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+{"metadata":{"id":"0008aa883e321873383be6ed94ac38d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/83874e9a-993c-44a9-a073-991aba4f740f/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":["• P1683 -Product Line 3","3","1: Feed preservation, processing and supplementation technologies"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"98b05dac-9b15-4c45-90d8-bbfe275649b3","abstract":""}

data/part_5/00151c37612cb27e4063582964e3ea2f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00151c37612cb27e4063582964e3ea2f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/00b68c7b-554a-4310-b4cb-452ea25b0f76/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Contribution to gender and social inclusion strategy for the cashew value chain in Golfo de Fonseca, Honduras","keywords":["P699 -3","2","3 Linking Smallholders to Dynamic Markets"],"chapters":[{"head":"Country(ies):","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• Honduras"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Outcome Impact Case Report:"},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• 4623 -Swisscontact uses the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index to develop and implement gender and social inclusion strategies in agricultural value chains in southern Honduras (https://tinyurl.com/y6gd27sm)"}]},{"head":"Innovations:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• I1189 -Methodological guide for participatory collection of gender indicators in agriculture used by SwissContact in the Rural Opportunities Project in Golfo de Fonseca, Honduras (https://tinyurl.com/2ftvclt5)"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• I381 -Project level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index for Market Inclusion used to inform gender strategies for three value chains in Honduras (https://tinyurl.com/2kezmj5c)"}]},{"head":"Narrative of Evidence: <Not Applicable>","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Value chain innovations are tested in 12 countries Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• 7 -Increased value capture by producers • 38 -Improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 07:50 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"35f1cb39-e238-4c53-a6ac-1e1d67e6d774","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0113ab600e9740be660bc06e4e63019e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0113ab600e9740be660bc06e4e63019e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7125d042-7954-422a-8522-ac3412a0694f/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Chapter 1 Introduction: Towards knowledgebased bio-economies in eastern Africa","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Ivar Virgin, Stockholm Environment Institute Bio-based economic growth in eastern Africa Science, technology and innovation have a crucial role to play in propelling economic growth, alleviating poverty and contributing to the post-2015 agenda and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in eastern Africa."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"The United Nations estimates that Africa's population will increase from today's figure of around 1.1 billion, to approximately 1.6 billion people by 2030 and well over 2 billion by 2050. Much of this population growth will take place in eastern Africa (United Nations 2014). Thus, policymakers in the region are increasingly under pressure to generate economic growth, create new jobs and increase agricultural productivity. At the same time, there is an equally pressing need to protect the environment and ecosystem services."},{"index":3,"size":197,"text":"Long-term economic prospects for countries in eastern Africa-in this case Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda-are tightly bound to their ability to increase their trade (domestic, regional and export) and to integrate into the global economy. The future direction of the global economy is hard to predict, but it seems likely that it will continue to be shaped by the forces of urbanization, globalization and digitalization. Increased trade of bio-resources and more cost-effective agricultural and forestry production systems are also likely to be an important influence on the future global economy. This includes continued development of global value chains for food, feed and a wide range of bio-based products. There will also be continued competition between countries and regions to attract investment, jobs and knowledge in the development of next-generation bio-resource value chains. The urbanization process will continue; the largest wave of urban growth in history is currently taking place and more than half of the world's population now lives in towns and cities. By 2030, this number will increase to almost 60%. Much of this urbanization will unfold in Africa and will be a driver for social, economic and environmental transformation (McGranahan and Martine 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"For eastern Africa, the need to ensure food security will continue to be high on the development agenda. Smallholder farmers will continue to be the major producers of food in eastern Africa for the foreseeable future. Connecting these smallholders to markets, value chains and agro-processing opportunities is increasingly seen as one of the most important tools in elevating agricultural productivity and improving rural livelihoods in the region."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"At the same time, the rapid advances of biosciences, including biotechnology and genetic engineering, are changing the way agricultural and forestry resources are developed and used. Modern biosciences are an increasingly powerful tool for improving agricultural productivity and agro-processing and value chains in the region. Adopting the rapid advances in modern biosciences to meet local needs and opportunities is also of crucial importance for the region's agricultural sector. In this context, some of the key questions for policymakers in eastern Africa are:"},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"• How can African countries, with all their constraints, best use their genetic resources, new technologies and market opportunities?"},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"• What types of investments in science and technology and bioscience innovation, as well as natural resource management and production systems, can best connect smallholder farmers to markets, value chains and agro-processing opportunities?"},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"• How to get there? How should these innovation and production systems be developed and supported? What specific investments are needed and how can capacity be built? What strategies and polices need to be put in place? What type of innovation, entrepreneurship and financing models are needed?"},{"index":9,"size":81,"text":"Now is the time for policymakers and stakeholders in eastern Africa to get ready-as others have done around the world-to translate the potential of modern biosciences into products and technologies adapted to local demand. This involves long-term planning and effective prioritization of investment in human capacity, science and technology infrastructure, entrepreneurial capacity and innovation structures. This, in turn, requires leadership, government commitment, regional collaboration, continued donor investment, public and private sector investment and last, but not least, long-term vision and strategies."},{"index":10,"size":138,"text":"In this book, we focus on the countries in eastern Africa (Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda) which, to a large extent, base their economies on the export of biobased raw materials. There is a reliance on unprocessed agricultural products, such as coffee, tea and cotton, which face increased global competition. The countries are, and will continue to be in the foreseeable future, agrarian economies with large farming communities. Given the range of production constraints, the region is unlikely to be able to compete on the world grain markets. It is also unlikely that these countries will be able to compete, in the short-to medium-term, with the rapidly expanding economies in Asia which are increasing investment in more complex and advanced areas of manufacturing, such as machinery and electronics, and services, such as health and information technology."