document would still be able to look at it and quickly know what it was about.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "MIMOS II is the miniaturised M\u00f6ssbauer spectrometer, developed by Dr. G\u00f6star Klingelh\u00f6fer at the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany, that is used on the Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity for close-up investigations on the Martian surface of the mineralogy of iron-bearing rocks and soils.MIMOS II uses a Cobalt-57 gamma ray source of about 300 mCi at launch which gave a 6-12 hr time for acquisition of a standard MB spectrum during the primary mission on Mars, depending on total Fe content and which Fe-bearing phases are present. \nCobalt-57 has a half-life of only 271.8 days (hence the extended measuring times now on Mars after over a decade).\nThe MIMOS II sensorheads used on Mars are approx 9 cm x 5 cm x 4 cm and weigh about 400gThe MIMOS II system also includes a circuit board of about 100g.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Miniature inertial measurement unit (MIMU) is an inertial measurement unit (IMU) developed and built by Honeywell International to control and stabilize spacecraft during mission operations. MIMUs can also be configured to perform as an inertial reference unit (IRU). MIMUs have been flown on GEO, Low Earth orbit (LEO), planetary missions and deep-space-probe applications.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Mobile Broadband Alliance is a consortium of companies that have aligned to promote hardware with built-in HSPA broadband.\nThe companies include the mobile operators Vodafone, Orange, Telef\u00f3nica Europe, T-Mobile, 3Group, Telecom Italia and TeliaSonera, and the hardware manufacturers Dell, Asus, Toshiba, Lenovo, Qualcomm, Ericsson, Gemalto, and ECS.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A mobile multi-coloured composite (MMCC) is a two dimensional coloured barcode designed to distribute media via traditional print media, without the need for network connectivity. MMCC barcodes are designed to be scanned with ordinary camera-phones (from VGA resolution onward).\nMMCC is being developed at Edith Cowan University by Drs Alfred Tan and Douglas Chai. \"A provisional patent has been filed and capital is being sought to develop a suite of mobile encoding and decoding software for mainstream, low-resolution camera mobile phones.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Mobile Slotted Aloha (MS-Aloha) is a wireless network protocol proposed for applications such as vehicle networks.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Model K was an early relay binary adder built in 1937 by George Stibitz, a scientist at Bell Laboratories.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The modulation order of a digital communication scheme is determined by the number of the different symbols that can be transmitted using it.\nModulation order can only be defined for digital modulations. The simplest forms of digital modulation are of second order because they can transmit only two symbols (usually denoted as \"0\" and \"1\" or as \"-1\" and \"1\"). They are called binary shift keying (BSK).\nModulations which have an order of 4 and above usually are termed as higher-order modulations. Examples of these are quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) and its generalisation as m-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (m-QAM).\nBecause existing computers and automation systems are based on binary logic most of the modulations have an order which is a power of two: 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. In principle, however, the order of a modulation can be any integer greater than one.\nWhen the order of a digital modulation approaches infinity its properties approach those of the respective analog modulation. Thus the analogue modulations can be viewed as extreme cases of higher-order digital modulations for which the order is equal to infinity.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Monitoring as a service (MaaS) is one of many cloud computing delivery models under anything as a service (XaaS). It is a framework that facilitates the deployment of monitoring functionalities for various other services and applications within the cloud. The most common application for MaaS is online state monitoring, which continuously tracks certain states of applications, networks, systems, instances or any element that may be deployable within the cloud.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The monstrance clock, or mirror clock, is a type of clock that was developed during the Renaissance (1300AD \u2013 1600AD). It is cross-shaped and typically either gold or silver in colour but can feature both colours. They used to play an important part in a church ritual and often incorporated sacred figures as part of the design. The clock made use of a rotating ball at the top or in the base to indicate the time of day. Monstrance clocks and crucifix clocks remained fashionable until the eighteenth century.Pop culture references include the song \"Monstrance Clock\" by the band Ghost. The song itself has themes of satanic ritual, rather than Renaissance-age Catholicism.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) is a voltage-controlled fully controllable thyristor, controlled by MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors). It was invented by V.A.K. Temple in 1984, and was principally similar to the earlier insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT). MCTs are similar in operation to GTO thyristors, but have voltage controlled insulated gates. They have two MOSFETs of opposite conductivity types in their equivalent circuits. One is responsible for turn-on and the other for turn-off. A thyristor with only one MOSFET in its equivalent circuit, which can only be turned on (like normal SCRs), is called an MOS-gated thyristor.\n\nPositive voltage on the gate terminal with respect to the cathode turns the thyristor to the on state.\nNegative voltage on the gate terminal with respect to the anode, which is close to cathode voltage during the on state, turns the thyristor to the off state.\nMCTs were commercialized only briefly. \n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "MOSH was a user defined distribution channel for mobile content initiated by Nokia. The name \"MOSH\" comes from \"Mobilize and Share\". The channel could have been used to both download and upload various content for mobile phones or other platforms. File types that were handled were: audio, images, applications, games, videos, documents.\nA person could create an account on MOSH that comes with the following stats: creator (for content created by that person), collector (for the number of objects added to the collection in the account) and sharer (for uploading files that are not necessarily the work of that person). MOSH was known for having been filled with explicit and copyright-infringing content as it had no screening process.MOSH was launched by Nokia in August 2007 and remained in Beta until its closure in 2009, by which time it had 137 million downloads. It was replaced by Ovi.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The General Instrument/Motorola DCT2000 is a cable box used for watching TV. These set-top boxes were popular in the late 1990s up until the mid to late-2000s, when the adoption of more sophisticated successors, namely those set-tops with the ability to record live programming began. The DCT2000 was used by Comcast, Service Electric in the United States, and Shaw Cable in Canada. A version called the QIP2500 is used by providers such as Verizon FiOS.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Motorola PageWriter 2000 was a two-way pager introduced in 1998. Featuring the 68000 based Motorola DragonBall processor, 1 MB of internal storage, a four color grayscale screen, IrDA transmitter/receiver, and a full QWERTY keyboard the PageWriter represented a combination of both PDA and pager in one package. For wireless connectivity the PageWriter used SkyTel's ReFLEX paging network to send and receive messages to other pagers or to email addresses.\nThe device shipped with a number of applications including messaging, contacts, calendar, and notepad all written in its proprietary FLEXScript programming language. Additional applications could be purchased and downloaded to the PageWriter from a PC through its charging dock. That dock connected via RS232 serial port to the PC and an IR port to the PageWriter.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The MPEG user data feature provides a means to inject application-specific data into an MPEG elementary stream. User data can be inserted on three different levels:\n\nThe sequence level\nThe group of pictures (GOP) level\nThe picture data levelApplications that process MPEG data do not need to be able to understand data encapsulated in this way, but should be able to preserve it.\nExamples of information embedded in MPEG streams as user data are:\n\nAspect ratio information\n\"Hidden\" information per the Active Format Descriptor specification\nClosed captioning per the EIA-708 standard\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Multi Rolle Radio (English: Multi Role Radio) is a modular radio set which supports high speed frequency hopping and strong encryption. It was ordered in early 1993 and first put to operative use in mid-1995.\nIt operates on standard military VHF frequencies ranging from 30,000 to 87,975 MHz.\nThe system was developed in Norway, mainly by Kongsberg Defence Communication and Thales Group Norway, with support from the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment. It has been exported to Hungary.\nThe radio is modular, and can be configured both as portable (PRC) and vehicle-mounted (VRC). The VRC can be fitted with two receive/transmit modules in a single mounting, for use as a relay.\nAlthough most transmit specifications are classified, it is known that the radio uses Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying and M-ary encoding. It can also be used in an analog FM mode, in which it is compatible with other radios like AN/PRC-77 and civilian radios.\nIt has several features besides being a traditional radio set, amongst them message relaying of digital messages, cell area mobile capabilities and Digital Tadkom access.\nThe lighter, more mobile set for the Norwegian military is Lett Feltradio (Light multi role  radio). This is fully interoperable with MRR both in plain and encrypted mode.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Multifocal multiphoton microscopy is a microscopy technique for generating 3D images, which uses a laser beam, separated by an array of microlenses into a number of beamlets, focused on the sample. The multiple signals are imaged onto a CCD camera in the same way as in a conventional microscope. The image rate is determined by the camera frame rate, depending\non the readout rate and the number of pixels and may range well above 30 images/s.By exploiting specific properties of pulsed-mode multiphoton excitation the conflict between the density of the foci, i.e. the degree of parallelization, and the axial sectioning has been resolved. The laser pulses of neighboring foci are temporally separated by at least one pulse duration, so that interference is avoided. This method is referred to as time-multiplexing (TMX). Moreover, with a high degree of time multiplicity, the interfocal distance can be reduced to such an extent that lateral scanning becomes obsolete. In this case axial scanning is sufficient to record a 3D-image.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Multilayer soft lithography (MSL) is a fabrication process in which microscopic chambers, channels, valves and vias are molded within bonded layers of elastomer.\nCommercial PDMS stamps can mold materials such as optical adhesive in a sequential process to create the bonded layers.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A music roll is a storage medium used to operate a mechanical musical instrument. They are used for the player piano, mechanical organ, electronic carillon and various types of orchestrion. The vast majority of music rolls are made of paper. Other materials that have been utilized include thin card (Imhof-system), thin sheet brass (Telektra-system), composite multi-layered electro-conductive aluminium and paper roll (Triste-system) and, in the modern era, thin plastic or PET film.\nThe music data is stored by means of perforations.  The mechanism of the instrument reads these as the roll unwinds, using a pneumatic, mechanical or electrical sensing device called a tracker bar, and the mechanism subsequently plays the instrument.\nAfter a roll is played, it is necessary for it to be rewound before it can be played again.  This necessitates a break in a musical performance.  To overcome this problem, some instruments were built with two player mechanisms (referred to as a duplex roll mechanism) allowing one roll to play while the other rewinds. \nA piano roll is a specific type of music roll, and is designed to operate an automatic piano like the player piano or the reproducing piano.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Mybi card is a kind of contactless smartcard used in South Korea. This system was introduced  in 2000 as a new fare collection system for the Busan area. now discontinued. see cashBee. Lotte started new name and united fare card. (eB card -> Upass + Mybi = cashBee)\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Nagra France is a company which develops and markets the Mediaguard conditional access system for digital television. It is a subsidiary of the Kudelski Group (which also develops Nagravision).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Namechk is a free web application created by David Goose and Jeremy Woertink. Namechk allows someone to view if a certain username is available. Namechk has over 98 different social network sites as of June 2019.The service also checks domains.In July 2022 the fraud-tracking site Hucksters.net exposed David Gosse, the founder and CEO of Namechk, for conducting illegal email spam campaigns on behalf of Namechk using fake web domains such as namechk-mail.com, with help from Robert Lora, an SEO consultant from Florida.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The National Center for Electron Microscopy (NCEM) was a U.S. Department of Energy national user facility at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, California, for unclassified scientific research using advanced electron microscopy. It has since been merged with the Molecular Foundry, also located at Berkeley Lab.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq, Portuguese: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico, earlier Conselho Nacional de Pesquisas) is an organization of the Brazilian federal government under the Ministry of Science and Technology, dedicated to the promotion of scientific and technological research and to the formation of human resources for research in the country.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A navicula de Venetiis or \"little ship of Venice\" was an altitude dial used to tell time and which was shaped like a little ship. The cursor (with a plumb line attached) was slid up/down the mast to the correct latitude. The user then sighted the sun through the pair of sighting holes at either end of the \"ship's deck\". The plumb line then marked what hour of the day it was. Some naviculas had additional information inscribed, such as the latitude of some common English towns, some zodiac signs, etc.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The NaviDrive system is  voice-activated radio, CD player, telephone, and navigation system (GPS) all in one unit, assembled in Citro\u00ebn (Citro\u00ebn C8, C6, C5, C4 and C3) and Peugeots vehicles. It includes a special function for reading back incoming text messages and dedicated buttons for dialling up the emergency or recovery services (to whom it can indicate the car position).\nIts main functions and characteristics are:\n- monochrome or 7\" color screen\n- Complete GPS Navigation system\n- Radio, CD player with MP3 and CD changer for 6 CDs\n- Integrated GSM dual band handsfree telephone\n- Text-to-speech (reading of SMS messages)\n- Voice recognition (\"guide to John\",...)\n- Real-time traffic information (RDS-TMC)\nIn certain countries (France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg), in the case of an accident (by pressing a button or automatically when an airbag deploys), this system sends a text message containing the exact GPS position of the vehicle followed by a voice call to a special telephonic assistance platform which receives the position and the voice call. This platform determines the kind of urgency (medical, accident, fire,...) by asking a few questions and sends the appropriate emergency services to the exact location of the vehicle.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "NEPCON is a trade event for the electronics manufacturing industry. It is held annually in several parts of the world. In the United States, for instance, the event called NEPCON West had a 37-year run and ended in 2002. This trade show has been described as the grandfather of all electronics manufacturing trade shows. The case is the same for NEPCON UK, which is considered Britain's largest annual electronics exhibition.Nepcon China is an annual Surface-mount technology (SMT) trade event in China that features a comprehensive range of SMT products and technology. The 18th edition of the event was held from 8 to 11 April 2008. The 2019 exhibit was scheduled at the Shanghai World Expo Center from April 24 to 26.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Netpage is a software system and infrastructure which makes printed paper interactive. It has multiple manifestations, including digital pens, digital paper, and augmented reality interfaces, such as the Netpage mobile app. The app uses image recognition technology to recognise content on Netpage-enabled printed pages, and then serves up a \"digital twin\" of the recognized page. The digital twin contains enhanced functionality such as the ability to share the page via social media sites (e.g. Facebook, Pinterest and Twitter), the ability to purchase products, watch embedded videos, follow hyperlinks, translate text, download and attach files, and other functionality.Any iOS or Android smartphone acts as the mouse, and the printed surface acts as the screen.  \nWhen in use, the Netpage universal print browser app looks like the smartphone is displaying a camera view of the printed page, but is actually displaying a digital web page (the digital twin) styled to mimic the printed page and rendered in real time. The digital twin can have as many web links and features as required, allowing the printed surface to have identical functionality to that possible on a web page displayed on a touch screen device.\nThe technology launched in Esquire magazine, which is published by Hearst, in the December 2012 edition as reported by the Wall Street Journal and Mashable.The technology is developed and funded in Australia.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Network configuration and change management (NCCM) is a discipline in information technology. According to research from IDC and Gartner, NCCM is one of the fastest-growing markets in the ITOM (IT Operations Management) market. Organizations are using NCCM as a way to:\n\nautomate changes;\nreduce network downtime;\nnetwork device configuration backup & restore;\nmeet compliance.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A network extrusion is a kind of VPN tunnel where a subnet (or host) is moved to another location, without any router advertisement changes. Such a subnet is routed to normally, but then send via a VPN tunnel to appear anywhere else on the internet. This type of VPN connection is often used for:\n\nAdding IPv4 public address space to a location that has only 1 public IP address, such as a consumer internet connection\nAssigning a static IP address to a roaming laptop to ensure it is always reachable on 1 static IP address. This is often done with IPsec and L2TP or XAUTHIn IPsec/Openswan IPv4 configuration, this corresponds to a policy on the client system like:\n\n conn mylaptop\u2014extruded\n      right=192.1.0.1\n      rightsubnet=0.0.0.0/0\n      left=%defaultroute\n      leftsubnet=192.0.0.1/32\n      leftsourceip=192.0.0.1\n\nWhen this IPsec connection is active, the default IP address for outgoing connections is 192.0.0.1. Since this is covered by the IPsec tunnel, the packet will be encrypted and send to the remote IPsec gateway at 192.1.0.1. It will get decrypted and then sent to its original destination. Response packets follow a similar path in reverse.\nWhen using leftsubnet=192.0.0.0/24, one could even run a small network with the laptop as default gateway and provide public IP addresses to many computers, all appearing to live at the remote site.\nGenerally, IPsec VPNs are used in many cases to route private networks rather than public ones, so while this configuration is not implausible, it is unusual for VPN administrators.\nMany remote access situations run as network extrusions so that a corporate firewall can inspect the traffic that travels to and from the laptop computer.\nThis technique can also be used to tunnel in IPv6 space into networks where only IPv4 space is available (or vice versa)\nThese tunnels are invisible to traceroute because the IPsec tunnel appears as a single additional hop, just like a subnet.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A neurally controlled animat is the conjunction of\n\na cultured neuronal network\na virtual or physical robotic body, the Animat, \"living\" in a virtual computer generated environment or in a physical arena, connected to this arrayPatterns of neural activity are used to control the virtual body, and the computer is used as a sensory device to provide electrical feedback to the neural network about the Animat's movement in the virtual environment.\nThe current aim of the Animat research is to study the neuronal activity and plasticity when learning and processing information in order to find a mathematical model for the neural network, and to determine how information is processed and encoded in the rat cortex.\nIt leads towards interesting questions about consciousness theories as well.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The neutron scanner technology is non-intrusive used to minimise the impact of security measures on rapid freight movement.\nThe main advantage of the Scanner over current and potential new scanners is its ability to accurately and rapidly analyse the composition, shape and density of an object - in real-time without unpacking freight containers.\nConventional X-ray scanners are good at detecting objects based on their density and shape - but not their composition.\nThe Scanner is unique in the way it employs gamma rays and neutron analysis to build an image and help identify the composition of the object being scanned.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A neutron supermirror is a highly polished, layered material used to reflect neutron beams. Supermirrors are a special case of multi-layer neutron reflectors with varying layer thicknesses.The first neutron supermirror concept was proposed by Mezei, inspired by earlier work with x-rays.\nSupermirrors are produced by depositing alternating layers of strongly contrasting substances, such as nickel and titanium, on a smooth substrate.  A single layer of high refractive index material (e.g. nickel) exhibits total external reflection at small grazing angles up to a critical angle \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03b8\n          \n            c\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta _{c}}\n  .  For nickel with natural isotopic abundances, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03b8\n          \n            c\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\theta _{c}}\n   in degrees is approximately \n  \n    \n      \n        0.1\n        \u22c5\n        \u03bb\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 0.1\\cdot \\lambda }\n   where \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03bb\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\lambda }\n   is the neutron wavelength in Angstrom units.\nA mirror with a larger effective critical angle can be made by exploiting diffraction (with non-zero losses) that occurs from stacked multilayers.  The critical angle of total reflection, in degrees, becomes approximately \n  \n    \n      \n        0.1\n        \u22c5\n        \u03bb\n        \u22c5\n        m\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle 0.1\\cdot \\lambda \\cdot m}\n  , where \n  \n    \n      \n        m\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle m}\n   is the \"m-value\" relative to natural nickel.  \n  \n    \n      \n        m\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle m}\n   values in the range of 1-3 are common, in specific areas for high-divergence (e.g. using focussing optics near the source, choppers, or experimental areas) m=6 is readily available.\nNickel has a positive scattering cross section, and titanium has a negative scattering cross section, and in both elements the absorption cross section is small, which makes Ni-Ti the most efficient technology with neutrons.  The number of Ni-Ti layers needed increases rapidly as \n  \n    \n      \n        \u221d\n        \n          m\n          \n            z\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\propto m^{z}}\n  , with \n  \n    \n      \n        z\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle z}\n   in the range 2-4, which affects the cost.  This has a strong bearing on the economic strategy of neutron instrument design.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "NIST is a method for evaluating the quality of text which has been translated using machine translation. Its name comes from the US National Institute of Standards and Technology. \nIt is based on the BLEU metric, but with some alterations. Where BLEU simply calculates n-gram precision adding equal weight to each one, NIST also calculates how informative a particular n-gram is. That is to say when a correct n-gram is found, the rarer that n-gram is, the more weight it will be given.For example, if the bigram \"on the\" is correctly matched, it will receive lower weight than the correct matching of bigram \"interesting calculations\", as this is less likely to occur.\nNIST also differs from BLEU in its calculation of the brevity penalty insofar as small variations in translation length do not impact the overall score as much.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In the design of radio receivers, a noise blanker is a circuit intended to reduce the effect of certain kinds of radio noise on a received signal.  It is often used on broadcast shortwave receivers or communications receivers and some types of two-way radio transceivers.  The noise blanker is only effective on impulse-type noise such as from lightning or from automotive ignition systems, and cannot improve performance on wideband continuous background noise, or interfering signals on the same frequency.  In cases where there are strong signals on frequencies near to the desired frequency, a noise blanker circuit may be ineffective and may reduce the quality of the received signal. \n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Nokia Lumia 1320 smartphone is a phablet smartphone in the Lumia series developed by Nokia that runs the Windows Phone 8 operating system. It was announced at the Nokia World event on October 22, 2013. It was released in Asia in the first quarter of 2014, including the India release in January 2014. It has 6-inch (150 mm) ClearBlack IPS LCD display, making it the biggest display for Windows phones along with the Nokia Lumia 1520.It was discontinued with the introduction of the Microsoft Lumia 640 XL, its successor, in April 2015.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Non-Filter or Non Filter is a category of air purification system created by Microgenix Technology Ltd., a UK-based company that invented the technology.\nThe technology is composed of two proprietary elements. An anti-microbial agent applied to a special medium kills pathogens, and an ultraviolet light chamber provides added security. Systems in the Non-Filter category derive their functionality from devices other than conventional HEPA filters. HEPA filters are designed to capture particles down to a size of 0.3 micrometres, but some bacteria and most viruses are much smaller. The Microgenix Air Purification system does not capture and store pathogens but rather kills them with a very low air pressure loss.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Notice Advisory to Navstar Users (NANU) is a message issued jointly by the United States Coast Guard and the GPS Operations Center at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado.  Such notices (NANUs) provide updates on the general health of individual satellites in the GPS constellation. NANUs are typically issued approximately three days prior to a change in the operation of a GPS satellite, such as a change in orbit or scheduled on-board equipment maintenance.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Novette was a two beam neodymium glass (phosphate glass) testbed laser built at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in about 15 months throughout 1981 and 1982 and was completed in January 1983. Novette was made using recycled parts from the dismantled Shiva and Argus lasers and borrowed parts from the future Nova laser. Its main intended purpose was to validate the proposed design and expected performance of the then planned Nova laser. In addition to being used for the further study of enhanced laser to target plasma energy coupling utilizing frequency tripled light and examining its benefits with respect to inertial confinement fusion, Novette was also used in the world's first laboratory demonstration of an x-ray laser in 1984.