},{"index":11,"size":168,"text":"The question then is how countries in eastern Africa can respond to the emerging opportunities in a global economy? The region is rich in genetic resources and arable land and has a great variety of agro-ecological niches with significant biomass production potential. Consequently, instead of passively adapting to rapidly changing conditions for bio-based production and value chains, eastern Africa countries must, to a larger extent, develop and strategically invest in the agricultural and bio-processing sector. This route is still open, offering prospects for significant and sustained economic growth. Given this scenario, refinement and adding value to biological and genetic resources in the region is attractive. If the tools of modern biosciences can be effectively brought to bear on these resources, African economies can create, for example, productive, sustainable and high-value food, feed and cash crop systems; innovative agro-industrial production platforms for products, such as biofuels, green chemicals and novel fibres; and new biological materials with custom-made properties which are increasingly in demand in domestic, regional and global markets."},{"index":12,"size":74,"text":"This book explores the potential for, and the roadmap towards, a knowledge-based bioeconomy in eastern Africa. It envisages an economy in which the potential of modern biosciences can be realized, using bioscience innovation adapted to local needs and able to harness opportunities in the region. The book is also connected to the Bio-resources Innovations Network for Eastern Africa Development (Bio-Innovate) program. Bio-Innovate is a regional, broad-based biosciences research and innovation initiative established in 2010."},{"index":13,"size":35,"text":"Bio-Innovate's goal has been to make smallholder farming and bio-resource management more productive and profitable through bioscience innovation. It seeks to link smallholder farmers to new market niches characterized by sustainable and resource-efficient value chains."},{"index":14,"size":33,"text":"The program manages a regional competitive biosciences innovation fund, which has brought together key players from the public and private sector to promote bioscience innovation in Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda."}]},{"head":"Towards a knowledge-based bio-economy","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Rapid globalization, the advent of new technologies and trade regimes and growing global demand for food, feed, renewable materials and agricultural land, are changing the conditions for agriculture, forestry and utilization of genetic resources worldwide. At the same time, revolutionary achievements in the field of biosciences are propelling a transition towards bio-based alternatives for energy and materials becoming more economically viable and mainstream. This has led to the development of the term 'knowledge-based bio-economies'."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"The development of bio-economies is increasingly seen as a tool for creating sustainable economic growth based on renewable resources. This allows a move away from the fossil fuel economy and responds to pressing local and global challenges, including climate change. The development of knowledge-based bio-economies is also seen as a way of developing resourceefficient and productive agricultural systems that are able to adapt to climate change and as a tool to revitalize rural communities, by increasing the production base and the opportunities for adding value locally. Additionally, it has been argued that knowledge-based bio-economies are critical to the development of a more circular economy in which there is recycling of energy and material flows.  (Eaglesham 2006). Since then, there have been several important contributions on the bio-economy, including the following reports:"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• The Bioeconomy to 2030-Designing a policy agenda (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 2009)"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Innovating for sustainable growth-A bioeconomy for Europe (European Commission 2012)"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"• The European bioeconomy in 2030-Delivering sustainable growth by addressing the Grand Societal Challenges (European Commission 2012)."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"The central feature of a bio-economy is that scientific research and knowledge can be applied to biological resources and agricultural systems not only for the production of food, feed and fibre, but also to an increasingly wide range of agro-industrial and value-added products with potential applications in many sectors, such as pharmaceuticals, industry, chemicals and energy."},{"index":7,"size":92,"text":"The push towards bio-economies is not an example of sudden hype-the concept has been around since ancient times and has developed gradually. Ultimately, a knowledge-based bio-economy optimizes the use of bio-resources and biomass. Globally, 13 billion tonnes of biomass are available with around 60% used as animal feed, 15% for food and 25% for energy or as bio-based industrial feedstock (FAOSTAT 2014). The most important bio-based industrial products today are green chemicals, bioplastics and composites, lubricants, paper and cellulose, building materials and pharmaceuticals. The most important energy products are biogas and biofuels."},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"Governments around the world are developing strategies that will allow them to take full advantage of bio-economy development. A compilation of some recent national bio-economy strategies is shown in Table 1."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"There are three main sectors in which biosciences play a central role-health, agriculture/ forestry, and bio-based industries."},{"index":10,"size":76,"text":"A large and vital part of modern bio-economies is the development of new drugs, functional foods and methods of improving health. Although human and animal health is an important component of the bioeconomy around the world, including Africa, this book does not deal with bioscience innovation connected to health. Nor does it cover in any detail the use of advanced bioscience in forestry and aquaculture, which also is gaining ground particularly in OECD countries (OECD 2009)."},{"index":11,"size":70,"text":"Instead, this book will focus on the application of biosciences in agriculture, environmental protection, agricultural value chains and the agro-processing sector. This reflects the importance of these sectors in eastern Africa and the focus on them by Bio-Innovate. It also reflects the fact that agricultural productivity, the processing of primary produce into highvalue products and the conversion of agro-waste to useful products, constitutes a vital part of the knowledge-based bio-economy."},{"index":12,"size":7,"text":"What should eastern African bio-economies respond to?"},{"index":13,"size":149,"text":"Interpretations of how to translate and implement bio-economy strategies and bioscience R&D agendas vary between countries, stakeholders and actors. In Africa, there is often a challenge in arriving at a shared understanding and approach on how to ensure modern biosciences and a knowledge-based bio-economy have real societal impacts. This includes questions around the challenges a bio-economy should be responding to. Is it about improving agricultural productivity and agro-processing, reducing resource demands, environmental pressures and adjusting to climate change impacts? Is it about expanding bio-resource valueaddition opportunities and converting waste to useful products such as energy? Is it about revitalizing rural communities and improving rural livelihoods? Arguably, the bio-economy covers all of these issues. Responses to these questions will impact funding priorities, choices of policy instruments and market development. For countries in eastern Africa, it is therefore important to develop a common understanding on what knowledge-based bio-economies should respond to."