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "NTAP is an acronym for nonprofit technology assistance provider.\nThe term generally refers to organizations and individuals that specialize in providing information and communication technology support to nonprofit organizations, without regard for whether the provider itself is formally incorporated as a nonprofit entity or a for-profit business.\nNonprofit technology assistance provider is distinguished from a \"nonprofit management assistance provider.\" The latter focuses on building organizational capacity in all areas of nonprofit management, some of which may include technology assistance. Readers should also understand that the term \"technical assistance\" has historically covered any form of capacity building assistance, technological or otherwise.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A nuclepore filter (brand name Nuclepore from Whatman, part of GE Healthcare) is a kind of filter in which holes a few micrometres in size have been created in a plastic (e.g. polycarbonate) membrane.  These filters are generally created by exposing the membrane to radiation that weakens the plastic and creates specific areas that can be removed by dousing the membrane in acid (or other chemicals).  The technique and patent were developed by Robert L. Fleischer, P. Buford Price, and Robert M. Walker as an outgrowth of their research on radiation effects in solids, with a special focus on materials exposed to energetic particles in space.  The technique allows for creating uniform holes of any desired diameter to allow even a virus to be filtered.\nThe most common use of Nuclepore filters is in microbiology where they are used to trap cells while removing all other fluids and smaller particles, e.g. for counting bacteria by fluorescence microscopy. Because the filters have a flat surface, the cells are trapped on top of the filter and remain visible, unlike other types of filters where the cells may be trapped inside the filter.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The object locative environment coordinate system, known as OLE coordinate system, is a coordinate system used for virtual environments in which movement constraints are not only defined by the 3D coordinates of objects but by the position of the camera, as well. This technology was created by Jun Fujiki.\nThe system projects screen objects to 2D coordinates using the camera position (using a projection matrix) and uses these coordinates to impart movement constraints to the objects of the system. Echochrome, a game for the PS3 and PSP, uses this technique as an entertainment factor.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "OmniSTAR is a satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) service provider. OmniSTAR correction signals are proprietary, and a subscription must be bought from the OmniSTAR corporation to receive a subscription authorization.  OmniSTAR uses geostationary satellites in eight regions covering most of the landmass of each inhabited continent on Earth:\n\nMSV-E, MSV-C, MSV-W (North America)\nAMSAT  (Central and South America and the Caribbean)\nAORWH  (Atlantic Ocean East Coast)\nAOREH  (Atlantic Ocean Europe/Africa)\nEUSAT  (Europe and Africa)\nIORHN   (Indian Ocean Region)\nAPSAT  (Asia, Australasia, Western Pacific, Eastern Africa, Southern Africa)\nOCSAT  (Australia, New Zealand)MSV service is provided by the MSAT AMSC-1 and MSAT-M1 satellites, operated by a company called Mobile Satellite Ventures.\nTo access the OmniSTAR solution the user must have an OmniSTAR-capable receiver. OmniSTAR capable receivers are available from a number of GPS manufacturers such as Autofarm, Geneq, Hemisphere GPS, NovAtel, Topcon, Trimble, and Raven.\nThe OmniSTAR service options include both single-frequency (L1 only) code phase DGPS solutions and dual-frequency (L1/L2) carrier phase solutions. Accuracy depends on satellite geometry, local conditions, receiver capability and other variables, but typically the L1-only solution (VBS - Virtual Base Station) yields horizontal accuracy of < +/1 meter > 95% of the time and the L1/L2 solutions (OmniSTAR HP, OmniSTAR XP or HP/XP combined) provide horizontal accuracies of < +/- 15 cm > 95% of the time.\nXP makes use of precise orbit and clock corrections of the GPS Satellites. The data is bought from Nasa JPL\nG2 uses Orbit and Clocks calculated from Omnistar's own network of reference stations.\nMotorola has an optical headend product line that once owned the Omnistar name.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "On-body wireless or body-centric wireless is the interconnection and networking of wearable computer system components and sensors through a system of transceivers, space wave antennas, and surface guided wave antennas for telemetry and telecommunications. The technique uses the surface of the human body as a transmission medium or path for electromagnetic waves.  The topic of body-centric wireless networks (BCWN) can be divided into three main domains based on wireless sensor nodes placement, i.e., communication between the nodes that are on the body surface; communication from the body-surface to nearby base station; and at least one node may be implanted within the body. These three domains have been called on-body, off-body and in-body, respectively. The performance analysis of on-body wireless communication for different sporting activities has been reported.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Optical beam induced current (OBIC) is a semiconductor analysis technique performed using laser signal injection. The technique \nuses a scanning laser beam to create electron\u2013hole pairs in a semiconductor sample. This induces a current which may be analyzed to determine the sample's properties, especially defects or anomalies.\nConventional OBIC scans an ultrafast laser beam over the surface of the sample, exciting some electrons into the conduction band through what is known as 'single-photon absorption'. As its name implies, single-photon absorption involves just a single photon to excite the electron into conduction. This can only occur if that single photon carries enough energy to overcome the band gap of the semiconductor (1.12 eV for Si) and provide the electron with enough energy to make it jump into the conduction band.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Optical conductivity is the property of a material which gives the relationship between the induced current density in the material and the magnitude of the inducing electric field for arbitrary frequencies. This linear response function is a generalization of the electrical conductivity, which is usually considered in the static limit, i.e., for time-independent or slowly varying electric fields.  \nWhile the static electrical conductivity is vanishingly small in insulators (such as diamond or porcelain), the optical conductivity always remains finite in some frequency intervals (above the optical gap in the case of insulators). The total optical weight can be inferred from sum rules. The optical conductivity is closely related to the dielectric function, the generalization of the dielectric constant to arbitrary frequencies.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An overpressure protection system is one designed to protect an individual or group of individuals in a chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) environment. The two parts of the system are a safe area which as far as possible is sealed from possible contaminated air and an air filtration system which will filter out all possible toxins. Air pumps force clean air through the filters into the safe area such that the air pressure within the safe area will always be higher than that outside of the safe area. This pressure differential means that any flows of air will always be from the safe area to the outside, preventing the ingress of toxins.\nThe safe area may be as small as a protective hood for an individual, to a full body hazmat suit, to a fallout shelter or warship. Most modern armoured fighting vehicles will have such a system with the safe area being the crew and passenger compartments, these systems being first adopted to protect against poison gas attack. On a larger scale an overpressure system may be designed into the structure of a building or mobile prefabricated military structures to provide collective protection.\nIn a civilian context the same principles of filtration and positive pressure is used in positive pressure personnel suits.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A pallet inverter or pile turner is a machine that is used to turn over full pallet loads of packages or products.  The term pallet inverter is also used to cover machines that turn the palletised load through 90 degrees only.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Palm VII was a personal digital assistant made by the Palm Computing division of 3Com. The device featured an antenna used for wireless data communication, a first for a Palm device. Connectivity was provided through the Mobitex network, under the now defunct Palm.net service. Web Clipping applications, also known as Palm Query Applications (PQAs) made use of the network to request and post web data. The devices also provided PQA developers with the user's position, in the form of a zipcode, making the Palm VII the first web-enabled Location-Based Services mobile platform. The cost of service was $14.95 per month, and allowed a limited number of web pages to be viewed.The Palm VII was the most expensive Palm sold to date, with unit pricing starting at US$599. Despite the high price tag, the Palm VII proved popular as one of the first truly wireless data-capable information devices.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Palm VIIx was a personal digital assistant made by Palm, Inc. The device featured an antenna used for wireless data communication. Connectivity was provided through the Mobitex network under the now defunct Palm.net service. Web Clipping applications used the network to process data. The cost of service was $14.95 per month and allowed a limited number of web pages to be viewed.\nThe Palm VIIx succeeded the original Palm VII. It was replaced by the Palm i705.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Panasonic CD interface, also known as the MKE CD interface (for Matsushita Kotobuki Electronics), SLCD or simply Panasonic, is a proprietary computer interface for connecting a CD-ROM drive to an IBM PC compatible computer. It was used briefly in the early 1990s, and is no longer in production.\nThe interface is similar in physical format to an IDE, and an IDE cable may be used; however, the CD-ROM drive cannot be connected to the IDE bus and must have an interface card. Some SoundBlaster cards were manufactured with a port to connect to the CD-ROM drive with this interface.\nFreeBSD supports this interface with \"matcd\" driver. Linux supports these drives via the sbcd, sbpcd or pcd drivers.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Pars robot is an Iranian drone designed to rescue people from drowning.\nPars was developed by Amin Rigi and Amir Tahiri at RTS Lab, a lab working on novel robotic innovations for increasing life safety and living conditions.  \nThe drone is an Aerial robot which is designed and made for saving human lives. The first purpose of developing this robot is rescuing people drowning near coastlines. By improving its applications, it can be used in ships and off shore relief stations. It can also be used in other applications such as real-time monitoring of marine and off shore structures.  Its price in 2015 is $9,185.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Peltric set is a term referring to the combination of a Pelton wheel and an electric generator, and is a useful water-powered turbine for mountainous regions where the head available is generally high but the flow is low. This set can be economically connected in an existing break pressure tank of a drinking water supply line.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In engine design, the penta engine (or penta head) is an arrangement of the upper portion of the cylinder and valves that is common in engines using four valves per cylinder. Among the advantages is a faster burn time of the air-fuel mix.It is similar in concept to the hemi engine, both in design and purpose, but a hemispherical cylinder head is limited to only two valves without the use of a more complex sub-rocker assembly. \nThe four-valve penta engine design was invented by Peugeot of France, to be first used in the 1911 Indianapolis 500 race.  \nThe penta engine (also termed pentroof combustion chamber) is the most common design used today by many manufacturers for four-valve-per-cylinder engines producing relatively high horsepower for displacement, for both racing engines and engines for passenger cars.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Phantom is Vision Research's brand of high-speed video cameras.The Phantom v2512, the company's fastest camera as of August 2018, can record video at over 25,000 frames per second (fps) at its full one megapixel resolution, and up to one million frames per second at a reduced resolution of 256 x 32 pixels. The Phantom v2640 records 6,600 fps at its full resolution of four megapixels, and 12,500 fps at full HD resolution.Fox Network uses the Phantom cameras to provide slow-motion replays in live sports broadcasts.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In signal processing, phase response is the relationship between the phase of a sinusoidal input and the output signal passing through any device that accepts input and produces an output signal, such as an amplifier or a filter.Amplifiers, filters, and other devices are often categorized by their amplitude and/or phase response. The amplitude response is the ratio of output amplitude to input, usually a function of the frequency. Similarly, phase response is the phase of the output with the input as reference. The input is defined as zero phase. A phase response is not limited to lying between 0\u00b0 and 360\u00b0, as phase can accumulate to any amount of time.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Phonetic Search Technology (PST) is a method of speech recognition.  An audio signal of speech is broken down into series of phonemes, which can be used to identify words.\nA string of six phonemes for example, \u201c_B _IY _T _UW _B _IY,\u201d represent the acronym \u201cB2B\u201d.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A photolith film is a transparent film, made with some sort of transparent plastic (formerly made of acetate). Nowadays, with the use of laser printers and computers, the photolith film can be based on polyester, vegetable paper or laser film paper. It is mainly used in all photolithography processes.\nA color image, or polychromatic, is divided into four basic colors: cyan, the magenta, the yellow and black (the so-called system CMYK (short name from cyan,  magenta ,  yellow  and  black ), generating four photolith film images, a photo filtered with each of the three basic colors plus a B&W film (addition of the three). For black-and-white images, such as text or simple logos, only one photolith film is needed.\nThe photolith film it is sometimes recorded by an optical laser process on an imagesetter machine, coming from a digital file, or by a photographic process in a contact copier, if a physical copy of the original already exist. In the old offset printing plates acquire text or images to be printed after being sensitized from a photolith film.\nThe photolith films, as well as vegetable and the laser films, are used to store plates, screens or other media sensitive to light as a backup for repeating their processes in the future. They normally store the information of the three or four separated colours on monochrome photolith films.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A pilot valve is a small valve that controls a limited-flow control feed to a separate piloted valve. Typically, this separate valve controls a high pressure or high flow feed. Pilot valves are useful because they allow a small and easily operated feed to control a much higher pressure or higher flow feed, which would otherwise require a much larger force to operate; indeed, this is even useful when a solenoid is used to operate the valve.\nPilot valves are often used in critical applications (e.g., emergency and SIS controls) and are human-operated. They can be set up as a push-to-activate or dead man's switch.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Pinch wheel or pinch roller is the term for the \"rubber\" wheel which forms part of the drive mechanism in many forms of tape recorder and player. The magnetic tape is squeezed between the \"capstan\" (a precision shaft driven at constant speed) and the pinch wheel and so is drawn past whatever combination of record, replay and erase heads the \"tape deck\" employs.\nThe pliability, surface, and other physical characteristics of the \"rubber\" material from which the pinch wheel is made is critical to the steady progress of the tape, and usually degrades with time, and may result in speed fluctuations, causing \"wow and flutter\", various noises and even damage to the tape. Pressure of pinch wheel against the capstan is usually removed when not in operation, to reduce incidence of \"flat spots\" on the rubber surface. Replacement of pinch wheels is a common maintenance problem.A similar situation applies to some record players, where a pinch wheel is the intermediary between the spindle of the drive motor and the rim of the turntable, with the same maintenance issues.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A pixel format refers to the format in which the image data output by a digital camera is represented.\nIn comparison to the raw pixel information captured by the image sensor, the output pixels could be formatted differently based on the active pixel format.\nFor several digital cameras, this format is a user-configurable feature; the available pixel formats on a particular camera depends on the type and model of the camera.The image sensors in digital cameras contain pixels, each of which measures the amount of incoming light. \nThe pixel format of the image sensor dictates or determines the color depth (often referred to as bit depth), color filter array filtering patterns that are used by the sensor, and the method by which pixel information is stored (packed pixel and planar pixel). \nThe pixel format for the sensor is typically user-configurable.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Planographic printing means printing from a flat surface, as opposed to a raised surface (as with relief printing) or incised surface (as with intaglio printing).  Lithography and offset lithography are planographic processes that rely on the property that water will not mix with oil. The image is created by applying a tusche (greasy substance) to a  plate or stone. (The term lithography comes from litho, for stone, and -graph to draw.) Certain parts of the semi-absorbent surface being printed on can be made receptive to ink while others (the blank parts) reject it.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Point of appearance is a generic term for any point in a telephone/data circuit from which a technician can test or pull stats. Some appearances are virtual, such as a Digital cross connect system computer terminal. Others are physical, like a punch down COSMIC frame where a technician can place a test set, or a heat coil socket. In the outside plant there is an appearance at the cross box, pedestal, and network interface device. The ultimate appearance is the telephone or other customer premises equipment (CPE).\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "POLAR III is a pedestrian test dummy created by Honda.\nThe dummy is used to study how pedestrians are injured or killed when hit by automobiles. POLAR III has instruments to measure the level of injury throughout the body.\nAbout 5,000 pedestrians are killed in traffic accidents each year in the United States.  By studying test dummy results and designing cars in such a way as to protect pedestrians as much as possible in the event of a collision, the number of fatalities and injuries due to pedestrians being struck may be reduced.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Polaroid Palette and Polaroid ProPalette are a series of digital film recorders from Polaroid Corporation. The line started in the early 1980s, using 35mm film to produce slides for presentations. All versions of GEM provide drivers.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A pole piece is a structure composed of material of high magnetic permeability that serves to direct the magnetic field produced by a magnet. A pole piece attaches to and in a sense extends a pole of the magnet, hence the name.\nPole pieces are used with both permanent magnets and electromagnets. In the case of an electromagnet, the pole piece or pieces simply extend the magnetic core and can even be regarded as part of it, particularly if they are made of the same material. In the case of a permanent magnet, the distinction between the magnet itself and the pole piece or pieces is more clear cut.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "PoliScan speed is a system for traffic enforcement made by Vitronic. The measurement is based on lidar (light radar). By time-of-flight measurement, a scanning laser determines speeds and positions of all vehicles in the measurement area.\nPoliScan speed is available as a mobile or a stationary system.\nApart from the use as speed camera, the systems of the PoliScan family are also used as red light camera and for automatic number plate recognition.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Polygonal turning (or polygon turning) is a machining process which allows non-circular forms (polygons) to be machine turned without interrupting the rotation of the raw material.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "PongSats are high-altitude \"near-space\" missions that hold a probe or other project that can fit inside a ping-pong (table tennis) ball. The launch program is run by a volunteer organization, JP Aerospace (which also provided balloon launch services for the Space Chair.)\nJP Aerospace succeeded in its first launch of PongSat missions, with a balloon-launched rocket (AKA a rockoon), at the West Texas Spaceport near Fort Stockton, in October 2002. The launcher reached 100,000 feet with 64 hosted PongSats.Many of the flights have been funded through a KickStarter crowdfunding campaign.\nAlthough many PongSats contain things like food items, simply because schoolchildren are curious about the result, other missions include \"multiple sensors and complex mini-computers\".\nIt's been described by its founder as part of \"America's Other Space Program,\" but also as one that relies \"primarily on volunteers and helium.\"According to founder John Powell, the PongSat launch program is very global, with payloads delivered to JP Aerospace from \"Poland, India, Japan, Slovenia, Germany, Belgium, Turkey, China, Australia, Indonesia.\"", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In two-stroke engine technology a Port-map is a diagram which shows the ports that are cut into the cylinder of an engine.\nA port-map can be useful to determine opening/closing-timing and the area of specific ports.\nThese diagrams are usually represented as a rolled out cylinder where the width equals the circumference and the height equals the stroke plus the cylinder skirt, the ports are outlined.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A portable data terminal, or shortly PDT, is an electronic device that is used to enter or retrieve data via wireless transmission (WLAN or WWAN). They have also been called enterprise digital assistants (EDA), data capture mobile devices, batch terminals or just portables.\nThey can also serve as barcode readers, and they are used in large stores, warehouses, hospitals, or in the field, to access a database from a remote location. Others have a touch screen, IrDA, Bluetooth, a memory card slot, or one or more data capture devices.\nPDT's frequently run wireless device management software that allows them to interact with a database or software application hosted on a server or mainframe computer.Boundaries among PDA, smartphone and EDA can be blurred when comparing the wide array of common features and functions.  EDAs attempt to distinguish themselves with a pre-defined requirement for long term constant daily operation (Normally allowing a minimum of 8 hours).  They seek a higher than normal impact rating / drop test rating and an ingress protection rating of no less than IP54, Most have at least one Data Collection function i.e. a Barcode or RFID Reader etc.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A position sensor is a sensor that detects an object's position. A position sensor may indicate the absolute position of the object (its location) or its relative position (displacement) in terms of linear travel, rotational angle or three-dimensional space. Common types of position sensors include the following:\n\nCapacitive displacement sensor\nEddy-current sensor\nHall effect sensor\nInductive sensor\nLaser Doppler vibrometer (optical)\nLinear variable differential transformer (LVDT)\nPhotodiode array\nPiezo-electric transducer (piezo-electric)\nPosition encoders:\nAbsolute encoder\nIncremental encoder\nLinear encoder\nRotary encoder\nPotentiometer\nProximity sensor (optical)\nString potentiometer (also known as a string potentiometer, string encoder or cable position transducer)\nUltrasonic sensor", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A positioning goniometer or goniometric stage is a device used to rotate an object precisely (within a small angular range) about a fixed axis in space. Its appearance is similar to that of a linear stage. However, rather than moving linearly with respect to its base, the stage platform rotates partially about a fixed axis above the mounting surface of the platform. The distance of the center of rotation from the platform mounting surface is often chosen so that two different goniometer models may be stacked in an X-Y configuration and both stages will rotate about the same point. Positioning goniometers typically use a worm drive with a partial worm wheel fixed to the underside of the stage platform meshing with a worm in the base. The worm may be rotated manually or by a motor as in automated positioning systems.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Positive Material Identification (PMI) is the analysis of a material, this can be any material but is generally used for the analysis of metallic alloy to establish composition by reading the quantities by percentage of its constituent elements.  Typical methods for PMI include X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and optical emission spectrometry (OES).PMI is a portable method of analysis and can be used in the field on components. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) PMI can not detect small elements such as carbon. This means that when undertaking analysis of stainless steels such as grades 304 and 316 the low carbon 'L' variant can not be determined. This however can be analysed with optical emission spectrometry (OES) \n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "PowerVu is a conditional access system for digital television developed by Scientific Atlanta. It is used for professional broadcasting, notably by Retevision, Bloomberg Television, Discovery Channel, AFRTS, ABS-CBN, GMA Network, and American Forces Network. It is also used by cable companies to prevent viewing by unauthorized viewers and non-cable subscribers.\nPowerVu has decoders that decode signals from certain satellites for cable distribution services. These decoders can also be used just like the FTA (Free-To-Air) satellite receivers if properly configured.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A pressure sewer  provides a method of discharging sewage from properties into a conventional gravity sewer or directly to a sewage treatment plant.\nPressure sewers are typically used where properties are located below the level of the nearest gravity sewer or are located on difficult terrain.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A private cable operator (also known as PCO) is a private small independent cable company competing directly with Multi system operators (MSO). PCOs typically offer services to multi-family dwellings, gated communities, hotels and other small businesses. In some small municipalities in the city may be a PCO.\nIn some cases PCOs offer voice, wireless and data services as well. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) currently has rules regarding the exclusive contracts that used to be granted to cable providers.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Probabilistic Data Association Filter (PDAF) is a statistical approach to the problem of plot association (target-measurement assignment) in a target tracking algorithm. Rather than choosing the most likely assignment of measurements to a target (or declaring the target not detected or a measurement to be a false alarm), the PDAF takes an expected value, which is the minimum mean square error (MMSE) estimate. The PDAF on its own does not confirm nor terminate tracks.\nWhereas the PDAF is only designed to track a single target in the presence of false alarms and missed detections, the Joint Probabilistic Data Association Filter (JPDAF) can handle multiple targets. The first real-world application of the PDAF was probably in the Jindalee Operational Radar Network, which is an Australian over-the-horizon radar (OTHR) network.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In the application of integrated circuits, process control monitoring (PCM) is the procedure followed to obtain detailed information about the process used.\nPCM is associated with designing and fabricating special structures that can monitor technology specific parameters such as Vth in CMOS and Vbe in bipolars. These structures are placed across the wafer at specific locations along with the chip produced so that a closer look into the process variation is possible.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A process variable, process value or process parameter is the current measured value of a particular part of a process which is being monitored or controlled. An example of this would be the temperature of a furnace. The current temperature is called the process variable, while the desired temperature is known as the set-point. The set point is usually abbreviated to SP, and the process value is usually abbreviated to PV.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A program chain (PGC) is a linear sequence of programs, or 8-bit pointers to groups of cells. This allows for seamless branching in DVD playback, such as would be required for multi-angle scenes. The first PGC in a DVD title is called the entry PGC. A PGC with no programs is called a dummy PGC. Each PGC has a color palette of 16 colors, recorded in YCbCr format.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The term programmable communicating thermostat (PCT) is used by the  California Energy Commission to describe programmable thermostats that can receive information wirelessly. \nThe first version of the PCT introduced in the 2008 building standards proceeding also required that PCTs allow temperature control during emergency events to avoid blackouts. This feature was removed after public input indicated a strong fear of the non-overrideable \"big brother\" feel of this feature.\nA talk at the S4 SCADA security conference in January 2008 indicated adding a public key encryption scheme to the specification, giving each thermostat a random 160-bit number. The installer or homeowner would call this number in to the utility or other service provider (operator), who would then send the Operator's public key to the thermostat over RDS. Using this method, the PCT would receive messages only from the operator(s) explicitly agreed to by the homeowner. \nThermostats can also communicate wirelessly through the Internet or via a home automation technology, such as Insteon. These advanced thermostats can be adjusted via computer or Internet capable phone to allow users to adjust the temperature in their home without being present.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Project Debater is an IBM artificial intelligence project, designed to participate in a full live debate with expert human debaters. It follows on from the Watson project which played Jeopardy!", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Prolok was a copy protection system developed by W. Krag Brotby and Vault Corporation in 1982. Prolok was involved in the copyright law case Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd. which allowed software to be used in certain situations that the copyright holder did not originally intend. \nProlok was developed for Apple II, CP/M, CP/M-86, MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows and OS/2. US Patent 4,785,361", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Prony Brake is a simple device invented by Gaspard de Prony in 1821 to measure the torque produced by an engine. The term \"brake horsepower\" is one measurement of power derived from this method of measuring torque. (Power is calculated by multiplying torque by rotational speed.)Essentially the measurement is made by wrapping a cord or belt around the output shaft of the engine and measuring the force transferred to the belt through friction. The friction is increased by tightening the belt until the frequency of rotation of the shaft is reduced to a desired rotational speed. In practice more engine power can then be applied until the limit of the engine is reached.\nIn its simplest form an engine is connected to a rotating drum by means of an output shaft.  A friction band is wrapped around half the drum's circumference and each end attached to a separate spring balance.  A substantial pre-load is then applied to the ends of the band, so that each spring balance has an initial and identical reading. When the engine is running, the frictional force between the drum and the band will increase the force reading on one balance and decrease it on the other.  The difference between the two readings multiplied by the radius of the driven drum is equal to the torque.  If the engine speed is measured with a tachometer, the brake horsepower is easily calculated.\nAn alternate mechanism is to clamp a lever to the shaft and measure using a single balance. The torque is then related to the lever length, shaft diameter and measured force.\nThe device is generally used over a range of engine speeds to obtain power and torque curves for the engine, since there is a non-linear relationship between torque and engine speed for most engine types.\nPower output in SI units may be calculated as follows:\nRotary power (in newton-meters per second, N\u00b7m/s) = 2\u03c0 \u00d7 the distance from the center-line of the drum (the friction device) to the point of measurement (in meters, m) \u00d7 rotational speed (in revolutions per second) \u00d7 measured force (in newtons, N).Or in English units:\nRotary power (in pound-feet per second, lbf\u00b7ft/s) = 2\u03c0 \u00d7 distance from center-line of the drum (the friction device) to the point of measurement (in feet, ft) \u00d7 rotational speed (in revolutions per second) \u00d7 measured force (in pounds, lbf).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Propane refrigeration is a type of compression refrigeration. Propane (R290) has been used successfully in industrial refrigeration for many years, and is emerging as an increasingly viable alternative for homes and businesses. Propane's operating pressures and temperatures are well suited for use in air conditioning equipment, but because of propane\u2019s flammability, great care is required in the manufacture, installation and servicing of equipment that uses it as a refrigerant.\nPropane that is supplied for general use \u2013 such as in barbeques and patio heaters \u2013 is not suitable for use in refrigeration systems because it can contain high levels of contaminants, including moisture and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Only propane produced specifically for use in refrigeration systems \u2013 with a purity of at least 98.5% and moisture content below 10ppm (by weight) \u2013 should be used.With a global warming potential (GWP) of 0.02 and an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0, R-290 is of very little threat to the environment. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has listed R-290 as an acceptable refrigerant substitute under its Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP), and recently exempted it from the venting prohibition in Section 608 of the Clean Air Act.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "PSOLA  (Pitch Synchronous Overlap and Add) is a digital signal processing technique used for speech processing and more specifically speech synthesis. It can be used to modify the pitch and duration of a speech signal. It was invented around 1986.PSOLA works by dividing the speech waveform in small overlapping segments. To change the pitch of the signal, the segments are moved further apart (to decrease the pitch) or closer together (to increase the pitch). To change the duration of the signal, the segments are then repeated multiple times (to increase the duration) or some are eliminated (to decrease the duration). The segments are then combined using the overlap add technique.\nPSOLA can be used to change the prosody of a speech signal.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The PT01 was the first portable belt-driven turntable manufactured by Numark. An identical model called iPT01 was also manufactured by Ion Audio.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A push broom scanner, also known as an along-track scanner, is a device for obtaining images with spectroscopic sensors. The scanners are regularly used for passive remote sensing from space, and in spectral analysis on production lines, for example with near-infrared spectroscopy used to identify contaminated food and feed. The moving scanner line in a traditional photocopier (or a scanner or facsimile machine) is also a familiar, everyday example of a push broom scanner.  Push broom scanners and the whisk broom scanners variant (also known as across-track scanners) are often contrasted with staring arrays (such as in a digital camera), which image objects without scanning, and are more familiar to most people.\n\nIn orbital push broom sensors, a line of sensors arranged perpendicular to the flight direction of the spacecraft is used. Different areas of the surface are imaged as the spacecraft flies forward. A push broom scanner can gather more light than a whisk broom scanner because it looks at a particular area for a longer time, like a long exposure on a camera. One drawback of push broom sensors is the varying sensitivity of the individual detectors.  Another drawback is that the resolution is lower than a whisk broom scanner because the entire image is captured at once.\nExamples of spacecraft cameras using push broom imagers include Mars Express's High Resolution Stereo Camera, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera NAC, Mars Global Surveyor's Mars Orbiter Camera WAC, and the Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer on board the Terra satellite.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Pyrotron is a device designed to help firefighters better understand how to combat the rapid spread of bush fires in Australia.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "PyTEC is a containerised Pyrolysis Waste Disposal System designs by QinetiQ and used in various military applications. The system converts waste products to thermal energy which can be used for energy generation.\nThe system was developed by Compact Power Ltd specifically for QinetiQ. The system was first fitted to HMS Ocean and is currently under evaluation for the US Army.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Qt Quick is a free software application framework developed and maintained by the Qt Project within the Qt framework. It provides a way of building custom, highly dynamic graphical user interfaces with fluid transitions and effects, which are becoming more common especially in mobile devices. Qt Quick includes a declarative scripting language called QML.\nQt Declarative is a runtime interpreter that reads the Qt declarative user interface definition, QML data, and displays the UI that it describes. The QML syntax allows using JavaScript to provide the logic, and it is often used for this purpose. It is not the only way, however: logic can be written with native code as well.Qt Quick and QML are officially supported in Qt 4.7 (with Qt Creator 2.1), and it is a commercial option in mobile applications when Qt 4.7 is available for deployment in Symbian and Maemo and MeeGo devices. It was also the native language of Ubuntu Touch.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Quantum Flux Parametron (QFP) is a digital logic implementation technology based on superconducting Josephson junctions. QFP's were invented by Eiichi Goto at the University of Tokyo as an improvement over his earlier parametron based digital logic technology, which did not use superconductivity effects or Josephson junctions. The Josephson junctions on QFP integrated circuits to improve speed and energy efficiency enormously over the parametrons.\nIn some applications, the complexity of the cryogenic cooling system required is negligible compared to the potential speed gains. While his design makes use of quantum principles, it is not a quantum computer technology, gaining speed only through higher clock speeds.\nApart from the speed advantage over traditional CMOS integrated circuit design is that parametrons can be operated with zero energy loss (no local increase in entropy), making reversible computing possible. Low energy use and heat generation is critical in supercomputer design, where thermal load per unit volume has become one of the main limiting factors.\nA related technology is the Rapid Single Flux Quantum digital logic.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Quick Response Engine was a planning and scheduling program developed for the OS/400 platform. The program was developed by the Acacia Technologies division of Computer Associates in 1996. In 2002 the group was sold to SSA Global Technologies.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The radio spectrum scope (also radio panoramic receiver, panoramic adapter, pan receiver, pan adapter, panadapter, panoramic radio spectroscope, panoramoscope, panalyzor and band scope) was invented by Marcel Wallace - and measures and shows the magnitude of an input signal versus frequency within one or more radio bands - e.g. shortwave bands. A spectrum scope is normally a lot cheaper than a spectrum analyzer, because the aim is not high quality frequency resolution - nor high quality signal strength measurements.\nThe spectrum scope use can be to:\n\nfind radio channels quickly of known and unknown signals when receiving.\nfind radio amateurs activity quickly e.g. with the intent of communicating with them.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Radite is a trade name for an early plastic, formed of pyroxylin - a partially nitrated cellulose - introduced by the Sheaffer Pen Company in the 1920s when plastics were first used as a material for pen manufacture.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "RaiseMe is a for-profit startup founded in August 2014 that allows high school students to input personal academic achievements to qualify themselves for college scholarships. As of January 2019, over 285 universities offered scholarships through RaiseMe. Scholarship money is delegated through \"Micro-Scholarships\", where dollar amounts are assigned to individual achievements, such as a good grade in a class or club participation. Each participating college determines the value of different accomplishments.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A ram press is a device or machine commonly used to press items with a mechanical ram,  such as with a plunger, piston, force pump, or hydraulic ram. In food preparation, there are various kinds of ram presses:\nThe fruit ram press and cider ram press are both types of fruit presses that extract the juices out of the fruit through pressure. The second makes apple cider.\nAn oil seed ram press is also known as an oil ram press  and it extracts the oil out of oil seeds.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Range-R is a hand-held radar device manufactured by L-3 Communications capable of detecting motion through solid walls. The device operates as a finely tuned motion detector, using radio waves to detect the presence of people and movements as small as human breathing at a distance of 50 feet or more.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Angular rate sensors, ARS, are devices that directly measure angular rate, without integration in conditioning electronics. Gyroscopes also measure angular rate. Generally gyroscopes are able to measure a constant rotation rate, while rate sensors also include devices with a low cut off frequency that is other than zero.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A reciprocating pump is a class of positive-displacement pumps that includes the piston pump, plunger pump, and diaphragm pump. Well maintained, reciprocating pumps can last for decades. Unmaintained, however, they can succumb to wear and tear. It is often used where a relatively small quantity of liquid is to be handled and where delivery pressure is quite large. In reciprocating pumps, the chamber that traps the liquid is a stationary cylinder that contains a piston or plunger.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Reconfigurable Video Coding (RVC) is an MPEG initiative to provide an innovative framework of video coding development. This framework offers a way to overcome the lack of interoperability between the many video codecs deployed in the market. Indeed, an RVC codec is described using the dataflow programming paradigm which permits flexibility and reusability. Two standards have been produced by the RVC working group:\n\nThe codec configuration representation (ISO/IEC 23001-4 or MPEG-B pt. 4) describes the format with which an RVC decoder can be defined as a network of computational blocks, as well as a textual language for the definition of video coding blocks.\nA video tool library (ISO/IEC 23002-4 or MPEG-C pt. 4) that standardizes actors needed to describe existing video coding standards (currently MPEG-4 part 2 and MPEG-4 part 10).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Redirected walking is a virtual reality locomotion technique that enables users to explore a virtual world that is considerably larger than the tracked working space. With this approach the user is redirected through manipulations applied to the displayed scene, causing users to unknowingly compensate for scene motion by repositioning and/or reorienting themselves.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Redmi Note 8, Redmi Note 8T and Redmi Note 8 Pro are Android-based smartphones as part of the Redmi Note series by Redmi, a sub-brand of Xiaomi Inc. They were released on 29 August 2019 in an event held in China. The Redmi Note 8 Pro is the first smartphone to be equipped with a 64 megapixel camera. The Note 8 Pro was released in Italy on 23 September 2019.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A reed level is an Arabic invention for determining level for the purpose of construction. A hole is put through a long straight reed and water is poured into the center. When the flow out of both sides is equal, the reed is level. The device serves the same purpose as a spirit level.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Remington-Rand Quiet-Riter is a portable, mechanical typewriter manufactured in the 1950s.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Remote field testing (RFT) is a method of nondestructive testing using low-frequency AC. whose main application is finding defects in steel pipes and tubes. RFT is also referred to as remote field eddy current testing (RFEC or RFET). RFET is sometimes expanded as remote field electromagnetic technique, although a magnetic, rather than electromagnetic field is used. An RFT probe is moved down the inside of a pipe and is able to detect inside and outside defects with approximately equal sensitivity (although it can not discriminate between the two). Although RFT works in nonferromagnetic materials such as copper and brass, its sister technology eddy-current testing is preferred.\nThe basic RFT probe consists of an exciter coil (also known as a transmit or send coil) which sends a signal to the detector (or receive coil). The exciter coil is pumped with an AC current and emits a magnetic field. The field travels outwards from the exciter coil, through the pipe wall, and along the pipe. The detector is placed inside the pipe two to three pipe diameters away from the exciter and detects the magnetic field that has travelled back in from the outside of the pipe wall (for a total of two through-wall transits). In areas of metal loss, the field arrives at the detector with a faster travel time (greater phase) and greater signal strength (amplitude) due to the reduced path through the steel. Hence the dominant mechanism of RFT is through-transmission.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Resealable packaging is any type of packaging that allows the consumer or user to reseal or reclose the packaging. Often packaging needs to be resealed in order to maintain product freshness or prevent spillage. Reusable packaging allows for multiple uses which can help reduce waste.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Residual-excited linear prediction (RELP) is an obsolete speech coding algorithm. It was originally proposed in the 1970s and can be seen as an ancestor of code-excited linear prediction (CELP). Unlike CELP however, RELP directly transmits the residual signal. To achieve lower rates, that residual signal is usually down-sampled (e.g. to 1\u20132 kHz). The algorithm is hardly used anymore in audio transmission.\nIt is still used in some text-to-speech voices, such as the diphone databases found in the Festival and Flite speech synthesizers.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A restricted-access barrier system (RABS) is an installation which is used in many industries, such as pharmaceutical, medical, chemical, electrical engineering where a controlled atmosphere is needed.  The RABS provides a physical barrier between workers and production areas.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Design rules are maintained and released by a semiconductor foundry for its customers (layout designers of integrated circuits) to follow.  Restrictive design rules (RDRs) curtail some of the \"freedom\" layout designers have traditionally had with regular design rules in less advanced process technologies.  To achieve and maintain an acceptable return on investment for its customers and by extension for itself, a foundry may be compelled, for technological reasons, to adopt RDRs to better ensure the completed layout design of an integrated circuit is manufacturable with a desired yield in more advanced process technologies.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Reuters Market Data System (RMDS) is an open market data platform provided by Thomson Reuters. RMDS is used to transport, integrate and manage financial data from stock exchanges and other data sources to end users (such as a bank or enterprise) using multicast or broadcast technology. The underlying protocols are called Reuters Reliable Control Protocol (RRCP) and the Reuters Reliable Messaging Protocol (RRMP)", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Reverse flush toilet, also known as a washout toilet, is a type of flush toilet containing a shelf which holds the excrement out of the water until the flush. This could be to make inspection easier, to reduce splashing, or just tradition. It facilitates taking a stool sample. The design greatly increases associated odor and requires a brushing after every use. The design is common in Germany and the Netherlands.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "RF monitor software is a software which (with special hardware as a WiFi-card) is able to detect signal strength and bit error rate of wireless networks. The software includes network discovery software programs as KIsmet and Network stumbler, yet these latter provide much more information about the network itself, and are not as precise as true RF monitor software. The extra precision is especially useful in cooperation with a directional antenna (e.g. cantennas).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Rheometry (from Greek  \u1fe5\u03ad\u03bf\u03c2 (rheos) 'stream') generically refers to the experimental techniques used to determine the rheological properties of materials, that is the qualitative and quantitative relationships between stresses and strains and their derivatives. The techniques used are experimental. Rheometry investigates materials in relatively simple flows like steady shear flow, small amplitude oscillatory shear, and extensional flow.The choice of the adequate experimental technique depends on the rheological property which has to be determined. This can be the steady shear viscosity, the linear viscoelastic properties (complex viscosity respectively elastic modulus), the elongational properties, etc.\nFor all real materials, the measured property will be a function of the flow conditions during which it is being measured (shear rate, frequency, etc.) even if for some materials this dependence is vanishingly low under given conditions (see Newtonian fluids).\nRheometry is a specific concern for smart fluids such as electrorheological fluids and magnetorheological fluids, as it is the primary method to quantify the useful properties of these materials.\nRheometry is considered useful in the fields of quality control, process control, and industrial process modelling, among others. For some, the techniques, particularly the qualitative rheological trends, can yield the classification of materials based on the main interactions between different possible elementary components and how they qualitatively affect the rheological behavior of the materials.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Rights Object Acquisition Protocol is a suite of XML-based Digital Rights Management (DRM) security protocols which enables Open Mobile Alliance-conformant user devices to request and acquire viewing and/or editing rights, permissions, privileges and other attributes from a Rights Issuer. This protocol has been specified in the OMA DRM Specification v2.0.\nThe ROAP protocol suite enables communication between a Rights Issuing (RI) entity and a DRM Agent resident in the user device. Rights, permissions, privileges and other attributes are encapsulated into object oriented (OO) entities called Rights Objects (RO).The basic functionalities enabled by ROAP include:\nRegistration of user devices (4-pass Registration Protocol)\nRequest and Acquisition of RO (2-pass Rights Object Acquisition Protocol, 1-pass ROAP)\nJoining and leaving of domain (2-pass Join Domain Protocol, 2-pass Leave Domain Protocol)All protocols included in the ROAP protocol suite except the 1-pass ROAP are initialized when the user device receives a ROAP Trigger XML document. The MIME type of the ROAP Trigger document is \"application/vnd.oma.drm.roap-trigger+xml\".", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Rinky Dink is a mobile musical sound system that operates on power provided by two bicycles and solar panels. The sound system tours the world as part of many musical festivals and parties. \nAs well as being powered by bicycle, the system itself is moved around using specially converted bicycles. Rinky Dink is an example of how green electricity can be generated and used to power things.\nThe Rinky Dink was responsible for powering the first bicycle-powered digital recording in history\u2014Live & Pedal-Powered (1995) by Baka Beyond.The system was named after the American slang expression \"rinky-dink\", which originally meant \"rip-off\", but came to mean anything that was poorly put together, amateurish, shoddy, cheap or insignificant.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Riser Card is a printed circuit board that gives a computer motherboard the option for additional expansion cards to be added to the computer.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Risk governance refers to the institutions, rules conventions, processes and mechanisms by which decisions about risks are taken and implemented. It can be both normative and positive, because it analyses and formulates risk management strategies to avoid and/or reduce the human and economic costs caused by disasters.\nRisk governance goes beyond traditional risk analysis to include the involvement and participation of various stakeholders as well as considerations of the broader legal, political, economic and social contexts in which a risk is evaluated and managed.The scope of risk governance encompasses public health and safety, the environment, old and new technologies, security, finance, and many others.\nAs an interdisciplinary field of research, risk governance draws insight from such diverse fields as toxicology, epidemiology, psychology, sociology, anthropology and economics.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Rocket boots is an invention by Soviet scientist Viktor Gordeyev. The invention is a pair of mechanical devices that a user would wear on his or her lower legs and feet. Rocket Boots are intended to make it possible for a person to travel faster and further than by unassisted walking or running. \nThere are no actual rockets in the Rocket Boots. Rather, the power comes from pistons that are filled with a fuel-air mixture, and fired by compression when the user puts his or her full body weight down into the boot. When the piston fires, the platform under the user's foot pushes down on the ground, launching the user forward toward the next step in an action similar to that of pogo stick. The boots use approximately 4 cc fuel per 6.2 miles (9,97km).\nThe boots were initially developed in the 1970s for the Soviet Army, but development was suspended until 2000. The project was restarted  in Russian Federation by scientists at the Bashkir State University (Ufa), with the aim to develop a product for the civilian and a military markets.\nIt is expected that while using the \"rocket boots\", a person could travel at an average speed of around 10.5 mph (16,89km/h). However, it is thought that the highest speed for an experienced user is around 22 mph (35,4km/h).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A rocket turbine engine is a combination of two types of propulsion engines: a liquid fuel rocket and a turbine jet engine. Its power-to-weight ratio is a little higher than a regular jet engine, and works at higher altitudes.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Rolamite is a technology for very low friction bearings developed by Sandia National Laboratories in the 1960s. It is the only elementary machine discovered in the twentieth century and can be used in various ways such as a component in switches, thermostats, valves, pumps, and clutches, among others.