},{"index":14,"size":102,"text":"An appealing vision for many eastern Africa countries would be to use their bio-resources as a strategic base for sustainable and inclusive economic growth, and development into effective and sustainable bio-economies. The aim of such a vision could be, for example, to increase rural-urban trade and revitalize rural areas. It could also be aimed at new marketdriven agricultural value chains through which countries in the region could produce their own processed food and agro-industrial products. Such developments, coupled with appropriate institutional design, could lead to substantial increases in employment and income for the both the rural and urban poor in these countries."},{"index":15,"size":93,"text":"The development of future bio-economies in eastern Africa is complex and challenging and requires cross-sectorial action at several levels. A first essential step would be to develop a long-term vision on how such bio-economies could be shaped and strategies on how to get there. The broad issues above also show that for the bioscience revolution and the agroindustrial expansion to propel a bio-based economy, international collaboration and strategic thinking are required. The expansion of agro-industrial, bio-based production in eastern Africa has significant potential to support several critical development goals in the region, including:"},{"index":16,"size":23,"text":"• Developing new value-addition chains, improving profitability for small-scale farming systems and enabling more investment and increasing farm productivity, including of food crops."},{"index":17,"size":20,"text":"• Promoting environmental sustainability and addressing climate change. This includes converting bio-waste, which is currently polluting ecosystems, to useful products."},{"index":18,"size":12,"text":"• Enhancing energy security and bio-based renewable energy alternatives to non-renewable resources."},{"index":19,"size":24,"text":"• Expanding the agro-industry, which, if well planned, regulated and supported, could improve economic competitiveness for many countries in eastern Africa in the long-term."},{"index":20,"size":12,"text":"However, ideally, it is important that, the development of bio-economies should not:"},{"index":21,"size":31,"text":"• Outcompete the production of staple foods for large parts of the local population and undermine the efforts of countries in eastern Africa to become self-reliant in basic and essential foodstuffs."},{"index":22,"size":13,"text":"• Make small and marginal farmers landless when allowing plantations for agro-industrial products."},{"index":23,"size":8,"text":"• Undermine the livelihoods of the rural poor."},{"index":24,"size":6,"text":"• Lead to loss of biodiversity."},{"index":25,"size":6,"text":"• Endanger environmental and health safety."}]},{"head":"Getting to knowledge-based bio-economies","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Despite the promising outlook, countries in eastern Africa face problems and challenges in building a knowledge-based bio-economy. Innovation is a complex process, which is dependent on functional policies, institutions, financial and human resources. Encouragingly, countries in eastern Africa have started the process of developing a more enabling environment for bioscience innovation and the necessary structures and policies are emerging. In this context, it is important to add that there is no single, one-fits-all solution for the development of knowledge-based bio-economies. Indeed, there may be a number of possible pathways for countries to follow."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"The ability to apply modern biosciences is slowly but surely building in the R&D sector in eastern Africa. However, scientific and technical knowledge is only one limiting factor for adoption and deployment of bioscience innovations-there are also structural and policy constraints. Effective and efficient national regulatory systems and incentive systems are important for countries to benefit from bioscience innovation and the development of a bioeconomy. Many countries in Africa have put significant effort into developing national science, technology and innovation policy frameworks. These policies are, however, often of a general character and poorly implemented. Nevertheless, there is increased recognition among policymakers in the region that building a more dynamic bio-based sector, creating jobs and raising the profitability for farmers and agribusinesses, depends on interventions in many areas. These include:"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Vision, leadership, strategic planning and concrete priority setting."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Conducive long-term policies, stimulating innovation and creating market demand for a greater diversity of bio-based products."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Favourable conditions for entrepreneurial development, both in the private and public sectors."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• Access to affordable financing, credit and venture capital."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"• Capability to assess the economic potential of investment in a bio-economy, both at the governmental and public institution level, and in the private sector."},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"• Support for innovation structures in the public and the (domestic) commercial sector. This includes efforts to increase understanding in public institutions on key aspects regarding technology and diffusion and commercialization."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"• Strengthening the links between research institutions and the market and between public and private sector actors."},{"index":10,"size":128,"text":"The public sector has a critical role to play in adopting and disseminating promising bioscience innovations to a broad spectrum of agricultural and agro-processing actors and for various societal needs. In knowledge-intensive areas such as the biosciences, the existence of a strong public sector research base is important for ensuring that promising bioscience technologies are made available to a broad set of actors, and that they also address social, environmental and other societal issues. University technology transfer activity is increasingly recognized by policymakers in a growing number of countries as a powerful driver of innovation and economic growth. In eastern Africa, public research organizations and universities are important in adopting and adapting modern biosciences to broader societal needs, including those of smallholder farming systems and local agro-processing actors."},{"index":11,"size":50,"text":"Unfortunately, although public R&D is important for inclusive knowledge development, innovation and deployment, public research organizations and universities in the region have not been effective in moving ideas and technologies beyond research. Consequently, R&D investments and promising bioscience research outputs seldom move out of the laboratory and into the market."},{"index":12,"size":66,"text":"Therefore, supporting initiatives that effectively link public research organizations, universities and market actors will dramatically improve the chances of eastern African farmers, agribusinesses and agro-processors benefitting from the rapidly advancing field of bioscience. Business incubators linking public research organizations, universities and market actors are also key to improving the chances of bioscience innovation benefits reaching smallholder farmers, resource-poor communities and a broader set of market actors."