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A service valve is a valve used to separate one piece of equipment from another in any system where liquids or gases circulate. Two types of service valves are marketed: the Schrader-type valve and the stem-type service valve. Specialized versions are made for specific purposes, such as the Rotolock valve (a stem-type valve also called a Rotalock valve ), which is a special refrigeration valve with a teflon ring seated against a machined surface enclosed by a threaded fitting; this valve allows the technician to remove all refrigerant from the compressor without requiring removal of the system charge.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An RSA blocker tag (or RSA tag) is a RFID tag that responds positively to all unauthorized requests, thus blocking some scanners from reading any RFID tags placed nearby.  The tags are designed to protect privacy, and are supposedly unable to be used for theft, denials of service, and other malicious uses.\nOther mechanisms designed to protect privacy for RFID item tagging for retail use are the EPCglobal kill command and the Clipped Tag proposed by IBM.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A rubber washer is a ring made of rubber used in mechanical devices. It is used to prevent vibration from spreading from one part to another, reducing the noise levels.\nTypical uses are mounting computer parts, like fans and hard disk drives. By decoupling the motor from the computer case it prevents the resonance chamber effect from amplifying the noise.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Rutt/Etra Video Synthesizer is an analog raster manipulation device for image processing and real-time animation. The Rutt/Etra was co-invented by Steve Rutt and Bill Etra.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A sacrificial part is a part of a machine or product that is intentionally engineered to fail under excess mechanical stress, electrical stress, or other unexpected and dangerous situations. The sacrificial part is engineered to fail first, and thus protect other parts of the system.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A safety harness is a form of protective equipment designed to safeguard the user from injury or death from falling. The core item of a fall arrest system, the harness is usually fabricated from rope, braided wire cable, or synthetic webbing. It is attached securely to a stationary object directly by a locking device or indirectly via a rope, cable, or webbing and one or more locking devices.  Some safety harnesses are used in combination with a shock-absorbing lanyard, which is used to regulate deceleration and thereby prevent a serious G-force injury when the end of the rope is reached.  \nAn unrelated use with a materially different arresting mechanism is bungee jumping. Though they share certain similar attributes, a safety harness is not to be confused with a climbing harness used for mountaineering, rock climbing, and climbing gyms. Specialized harnesses for animal rescue or transfer, as from a dock to a vessel, are also made.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Sigma 30 is an inertial navigation system produced by SAGEM for use with artillery applications including howitzers, multiple rocket launchers, mortars and light guns.  It is currently produced for more than 25 international programs, including France (CAESAR, 2R2M, MLRS), Serbia (Nora B 52), Sweden (FH77 BD, Archer), India (Pinaka MBRL), Polish PT-91M tank (build for Malaysia)  and the United States (topographic survey).Sigma 30 can also be integrated in more complex systems (Positioning and Azimuth Determination System).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In systems science, a  sampled-data system is a control system in which a continuous-time plant is controlled with a digital device. Under periodic sampling, the sampled-data system is time-varying but also periodic; thus, it may be modeled by a simplified discrete-time system obtained by discretizing the plant. However, this discrete model does not capture the inter-sample behavior of the real system, which may be critical in a number of applications.\nThe analysis of sampled-data systems incorporating full-time information leads to challenging control problems with a rich mathematical structure. Many of these problems have only been solved recently.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Samsung Galaxy J4 is an Android smartphone developed by the South Korean manufacturer Samsung Electronics. Announced on May 22, 2018 and released the same day, the J4 is the successor to the Galaxy J3.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Samsung Galaxy Watch is a smartwatch developed by Samsung Electronics. It was announced on 9 August 2018. The Galaxy Watch was scheduled for availability in the United States starting on 24 August 2018, at select carriers and retail locations in South Korea on 31 August 2018, and in additional select markets on 14 September 2018.On 27 February 2021, Shortly after the Galaxy Watch Active2 and Galaxy Watch3 received an update unlocking the ECG feature for the European countries, Samsung is now delivering Galaxy Watch3-intrinsic features to the original Galaxy Watch and Watch Active.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Samsung Galaxy Watch Active is a smartwatch developed by Samsung Electronics. It was announced on 20 February 2019. The Galaxy Watch Active was scheduled for availability in the United States starting on March 8, 2019.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Samsung Galaxy Watch Active 2 (stylized as Samsung Galaxy Watch Active2) is a smartwatch developed by Samsung Electronics, running the Tizen operating system. Announced on 5 August 2019, the Active 2 was scheduled for availability in the United States starting on 23 September 2019.The Active 2 was released in two sizes, 40mm or 44mm, and two connectivity formats, either Bluetooth or LTE capability. The LTE version functions as a standalone phone and allows a user to call, text, pay, and stream music or video without a nearby smartphone.Samsung announced as part of the move to move from Tizen OS to Wear OS by Google starting from August 2022. The Watch Active 2 will stop receiving software and security updates while the Watch 3 will stop receiving software updates in 2023.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Samsung Pebble is a small MP3/Ogg audio player shaped like a flat, round pebble.\nFeaturing no screen, the Pebble is meant to be worn around the neck like a pendant. It has features such as on-the-go and sound effects buttons on the side. The Pebble comes in 1 GB, 2 GB or 4 GB. It also features a shuffle feature similar to the iPod. The Pebble was released in 2012.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Samsung Town (Korean: \uc0bc\uc131\ud0c0\uc6b4) is a major office park in Seocho-gu in Seoul, South Korea.  It serves as the IT and electronics hub for the multinational corporation Samsung.\nThe building has a floor area of 110,800 m\u00b2 with 20,000 resident employees, and President Lee Kun-hee's office was located on the 42nd floor of Building C.Samsung Electronics, Samsung C&T, and Samsung Life Insurance have built three buildings which are 44, 34 and 32 stories respectively. Samsung Town was designed by Kohn Pedersen Fox. Samsung Electronics and Samsung C&T have already begun to move into the houses  while Samsung Life Insurance is leasing its property to Samsung Electronics and other affiliates.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Sarrus linkage, invented in 1853 by Pierre Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Sarrus, is a mechanical linkage to convert a limited circular motion to a linear motion or vice versa without reference guideways. It is a spatial six-bar linkage (6R) with two groups of three parallel adjacent joint-axes.Although Charles-Nicolas Peaucellier was widely recognized for being the first to invent such a straight-line mechanism, the Sarrus linkage had been invented earlier; however, it was largely unnoticed for a time.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A satellite data unit (SDU) is an avionics device installed in an aircraft that allows air/ground communication via a satellite network. It is an integral part of an aircraft's SATCOM (satellite communication) system. The device connects with a satellite via ordinary radio frequency (RF) communication and the satellite then connects to a ground station or vice versa. All satellite communication whether audio or data is processed by the SDU.The SDU communicates with an onboard MDDU (multi-purpose disk-drive unit) which maintains an updatable table of ground stations in the aircraft's current area and the order of preference for selection of which ground station to use which thus guides the choice of satellite. Along with analysing data continuously sent from all ground stations (such as station status and the error rate of signals from each station) the SDU receives information on the aircraft's position and orientation from another onboard system (ADIRU, air data inertial reference unit) which it passes to the BSU (beam-steering unit) to direct the signal beam from the aircraft to the chosen satellite.With the advent of cellphones and the Internet a separate or integrated SDU can be used to offer telephone and Internet services to passengers.Logs of satellite communication have been used to inform search and rescue agencies of locations of missing aircraft, notably that of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 whose position was unknown due to loss of radar contact and other communications. Automated SATCOM transmissions suggested it flew about 1,600 km (1,000 mi) off its designated flight path having flown approximately south-southwest rather than the intended approximately north-northeast.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A saturable reactor in electrical engineering is a special form of inductor where the magnetic core can be deliberately saturated by a direct electric current in a control winding. Once saturated, the inductance of the saturable reactor drops dramatically. This decreases inductive reactance and allows increased flow of the alternating current (AC).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) [pronounced simmer] was a five-frequency microwave radiometer flown on the Seasat and Nimbus 7 satellites. Both were launched in 1978, with the Seasat mission lasting less than six months until failure of the primary bus. The Nimbus 7 SMMR lasted from 25 October 1978 until 20 August 1987. It measured dual-polarized microwave radiances, at 6.63, 10.69, 18.0, 21.0, and 37.0 GHz, from the Earth's atmosphere and surface. Its primary legacy has been the creation of areal sea-ice climatologies for the Arctic and Antarctic.\nThe final few months of operation were considerably fortuitous as they allowed the calibration of the radiometers and their products with the first results from the SSMI.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Static Scherbius Drive provides the speed control of a wound rotor motor below synchronous speed. The portion of rotor AC power is converted into DC by a diode bridge. This drive has the ability of flow the power both in the positive as well as the negative direction of the injected voltage.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Science and technology in Asia is varied depending on the country and time. In the past, the Asian civilizations most notable for their contributions to science and technology were India, China and the West Asian civilizations. At present, probably the most notable country in Asia in terms of its technological and scientific achievement is Japan, which is particularly known for its electronics and automobile products. In recent years, China and India have also once again become major contributors to science and technology. Other countries are also notable in other scientific fields such as chemical and physical achievements.\nFor the science and technology of various Asian countries and civilizations, see:", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A scissors mechanism uses linked, folding supports in a criss-cross 'X' pattern.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The sclerometer, also known as the Turner-sclerometer (from Ancient Greek: \u03c3\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 meaning \"hard\"), is an instrument used by metallurgists, material scientists and mineralogists to measure the scratch hardness of materials. It was invented in 1896 by Thomas Turner (1861\u20131951), the first Professor of metallurgy in Britain, at the University of Birmingham.\nThe Turner-Sclerometer test consists of microscopically measuring the width of a scratch made by a diamond under a fixed load, and drawn across the face of the specimen under fixed conditions.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A scleroscope is a device used to measure rebound hardness.  It consists of a steel ball dropped from a fixed height.  The device was invented in 1907.  As an improvement on this rough method, the Leeb Rebound Hardness Test, invented in the 1970s, uses the ratio of impact and rebound velocities (as measured by a magnetic inducer) to determine hardness.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Score following is the process of automatically listening to a live music performance and tracking the position in the score.  It is an active area of research and stands at the intersection of artificial intelligence, pattern recognition, signal processing, and musicology. Score following was first introduced in 1984 independently by Barry Vercoe and Roger Dannenberg. \nArtistically, it is one of the main components for live electronic music of many composers such as Pierre Boulez and Philippe Manoury among others and is currently an active line of research in different communities such as IRCAM in Paris. The latest version of IRCAM's score following, developed by the Musical Representations Team is capable of following complex audio signals (monophonic and polyphonic) and synchronize events via the detected tempo of the performance in realtime. It's distributed publicly since 2009 under the name Antescofo and has been successfully performed throughout the world for a wide number of contemporary music productions including realtime electronics.\nOther score following authors include Chris Raphael, Roger Dannenberg, Barry Vercoe, Miller Puckette, Nicola Orio, Arshia Cont, and Frank Weinstock (U.S. Patent 5,952,597; U.S. Patent 6,107,559; U.S. Patent 6,166,314).\nFor the first time, in October 2006, there is going to be a Score Following evaluation during the second Music Information Retrieval Evaluation eXchange (MIREX). It is expected that most systems participate and compete in live musical situations and the results be announced in public domain.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A scorotron (from screen controlled corona), also called a corona grid, is a device which creates corona discharge current, used in xerography.  Scorotrons appear in photocopiers, in xeroradiography equipment, and similar applications.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Scottish Centre for Enabling Technologies is a collaborative initiative between the University of the West of Scotland, and The Digital Design Studio in Glasgow School of Art.\nThe Centre is a SEEKIT project co-funded by the two partner universities, the Scottish Government and Scottish Enterprise, and as such it is tasked with working with Scottish companies to assist them in exploiting the latest technologies. The Centre offers a range of free services such as technology advice and guidance, as well as a \u00a35000 feasibility study grant.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The SCR-277 was a mobile, trailer mounted radio range set for radio guidance of aircraft. It was standardized by the U.S. Army in June 1941.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The SCR-610 was a Signal Corps Radio used by the U.S. Army during and after World War II, for short range ground communications, it was standardized 29 Sept. 1941,", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A screen protector is an additional sheet of material\u2014commonly polyurethane or laminated glass\u2014that can be attached to the screen of an electronic device and protect it against physical damage.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A scrollerwheel is a mechanical device composed of a number of rollers (four or more) and connective bands under tension, which wrap around and weave between the rollers forming a self-supporting cluster possessing a central roller. The cluster of rollers is bound by the connective bands in such a way that the static friction between the rollers and bands prevent the rollers from slipping as they roll and orbit the central roller. Scrollerwheels are related in operational principle to rolamite linear bearings (developed at Sandia National Labs in the late 1960s), and like them, they display only rolling friction, and not the kinetic friction inherent in most mechanical bearings.\nThe rollers can have a cross section in a variety of shapes other than circular, such as: ovals (which with a single oval roller as the central roller, or one of the outer rollers, results in a cammed motion), various varieties of superellipses and Reuleaux polygons.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SCSI Multimedia Commands (MMC) defines a SCSI/ATAPI based command set for accessing and controlling devices of type 05h. Such devices read or write optical media: CD, DVD, BD. T10 subcommittee is responsible for developing MMC as well as other SCSI command set standards. It was approved in December 1997 by ANSI.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Seamlessly loopable is a term generally used for recordings or images that can be combined an infinite number of times without a noticeable joining seam. When used in music, animation, and video it generally refers to media that can be laid on a timeline, multiple times, back-to-back with no visible jump or jump cut as it cycles between the clips.The term when used in still images means that an image when laid left to right or top to bottom will join with itself with little or no visible seam.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A segmented spindle, also known by the trademark Kataka, is a specialized mechanical linear actuator conceived by the Danish mechanical engineer Jens Joerren Soerensen during the mid-1990s.  The actuator forms a telescoping tubular column, or spindle, from linked segments resembling curved parallelograms.  The telescoping linear actuator has a lifting capacity up to 200 kg (~440 pounds) for a travel of 400 mm (~15.75 inches).A short elongated housing forms the base of the actuator and includes an electrical gear drive and storage magazine for the spindle segments.  The drive spins a helically grooved wheel that engages the similarly grooved inside face of the spindle segments.  As the wheel spins it simultaneously pull the segments from their horizontal arrangement in the magazine and stacks them along the vertical path of a helix into a rigid tubular column.  The reverse process lowers the column.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The selective inverted sink or SIS is a device used by farmers to protect plants from frost, developed by Uruguayan Rafael Guarga in the late 1990s.\nThe sink is actually a large fan housed in a chimney-like structure, and works by defeating surface temperature inversion. Cold air is denser than warm air, and will pool at ground level during calm weather. This lowers the surface temperature, even if the ambient temperature is higher. Vents near the base of the chimney allow cold surface air to be pulled up through the chimney, creating a suction effect that draws warmer air down to surface level.\nThe SIS is more efficient than typical ground-heaters, and is widely used to combat frost.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A self-making bed (also known as a smart bed) is designed to automatically rearrange the bedding on a bed and prepare itself for use.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Semi-Integrated Point-of-Sale is a checkout method used by retailers which integrates payment processing and POS software in a secure & streamlined network configuration.  Semi-Integration allows retailers to accept Chip/EMV credit card and debit card payments, as well account for inventory changes, returns, voided transactions and other payment functions.\nSemi-integration is a measure that ensures payment terminals are connected with retail point-of-sale software, while maintaining separation between payment information transmission and other systems. In order for retailers to become PCI compliant without extensive investment into fully integrated compliant systems, semi-integration offers a cost-effective, compliant resolution.\nSemi-Integration offers the following benefits:\n\nOne to many integration - Solutions that offer semi-integration are often supported with several different processors meaning ISVs develop to one semi-integrated specification and can support multiple processors with the single integration\nNo costly EMV certifications - EMV certifications are already completed by the processor; the most that is usually required is a simple device integration script or unit testing\nPCI PA-DSS Reduced Scope - No sensitive card account data is sent to the POS application that drives the semi-integrated terminal\nCustomer facing device; merchant should never touch the card\nAll receipt data is returned from the device to the POS application\nMultiple Connectivity Methods - Some devices may allow TCP/IP (wired or WiFi), Serial, USB, Bluetooth or Web Services type connections between the device and POS Application\nP2PE - Some processors may offer Point-to-Point Encryption (Note: P2PE is mainly needed when sensitive data like a credit card number traverses an insecure network like a POS PC or tablet.  Most Semi-Integrations ensure that no sensitive data touches an insecure network and which makes P2PE a moot point)\nDial Backup - If supported by the device, dial backup is usually automatic if the IP connection fails", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Semiconductor fault diagnostics are predictive software algorithms which are used to refine and localize the circuitry responsible for the failure of scan-based devices.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Sendzimir process (named after Tadeusz Sendzimir) is used to galvanize a steel strip by using a small amount of aluminum in the zinc bath and producing a coating with essentially no iron-zinc alloy. The process guarantees high resistance and durability characteristics. About 75% of hydrogen was needed in the original Sendzimir process but all the newer nonoxidizing methods of degreasing require only 7\u201315%.The rolling of hot steel slabs using a Sendzimir mill requires a much smaller operational area than a continuous hot strip mill.\nThis milling process is not recommended for heavy duty running surfaces such as crane rail.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Sensorama was a machine that is one of the earliest known examples of immersive, multi-sensory (now known as multimodal) technology. This technology, which was introduced in 1962 by Morton Heilig, is considered one of the earliest virtual reality (VR) systems.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In information technology, a service level indicator (SLI) is a measure of the service level provided by a service provider to a customer. SLIs form the basis of service level objectives (SLOs), which in turn form the basis of service level agreements (SLAs); an SLI is thus also called an SLA metric.\nThough every system is different in the services provided, often common SLIs are used. Common SLIs include latency, throughput, availability, and error rate; others include durability (in storage systems), end-to-end latency (for complex data processing systems, especially pipelines), and correctness.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A servo drive is an electronic amplifier used to power electric servomechanisms.\nA servo drive monitors the feedback signal from the servomechanism and continually adjusts for deviation from expected behavior.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In cybernetics and control theory, a setpoint (also set point) is the desired or target value for an essential variable, or process value of a system. Departure of such a variable from its setpoint is one basis for error-controlled regulation using negative feedback for automatic control.  The set point is usually abbreviated to SP, and the process value is usually abbreviated to PV.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A shaker is a device used in vibration testing to excite the structure either for endurance testing or modal testing.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Sharp Aquos is a product brand name for LCD televisions and component screens, originally sold by Sharp Corporation of Japan and also used by licensees.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A shading insulator, or shinsulator, is used to cover a thermal mass (e.g. roof pond) and insulate the thermal mass as needed, either by re-radiating escaping heat back down towards the thermal mass, or by reflecting solar heat off the panel, reducing heat gathering by the thermal mass.\nIn the summer, a roof pond system cools the building during the day using a shading insulator, or \"shinsulator\" to reflect solar energy away from the roof pond and minimize the heat gathering that occurs. At night, the shinsulator can be retracted to allow the roof pond to release stored energy into the environment. Throughout the winter, the system can be used to heat the building by absorbing solar energy during the day with the shinsulator retracted. At night, the shinsulator can be repositioned over the roof pond to minimize heat loss to the environment, allowing gathered energy to radiate into the building.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A shop-replaceable unit (SRU) or shop-replaceable component (SRC) is a modular component of an airplane, ship or spacecraft that is designed to be replaced by a technician at a backshop.  Repair at backshops is known as field-level maintenance or intermediate-level (I-level) maintenance.\nSRUs are similar in nature to line-replaceable units (LRUs), but rather than being complete functional units, represent component functions, such as circuit card assemblies, of a larger LRU.  SRUs are typically assigned logistics control numbers (LCNs) or work unit codes (WUCs) to manage logistics operations.\nSRUs can be stocked to allow for quick remove and replace (R&R) operations on their parent LRUs or LLRUs, while also allowing for more extended repair operations at the backshop.\nCalibration and repair of United States Air Force test equipment is conducted at shops known as precision measurement equipment laboratories.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A shower radio is a battery-powered radio that is waterproofed to allow it to be used in a bathroom or other wet environment. More generally, a shower radio is a shower speaker with an integrated radio functionality. Some versions also include a CD player and/or a clock. Shower radios generally lack headphone jacks and AC adapter ports, which could short out or electrocute the user. For the same reason, they also tend to lack external antennas.\nThe first mass-produced shower radio was patented in 1985 by Andrew R. Mark, of Stamford, Connecticut. The product was marketed by Salton Inc. under the brand name Wet Tunes.\nThere are varying designs; some are meant to be hung from a pipe or shower rod, while others can be stuck to the wall of the shower using a suction cup or something similar. Shower radios may be analog or digital. More recently, water-powered and wind-up radio designs have been produced to completely remove the requirement for batteries, though smaller capacity rechargeable batteries are used to some extent on hand-crank devices.\nShower radios can be paired with FM transmitters since it can allow people who listen to their iPod or similar to be able to enjoy their favorite album or playlist while protecting their iPod, smartphone or other portable media player in a dry environment not too far from a shower.  For this reason, most portable media players aren't water-resistant enough to be used in showers, sometimes FM transmitters can be used with desktop computers and laptop computers in a room not too far from the bathroom paired with an FM transmitter, though bluetooth serves a somewhat similar purpose for other shower radios that support bluetooth.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SIGMA is an electronic verification service offered by Nielsen Media Research and is generally used for commercials, infomercials, video news releases, public service announcements, satellite media tours, and electronic press kits. \nIt operates by encoding the SIGMA encoder ID, date of encoding, and time of encoding in lines 20 and 22 of the video signal, which is outside of the area displayed on a normal television screen (this is similar to how closed captioning is transmitted). \nOn a professional video monitor with underscan capability activated or a computer display of the entire video frame, the SIGMA data will look like small, moving white lines at the top of the frame. Nielsen provides overnight reports of airplay in all television markets in the country.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A signal beam or object beam is one of at least two laser beams used to write holograms.  The signal beam is the beam that carries the information to be stored in the hologram.  In the case of a holographic picture, this beam is reflected off the object being recorded, into the media.  In the case of holographic data storage, the beam has some kind information encoded into it (for instance, it can be sent through a transparency or a spatial light modulator).\nThe other beam necessary to write a hologram is the reference beam.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A signal tracer is a piece of electronic test equipment used to troubleshoot radio and other electronic circuitry.\nUsually a very simple device, it normally provides an amplifier, and a loudspeaker, often battery-powered and packaged into a small, hand-held test probe. An optional diode detector is usually also provided, allowing the detection of amplitude-modulated signals.\nThe technician injects a test signal into the device under test. Then, by using the signal tracer, the tech can follow the signal through the various circuits of the radio receiver. So long as the signal can be heard, the circuitry up to that point is (at least minimally) functional. If the signal disappears, however, a fault can be assumed to be present in the stage of the circuit just passed.\nThe diode detector is only sensitive to amplitude modulation but even circuits that are normally used for other modulation schemes (such as FM radios) can be tested by using an AM test signal for testing the radio frequency circuits, then switching to an FM test signal (and switching out the diode detector) for testing the audio circuits of the radio.\nMore sophisticated signal tracers may display digital levels using, for example, LEDs. For long pulse trains, a cyclic redundancy check may be calculated and displayed, giving the tech insight into the content of circuits that are switching rapidly.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A silent alarm is a burglar alarm that makes no noise that is audible to the trespasser. The alarm makes an audible noise or visual notification elsewhere and notifies the police. A silent alarm may also be a panic button alarm.\nThe term still alarm is used for a fire alarm transmitted silently, usually by telephone, rather than by sounding the conventional signal or bell apparatus. Still alarms are commonly used to alert fire and medical personnel as to what type of emergency they are responding to.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Silicon Republic (domain:SiliconRepublic.com) is an Irish technology news website. It was founded by Ann O'Dea and Darren McAuliffe in 2001. It has been honored at the Irish Web Awards.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A silver\u2013cadmium battery is a type of rechargeable battery using cadmium metal as its negative terminal, silver oxide as the positive terminal, and an alkaline water-based electrolyte. It produces about 1.1 volts per cell on discharge, and about 40 watthours per kilogram specific energy density.  A silver\u2013cadmium battery provides more energy than a nickel\u2013cadmium cell of comparable weight. It has higher life cycle expectancy than silver\u2013zinc cells, but lower terminal voltage and lower energy density. However, the high cost of silver and the toxicity of cadmium restrict its applications.\nThe first silver\u2013cadmium batteries were developed by Waldemar Jungner around 1900, who used them in a demonstration electric car and whose company commercially manufactured the cells. These original cells suffered from short life, and it was not until 1941 that an improved separator material was developed to prevent migration of the silver oxide within the cell.  Renewed commercial development occurred during the 1950s, to take advantage of the better cycle life of the silver\u2013cadmium system compared to silver-zinc.  Like other silver-oxide battery systems, silver\u2013cadmium batteries have relatively flat voltage during discharge.  However, high-rate performance is not as good as for silver-zinc batteries. To preserve the operating life of cells, they may be shipped \"dry\" and the end-user adds electrolyte just before use.\nThe positive electrode is made of sintered silver powder pasted onto a silver grid as current collector; the silver oxide may be formed in a separate process or may be formed on first charging of the cell. The cadmium negative electrode is formed of a pasted grid.  Electrolytes are solutions of potassium hydroxide in water. Cells are provide with vent caps to prevent reaction of the electrolyte with carbon dioxide in the air. Theoretically as little of two grams of silver are required for each ampere-hour of capacity, but practical cells require between 3 and 3.5 grams.  Because the charging voltage is higher than the discharge voltage, the watt-hour efficiency of a silver\u2013cadmium cell is about 70%; ampere-hour efficiency is about 98%. The usual recommended charging method is constant-current charging at a 10 or 20 hour rate, (restoring the capacity of the battery over 10 or 20 hours), and cut off of charging at 1.6 volts per cell.  Cells are commercially manufactured from 2 to 2500 ampere-hours capacity, but are often customized for particular uses.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Simband is a research platform announced by Samsung Strategy and Innovation Center in 2014. It was announced on May 28, 2014, in San Francisco, in partnership with UCSF Digital Health Innovation Lab.Simband is an open developer platform consisting of a watch unit running Tizen and a wristband connector that holds a custom sensor module.\nSimband is designed to be modular and allow for different sensor modules to be installed. Samsung provides a reference implementation of a sensor module called Simsense that supports multiple sensors, each generating a unique data stream. In November 2014 Samsung announced two custom modules developed by third parties.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Single-point locking is a locking system in cabinet doors where locking takes places only at the point halfway up the edge of the door, where the latch engages with the doorjamb.  The term is most often used in items like lockers, where it is contrasted with the much more secure three-point locking, which uses movable rods to secure the top and bottom of the door when the door is locked, and the term is not normally used in situations where single-point locking is the only option normally found.\nTypically, box lockers  (that is, with 4 or more tiers) use single-point locking, unless they are ordered with three-point locking as an optional extra, whereas full-length (single-tier) lockers most often come with three-point locking as standard.  The reason for this is that, for some situations, single-point locking is considered adequately secure with smaller doors, because those are not so easy to force open than larger doors of otherwise similar design.  High-security models of tiered lockers, along with being constructed of thicker steel, may also have three-point locking, however many tiers are involved.\nIn Australia, cabinets cannot be legally used for storing firearms if they have only single-point locking - three-point locking is required by law, as part of the crackdown on gun storage after the Port Arthur massacre in Tasmania.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Sinumerik were a series of Siemens CNC (computer numerical control) control systems.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A skateboard is a type of configuration for automotive chassis, used for automotive platforms of battery electric vehicles. The skateboard chassis includes a base structure or a platform, which houses the batteries, electric motors and other electronic components fundamental to an electric vehicle. It also has removable and replaceable corner units at the wheels, into which the suspension, steering, powertrain and braking functions are embedded. \nA skateboard chassis cuts down the cost and complexity of manufacturing and production of electric vehicles, as it is a self-contained platform, with all the necessary driving and electronic components integrated into it, and which can be mounted with a variety of bodies after scaling them into various sizes. Electric vehicles are still low-volume production commodities, and this makes them expensive to fabricate or assemble. The skateboard allows an automaker to design and manufacture vehicles in several vehicle categories and body segments without engineering each one independently.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A skeleton watch is a mechanical watch in which all of the moving parts are visible through either the front of the watch, the back of the watch or a small cut outlining the dial.\nTrue 'skeletonization' also includes the trimming away of any non-essential metal on the bridge, plate, wheel train or any other mechanical part of the watch, leaving only a minimalist 'bare' skeleton of the movement required for functionality. Often, the remaining thinned movement is decorated with engraving. This can be with or without a dial face that allows the user to see through to the movement.\nDesigns also providing a glimpse of the movement but requiring less modification to the movement itself are the \u201csemi-skeleton\u201d design, with a partial cutaway of the watch face to view the workings of the movement underneath, and the \u201copen heart\u201d design, with a (usually circular) window to view the oscillation of the balance wheel, the \u201cbeating heart\u201d of the watch. The \u201copen heart\u201d design is especially common on watches with a tourbillon complication, the better to show off what is regarded as an example of watchmaking virtuosity.\nSome makers of mechanical skeleton watches and models include: \n\nAkribos\nArmitron\nBreguet\nChopard\nCorum\nInvicta watch\nFestina\nFossil\nKenneth Cole\nOris\nOrient Watch / Orient Star Watch\nPatek Philippe & Co.\nRougois\nSea-Gull\nSeiko\nSt\u00fchrling Original\nSwatch\nTao International\nTissot Le Locle", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A skip distance is the distance a radio wave travels, usually including a hop in the ionosphere.  A skip distance is a distance on the Earth's surface between the two points where radio waves from a transmitter, refracted downwards by different layers of the ionosphere, fall. It also represents how far a radio wave has travelled per hop on the Earth's surface, for radio waves such as the short wave (SW) radio signals that employ continuous reflections for transmission.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SLATES (Search, Links, Authorship, Tags, Extensions, Signalling) is an initialism that describes the business impacting capabilities, derived from the effective use of Web 2.0 technologies in and across enterprises.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A slide check is a valve used in pressurized systems that lets air out ahead of it (the destination) while keeping pressure intact from behind it (the source). Slide checks are commonly used in paintball, mostly in remote propulsion setups, to cut air off from the gun while keeping the remote pressurized. Slide checks are also useful when working with high pressure systems, such as hydro testing or audible air or CO2 leaks as you can rapidly apply pressure and release it without the frighting \"pow\" or projection of hoses with QD male {quick disconnect} fittings causing a dangerous hose whip motion.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In graphonomics, sloppiness space is a term introduced by Goldberg and Richardson to describe the shape space of all graph (handwriting) around an idealized allograph. Sloppiness space can be so large that optical character recognition becomes very difficult due to overlap with shapes for non-intended characters.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A slot antenna consists of a metal surface, usually a flat plate, with one or more holes or slots cut out. When the plate is driven as an antenna by an applied radio frequency current, the slot radiates electromagnetic waves in a way similar to a dipole antenna. The shape and size of the slot, as well as the driving frequency, determine the radiation pattern.  Slot antennas are usually used at UHF and microwave frequencies at which wavelengths are small enough that the plate and slot are conveniently small.   At these frequencies, the radio waves are often conducted by a waveguide, and the antenna consists of slots in the waveguide; this is called a slotted waveguide antenna.   Multiple slots act as a directive array antenna and can emit a narrow fan-shaped beam of microwaves.   They are used in standard laboratory microwave sources used for research, UHF television transmitting antennas, antennas on missiles and aircraft, sector antennas for cellular base stations, and particularly marine radar antennas.   A slot antenna's main advantages are its size, design simplicity, and convenient adaptation to mass production using either waveguide or PC board technology.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A slow-wave coupler is a directional coupler consisting of microstrip lines in which there is a corrugation in the inner edges of the transmission lines where the coupling takes place. The objective is to reduce the phase velocity of the odd mode of the coupled lines to match that of the even mode, and thereby to improve the isolation and directivity of the coupler.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Small Article Monitor or SAM is a monitoring device designed to screen small items of up to 50 pounds weight for radioactive contamination. It uses six plastic scintillation detectors, one each on the top, bottom, back, left and right sides of the chamber, plus one in the door. Operation of the instrument is controlled from an integral terminal. The instrument performs a self-test and acquires a new Background count each time it is powered up. It also monitors its own operation during normal use and indicates any failures. It runs continuously, updating backgrounds whenever no weight is detected inside the chamber. A new count is initiated every time a door open/door close sequence is detected.\nBecause of overall interference a Geiger counter would be rendered ineffective within the walls of a nuclear containment building for screening individual articles (i.e., clothing, tools, etc.) for specific contamination. A SAM can measure nuclear contamination of specific articles without interference from its outside environment due to the thickness of its lead casing. SAMs range in weight from 1900lbs to 3500lbs.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Smart Cells are radio access nodes that provide wireless connectivity across multiple spectrum ranges and technologies. As of January 2014, Macrocells, Small Cells, and Wi-Fi connections were the primary means of data connectivity. For these types of cells, the spectrum utilized is static and is based on the antenna installed. A Smart Cell may transmit multiple frequencies and technologies which are controlled by the software and not the hardware (antenna).\nSmart Cells are currently in the research and development stage, but support software-defined networks, which are proliferating the current mobile network structure, are being supported.It's possible that Smart Cells will lower capital and operational costs due to reduced equipment and manual manipulations needed to modify cell site coverage. The term Smart Cell is also used to identify other technologies that enhance cell sites where it has reduced the need to manually manipulate radio access equipment or add additional carriers at a radio access node.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Smart shoes is a smart footwear technology. It adopts smartphone applications to support tasks cannot be done with standard footwear. The uses shows vibrating of the smart phone to tell users when and where to turn to reach their destination via Google Maps or self-lacing.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SmartFixtures are a subset of Cyber-Physical Systems. They combine a fixture with sensors to collect data and provide feedback. Sensors and/or instrumentation embedded in the fixture are connected to a PLC or computer which apply algorithms to determine if required criteria are met i.e. Functional Testing (manufacturing).\nA SmartFixture can be a manufacturing fixture or simply a test fixture. The smart aspect is fully realised in the use of the data collected via IIoT/ Industry 4.0. Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence and other Big Data tools can be applied to perform real time analysis and predictive decision making to improve operational efficiencies.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Smartphone charging kiosks are USB-powered kiosks used for charging smartphones, power banks, and other electronic appliances. They are often found at airports and on cruise ships, but may also be found in other public areas. Some cities use them as a way to collect additional fees.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Snapask is a Hong Kong-based online learning website that offers tutoring services to the students based in Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand, Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia and Taiwan. Students could ask questions and tutors would answer them.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Social polling is a form of open access polling, which combines social media and opinion polling. In contrast to tradition polling the polls are formulated by the respondents themselves.Social polling is an example of nonprobability sampling that uses self-selection rather than a statistical sampling scheme. Social polling also allows quick feedback since responses are obtained via social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and blogs. A sentiment analytics tool can be employed to monitor the poll or the topics of discussion. This method can evaluate information obtained via social media posts through two paradigms: \"top down\" and \"bottom up\".\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A solarimeter is a pyranometer, a type of measuring device used to measure combined direct and diffuse solar radiation. An integrating solarimeter measures energy developed from solar radiation based on the absorption of heat by a black body. The principle this instrument was designed on was first developed by the Italian priest, Father Angelo Bellani. He invented the actinometric method which is based on physical and chemical techniques.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A solenoid bolt is a type of electronic-mechanical locking mechanism. This type of lock is characterized by the use of a solenoid to throw the bolt. Sophisticated solenoid bolt locks may use microprocessors to perform voltage regulation, reduce power consumption, and/or provide access control. Depending on the strength of the solenoid, some models can provide a holding force on the order of 1000 kg. A solenoid bolt can be designed either to fail open (the lock opens on power loss) or to fail closed (the device is locked upon power loss). Some models may be suitable for high-security sites.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Solid bleached board (SBB) or solid bleached sulphate (SBS) is a virgin fibre grade of paperboard.\nThis grade is made purely from bleached chemical pulp and usually has a mineral or synthetic pigment coated top surface in one or more layers (C1S) and often also a coating on the reverse side (C2S). It is a medium density board with good printing properties for graphical and packaging end uses and is perfectly white both inside and out. It can easily be cut, creased, hot foil stamped and embossed. Its other properties, such as being hygienic and pure with no smell and taste, make it usable for packaging aroma and flavour sensitive products such as chocolate, cigarettes and cosmetics.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A solid-state fan is a device used to produce an airflow with no moving parts. Such a device may use the principle of electro-aerodynamic pumping, which is based on corona discharge.\nIt has advantages over mechanical fans such as that it is noiseless and more reliable.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SON-9 (NATO reporting name Fire Can) is a type of Russian/Soviet fire director radar for 57 mm and 100 mm anti-aircraft guns.\nIt was widely employed during the Vietnam war.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SON-30 (NATO reporting name Fire Wheel) is a type of Russian/Soviet fire director radar for 130 mm anti-aircraft guns.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SON-50 (NATO reporting name Flap Wheel) is a type of Russian\\Soviet fire director radar for 57 mm anti-aircraft guns.\nIt has been widely employed during the Vietnam war.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SONAPS or Sonaps is a network TV production system by Sony. It allows planning, ingesting, editing and playouting of video material. The main focus are News programs. An essential part of Sonaps is the professional non-linear video editing system XPRI NS. Sonaps can be used with already existing network infrastructure. Standard video format is the Media Exchange Format (MXF).\nSonaps supplies an own nearline archive and interfaces to 3rd party archive systems. Through the MOS (Media Object Server) gateway it can be connected to NRCS (Newsroom Computer Systems) and other network production systems.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A sonic user interface or SUI is a human\u2013machine interface that uses sound as the medium of communication. Unlike a graphical user interface (GUI), the user is only required to speak or make sounds into a microphone or other audio input device and listen for the output on a loudspeaker, headphone set or other audio output device", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Sony Ericsson Elm (J10 and J10i2) is a cell phone released in 2010. It is a compact handset noted for its environmentally friendly features.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In general, a spacer is a solid material used to separate two parts in an assembly.  Spacers can vary in size from microns to centimeters.  They can be made of metal, plastic, glass, and other materials.  Shapes include flat sheet, cylindrical and spherical.\nA standoff is a threaded separator of defined length used to raise one part in an assembly above another. They are usually round or hex (for wrench tightening), often made of stainless steel, aluminum, brass, or nylon, and come in male-female or female-female forms. In electronics they are frequently used to raise a printed-circuit board above a surface. Insulating standoffs keep two parts from touching each other, thereby preventing electrical shorts. In some cases (e.g., D-subminiature connectors), short standoffs may be used to receive the jackscrews that lock the connection together.\nBoth Spacers and Standoffs come in Round and Hex shapes with male and female threads. Knurling on the outside surface can also be done to provide sturdier grip.In contrast, some spacers may look similar to standoffs but are unthreaded pieces of tubing which let the entire bolt pass through. Since they cannot be tightened, they are usually round.Audio visual equipment (e.g., AV amplifiers) can utilise extra space above or below their mounting in order to achieve extra cooling in the way of better airflow. AV spacers are made for this purpose.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A spar tree is the tree used as the highest anchor point in a high lead cable logging setup. The spar tree is selected based on height, location and especially strength and lack of rot in order to withstand the weight and pressure required.  Once a spar tree is selected, a climber would remove the tree's limbs and top the tree (a logging term for cutting off the top of the tree).  Block and tackle is then affixed to the tree and cabling is run.\nA \"high climber\" is the member of the logging crew who scales the tree, limbs it, and tops it.\nSelecting a tree as a spar is a particularly important task, so the strength and importance of the spar came to hold symbolic meaning for early loggers of the West.\nThe use of spar trees in logging is now rare, having been replaced since the 1970s by portable towers, called yarders, which can be erected on logging sites and moved as needed.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A spatial application is a technological application (such as video) requiring high spatial resolution, possibly at the expense of reduced temporal positioning accuracy, such as increased jerkiness. \nExamples of spatial applications include the requirement to display small characters and to resolve fine detail in still video, or in motion video that contains very limited motion.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "No longer active as of Spring 2004, the Spatial Imaging Group at the MIT Media Lab developed new technology and interfaces for high-quality 3D displays. \nThe lab's research included: designing new hologram formats and optical printers; electro-holographic displays and methods for computing holograms; spatial interaction and information design; rapid rendering for spatial displays; and viewer-tracked autostereoscopic displays.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In neuroimaging, spatial normalization is an image processing step, more specifically an image registration method.  Human brains differ in size and shape, and one goal of spatial normalization is to deform human brain scans so one location in one subject's brain scan corresponds to the same location in another subject's brain scan.\nIt is often performed in research-based functional neuroimaging where one wants to find common brain activation across multiple human subjects. \nThe brain scan can be obtained from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or positron emission tomography (PET) scanners.\nThere are two steps in the spatial normalization process: \n\nSpecification/estimation of warp-field\nApplication of warp-field with resamplingThe estimation of the warp-field can be performed in one modality, e.g., MRI, and be applied in another modality, e.g., PET, if MRI and PET scans exist for the same subject and they are coregistered.\nSpatial normalization typically employs a 3-dimensional nonrigid transformation model (a \"warp-field\") for warping a brain scan to a template.\nThe warp-field might be parametrized by basis functions such as cosine and polynomia.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A specification tree shows all specifications of a technical system under development in a hierarchical order.\nFor a spacecraft system it has the following levels:\n\nSystem (requirements) specification - generated by customer\nSystem (design to) specification - generated by system responsible prime contractor\nSubsystem specifications - generated by system responsible prime contractor\nAssembly specifications - generated by subsystem responsible contractors\nUnit specifications - generated by subsystem (or assembly) responsible contractors.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Specsmanship is the use of specifications or measurement results to suggest or establish putative superiority of one entity over, especially when it is inappropriate. It is commonly found in advertising of high fidelity audio equipment, automobiles, digital cameras, electronic display devices, and other merchandise. \nSpecsmanship may identify some numerical figure of merit upon which to base pride or derision, whether or not it is relevant to actual use of the device.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Speech technology relates to the technologies designed to duplicate and respond to the human voice. They have many uses. These include aid to the voice-disabled, the hearing-disabled, and the blind, along with communication with computers without a keyboard. They enhance game software and aid in marketing goods or services by telephone.\nThe subject includes several subfields:\n\nSpeech synthesis\nSpeech recognition\nSpeaker recognition\nSpeaker verification\nSpeech encoding\nMultimodal interaction", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A spherical plain bearing is a bearing that permits angular rotation about a central point in two orthogonal directions (usually within a specified angular limit based on the bearing geometry). Typically these bearings support a rotating shaft in the bore of the inner ring that must move not only rotationally, but also at an angle. \nSelf-aligning spherical bearings were first used by James Nasmyth around 1840 to support line shaft bearings in mills and machine shops. For long shafts it was impossible to accurately align bearings, even if the shaft was perfectly straight. Nasmyth used brass bearing shells between hemispherical brass cups to align the bearings to self-align.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Spider wrap is a type of security device used by many retailers. It is a wired alarm that is attached to products to prevent theft. If the wire is cut, the alarm sounds.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Spin casting is a technique for constructing large parabolic mirrors by using the curved surface formed by a rotating liquid (e.g. in a rotating furnace).  It is distinct from the spin casting or centrifugal rubber mold casting (CRMC) technique used for casting metal or plastics.\nPioneered by Roger Angel at the Steward Observatory's mirror lab, this makes large (8.4 metres or 28 feet) thin parabolic mirrors by spinning the oven as the glass is melted and cooled.