}]},{"head":"The structure of this book","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"This book builds on the achievements and experiences of Bio-Innovate in moving bioscience innovations to the marketplace and discusses the broader topic of bio-economy and its prospects in eastern Africa. There are nine chapters of which this introduction is the first. Chapter 2, 'Economic prospects of bio-economy development in eastern Africa', discusses the potential economic impact of a bio-economy in eastern Africa in terms of local economic and rural development, the creation of new businesses opportunities and environmental benefits."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Chapter 3, 'Bio-entrepreneurship in Asia: some learnings to accelerate innovation', presents the trends in global bio-economy development using the impressive progress in Asia as an example. The chapter describes the successful development of Asian small-and-medium-sized bio-enterprises producing a rich array of various bio-based products at a commercial level. Many Asian governments have been active in supporting bioscience R&D, as well their links to bio-enterprises. This has been achieved through creating an enabling environment for innovation and support systems for incubating and linking actors in the innovation chain."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"In Chapter 4, 'Bioscience innovation systems for an African bio-economy' using the innovation system approach to deliver bioscience applications for societal use is discussed. The authors show that despite the many limitations, a number of countries in Africa are turning a corner and putting in place reforms and initiatives that will stimulate bioscience innovation."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Chapter 5, 'Moving bio-innovations to the marketplace: Lessons from the Bio-Innovate program', discusses the role played by Bio-Innovate in the biosciences arena in the region and its key achievements and experiences during its five years of implementation."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":" The concept of the knowledge-based bio-economy was first defined byEnríquez, Cabot  and Martínez (1998). In Europe, the idea of a bio-based economy has been discussed since the late 1990s and was officially introduced in 2005 by the European Commission through a document titled 'En route to the bio-based economy'. Another pioneer in defining the term modern bio-economy was Professor Eaglesham who authored a conference paper titled 'Linking biotechnology, chemistry and agriculture to create new value chains' in the World Congress on Industrial Biotechnology and Bioprocessing in 2006  "}],"sieverID":"8ff5257a-3ba3-438c-8b00-f01a9446250f","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0165d4146293a5a567fb89e7c785fa3f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0165d4146293a5a567fb89e7c785fa3f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27ddcae6-939c-4edc-b5bd-fde29335b11c/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Building on all of this, speakers in the closing plenary set out directions for future gender research. Engaging with men and redefining masculinities, finding the best ways to get technologies into the hands of women, providing climate adaptation solutions and filling evidence gaps were voiced as priorities."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"Panelists also spoke to both responsibilities and opportunities: On the one hand, we feel the weight of the responsibility to share research results and actual solutions with women and men in our global food systems and to ensure that we in ten years do not have the same conversations as we are having today. Progress on gender research has been contextual, uneven and non-linear, but some positive changes are evident, and pioneers, youth and marginalized actors are bringing forward novel ideas. Progressing gender equality in agriculture and food systems is paramount because, as one panelist put it, current inequalities undermine all of our goals, on agriculture, health and more."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"The closing plenary also celebrated poster prize winners Devis Mwakanyamale et al. whose poster explored barriers and opportunities to women's participation in the commercialized cassava seed system in Tanzania. Honorable mentions were given to Farhana Ibrahim et al.'s poster on most significant changes for women and men through a nutrition-sensitive agriculture intervention in Bangladesh and Annelie Gutte's poster on constructing or empowering the female coffee farmer. If you haven't had a chance to see these posters yet, please visit the conference platform's poster gallery."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"With this plethora of insights and resources available, we encourage you to keep on watching, reading, learning and sharing. The virtual conference platform will remain open to participants and session recordings and resources will be available at least until mid-January 2022. We also propose you check in on the CGIAR GENDER Platform to find more conference highlights in the coming weeks, and keep the conversation going on social media. Help us to improve future gender research conferences by responding to this short evaluation survey."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Most importantly, do keep talking! Stay in touch with colleagues and let's continue to strengthen our networks and coalitions that were formed this week."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"Lastly, a big THANK YOU to all of you for presenting, participating, engaging and to the institutions and funders who made this conference possible."}]},{"head":"Keep on watching, learning, sharing","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Session recordings and other session resources will remain available via the Cultivating Equality 2021 conference platform until mid-January 2022. We encourage you to explore sessions, posters and videos you might have missed during the week, and to continue conversations to drive forward our shared gender research agenda."}]},{"head":"WATCH RECORDED SESSIONS","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender research resources related to today's discussions","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gendered impacts of COVID-19 mitigation policies in Ethiopia, Zambia and Senegal","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"To feed their populations, African countries must ensure that their crises-mitigation policies enable women to be central players in healthy, resilient food systems. Read more via the CGIAR GENDER Platform."}]},{"head":"A review of evidence on gender equality, women's empowerment, and food systems","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"This paper (Njuki et al. 2021) uses a scoping review to assess the current evidence on pathways between gender equality, women's empowerment, and food systems. Read more via UNFSS Scientific Group."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"66f6fb0c-5097-43b2-af4f-e5a0c2d0324d","abstract":"We can fight for ages to adapt women to the system -to enable them to play the game. Or we can change the rules of the game.\" -"}