\nThe term is applied to the fabrication of large telescope mirrors, where the natural paraboloid curve followed by the molten glass greatly reduces the amount of grinding required. Rather than being cast by pouring glass into a mold (with top and bottom), an entire turntable containing the peripheral mold, and the back pattern (a honeycomb pattern to lighten the finished product) is contained within a furnace and charged with the glass material used. The assembly (or rotating furnace) is then heated while spun at slow speed until the glass is liquid, then gradually cooled over a period of months.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In computing, a split screen is a display technique in computer graphics that consists of dividing graphics and/or text into adjacent (and possibly overlapping) parts, typically as two or four rectangular areas.  While simple horizontal split or vertical split resembles a presentation technique used in movies and on television here it is not merely done in order to allow the simultaneous presentation of (usually) related graphical and textual information on a computer display.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Split-fount inking also known as Split-fountain inking is a printing technique which allows for subtle gradations of multiple colors without the use of more complex and costly methods such as color separation.\nIn order to achieve these effects, an ink tray normally intended to receive a single color of ink is instead carefully loaded with two or more separate colors, which then bleed together when applied to the rollers, dynamically creating continuous ranges of hue transitioning from one to the other of the originally applied colors.In use from at least as early as the 1870s, the technique was notably used in the 1960s by poster creators such as underground comic artist Gilbert Shelton, who designed posters for a music venue in Austin, Texas called The Vulcan Gas Company. The rainbow-like gradients and vivid swirls of color achievable via split-fount inking were effects that matched well with the psychedelic aesthetic of these works.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SplitFire was a company that manufactured a spark plug featuring a split ground electrode. SplitFire claimed that its \"V\" electrode design improved combustion by allowing the ignited flame to pass through the gap in the electrode, instead of around it.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The spurline is a type of radio-frequency and microwave distributed element filter with band-stop (notch) characteristics, most commonly used with microstrip transmission lines. Spurlines usually exhibit moderate to narrow-band rejection, at about 10% around the central frequency.\nSpurline filters are very convenient for dense integrated circuits because of their inherently compact design and ease of integration: they occupy surface that corresponds only to a quarter-wavelength transmission line.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In a phased array or slotted waveguide antenna, squint refers to the angle that the transmission is offset from the normal of the plane of the antenna. In simple terms, it is the change in the beam direction as a function of operating frequency, polarization, or orientation. It is an important phenomenon that can limit the bandwidth in phased array antenna systems.This deflection can be caused by:\n\nSignal frequency\nSignals in a waveguide travel at a speed that varies with frequency and the dimensions of the waveguide.In a phased array or slotted waveguide antenna, the signal is designed to reach the outputs in a given phase relationship. This can be accomplished for any single frequency by properly adjusting the length of each waveguide so the signals arrive in-phase. However, if a different frequency is sent into the feeds, they will arrive at the ends at different times, the phase relationship will not be maintained, and squint will result.\nFrequency-dependant phase shifting of the elements of the array can be used to compensate for the squint, which leads to the concept of a squintless antenna or feed.\nDesign\nIn some cases the antenna may be designed to create a squint. For example, an antenna which is used to communicate with a satellite but must remain in a vertical configuration. Squint is also required in conical scanning.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "French SSUTR2 (Syst\u00e8me de signalisation par canal s\u00e9maphore CCITT no.7) is the French national variant of the Telephone User Part (TUP).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Stable Image Platform Program or Stable IT Platform Program is the name of an initiative introduced by Intel. The idea is that a pre-configured disk image will work on any of the certified hardware combinations. Intel states the program guarantees \"At least 12 months of Deployment for Image Compatible Platforms.\"Intel's main competitor, AMD, later introduced a similar program.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Standard Test Data Format (STDF) is a proprietary file format for semiconductor test information originally developed by Teradyne, but it is now a de facto standard widely used throughout the semiconductor industry. It is a commonly used format produced by automatic test equipment (ATE) platforms from companies such as Cohu, Roos Instruments, Teradyne, Advantest, and others.\nSTDF is a binary format, but can be converted either to an ASCII format known as ATDF or to a tab delimited text file. Decoding the STDF variable length binary field data format to extract ASCII text is non-trivial as it involves a detailed comprehension of the STDF specification, the current (2007) version 4 specification being over 100 pages in length. Software tools exist for processing STDF generated files and performing statistical analysis on a population of tested devices.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A star coupler is a device that takes in an input signal and splits it into several output signals.\nIn fiber optics, and especially in telecommunications, a star coupler is a passive optical device, used in network applications. An optical signal introduced into any input port is distributed to all output ports. Because of the way a passive star coupler is constructed, the number of ports is usually a power of 2; i.e., two input ports and two output ports (a \"two-port\" coupler, customarily called a directional coupler, or splitter ); four input ports and four output ports (a \"four-port\" coupler); eight input ports and eight output ports (an \"eight-port\" coupler), etc.\nDigital Equipment Corporation (now part of Hewlett-Packard) of Maynard, Massachusetts sold a star coupler which interconnected links to computers via coaxial cable rather than optical fibres, but the function was essentially the same. The signal that was distributed was 70 Mbit/s computer interconnect (CI) data and the star coupler provided two redundant paths of either 8 or 16 ports each. Digital's star coupler was developed for use with the VAX- and later Alpha-based computers running Digital's OpenVMS operating system, to provide a passive, highly reliable interconnect for Digital's cluster technology.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "StarChase is the trade name of a less-than-lethal vehicle tagging system developed early in 2006 to tag, track and locate a fleeing vehicle of interest to police. Its components consist of an electronic tag in the form of a small, cylindrical projectile with the end covered in a viscous, industrial strength adhesive, which contains a battery-operated GPS tracker and Quad-Band transmitter (powered by a 1300 mAh dry cell), fired by compressed air from a small launcher on the front grille of a police car. In 2022,  the system was available in more than thirty states, and  Canada, and cost $5,000 to install, each bullet costing $500. The system was developed to reduce the need for, and the inherent danger of high speed pursuits.\nUpon deployment to a target vehicle, the tag begins broadcasting its position to the dispatch center. Catching the vehicle, even without air support, now becomes a matter of strategic interdiction, rather than mere pursuit and interception.\nThe StarChase system, as of mid-2013 was in use by the Arizona Department of Public Safety, Los Angeles Sheriff's Department, Austin Police Department, and numerous other agencies all over the world, such as the Ontario Provincial Police.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A startup winding, also known as the auxiliary winding, is used to create the torque needed to start a single phase induction motor.\nThis winding creates the rotating magnetic field in this type of motor by changing the relationship of the current in relation to the voltage.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A status message is a function of some instant messaging applications whereby a user may post a message that appears automatically to other users if they attempt to make contact.  A status message can tell other contacts the user's current status, such as being busy or what the user is currently doing.  It is analogous to the voice message in an answering machine or voice mail system.  However, status messages may be displayed even if the person is present.  They are often updated much more frequently than messages in answering machines, and thus may serve as a means of instant, limited \"publication\" or indirect communication.\nGenerally Available status is denoted by a green dot   while the busy status is denoted by a red dot  on most of the Instant Messengers\nWhereas answering machine or voice mail messages often have a generic greeting to leave a message, status messages more often contain a description of where the person is at the moment or what they are doing. Because most instant messaging clients indicate to users when their online contacts are away before they send a message, more often than not away messages are meant to be read in lieu of sending a message, rather than a response.  Away messages are not to be confused with idle messages, which is an automatic reply to a message when the messaging client has determined that the replier is not at his or her computer.\nIn the XMPP protocol for instant messaging, the status of a user is signalled by an element called presence.  This provides a variety of functions, including the option to subscribe to the status so that the recipient is continuously updated with changes in status.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A steam rupture occurs within a pressurized system of super critical water when the pressure exceeds the design plus safety margin specification.  A steam rupture can occur in any high temperature pressurized system, including, but not limited to:  automobile cooling systems, stationary power plants, mobile power plants, steam driven tools (such as some trip hammers), and even the delivery systems for application processes such as cleaning and fabric fullering.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A steam separator, sometimes referred to as a moisture separator or steam drier, is a device for separating water droplets from steam.  The simplest type of steam separator is the steam dome on a steam locomotive.  Stationary boilers and nuclear reactors may have more complex devices which impart a \"spin\" to the steam so that water droplets are thrown outwards by centrifugal force and collected. All separators require steam traps to collect the water droplets that they remove.\nIt is important to remove water droplets from steam because:\n\nIn all engines, wet steam reduces the thermal efficiency\nIn piston engines, water can accumulate in the cylinders and cause a hydraulic lock which will damage the engine\nIn thermal power stations, water droplets in high velocity steam coming from nozzles (or vanes) in a steam turbine can impinge on and erode turbine internals such as turbine blades.\nIn other steam-using industrial machinery, water can accumulate in piping and cause steam hammer: a form of water hammer caused by water build up 'plugging' a pipe then being accelerated by the steam flowing through the pipe until it reaches a sharp bend and results in catastrophic failure of the pipe.Steam drier is also sometimes applied to a drier which operates as a low-temperature superheater, adding heat to the steam.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A strained quantum well laser is a type of quantum-well laser, which was invented by Professor Alf Adams at the University of Surrey in 1986. The laser is distinctive for producing a more concentrated beam than other quantum well lasers, making it considerably more efficient. The lasers are notable for usage in CD, DVD, and Blu-Ray drives as well as applications in supermarket barcode readers and telephone optical transmission.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Strong consistency is one of the consistency models used in the domain of concurrent programming (e.g., in distributed shared memory, distributed transactions).\nThe protocol is said to support strong consistency if:\n\nAll accesses are seen by all parallel processes (or nodes, processors, etc.) in the same order (sequentially)Therefore, only one consistent state can be observed, as opposed to weak consistency, where different parallel processes (or nodes, etc.) can perceive variables in different states.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Structured light is the process of projecting a known pattern (often grids or horizontal bars) on to a scene. The way that these deform when striking surfaces allows vision systems to calculate the depth and surface information of the objects in the scene, as used in structured light 3D scanners.\nInvisible (or imperceptible) structured light uses structured light without interfering with other computer vision tasks for which the projected pattern will be confusing. Example methods include the use of infrared light or of extremely high frame rates alternating between two exact opposite patterns.\nStructured light is used by a number of police forces for the purpose of photographing fingerprints in a 3D scene. Where previously they would use tape to extract the fingerprint and flatten it out, they can now use cameras and flatten the fingerprint digitally, which allows the process of identification to begin before the officer has even left the scene.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Substrate is a term used in materials science and engineering to describe the base material on which processing is conducted. This surface could be used to produce new film or layers of material such as deposited coatings.  It could be the base to which paint, adhesives, or adhesive tape is bonded.\nA typical substrate might be rigid such as metal, concrete, or glass, onto which a coating might be deposited.  Flexible substrates are also used.\nWith all coating processes, the condition of the surface of the substrate can strongly affect the bond of subsequent layers.  This can include cleanliness, smoothness, surface energy, moisture, etc.  Some substrates are anisotropic with surface properties being different depending on the direction: examples include wood and paper products.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A surface search radar, sometimes more accurately known as a sea-surface search radar or naval surveillance radar, is a type of military radar intended primarily to locate objects on the surface of lakes and oceans. Part of almost every modern naval ship, they are also widely used on maritime patrol aircraft and naval helicopters. When mounted on an aircraft, they are sometimes known by the British terminology, Air-to-Surface Vessel radar, or ASV for short. Similar radars are also widely used on civilian ships and even small pleasure craft, in which case they are more commonly known as marine radar.\nAs with conventional surveillance radars, these systems detect objects by listening for the reflections of a radio signal off target objects, especially metal. The range of a surface search radar is greatly increased compared to other roles due to several aspects of the sea surfaces and the objects in it. In low sea states, water makes an excellent reflector for radio signals, which helps maximize the signal strength as reflections off the water strike the targets in addition to the line-of-sight signal. Additionally, as the sides of ships generally rise vertically from the surface, they form partial corner cubes which increases the returned signal.\nOffsetting these advantages is the fact that in higher sea states, large waves also create the same signals, making radar clutter a significant problem. A considerable amount of research into clutter reduction was applied to the naval market.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "SWEEPNIK was a device designed by Otto Frisch that used a sweeping laser to follow bubble chamber tracks. It was later used to follow roads as an aid to the digitisation of maps.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In electronics, a synchronous detector is a device that recovers information from a modulated signal by mixing the signal with a replica of the un-modulated carrier.  This can be locally generated at the receiver using a phase-locked loop or other techniques. Synchronous detection preserves any phase information originally present in the modulating signal. With the exception of SECAM receivers, synchronous detection is a necessary component of any analog color television receiver, where it allows recovery of the phase information that conveys hue. Synchronous detectors are also found in some shortwave radio receivers used for audio signals, where they provide better performance on signals that may be affected by fading.\nTo recover baseband signal the synchronous detection technique is used.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Synthetic-music mobile application format, abbreviated SMAF, is a music data format specified by Yamaha for portable electronic devices, such as cell phones and PDAs. The file extension for SMAF is .MMF and is common as ringtones for mobile phones with one of five sound chips.\nSMAF resembles MIDI, but also supports graphics and PCM sound playback. Its MIDI playback is produced via FM synthesis or PCM sample-based synthesis, where instrument data (parameters and/or PCM samples) is stored within the .MMF file itself, similar to module files. This enables users to create custom instruments, which will sound exactly the same on devices with the same chip.\nThe feature set used in SMAF files usually orients itself at the chips produced by Yamaha for playback:", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Synthetic-aperture magnetometry (SAM) is a method for analysis of data obtained from magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG). SAM is a nonlinear beamforming approach which can be thought of as a spatial filter.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A systemic shock is a shock to any system that perturbs a system enough to drive it out of equilibrium.   Systemic shocks occur in a wide range of fields, ranging from medicine (see shock), ecology, economics to engineering.  Designers of systems usually desire their systems to be able to withstand or recover from foreseeable system shocks; therefore, many systems are designed with mechanisms in place to restore an equilibrium state.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "T.192 is a technical standard, for cooperative document handling, including joint synchronous editing and joint document presentation/viewing published in 1998, it was developed by the Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T). The standard builds upon the Open Document Architecture by expanding it to enable joined document editing.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Talkback, or in-ear talkback, is a device used by directors and producers to talk directly to the anchor or the host of the show. This device enables the show directors to send out commands, instructions, content information and even the complete script to the anchors or hosts of the show. Talkback consists of an earpiece made of silicon or foam bud that sits just inside the left or right ear, attached to a curly or straight acoustic tube that goes around and behind the ear, then down the back of the neck to a wireless receiver. There is an optional collar clip to hold the cable in place, and hair/clothing can be used to hide the kit as much as possible. The volume of the speech coming through the earpiece can be adjusted. The wireless receiver gets signals from a transmitter. An audio mixer placed in production control rooms (PCR) would be wired to the transmitter. The input for the audio mixer would come from a microphone in which the director speaks and sends out information. This information is carried to the talkback and the host follows the instruction.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Tamil 99 is a keyboard layout approved by the Tamil Nadu Government. The layout, along with several monolingual and bilingual fonts for use with the Tamil language, was approved by government order on 13 June 1999. \nDesigned for use with a normal QWERTY keyboard, typing follows a consonant-vowel pattern.  The arrangement of the characters allow for fast and simple typing for users familiar with the script.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Tasty Bits from the Technology Front, abbreviated TBTF, was an e-mail and web-based technology newsletter written by Keith Dawson between 1994 and 2000. An associated weblog ran until 2002.\nThe newsletter included various regular features such as the Jargon Scout, edited by Dawson, which attempted to spot and catalog technology-related neologisms and, to some extent, invent them. Another popular feature was Siliconia, an early attempt (begun in 1995) to document the geographic locations that were attempting to brand themselves \"Silicon <Something>\" in order to ride the coattails of Silicon Valley. Dawson was interviewed about the Siliconia trend for stories in Wired magazine, the Washington Post, the New York Times, and many other outlets.\nDawson was named Internet Freedom's Internet Journalist of the Year in 1999, and TBTF was listed among Forbes.com's Best of the Web for the year 2000.The Roving Reporter, aka Ted Byfield, covered the development of ICANN during its early days.\nKeith Dawson was a guest speaker at the First (and only) Annual Geek Pride Festival in Boston.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Tech in Asia is a Singapore- and Jakarta-based technology news website covering topics on startups and innovation in Asia. It has hosted annual conferences across the continent primarily in Singapore, Tokyo, and Jakarta since 2012. It was backed by Facebook co-founder Eduardo Saverin in 2015.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Tech LadyMafia is a membership-based group of women in technology founded in 2011 by Aminatou Sow and Erie Meyer. The group was founded in part to increase visibility of women working in technology in response to popular articles about the lack of gender diversity.The group aims to encourage women to share and express ideas using current technologies. Its mailing lists have over 2,000 members; they are used for asking advice, posting and finding jobs, and a \"brag\" list for sharing successes. The group also organizes in-person events, including networking meetups and technical trainings.Sow moderates discussions on gender using the group as her platform.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "TechEye is a British technology news and opinion website. It was founded by Mike Magee, James Crowley, and Allan Rutherford in January 2010.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A technical failure is an (unwanted) error of technology based systems.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Technological escalation describes the situation where two parties in competition tend to employ continual technological improvements in their attempt to defeat each other.  Technology is defined here as a creative invention, either in the form of an object or a methodology. An example is the mutual escalation seen between e-mail spammers and the programmers of spam filters and other anti-spam techniques. Although escalation is usually meant negatively, if two companies are in an escalating competition to produce the best widget, the consumer benefits because they get a choice between better and better widgets.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Technology Aware Design (TAD) is a research program that started in 2001 at IMEC (an international research & development organization), located at Leuven, in Belgium. It anticipates the end of the traditional \"happy scaling\" paradigm, where CMOS technology and CMOS design evolved on formally separate tracks, the interface between the two being standard cell, or SPICE compact models (see transistor models for circuit design).Today, both sides (design and technology) are confronted with the need to understand the other in order to overcome new scaling induced issues. The TAD program pursues analysis and solutions for these scaling induced problems.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Technology Centre of New Jersey is a  science park in North Brunswick Township, New Jersey, United States, established by the New Jersey Economic Development Authority as a high technology business incubator. It can accommodate individual research and laboratory facilities up to 60,000 square feet (5,600 m2), complete with clean rooms and wet labs.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Telegoniometer (a type of goniometer) is a device for varying the phase relationship(s) among two or more antennae in an array.  This is for steering the directionality of the array without physically moving the antennae. the telegoniometer is commonly used for radio direction finding, providing very precise bearings from a sensitive fixed site.\nA telegoniometer is simply a goniometer with remote control and readout.  As an example, it is used on unmanned spacecraft for the long-range approach phase of automated docking, before more precise (but shorter-range) optical systems take over.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Telexistence is fundamentally a concept named for the general technology that enables a human being to have a real-time sensation of being at a place other than where they actually exist, and being able to interact with the remote environment, which may be real, virtual, or a combination of both. It also refers to an advanced type of teleoperation system that enables an operator at the control to perform remote tasks dexterously with the feeling of existing in a surrogate robot working in a remote environment. Telexistence in the real environment through a virtual environment is also possible. This concept was first proposed by Susumu Tachi in Japan in 1980 and 1981 as patents and the first report was published in Japanese in 1982 and in English in 1984.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Telelocator Alphanumeric Protocol (TAP) is an industry-standard protocol for sending short messages via a land-line modem to a provider of pager and/or SMS services, for onward transmission to pagers and mobile phones.TAP, initially known as Motorola Page Entry (PET) was adopted in September 1988, by the Personal Communication Industry Association.  TAP defines an industry standard for sending alphanumeric messages to pagers.\nTAP was also known as IXO protocol.  Originally, devices like the IXO Device were used to send Alphanumeric Pages using TAP.  Later, Motorola would create a similar device called the AlphaMate.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A tether is a cord, fixture, or flexible attachment that characteristically anchors something movable to something fixed; it also maybe used to connect two movable objects, such as an item being towed by its tow.\nApplications for tethers include: fall arrest systems, lanyards, balloons, kites, airborne wind-power systems, anchors, floating water power systems, towing, animal constraint, space walks, power kiteing, and anti-theft devices.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "TetraKO is a fire suppression agent marketed by EarthClean Corporation, based in South St. Paul, Minnesota. It takes the form of a white powder, which is intended to be mixed with water and sprayed on structures or foliage using unmodified firefighting equipment, up to a day in advance of a wildfire.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "TeuxDeux is a Web and iPhone based task management application produced by a collaboration between Swissmiss and Fictive Kin. According to PC World the visual layout of the application facilitates the Getting Things Done system of task management. The application is considered notably useful by Lifehacker and Gizmodo.According to the developer's website, the backend of the app is written in Ruby, with Sinatra serving pages and Grape delivering the API. The front end is built on Spine.js.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Theranautilus, is an Indian private, deep-tech, nanotechnology and healthcare company, headquartered in Bangalore, India. The company was established in 2020. The company was initially a lab spin-off from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. Theranautilus\u2019s device can be used to guide the nanorobots to their targets deep inside the dentinal tubules. Once the nanorobots reach the bacterial infestation site, they can be remotely activated to deploy their antibacterial mechanism. This novel solution minimizes root canal failure, which currently afflicts up to 14-16% of the millions of root canal treatment procedures performed every year globally.\nThey were awarded the National award under Technology Start-up category by the Government of India.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Thermal lag describes a body's temperature with respect to time as a result of its thermal mass. A body with high thermal mass (high heat capacity and low conductivity) will have a large thermal lag.