data/part_5/01a2ffa160bb3441dc4a0adfab3fcb76.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01a2ffa160bb3441dc4a0adfab3fcb76","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/881fb0fc-89e3-420c-9c2c-cd81a1186ce6/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The scope of access and benefit-sharing under the International Treaty"},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (the Treaty) creates an international plant genetic resources commons within which state parties, international organizations and other legal persons provide facilitated access to plant genetic resources for research, breeding, conservation and training, and commit to contribute part of the monetary benefits arising from the use of those resources to an international fund managed by the Governing Body of the Treaty. The Treaty creates the multilateral system of access and benefitsharing (Multilateral System). The Multilateral System includes the 35 crop and 29 forage genera listed in Annex 1 of the Treaty which are: under the management and control of the Contracting Parties and in the public domain; hosted in the ex situ collections of international organizations like the Centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), and or voluntarily included by other legal persons, for example, companies or private collectors."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"To make the Multilateral System operational, in June 2006, the First Session of the Governing Body of the Treaty adopted the standard material transfer agreement (SMTA) which sets out the legal conditions that apply to both suppliers and recipients of material in the Multilateral System. The SMTA provides facilitated access to these genetic resources and establishes benefit-sharing obligations when recipients commercialize new plant genetic resources for food and agriculture that incorporate materials received from the system."},{"index":4,"size":233,"text":"During the negotiations of the Treaty, and in the Treaty itself, countries recognized the importance of the collections of the Centres of the CGIAR and the need to ensure that plant genetic resources for food and agriculture held in these and other relevant international collections were subject to the principles of the Treaty and, in particular, the terms and conditions of its multilateral system of access and benefit-sharing. This is reflected in Article 15 of the Treaty, which calls upon the CGIAR Centres and other relevant international institutions to sign agreements with the Governing Body of the Treaty, covering both the Annex 1 and non-Annex 1 materials they host. On October 16, 2006, the eleven CGIAR Centres holding ex situ collections of plant genetic resources signed agreements with the Governing Body of the Treaty placing the 650 000 accessions of crop and forage species they hold within the framework of the Treaty and recognizing the authority of the Governing Body to provide policy guidance relating to ex situ collections held by the Centres and subject to the provisions of the Treaty. Those agreements became legally binding as of January 2007, which is why the Centres started using the SMTA that same month for their distributions of Annex 1 materials. In the first eight months of the year 2007, the Centres cumulatively distributed 97 500 samples under the terms and conditions of the SMTA."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"With respect to non-Annex 1 materials, the Treaty stated that the CGIAR Centres should continue using their pre-Treaty MTA, until the Governing Body, at its Second Session, would have the opportunity to amend that MTA. During its Second Session, 29 October -2 November 2007, the Governing Body decided that the CGIAR Centres should use the same SMTA, with explanatory footnotes, when transferring all plant genetic resources for food and agriculture they hold in trust, whether or not they are included in Annex 1 of the Treaty. This decision ensures that the benefit-sharing provisions that were adopted by the Governing Body in the SMTA extend to distributions by the Centres of all material."},{"index":6,"size":119,"text":"The practical scope of the Governing Body's decision is not limited to the CGIAR Centres. Some other international organizations that have signed agreements with the Governing Body under Article 15.5 of the Treaty will be following similar procedures. To date, the eleven CGIAR Centres hosting ex situ collections of PGRFA, the Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Centre (CATIE), the International Coconut Genebank for Africa and the Indian Ocean, the International Coconut Genebank for the South Pacific and the Mutant Germplasm Repository of the Joint Division of FAO and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have signed agreements with the Governing Body. It is anticipated that additional international organizations will make agreements of this nature with the Governing Body. "}]},{"head":"Policy brief","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"May 2008","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The practical effect is that distributions of non-Annex 1 materials from these organizations, and subsequently redistributed by down-stream recipients, are carried out according to terms and conditions identical to those that prevail in the Treaty's Multilateral System. This kind of incremental growth of the material included under the scope of the Treaty's access and benefit-sharing rules is not a historical accident or unintended outcome."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"It is what was explicitly intended by the negotiators of the Treaty, and was clearly anticipated by Article 15 of the Treaty. This growth of coverage is under the guidance and policy oversight of the Governing Body of the Treaty."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"The number of non-Annex 1 materials that will be subject to the same terms and condition as the Multilateral System is not necessarily limited to the number of accessions held by these organizations at any given time: non-Annex 1 materials which are included in their collections in the future could also be distributed under the SMTA (as long as this is consistent with the terms under which they are legally acquired vis-à-vis the Convention on Biological Diversity or other applicable law)."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"The International Regime on access and benefit-sharing, which is currently being negotiated under the auspices of the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), must take into account the potential extension of Annex 1 of the Treaty; it must also leave room for international organizations to distribute non-Annex 1 materials using the SMTA, pursuant to the agreements that they have already signed, or will sign in the future, with the Governing Body, as explicitly anticipated by the Treaty. Following the decision of the Second Session of the Governing Body of the Treaty, the CG Centres will distribute samples of some species of the following list of genera, which are not included in Annex 1, but which are held under the purview of the Treaty, using the SMTA, for the purpose of research, breeding and training for food and agriculture:"},{"index":5,"size":150,"text":"Abrus, Acacia, Aeschynomene, Alysicarpus, Amaranthus (cn. amaranth), Amblyopyrum, Anthyllis, Arachis (incl. cn. groundnut), Argyrolobium, Astragalus, Bauhinia, Biserrula, Bothriochloa, Brachiaria, Calliandra, Calopogonium, Canavalia, Canna, Cassia, Cenchrus, Centrosema, Chamaecrista, Chenopodium (incl. cn. quinoa), Chloris, Christia, Clitoria, Codariocalyx, Coronilla, Cratylia, Crotalaria, Cymbopogon, Cynodon, Dactyloctenium, Dendrolobium, Desmanthus, Desmodium, Digitaria, Dioclea, Dolichos, Dunbaria, Echinochloa, Eragrostis, Eriosema, Erythrina, Faidherbia, Flemingia, Galactia, Gliricidia, Glycine (incl. cn. soya bean), Graminea, Hedysarum, Heteropogon, Hippocrepis, Hymenocarpus, Hyparrhenia, Indigofera, Lablab (incl. cn. hyacinth bean), Lasiurus, Lepidium, Leucaena, Lotononis, Lotus, Lupinus, Macroptilium, Macrotyloma, Manihot, Medicago, Melilotus, Melinis, Mimosa, Mucuna, Musa, Neonotonia, Onobrychis, Ononis, Ornithopus, Oxalis, Pachyrhizus (incl. cn. yam bean), Panicum, Paracalyx, Paspalum, Phaseolus, Phyllodium, Prosopis, Pseudarthria, Psophocarpus (incl. cn. asparagus pea), Pueraria, Pycnospora, Rhynchosia, Scorpiurus, Sehima, Senna, Sesbania, Setaria, Smallanthus, Solanum, Sphenostylis, Stipa, Stylosanthes, Tadehagi, Tamarindus (incl. cn. tamarind), Tephrosia, Teramnus, Tetragonolobus, Thymus (incl. cn. thyme), Trifolium, Trigonella, Tropaeolum, Ullucus, Uraria, Urochloa, Voandzeia (incl. cn. bambara groundnut), X Aegilotriticum, Zea, Zornia."},{"index":6,"size":140,"text":"For more details concerning the species and varieties currently held by CG Centres, see the System-wide Information Network for Genetic Resources (SINGER) at http://singer.grinfo.net. CATIE will use the SMTA to distribute non-Annex 1 materials of the following genera: Amaranthus (cn. amaranth), Annona (incl. cn. soursop), Capsicum (cn. peppers), Coffea (cn. coffee), Crotalaria, Cucurbita (cn. cucurbits), Herrania (wild cacao species only), Licania, Lycopersicon (incl. cn. tomato), Macadamia (incl. cn. macadamia nut), Physalis, Pouteria (incl. cn. star apple), Psidium (incl. cn. guava) and Theobroma (incl. cn. cacao); and of the species: Bactris gasipaes (cn. peach palm), Bixa orellana (cn. achiote), Byrsonima crassifolia (cn. nance), Chrysophyllum cainito (cn. cainito), Ipomoea batatas (cn. sweet potato), Lablab purpureus (cn. hyacinth bean), Lagenaria siceraria (cn. bottle gourd), Litchi chinensis (cn. lychee), Manilkara zapota (cn. sapodilla), Pachyrhizus erosus (cn. yam bean), and Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (cn. asparagus pea)."