\n\n  \n    \n      \n        T\n        h\n        e\n        r\n        m\n        a\n        l\n         \n        l\n        a\n        g\n        (\n        s\n        )\n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                1\n                \n                  2\n                  \u2217\n                  \u03b1\n                  \u2217\n                  \u03a9\n                \n              \n            \n          \n          \u2217\n          L\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle Thermal\\ lag(s)={{\\sqrt {1 \\over {2*\\alpha *\\Omega }}}*L}}\n  \u03b1 = Thermal diffusivity (m2/s)\n\u03a9 = External angular frequency (s\u22121)\nL = thickness (m)", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A thermodynamic solar panel is a type of air source heat pump. Instead of a large fan to take energy from the air, it has a flat plate collector. This means the system gains energy from the sun as well as the ambient air. Thermodynamic water heaters use a compressor to transfer the collected heat from the panel to the hot water system using refrigerant fluid that circulates in a closed cycle.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The thermomechanical cuttings cleaner (TCC) is a patented technology mainly used by service providers in the oil and gas industry to separate and recover the components of oil-contaminated drilling waste. A TCC converts kinetic energy to thermal energy in a thermal desorption process which efficiently transforms drilling waste into re-usable products.  Using kinetic energy instead of indirect heating allows for very short retention times and as a consequence the quality of the separated components is not affected by the treatment. Thus the recovered water, base oil and solids can be re-used after the treatment process.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "ThunderLink is a legacy expansion adapter for the Thunderbolt computer bus interface, which added support for SAS, SATA, fibre optic and Ethernet interfaces. \nThe adapter could support throughput speeds of up to 10Gb/s.ATTO Technology ThunderLink devices were a purpose built Thunderbolt product designed to connect virtualized Mac hardware to 16Gb and 8Gb Fibre Channel storage solutions within VMware VSphere environments. \nThis provided a solution for Apple technologies application development and testing environments, virtual desktop infrastructure and cloud hosting or shared private cloud.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Texas Instruments TI-35 was a series of scientific calculators by Texas Instruments. The original TI-35 was notable for being one of Texas Instruments' first use of CMOS controller chips in their designs, and was at the time distinguished from the lower-end TI-30 line by the addition of some statistics functions.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Ticket-in, ticket-out (TITO) is a technology used in more modern slot machines. It was originally developed circa 1992 by MGM Corporation who purchased technology from a Las Vegas firm Five Star Solutions as well as barcode ticket printing technology from Jon Yarbrough before his VGT success. They also worked with Pat Greene an inventor in Boston of Triad Company who held a patent on a Bill Validator which could read bar coded tickets as well as accept cash.  MGM created a consortium of game manufacturers and developed a protocol for its custom Universal Interface Board \"UIB\" based on a derivative of Bally Gaming's SDS System. They contracted local firm Applied Computer Technology, Inc. to develop the UIB, its firmware, and also facilitate the organization of the consortium. Later IGT acquired the rights to the TITO patents from MGM and began to modify their own protocol called SAS to implement TITO. It is incorrectly maintained that IGT developed TITO and Bally's Easy Pay which came out many years later.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The tilt test is a type of safety test that certain government vehicle certification bodies require new vehicle designs to pass before being allowed on the road or rail track.\nThe test is an assessment of the weight distribution and hence the position of the centre of gravity of the vehicle, and can be carried out in a laden or unladen state, i.e. with or without passengers or freight. The test can be applied to automobiles, trucks, buses and rail vehicles.\nThe test involves tilting the vehicle in the notional direction of the side of the vehicle, on a movable platform. In order to pass the test, the vehicle must not tip over before a specified angle of tilt is reached by the table.\nIn the United Kingdom, double-decker buses have to: \"be capable of leaning, fully laden on top, at an angle of 28 deg without toppling over before they are allowed on the road.\"The same 28-degree requirement is in place in Hong Kong for double-decker buses. For single-deckers the requirement is 35 degrees.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A time lock (also timelock) is a part of a locking mechanism commonly found in bank vaults and other high-security containers. The time lock is a timer designed to prevent the opening of the safe or vault until it reaches the preset time, even if the correct lock combination(s) are known.\nTime locks are mounted on the inside of a safe's or vault's door. Usually there are three time locks on a door. The first one to reach 0 will allow access in to the vault; the other two are for backup purposes.\nTime locks were originally created to prevent criminals from kidnapping and torturing the person(s) who knows the combination, and then using the extracted information to later burgle the safe or vault, or to stop entry by authorized staff at unauthorized times.\nAn early test of their effectiveness came on May 29, 1875 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, when a gang of robbers took the family of banker Frederick N. Deland hostage, demanding that he open the vault of the Grand Mahawie Bank. They were thwarted by a time lock which had been installed only a few days earlier, and left without harming the captives.Modern electronic time locks have some functions not available to mechanical time locks, like resettable timers and pre-set times to activate.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A time-delay combination lock is most commonly a digital, electronic combination lock equipped with a delay timer that delays the unlocking of the lock by a user-definable delay period, usually less than one hour.  Unlike the time lock, which unlocks at a preset time (as in the case of a bank vault), time-delay locks operate each time the safe is unlocked, but the operator must wait for the set delay period to elapse before the lock can be opened. Time delay safes are most commonly used in businesses with high cash transactions. They are used in some banks including Nationwide, HSBC, Barclays, and Halifax.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Time-hopping (TH) is a communications signal technique which can be used to achieve anti-jamming (AJ) or low probability of intercept (LPI). It can also refer to pulse-position modulation, which in its simplest form employs 2k discrete pulses (referring to the unique positions of the pulse within the transmission window) to transmit k bit(s) per pulse.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The three-dimensional elastic constants of materials can be measured using the ultrasonic immersion method. This was pioneered by Zimmer and Cost from the National Physical Laboratory in the 1960s. It has mainly been used for polymer composite materials. Knowledge of the elastic constants can be used to feed back into models of the material's behaviour or that of the composite manufacturing process used.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Time-resolved photon emission (TRPE) is used to measure timing waveforms on semiconductor devices. TRPE measurements are performed on the back side of the semiconductor device. The substrate of the device-under-test (DUT) must first be thinned mechanically. The device is mounted on a movable X-Y stage in an enclosure which shields it from all sources of light. The DUT is connected to an active electrical stimulus. The stimulus pattern is continuously looped and a trigger signal is sent to the TRPE instrument in order to tell it when the pattern repeats. A TRPE prober operates in a manner similar to a sampling oscilloscope, and is used to perform semiconductor failure analysis.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A Toepler pump is a form of mercury piston pump, invented by August Toepler in 1850.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A torsion box consists of two thin layers of material (skins) on either side of a lightweight core, usually a grid of beams. It is designed to resist torsion under an applied load. A hollow core door is probably the most common example of a torsion box (stressed skin) structure. The principle is to use less material more efficiently. The torsion box uses the properties of its thin surfaces to carry the imposed loads primarily through tension while the close proximity of the enclosed core material compensates for the tendency of the opposite side to buckle under compression.\nTorsion boxes are used in the construction of structural insulated panels for houses, wooden tables and doors, skis, snowboards, and airframes - especially wings and vertical stabilizers.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In the textile industry, a tow (or hards) is a coarse, broken fibre, removed during processing flax, hemp, or jute and separated from the shives. Flax tows are often used as upholstery stuffing and oakum. Tows in general are frequently cut up to produce staple fibre.  The very light color of flax tow is the source of the word \"towhead\", meaning a person with naturally light blonde hair.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A towing sock or wire rope puller is a device that connects to the end of a cable, such as a power cable, in order to pull it through a tube or tunnel. It works by tightening around the cable when pulled, in the same manner as a Chinese finger trap. The towing sock is tubular and made of braided cable, open at one end and closed at the other where it connects to a tow line using an eye splice.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In radar technology and similar fields, track-before-detect (TBD) is a concept according to which a signal is tracked before declaring it a target. In this approach, the sensor data about a tentative target are integrated over time and may yield detection in cases when signals from any particular time instance  are too weak against clutter (low signal-to-noise ratio) to register a detected target.The TBD approach may be applied both for pure detection when the tentative target displays a very small amount of apparent motion, as well as for actual motion tracking. In the first case the problem is considerably simpler, both in terms of the amount of calculation and the complexity of algorithms.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A treadle (from Old English: tredan, \"to tread\") is a mechanism operated with a pedal for converting reciprocating motion into rotating motion. Along with cranks, treadmills, and treadwheels, treadles allow human and animal machine power in the absence of electricity.\nBefore the widespread availability of electric power, treadles were widely used to power a range of machines. They may still be used as a matter of preference or in environments where electric power is not available.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A trellis is a graph whose nodes are ordered into vertical slices (time) with each node at each time connected to at least one node at an earlier and at least one node at a later time. The earliest and latest times in the trellis have only one node. \nTrellises are used in encoders and decoders for communication theory and encryption. They are also the central datatype used in Baum\u2013Welch algorithm or the Viterbi Algorithm for Hidden Markov Models.\nThe trellis graph is named for its similar appearance to an architectural trellis.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Tribochromism refers to a change in colour of a material caused by mechanical friction.\nTribochromatic materials are used when friction has to be detected.  These materials generally change colour under mechanical stress conditions and then the colour gradually fades once the stress is removed.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "TRUST (Train Running Under System TOPS) is a Network Rail computer system used for monitoring the progress of trains and tracking delays on Great Britain's rail network. It compares actual train movement events with those planned, allowing delays to be recorded with explanations as to the cause allowing the operation of an incentive scheme to reduce delays.TRUST is used to record when a train passes a measuring point, which can be used to identify delays, and the cause of the delays. It is based on the TOPS mainframe-based computer system. TRUST data is part of Network Rail's open data feed and is used by Realtime Trains as a source for train movements and cancellations. A similar computer system is Darwin, from the Rail Delivery Group.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The TT1650 is a direct-drive turntable manufactured by Numark. [1]", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A tube caddy or tube carrying case is a type of carrying case used for storing and transporting vacuum tubes. They were carried by repair technicians who performed home service calls in the days when radios and television sets were too large and heavy for the average homeowner to bring to a repair shop.Caddies varied in size and shape, some resembling large briefcases with others resembling tool chests with drawers on the front. Typically they would have rows of square compartments that fit the individually boxed tubes, and often had larger compartments for other components or tools. Most of the space in the caddies was afforded to vacuum tubes (gas-filled tubes were also kept as needed) as most repairs could be effected with the replacement of tubes, with them being some of the few active components in electronic equipment of the time and often being made of glass with sensitive seals they were most likely to break, and were installed in sockets from which they were easy to remove. Some cases were available with built-in tube testers.The use of tube caddies, along with home visits from repairmen, declined with the use of vacuum tubes themselves as televisions and radios became smaller and cheaper, eliminating a need for repair diagnoses from technicians.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A tunnel finisher is a machine that removes wrinkles from garments and is often used in the textile industry. As with other industrial pressing equipment, this machine is employed to improve the quality and look of a textile product. It has a chamber called a \"tunnel\" and includes a conveyor fed unit through which the garments are steamed and dried. The machine also features hook systems; air curtain entrance to eliminate moisture or condensation; cotton care and roller units; exhaust steam, and a preconditioning module.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Sinclair TV80, also known as the Flat Screen Pocket TV or FTV1, was a pocket television released by Sinclair Research in September 1983. Unlike Sinclair's earlier attempts at a portable television, the TV80 used a flat CRT with a side-mounted electron gun instead of a conventional CRT; the picture was made to appear larger than it was by the use of a Fresnel lens. It was a commercial failure, and did not recoup the \u00a34m it cost to develop; only 15,000 units were sold. New Scientist warned that the technology used by the device would be short-lived, in view of the liquid crystal display technology being developed by Casio.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Twine is a stand-alone device that uses sensors to detect parts of its environment and that connects to a Wi-Fi network to communicate. Rules loaded into the Twine can test for sensor conditions and, based on logic, send messages through email or SMS, make an HTTP request, or light a LED. It can act as a data logger.\nThe device was created by Supermechanical in the US from funding raised on Kickstarter. Their original goal was for $35,000 yet they raised $556,541 from 3,966 backers on January 3, 2012. The product successfully shipped in November 2012. As of April 5, 2016, Supermechanical no longer manufactures Twine.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "ULPA is an acronym for \"Ultra-low Penetration Air (filter)\". An ULPA filter can remove from the air at least 99.999% of dust, pollen, mold, bacteria and any airborne particles with a minimum particle penetration size of 120 nanometres (0.12 \u00b5m, ultrafine particles). A ULPA filter can remove (to a large extent, not 100%) \u2013 oil smoke, tobacco smoke, rosin smoke, smog, insecticide dust.It can also remove carbon black to some extent.\nSome Fan filter units incorporate ULPA filters.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An ultrashort pulse laser is a laser that emits ultrashort pulses of light, generally of the order of femtoseconds to one picosecond. They are also known as ultrafast lasers owing to the speed at which pulses \"turn on\" and \"off\"\u2014not to be confused with the speed at which light propagates, which is determined by the properties of the medium (and has an upper limit), particularly its index of refraction, and can vary as a function of field intensity (i.e. self-phase modulation) and wavelength (chromatic dispersion).Common current ultrashort pulse laser technologies include Ti-sapphire lasers and dye lasers. High output peak power usually requires chirped pulse amplification of a seed pulse from a modelocked laser. Dealing with high optical powers also needs the nonlinear optical phenomena to be taken in account.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Unambiguous acquisition is the acquisition of GNSS signals that present ambiguities in their autocorrelation function, namely the signals that are modulated with a modulation belonging to the Binary Offset Carrier modulation class.\nUnambiguous acquisition methods have been widely studied, for example in Martin et al. (2003) and Heiries et al. (2004).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "On a roller coaster train, the underfriction, up-lift, or up-stop wheels are a device to keep the train from jumping off the track under intense movement. The design was patented in 1919 by John A. Miller.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A User interface stylesheet language is a stylesheet language which is meant to be applied to graphical computer user interfaces. They primarily act as subsidiary languages to style UI elements which are either programmed or marked-up (as in XML-based markup languages).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Utopia bootdisk is a booting program released on June 22, 2000 and created by the warez group Utopia, designed for playing pirated Sega Dreamcast games on standard CD-R discs. The bootdisk also allows the play of imported official Dreamcast GD-ROMs, bypassing the Dreamcast's region lockout. The Utopia bootdisk does not defeat the security used on original GD-ROM disks; instead, it uses an alternative boot method in the Dreamcast BIOS, which was originally intended for use with MIL-CDs. When loaded into a standard Dreamcast, the screen will display a spinning 3-D rendering of a reindeer alongside a message to insert a disc. Once a new disc is inserted and the Dreamcast lid is closed, the disc boots. Eventually, the bootdisk was rendered obsolete by \"self-booting\" pirate releases\u2014games released in MIL-CD format that could boot without the need of the Utopia bootdisk. The bootdisk was developed using a pirated version of the Sega Katana SDK, with code to render the reindeer taken from an early Dreamcast teapot demo.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "VACUUM is a set of normative guidance principles for achieving training and test dataset quality for structured datasets in data science and machine learning. The garbage-in, garbage out principle motivates a solution to the problem of data quality but does not offer a specific solution. Unlike the majority of the ad-hoc data quality assessment metrics often used by practitioners VACUUM specifies qualitative principles for data quality management and serves as a basis for defining more detailed quantitative metrics of data quality.VACUUM is an acronym that stands for:\n\nvalid\naccurate\nconsistent\nuniform\nunified\nmodel", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A vane display is a type of 7-segment display. Unlike LED and VFD segmented displays, vane displays are composed of seven physical surfaces (vanes), typically painted white, but occasionally other colors, such as yellow or fluorescent green. If a segment is to be displayed as \"off\", it will be rotated so that its edge faces forward, with the painted surface pointing away and not visible. A segment that is to be displayed as \"on\" will be rotated so that the painted surface is shown.\nVane displays operate in a similar manner to flip-disc displays, in that the segments are quickly moved using electromagnets. Some variants used where the display need not necessarily be changed quickly use electric motors to rotate the displays in and out of place.\nVane displays have been used in game shows and on scoreboards in sports arenas and stadiums. Like eggcrate displays, they are not washed out by bright lights such as those found in a television studio. Another benefit of the vane display is that if the power supply is lost, the display will continue to show whatever the last value was before power was cut. However, like flip-disc displays, if many elements must be changed at the same time, the flipping displays may present a significant amount of noise.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Variable structure control (VSC) is a form of discontinuous nonlinear control. The method alters the dynamics of a nonlinear system by application of a high-frequency switching control. The state-feedback control law is not a continuous function of time; it switches from one smooth condition to another. So the structure of the control law varies based on the position of the state trajectory; the method switches from one smooth control law to another and possibly very fast speeds (e.g., for a countably infinite number of times in a finite time interval). VSC and associated sliding mode behaviour was first investigated in early 1950s in the Soviet Union by Emelyanov and several coresearchers.The main mode of VSC operation is sliding mode control (SMC). The strengths of SMC include:\n\nLow sensitivity to plant parameter uncertainty\nGreatly reduced-order modeling of plant dynamics\nFinite-time convergence (due to discontinuous control law)The weaknesses of SMC include:\n\nChattering due to implementation imperfections\nOver-focus on matched uncertainties (i.e., uncertainties that enter into the control channel)However, the evolution of VSC is an active area of research.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A variable structure system, or VSS, is a discontinuous nonlinear system of the form\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \n            \n              \n                x\n              \n              \u02d9\n            \n          \n        \n        =\n        \u03c6\n        (\n        \n          x\n        \n        ,\n        t\n        )\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle {\\dot {\\mathbf {x} }}=\\varphi (\\mathbf {x} ,t)}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          x\n        \n        \u225c\n        [\n        \n          x\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \n          x\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        ,\n        \u2026\n        ,\n        \n          x\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        \n          ]\n          \n            T\n          \n        \n        \u2208\n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} \\triangleq [x_{1},x_{2},\\ldots ,x_{n}]^{\\operatorname {T} }\\in \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n   is the state vector, \n  \n    \n      \n        t\n        \u2208\n        \n          R\n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle t\\in \\mathbb {R} }\n   is the time variable, and \n  \n    \n      \n        \u03c6\n        (\n        \n          x\n        \n        ,\n        t\n        )\n        \u225c\n        [\n        \n          \u03c6\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          x\n        \n        ,\n        t\n        )\n        ,\n        \n          \u03c6\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          x\n        \n        ,\n        t\n        )\n        ,\n        \u2026\n        ,\n        \n          \u03c6\n          \n            n\n          \n        \n        (\n        \n          x\n        \n        ,\n        t\n        )\n        \n          ]\n          \n            T\n          \n        \n        :\n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            n\n            +\n            1\n          \n        \n        \u21a6\n        \n          \n            R\n          \n          \n            n\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\varphi (\\mathbf {x} ,t)\\triangleq [\\varphi _{1}(\\mathbf {x} ,t),\\varphi _{2}(\\mathbf {x} ,t),\\ldots ,\\varphi _{n}(\\mathbf {x} ,t)]^{\\operatorname {T} }:\\mathbb {R} ^{n+1}\\mapsto \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n   is a piecewise continuous function. Due to the piecewise continuity of these systems, they behave like different continuous nonlinear systems in different regions of their state space. At the boundaries of these regions, their dynamics switch abruptly. Hence, their structure varies over different parts of their state space.\nThe development of variable structure control depends upon methods of analyzing variable structure systems, which are special cases of hybrid dynamical systems.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "VCDHD (Versatile Compact Disc High Density) is an optical disc standard, similar to CD or DVD. The technology for VCDHD was invented with in: Japan, the Netherlands and Poland. Since the name of the technology is similar to the arbitrarily inferior VCD, it's also marketed using the name DVHD (Disc Versatile High Density).\nThe capacity of a VCDHD is 4.7 GB, the same as an average single-layer DVD. According to the official site, the tests at Philips laboratories have proven the discs to be fully compatible with modern DVD players. With use of blue laser technology steadily becoming available now, the capacity may be increased by up to 15 GB.\nThe format's main advantages include:\n\na better resistance to scratching in comparison to DVDs\na thickness of 0.6 mm (compared to 1.2 mm of a DVD)\nextreme elasticity and the resulting resistance to bending\nlow manufacturing and production costs and time (approximately 2 seconds for a VCDHD, compared to a DVD which is approximately three times that amount)\nproduction defect levels are only about 1%\nthe format does not require a DVD license to manufacture\nIt works correctly on most DVD drivesMost popular in: Russia, Ukraine and Poland.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "VDA-FS is a CAD data exchange format for the transfer of surface models from one CAD system to another.\nIts name is an abbreviation of \"Verband der Automobilindustrie - Fl\u00e4chenschnittstelle\", which translates to the \"automotive industry association - surface data interface\".\nStandard was specified by the German organization VDA\nVDA-FS has been superseded by STEP, ISO 10303.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Vessyl was a proposed intelligent drinking glass announced in June 2014 by Mark One, but which was never released. The cup was to have embedded sensors and the capability of linking to a smartphone to provide its user with nutritional and other data on the beverage in the cup. The creators designed Vessyl to help users make better decisions about their health and overall consumption. The cup was expected to recharge via inductive charging on a proprietary base station, to be included in the product packaging. Industrial designer Yves B\u00e9har and his design firm Fuseproject were involved in its creation.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A vibrating alert is a feature of communications devices to notify the user of an incoming connection or message. It is particularly common on mobile phones and pagers and usually supplements the ring tone. Most 21st-century mobile phones are fitted with a vibrating alert, as are smartwatches.\nVibrating alerts are primarily used when a user cannot hear the ring tone (a noisy environment or through hearing loss) or wants a more discreet notification (such as in a theatre). However, when the device is placed on a hard surface, it can often be as loud or louder than a ring tone. \n\nThe vibrations are often produced by a small electric motor connected to an off-center weight.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A vibratory feeder is an instrument that uses vibration to \"feed\" material to a process or machine. Vibratory feeders use both vibration and gravity to move material. Gravity is used to determine the direction, either down, or down and to a side, and then vibration is used to move the material.  They are mainly used to transport a large number of smaller objects.\nA belt weigher are used only to measure the material flow rate but weigh feeder can measure the flow material and also control or regulate the flow rate by varying the belt conveyor speed.