},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"Non-Annex 1 materials to be made available under the SMTA and which are held by the Mutant Germplasm Repository of the FAO/IAEA Joint Division, the International Coconut Genebank for Africa and the Indian Ocean, and the International Coconut Genebank for the South Pacific, are, respectively, Linum usitatissimum (cn. flax) and Cocos nucifera (cn. coconut). cn. = common name."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"For more information, contact Michael Halewood at m.halewood@cgiar.org"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"The SGRP is a partnership programme of the 15 Centres of the CGIAR.  Secretariat of the Secretariat of the CGIAR System-wide CGIAR System-wide Genetic Resources Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP) Programme (SGRP) Bioversity International Bioversity International Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a 00057 Maccarese 00057 Maccarese Rome, Italy Rome, Italy Tel: (39)0661181 Tel: (39)0661181 Email: bioversity@cgiar.org Email: bioversity@cgiar.org Fax: (39)0661979661 Fax: (39)0661979661 www.bioversityinternational.org www.bioversityinternational.org  "}],"sieverID":"8ba2a960-d646-4f8e-b6e8-a1572142cc51","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"023169d3317a8613268cc6a6caf6959e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4765f773-4b1d-435d-8570-649f317755a5/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Phenotyping Common Beans for Adaptation to Drought: Protocol for Field Evaluation C ommon bean Phaseolus vulgaris L. is cultivated by smallholder farmers in","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Latin America and Eastern and Southern Africa, often under unfavorable conditions and with minimal inputs (Beebe et al., 2008). It is estimated that 60% of bean cultivation is at risk of either intermittent or terminal drought (White and Singh, 1991;Thung and Rao, 1999)."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"The effects of drought on common bean are dependent on the intensity, type (e.g., early, intermittent, and terminal drought), and duration of the stress (White and Izquierdo, 1991;Terán and Singh, 2002a, b;Muñoz-Perea et al., 2006). In Africa as much as 300,000 tonnes of beans are lost to drought annually (Wortmann et al., 1998). Bean producing areas where drought is endemic include highland Mexico, Central America, Northeast Brazil, as well as much of Eastern and Southern Africa. Development of drought adapted common bean cultivars is an important strategy to minimize crop failure and increase food security in the face of climate change. Identification of key plant traits and mechanisms that contribute to improved drought adaptation (e.g., root length, root depth, canopy biomass, pod partitioning index, and pod harvest index) can increase the efficiency of breeding programs through the selection of superior genotypes."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"The following protocol allows for the identification of phenotypic differences in drought resistance under field conditions through the quantification of traits related to vigor (canopy biomass and leaf area), plant water status (canopy temperature and stomatal conductance), photosynthate mobilization (pod harvest index and pod partitioning index), shoot/seed nutrient content, and root characteristics."}]},{"head":"Planting Design","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Field trials need to be conducted during the dry season to determine genotypic differences in drought resistance. Trials could include germplasm accessions, bred lines, and recombinant inbred lines as entries. Two levels of water supply (irrigated for no stress, and rainfed for drought stress) need to be applied to quantify the effects of drought on crop growth and seed yield."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Depending on the number of genotypes to be evaluated, a partially balanced lattice design with 3 replications could be used. The field trials can be planted in continuous rows with each genotype per replication planted in 2 side-by-side rows (or 4 rows for small trials) of 2 to 4 m in length. Rows should be spaced 60 cm apart. Seeds should be planted 7.5 cm apart (i.e. 15 seeds per m), thus yielding 10 to 15 plants per meter."}]},{"head":"Soil samples for measuring drought stress","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Soil samples from each replication need to be collected every 10 days, from planting to harvest. These measurements will allow for the quantification of drought stress at different growth stages."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Soil samples need to be collected with a soil corer at 6 depths (0-5, 5-10, 10-20, 20-40, 40-60 and 60-80 cm) to quantify gravimetric soil moisture content. A known volume of soil is sampled for each depth (e.g., cylinders of 5 cm height x 5 cm diameter)."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"2"}]},{"head":"Monitoring Drought Conditions","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Inducing drought stress","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Depending on the rainfall, 2 to 3 gravity irrigations (approximately 35 mm each) are needed to establish the trials with control and drought treatments (one irrigation 6 days before planting and one 10 to 12 days after emergence). The control treatment may require 4 to 5 additional irrigations depending on the rainfall. The drought treatment will not receive any additional irrigation. It is important to monitor the amount of water applied during each irrigation (i.e. 35 to 50 mm)."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Weather parameters (daily rainfall, minimum and maximum temperature, relative humidity, and pan evaporation) need to be recorded with an automated weather station (e.g., Davis Vantage Pro2)."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Depending on rainfall distribution, trials can be conducted under early drought, intermittent drought or late drought conditions."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Samples are immediately fresh weighted and dried in an oven at 105°C until reaching a constant weight, which is generally found between 48-72 hours."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Gravimetric soil moisture content (%) and bulk density (g cm -3 ) are calculated. "}]},{"head":"Measuring soil water with sensors","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Various instruments are available to measure soil water, such as the watermark irrometer. Watermark sensors (granular matrix sensor) are an indirect, calibrated method of measuring soil water. They use an electrical resistance sensor, read by data logging equipment or a soil moisture meter which converts the electrical resistance reading to a calibrated reading of centibars (or kPa) of soil water tension."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Days to flowering is measured individually for each plot when 50% of the plants are in a fully flowered state."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Bean Drought Resistance: Field Evaluation These sensors should be installed at soil depths of 0-10, 10-20, 20-40, 40-60 and 60-80 cm at selected sites in each replication in both the control and drought stress plots (i.e., for 3 replications, a total of 30 sensors would needed). Soil water tension readings need to be recorded every day from planting to harvesting, at a defined hour (e.g., 9 am). Before these readings are taken, a measurement of soil temperature must be entered into the data logger."