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Vibrations per hour (vph, VPH) is a mechanical timepiece specification. It is used to express the frequency of a watch movement. VPH describes the number of times that a vibrating timekeeping component completes a vibration cycle in 1 hour. More vibrations per hour yields higher timekeeping resolution, and usually indicates a higher precision mechanical movement.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Videogrammetry is a measurement technology in which the three-dimensional coordinates of points on an object are determined by measurements made in two or more video images taken from different angles. Images can be obtained from two cameras which simultaneously view the object or from successive images captured by the same camera with a view of the object. Videogrammetry is typically used in manufacturing and construction.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A videophile (literally, \"one who loves sight\") is one who is concerned with achieving high-quality results in the recording and playback of movies, TV programs, etc.Similar to audiophile values, videophile values may be applied at all stages of the chain: the initial audio-visual recording, the video production process, and the playback (usually in a home setting).\nSome of the aspects of video that most videophiles are concerned with include frame rate, color system, resolution, compression artifacts, motion artifacts, video noise, screen size, etc.\nThe term \"videophile\" was popularised, if not coined, by Tallahassee, Florida-based attorney and writer Jim Lowe, editor and publisher of The Videophile's Newsletter, the first issue of which appeared in the summer of 1976. This was the first publication to unite fans of the Sony Betamax home video recorder (and later VHS, introduced in 1977). The newsletter later became The Videophile, a nationally distributed magazine, the last issue of which was published in 1981.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "In the mid-1970s, Myron Krueger established an artificial reality laboratory called the Videoplace.  His idea with the Videoplace was the creation of an artificial reality that surrounded the users, and responded to their movements and actions, without being encumbered by the use of goggles or gloves.  The work done in the lab would form the basis of his much cited 1983 book Artificial Reality.  The Videoplace (or VIDEOPLACE as Krueger would have it), was the culmination of several iterations of artificial reality systems: GLOWFLOW, METAPLAY, and PSYCHIC SPACE; each offering improvements over the previous installation until VIDEOPLACE was a full blown artificial reality lab at the University of Connecticut.\nThe Videoplace used projectors, video cameras, special purpose hardware, and onscreen silhouettes of the users to place the users within an interactive environment.  Users in separate rooms in the lab were able to interact with one another through this technology.  The movements of the users recorded on video were analyzed and transferred to the silhouette representations of the users in the Artificial Reality environment.  By the users being able to visually see the results of their actions on screen, through the use of the crude but effective colored silhouettes, the users had a sense of presence while interacting with onscreen objects and other users even though there was no direct tactile feedback available.  The sense of presence was enough that users pulled away when their silhouettes intersected with those of other users. (Kalawsky 1993; Rheingold 1992).  The Videoplace is now on permanent display at the State Museum of Natural History located at the University of Connecticut.   (Sturman and Zeltzer 1994).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The VinylDisc is a combination of a digital layer, either in CD or DVD format, and an analog layer, which is a vinyl record, developed by the German company Optimal Media Production.\nIt consists of a silver layer containing CD or DVD and a black polyvinyl chloride layer (able to hold 3.5 minutes of audio on 33\u2153 rpm) which can be played on a regular phonograph.\nExamples of singles already released in the hybrid format are Paramore's \"Misery Business\", The Mars Volta's cover of \"Candy and a Currant Bun\" by Pink Floyd, and the 2017 album \"Hyakki Echo\" by Merzbow and Fightstar's \"Deathcar\" which reportedly had a limited run of 3000 copies. A sample VinylDisc to promote this new format was given to visitors of the 2007 Popkomm, containing music by Jazzanova, where it was presented in September 2007.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A virtual mirror or smart mirror is a device that displays a user's own image on a screen as if that screen were a mirror. Some versions feature augmented reality additions to the video display, or use an entirely virtual graphical avatar of the user.\nVirtual mirrors are available as mobile phone applications, with some allowing users to modify the appearance of their hairstyle, make-up or accessories. The technology is also used in online shopping and in-store shopping to show people how an item of makeup, clothing, handbag or accessory might look on them. Some major retailers use the technology to provide virtual dressing rooms to customers. These smart devices are used to enhance in-store experience, provide product information to customers and to display marketing and promotional messaging.Many color contact sites feature a similar virtual try-on environments to simulate the look a user will achieve when actually wearing the contact lenses.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Virtual Reference Station (VRS) networks use real-time kinematic (RTK) solutions to provide high-accuracy, RTK Global Navigation Satellite Systems.\nTo reach centimeter-level \u2013 or even better \u2013 accuracy of positioning typically requires precise dual-frequency carrier phase observations. Furthermore, these observations are usually processed using a differential GNSS (DGNSS) algorithm, such as real time kinematic (RTK) or post-processing (PP). Regardless of the specific differential algorithm, however, implicit in the process is an assumption that the quality of the reference station data is consistent with the desired level of positioning accuracy.\nThe virtual reference station (VRS) concept can help to satisfy this requirement using a network of reference stations. As a quick review, a typical DGNSS setup consists of a single reference station from which the raw data (or corrections) are sent to the rover receiver (i.e., the user). The user then forms the carrier phase differences (or corrects their raw data) and performs the data processing using the differential corrections.\nIn contrast, GNSS network architectures often make use of multiple reference stations. This approach allows a more precise modelling of distance-dependent systematic errors principally caused by ionospheric and tropospheric refractions, and satellite orbit errors. More specifically, a GNSS network decreases the dependence of the error budget on the distance of nearest antenna.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Visual 50 is a terminal created by Visual Technology, Inc., which was located in Tewksbury, Massachusetts. Visual's slogan was \"See for yourself\".  It merged with White Pine Software in 1993, which became CU-SeeMe Networks, in turn absorbed into RadVision in 2001.\nThe terminal consists of a monitor which is the main component and a keyboard.  It was used as a computer terminal so there are no internal drives or daughter cards.  The primary component in the case is a motherboard with a modem port, keyboard port, and an aux. port.  Termcap provides support for the Visual 50 by way of the entries named v50, vi50, v50am, or visual50, depending on the system.  The terminal uses on an SGS (now STMicroelectronics) Z8400AB1 CPU, based on the Zilog Z80A CPU.  This CPU has an 8 bit data bus and a 16 bit address bus, and runs at 4 MHz.  The keyboard is a Keytronic A65-0248, attached by a 4 wire telephone cord.  The keyboard uses an Intel P8048H MCU, a common MCU for keyboards.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An ITIL Visual Configuration Management Database (Visual CMDB) is a series of spreadsheet applications that integrates the CMDB with Change Management and Service Level Management. A Visual CMDB provides a unified view of IT infrastructure in a visual representation. This common view is a cornerstone for implementing a successful Configuration Management process.\nA Visual CMDB helps manage IT assets(CIs) such as Hardware, Software and network components and associated details such as data files, documentation and service level information.\nThe integration of Change Management with a Visual CMDB allows users to do impact assessments for change and to make the correct changes to the infrastructure to keep the CMDB in sync with reality. The Forward Schedule of Change provides additional visual information to help with change impact assessment over time.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Blockchain is a term that first emerged in the context of Bitcoin. \n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Visual technology is the engineering discipline dealing with visual representation.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Vivobarefoot is a minimalist running shoe company. Their technology, invented by Tim Brennan and developed by British shoe company Terra Plana, is aimed at offering the optimum biomechanics and posture commonly associated with walking barefoot and barefoot running, and advocated within the barefoot movement and barefoot running community. Their marketing describes the walking experience as \"as close to going barefoot in the city as you can get.\" The most prominent shoe using this technology is their Evo running shoe.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Vega LED Beacon (VLB)-36 is a self contained Light Emitting Diode (LED) lantern suitable for use on both buoys and structures. The VLB-36 is utilized in situations where it is deemed economical to replace legacy signal and power hardware with a single lantern and a self-contained power system (i.e., solar panels, battery and light are a single unit). An example of an organization which has utilized this technology is The US Coast Guard. purchases and distributes VLB-36 LED red and green lanterns. The lantern is completely self-contained and has three solar panels, LED optic head and a lead-acid non-spill rechargeable battery. It is provided to meet the usual marine requirements in white, yellow, red and green. The cap above the lantern indicates the signal color.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A VMOS () transistor is a type of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor). VMOS is also used for describing the V-groove shape vertically cut into the substrate material. VMOS is an acronym for \"vertical metal oxide semiconductor\", or \"V-groove MOS\".The \"V\" shape of the MOSFET's gate allows the device to deliver a higher amount of current from the source  to the drain  of the device. The shape of the depletion region creates a wider channel, allowing more current to flow through it.\nDuring operation in blocking mode, the highest electric field occurs at the N+/p+ junction. The presence of a sharp corner at the bottom of the groove enhances the electric field at the edge of the channel in the depletion region, thus reducing the breakdown voltage of the device. This electric field launches electrons into the gate oxide and consequently, the trapped electrons shift the threshold voltage of the MOSFET. For this reason, the V-groove architecture is no longer used in commercial devices.\nThe device's use was a power device until more suitable geometries, like the UMOS (or Trench-Gate MOS) were introduced in order to lower the maximum electric field at the top of the V shape and thus leading to higher maximum voltages than in case of the VMOS.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A voice-activated radio-dispatched alarm, or VARDA-alarm, is a type of burglar alarm that, when activated or \"tripped\", broadcasts the type of the alarm and the transmitter location over the local police radio frequency using a pre-recorded audio message.In 1968, the voice-activated radio dispatched alarm (VARDA), was invented. It is a portable device that, when activated, will broadcast a message to the dispatch channel, allowing officers to immediately respond to the scene for further investigation. Although the VARDA was originally designed for law enforcement applications such as repeat break-ins, domestic violence issues and metal/equipment theft, its concept has been adapted over time to address a variety of needs in the private sector.This type of alarm is installed for special monitoring at the location of recent burglaries. When the alarm is activated, it will set off a voice message directly over a radio frequency (generally a non-primary frequency), repeating the message several times. Example: \"Burglary in progress, 231 Union Street.\" The message will repeat itself until the alarm is reset, usually manually.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Washington Technology Industry Association (WTIA) (formerly Washington Software Alliance) is a prominent technology business association, with approximately 1,000 member companies in Washington state, United States.\nWTIA hosts educational and training events, CEO roundtables, executive seminars, and special interest Affinity Groups. It also engages in advocacy for technology interests in Olympia, WA and Washington DC.\nThe Washington Software Alliance (WSA) was renamed the Washington Technology Industry Association in 2008.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "WatchKit is a framework provided by Apple in order to develop interfaces for Apple Watch applications. In order to develop using WatchKit, more information and resources are provided by Apple in the WatchKit library.WatchKit contains all the classes that a WatchKit extension uses to develop an application.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A water jacket is a water-filled casing surrounding a device, typically a metal sheath having intake and outlet vents to allow water to be pumped through and circulated. The flow of water to an external heating or cooling device allows precise temperature control of the device.\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A water jet used for recreation is generally smaller than a water cannon, but large enough that the water can spray several metres or feet. People can either insert money to pay for a predetermined amount of usage time, or push a button for free to start and stop the water. The water jet can be turned to allow the person to spray the water in different directions, it is also used in agriculture .", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Waterfall plots are often used to show how two-dimensional phenomena change over time. A three-dimensional spectral waterfall plot is a plot in which multiple curves of data, typically spectra, are displayed simultaneously. Typically the curves are staggered both across the screen and vertically, with \"nearer\" curves masking the ones behind. The result is a series of \"mountain\" shapes that appear to be side by side. The waterfall plot is often used to show how two-dimensional information changes over time or some other variable such as rotational speed. Waterfall plots are also often used to depict spectrograms or cumulative spectral decay (CSD).\n\n", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A weatherhead, also called a weathercap, service head, service entrance cap, or gooseneck (slang) is a weatherproof service drop entry point where overhead power or telephone wires enter a building, or where wires transition between overhead and underground cables. At a building the wires enter a conduit, a protective metal pipe, and the weatherhead is a waterproof cap on the end of the conduit that allows the wires to enter without letting in water.   It is shaped like a hood, with the surface where the wires enter facing down at an angle of at least 45\u00b0, to shield it from precipitation.  A rubberized gasket makes for a tight seal against the wires.  Before they enter the weatherhead, a drip loop is left in the overhead wires,  which permits rain water that collects on the wires to drip off before reaching the weatherhead.\nA weatherhead termination is only used at low voltages (up to 600 volts), since higher distribution voltages require more insulation between conductors and metal enclosures. Higher-voltage connections are made through a pothead.Weatherheads are required by electrical codes or building codes.  They are also used on utility poles where  overhead power lines enter a conduit to pass underground.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A webmaster is a person responsible for maintaining one or more websites. The title may refer to web architects, web developers, site authors, website administrators, website owners, website coordinators, or website publishers. The duties of a webmaster may include: ensuring that the web servers, hardware and software are operating correctly, designing the website, generating and revising web pages, A/B testing, replying to user comments, and examining traffic through the site. Webmasters of commercial websites may also need to be familiar with e-commerce software.Due to the RFC 822 requirement for establishing a \"postmaster\" email address for the single point of contact for the email administrator of a domain, the \"webmaster\" address and title were unofficially adopted by analogy for the website administrator. RFC 2142 turned this common practice into a standard.\nWebmasters may be generalists with HTML expertise who manage most or all aspects of web operations. Depending on the nature of the websites they manage, webmasters may be required to know scripting languages such as ColdFusion, JavaScript, JSP, .NET, Perl, PHP, Python and Ruby. They may also need to know how to configure web servers such as Apache and be a server administrator. Most server roles, however, would be overseen by an IT Administrator.Core responsibilities of the webmaster may include managing a website's appearance, user access rights, and navigation. Content placement can also be part of a webmaster's numerous duties, though content creation may not be.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Westinghouse Farm Engine was a small, vertical-boiler steam engine built by the Westinghouse Company that emerged in the late 19th century. In the transition from horses to machinery, small portable engines were hauled by horses from farm to farm to give power where it was needed. It provided power to agricultural machines such as sawmills, threshing machines, and corn shellers. Many small workshops used them as well.\nThe farm engine was invented by George Westinghouse. Near the end of 1865, he created a rotary steam engine: the Westinghouse Farm Engine. He invented the engine at age 21. As a sideline to the airbrake products, Westinghouse made these horse-drawn, vertical-boiler, and horizontal-cylinder engines. The cylinder, steam chest, cross-head guide, and the boxes for the crankshaft bearings were all cast in a single piece to assure mechanical exactness and perfect alignment of piston and crank. The engine was made of brass and steel.  The machine helped American farms transition from horse to machines. It came in 6, 10, and 15 horsepower sizes. The Westinghouse Farm engine was said to have a short, quick stroke to make it lighter. This design helped to make sure that the engine did not rollover. The engines were equipped with Adjustable Governor, Pop Safety Valve, Steam Gauge, Feed Water Heater, Direct Acting Pump, Whistle, Blower, Brake, and a full supply of wrenches and fire tools. This helped keep the engine efficient, durable, and convenient. The engines were produced from 1886 to 1917 when they were superseded by larger, standard farm engines. Many engines of this make were sent to South America where they were popular.\nFor a time Henry Ford worked for the Westinghouse Company as a mechanic for their farm engines and used one on his farm. One is featured at his museum in Dearborn, Michigan.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Whole home DVR is a system where there is only 1 physical DVR in the house, but the remaining set top boxes can act like a DVR.\nA multi-DVR system where all DVR's are networked together, and can stream recordings to and from each other, would also be a whole-home DVR solution.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Wide-angle Infinity Display Equipment (WIDE), the proprietary name for a cross-cockpit collimated display (CCCD) wide-angle display system invented by the UK Rediffusion company at their factory at Crawley, near Gatwick, UK, now part of Thales UK. The general design is now in common use in most full flight simulators, made by Thales and several other companies worldwide.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A winding engine is a stationary engine used to control a cable, for example to power a mining hoist at a pit head. Electric hoist controllers have replaced proper winding engines in modern mining, but use electric motors  that are also traditionally referred to as winding engines.\nEarly winding engines were hand, or more usually horse powered.\n\nThe first powered winding engines were stationary steam engines. The demand for winding engines was one factor that drove James Watt to develop his rotative beam engine, with its ability continuously to turn a winding drum, rather than the early reciprocating beam engines that were only useful for working pumps.They differ from most other stationary steam engines in that, like a steam locomotive, they need to be able to stop frequently  and also reverse. This requires more complex valve gear and other controls than are needed on engines used in mills or to drive pumps.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Wood method, also known as the Merchant\u2013Rankine\u2013Wood method, is a structural analysis method which was developed to determine estimates for the effective buckling length of a compressed member included in a building frames, both in sway and a non-sway buckling modes.  It is named after R. H. Wood.\nAccording to this method, the ratio between the critical buckling length and the real length of a column is determined based on two redistribution coefficients, \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03b7\n          \n            1\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\eta _{1}}\n   and \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03b7\n          \n            2\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\eta _{2}}\n  , which are mapped to a ratio between the effective buckling length of a compressed member and its real length.\nThe redistribution coefficients are obtained through the following expressions:\n\n  \n    \n      \n        \n          \u03b7\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n        =\n        \n          \n            \n              \n                K\n                \n                  c\n                \n              \n              +\n              \n                K\n                \n                  i\n                \n              \n            \n            \n              \n                K\n                \n                  c\n                \n              \n              +\n              \n                K\n                \n                  i\n                \n              \n              +\n              \n                K\n                \n                  i\n                \n              \n              1\n              +\n              \n                K\n                \n                  i\n                \n              \n              2\n            \n          \n        \n        ,\n        \n        i\n        =\n        1\n        ,\n        2\n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle \\eta _{i}={\\frac {K_{c}+K_{i}}{K_{c}+K_{i}+K_{i}1+K_{i}2}},\\quad i=1,2}\n  where \n  \n    \n      \n        \n          K\n          \n            i\n          \n        \n      \n    \n    {\\displaystyle K_{i}}\n   are the stiffness coefficients for the adjacent length of columns.\nAlthough this method was included in ENV 1993-1-1:1992, it is absent from EN 1993-1-1.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Wood\u2013Armer method is a structural analysis method based on finite element analysis used to design the reinforcement for concrete slabs. This method provides simple equations to design a concrete slab based on the output from a finite element analysis software.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Workflow technology is a field of software products designed to improve the design of information systems. It involves use of workflow engine, also known as an orchestration engine, to execute models of processes.\nThe models can be edited by persons not experienced in programming (e.g. managers) using workflow editors.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A world clock is a clock which displays the time for various cities around the world. \nThe display can take various forms:\n\nThe clock face can incorporate multiple round analogue clocks with moving hands or multiple digital clocks with numeric readouts, with each clock being labelled with the name of a major city or time zone in the world.\nIt could also be a picture map of the world with embedded analog or digital time-displays.\nA moving circular map of the world, rotating inside a stationary 24-hour dial ring. Alternatively, the disc can be stationary and the ring moving.\nLight projection onto a map representing daytime, used in the Geochron, a brand of a particular form of world clock.There are also worldtime watches, both wrist watches and pocket watches.  Sometime manufacturers of timekeepers erroneously apply the worldtime label to instruments that merely indicate time for two or a few time zones, but the term should be used only for timepieces that indicate time for all major time zones of the globe.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "An X-ray interferometer is analogous to a neutron interferometer.  It has been suggested that it may offer the very highest spatial resolution in astronomy, though the technology is unproven as of 2008.\nOne technique is triple Laue interferometry (LLL interferometry).", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "X.1205 is a technical standard, that provides an overview of cybersecurity, it was developed by the Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T). The standard provides an overview of cybersecurity as well as a taxonomy of threats in cybersecurity.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "XD engine is a technology used In LG HDTV\u2019s to enhance picture quality. In addition to providing standard features such as Deinterlacing and upscaling, it also provides three user selectable enhancements\n\nXD contrastThis feature attempts to increase the black levels and brightness of various aspects of the picture\n\n XD colorThis alters and enhances color tones\n\nXD Noise reductionProvides analog and MPEG noise reduction.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Zangle is a student information system for schools and school districts to allow teachers to record students' academic progress in classes and for parents and students to check their grades, find assignments that will be due in the future,  find past-due assignments, pay fees, as well as other information. The system features many modules that record various student data such as attendance, academic history, behavior and so on. It is popular among schools across the United States, and a bit in other locations. The system uses the Microsoft SQL database engine for data storage.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "Zenith Star was a Directed-energy weapon that started development as part of the US Strategic Defense Initiative.It included the Alpha laser, a high energy hydrogen fluoride chemical laser, and the LAMP mirror which was a 7 segment adaptive optics mirror.Zenith Star was never put in orbit, but the Alpha LAMP Integration (ALI) project carried out some ground-based tests.:\u200a20\u200a", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "The Zenneck wave, Zenneck surface wave or Sommerfeld-Zenneck surface wave is a longitudinal, inhomogeneous or non-uniform electromagnetic plane wave incident at the complex Brewster's angle onto a planar or spherical boundary interface between two homogeneous media having different dielectric constants.The Zenneck wave propagates parallel to the interface and decays exponentially vertical to it, a property known as evanescence. It exists under the condition that the permittivity of one of the materials forming the interface is negative, while the other one is positive, as for example the interface between air and a lossy conducting medium such as the terrestrial transmission line, below the plasma frequency. Arising from original analysis by Arnold Sommerfeld and Jonathan Zenneck of the problem of wave propagation over a lossy earth, it exists as an exact solution to Maxwell's equations.Recently in 2020, it was demonstrated by Oruganti et al., that it was possible to excite Zenneck wave type waves on flat metal-air interfaces and transmit power across metal obstacles.", "label": "Technology"}, {"sentence": "A zirconia light is an intensely brilliant chemical light produced by incandescent zirconia.  It is similar in design to the Drummond light (limelight), but uses a block of zirconia instead of quicklime.  Both have been replaced by the electric light.", "label": "Technology"}]}