}]},{"head":"Measuring evapotranspiration","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Complementary to soil water tension measurements, variation in evapotranspiration (ET) needs to be monitored using an ET gage device. A ceramic evaporator at the top of the instrument and a replaceable green canvas covering it allow the instrument to mimic the ET response of plants to solar radiation and atmospheric conditions. As water is drawn from the instrument's reservoir, the water level falls in the sight tube. Every millimeter that the water level drops in the sight tube represents one millimeter of ET. Rain is prevented from entering the instrument."}]},{"head":"Sampling at mid-pod filling","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Days to maturity is measured individually for each plot when 50% of the plants are at maturity (e.g., pods crack open easily when pinched)"}]},{"head":"Determining \"mid-pod filling\"","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Mid-pod filling occurs just before leaves begin to turn yellow, when the plant has no more flowers and seeds are clearly defined in pods."}]},{"head":"SPAD Chlorophyll Meter Readings (SCMR)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"SCMR is measured by using a non-destructive, hand-held chlorophyll meter (e.g., SPAD-502 Chlorophyll Meter). SPAD-502 determines the relative amount of chlorophyll present in the leaf by measuring the absorbance of the leaf in two wavelength regions. Chlorophyll has absorbance peaks in the blue (400-500 nm) and red (600-700 nm) regions, with no transmittance in the near-infrared region. SPAD-502 measures the absorbance of the leaf in the red and near-infrared regions. Using these two transmittances, the meter calculates a numerical SPAD (Soil Plant Analysis Development) value, ranging from 0 to 80 which is proportional to the amount of chlorophyll present in the leaf. SPAD is measured on a fully expanded young leaf of one plant for each replication."}]},{"head":"Stomatal conductance","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Stomatal conductance to water vapor is measured with a portable leaf porometer (e.g., Deacon SC-1). This instrument measures the water vapor flux from the leaf surface to the atmosphere. A fixed diffusion path is clamped to the surface of the leaf, and the vapor flux is determined from the vapor pressure gradient in the diffusion path and the known vapor conductance through the fixed path. If the vapor flux and the conductance in the diffusion path are known, then the stomatal conductance can be easily calculated. Stomatal conductance is measured on a fully expanded young leaf of three different plants within each replication (the same leaf where SPAD is measured)."}]},{"head":"Bean Drought Resistance: Field Evaluation","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Photosystem II Quantum Yield (QY)","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Photosystem II quantum yield (QY) is measured by using a non-destructive, hand-held Qy meter (e.g., Fluorpen FP100). Fluorpen FP100 is a fluorometer that enables quick and precise measurement of chlorophyll fluorescence parameters. FP100 measures F T (continuous fluorescence yield in non-actinic light). F T is equivalent to F 0 if the leaf sample is darkadapted) and QY (Photosystem II quantum yield) is equivalent to F V /F M in dark-adapted samples and F V' / F M' in light-adapted samples. QY is measured on a fully expanded young leaf of one plant for each replication (the same leaf used for SPAD measurement)."}]},{"head":"Canopy temperature","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"An infrared thermometer (e.g., Telatemp AG-42D) is used to record canopy temperature depression (CTD). It is held at 50 cm from the canopy surface in a 45 o angle in order to measure the canopy temperature and the difference in temperature between the leaf canopy and the surrounding air temperature. Note that other models of infrared thermometer (e.g., OS562 Infrared Thermometer) require aiming at a specific spot on a bean leaf. These measurements should be recorded on a fully expanded young leaf of three different plants within each replication (the same leaf where SPAD value and QY are measured)."}]},{"head":"Biomass and leaf area","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"A row length of 0.5 m for each plot should be selected for destructive sampling. The plants are counted, cut to the soil surface, and put in a plastic bag, and transported for processing."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Plants are separated into leaves (without petioles), stems, and remaining plant parts (i.e. pods and reproductive structures)."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"If a leaf area meter is available (e.g., LICOR model LI-3000), the leaf area can be determined."}]},{"head":"Shoot nutrient, ash, and TNC content","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"To determine shoot nutrient (N, P, K, Ca and Mg), ash, and TNC (total nonstructural carbohydrates) content, one plant of each genotype from each plot (i.e., irrigated and drought) is selected for destructive sampling. The plant is cut to the soil surface, put in a paper bag, and transported to the laboratory."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"The plant parts are put in separate paper bags for oven drying at 60 o C for 2 days."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Total dry matter production and the distribution of dry matter into different plant parts (leaf biomass, stem biomass, pod biomass, total above-ground biomass) is quantified."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"After oven drying, the plant is ground using a mill. The ground samples are packed in glass tubes and sent to the laboratory for analysis. Concentration of TNC in different plant parts is determined using NaOH as an extraction medium and anthrone as a reagent. Absorbance of the solution is measured with a spectrophotometer at 620 nm and TNC concentration is determined by comparison with glucose standard (Adapted from Kand and Brink, 1995) Bean Drought Resistance: Field Evaluation"},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"The plant is then washed with deionized water and dried in the oven at 60 o C for 2 days. If analysis by plant part is desired, the plants can be separated into leaves, stems and other plant parts before drying."}]},{"head":"Root length, diameter, biomass and distribution","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"To determine differences in root growth and distribution across the soil profile, root samples are taken at mid-pod filling growth stage at irrigated and rainfed plots. Five soil cores are taken in each replication with a 5 cm diameter soil corer. Three cores are taken between rows and two are taken within rows. For each coring, samples are taken at 5 different depths (0-5, 5-10, 10-20, 20-40 and 40-60 cm)."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"To facilitate washing, samples are first soaked for 30 minutes in 5% sodium hexametaphosphate solution."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Samples from the same depth and replication are pooled together in plastic bags. The 5 bags from each replication (i.e. one for each sampling depth) are then transported to the lab for analysis."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Soil and roots are separated by hand washing and straining."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Roots are then placed in a tub of water and separated from organic matter using tweezers."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"An image analysis system (e.g., WinRHIZO) is then used to determine root length and diameter."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"After scanning, the roots are placed in paper bag for oven drying at 60 o C for 2 days and dry weights are recoarded."}]},{"head":"Sampling at harvest time","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The number of plants are counted and cut to the soil surface."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Differences in rooting among genotypes can be estimated by using a model of vertical root distribution developed by Gale and Grigal (1987)."}]},{"head":"Y= 1-ß d","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Y= the proportion (a value between 0 and 1) of total root biomass or root length from the soil surface to depth d (cm) ß= the fitted \"extinction coefficient\". It provides a simple numerical index of root biomass or length distribution, where high ß values (e.g., 0.98) correspond to a greater proportion of root biomass or root length deep within the soil profile and low ß values (e.g., 0.91) imply a greater proportion of root biomass or root length near the soil surface."}]},{"head":"Biomass","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"A 0.5 m long row is selected for each genotype."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Stems, pods and seeds are dried in the oven at 60 o C for 2 days and dry weights are recorded."}]},{"head":"Bean Drought Resistance: Field Evaluation","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The plants are put into a paper bag and transported for analysis."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Plants are separated into stems, pods and seeds."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"The number of pods and seeds per harvested area is counted."}]},{"head":"Seed nutrient, ash and TNC content","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"After seeds are oven dried and dry weights are recorded, seeds are ground using a mill or other device. The ground samples is packed in glass tubes and sent to the laboratory to determine seed nutrient (N, P, K, Ca and Mg), ash, and TNC content."}]},{"head":"Seed yield and 100 seed weight","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The remaining plants of each genotype are then harvested. Seeds are separated and laid out to dry under ambient conditions. Moisture content is monitored using a seed moisture meter. Once seeds reach a moisture content of around 14%, they are weighed to determine seed yield in kg/ha."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Finally, 100 seeds are randomly selected and weighed."}]},{"head":"• Seed production efficiency (no. g-1):","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The seed production efficiency for each genotype = (seed number per area) / (total shoot biomass dry weight at mid-pod filling per area) Adapted from Board and Maricherla, 2008."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Pod production efficiency (no. g-1):"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"The pod production efficiency for each genotype = (pod number per area) / (total shoot biomass dry weight at mid-pod filling per area) Adapted from Board and Maricherla, 2008."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"• Geometric mean (GM) of seed yield, 100 seed weight, and days to maturity: GM = (ns x ds) 0.5 where ns and ds are values for drought stress and no stress treatments, respectively."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Statistical analysis: For all of the above quantifications, variance is calculated by using a statistical software system, such as SAS/STAT Software. A probability level of 0.05 is considered statistically significant."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Øm = Mw * 100 / Ms Øm = gravimetric soil water content (%) Mw = mass of water evaporated, g Ms = mass of dry soil, g Soil bulk density (g cm -3 ) Øb = Ms / Vb rb = Soil bulk density (g cm -3 ) Ms = mass of dry soil, g Vb = volume of soil sample, cm 3 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"6ae3de65-cbcc-4f04-9ed4-a5ffd35bac3c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0272c232ea9931d010d4ae22af4d4416","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/33d6b3a4-b345-46ce-a364-69291d3b1f50/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Climate finance and peace-tackling the climate and humanitarian crisis","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"2021's Conference of Parties, the 26th UN Climate Change Conference of Parties (COP26), is crucially important as governments-for the first time since the Paris Agreement-are expected to agree on concrete commitments and greater ambitions to limit global warming to 1•5°C. COP26 President-Designate Alok Sharma stated that delivery of US$100 billion in climate finance is going to be the key to whether the goals of COP26 succeed or fail. At the same time, people worldwide have started acknowledging the impacts of the climate crisis on peace and security-otherwise called the climate security nexus. 1,2 The concern then becomes where and how objectives and investments in adaptation and peacebuilding can be aligned, and how trade-offs between climate finance, peace, and security can be minimised or avoided."},{"index":2,"size":469,"text":"An overlay of adaptation potential and the Global Peace Index (appendix pp 1-7) shows that most of the low-income countries in tropical areas experience a combination of peacebuilding and adaptation challenges, and, only in very few countries, one or the other priority dominates clearly (figure). In other words, most of the low-income countries in tropical areas are exposed and vulnerable to climate change, and these countries are also prone to fragility due to insecurity and conflict. Globally, 355 million households (about 1•3 billion people) are exposed to climate hazards and are, thus, in need of climate change adaptation; 40% of those (142 million households, or 527 million people) are in conflict-prone and fragileprone areas. Furthermore, the number of households exposed to climate hazards is about six times greater in conflict-prone areas compared with more peaceful areas. The greatest opportunities to align adaptation and peacebuilding objectives and finance exist in Syria, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Turkey, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Philippines, Myanmar, and India. These  beneficiaries, ranging from 1 million to 2 million households per country (appendix pp 2-6). Despite opportunities for action, climate finance has yet to be leveraged in a way that maximises synergies between climate adaptation and peace and produces the optimum co-benefits. Currently, adaptation investments insufficiently target countries at substantial risk of climate-driven instability and conflict. Notably, only two out of the top ten global recipients of adaptation finance-Niger and Ethiopiaare highly exposed to climate hazards and marked by low levels of peacefulness. The Green Climate Fund, the main climate funder to developing countries, has recently taken measures to address this imbalance and has approved four new projects to implement climate action in fragile states. This measure brings the total number of Green Climate Fund adaptation projects in fragile and conflict-affected contexts to 12 out of 63 projects globally. 3 Although a growing focus is being given to fragile and crisis settings, climate funding still supports siloed responses and solutions that are not conflict-sensitive and context-sensitive. 4 Conflict prevention and peacebuilding objectives are rarely featured in adaptation programming and, currently, very few projects promote integrated approaches to climate and conflict risks. 5 If designed and implemented without consideration for conflict situations, adaptation strategies can inadvertently reinforce existing conflict dynamics or create new ones. 6 Adaption measures that do not consider conflict situations can indirectly increase conflict potential by affecting economic performances, undermining political stability, or fostering social inequalities and grievances. 7 For instance, the Salma Dam project in Afghanistan has intensified group marginalisation and resource competition in the Zinda Jan district by restricting access to the shared water supply. 8 These adaptation strategies ultimately result in negative feedback that precludes development and sustainable peace under a changing climate. Adaptation can therefore increase the risk and severity of conflict, and related socioeconomic costs can hinder adaptation efforts."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"However, a conflict-sensitive approach to adaptation might avoid an outbreak or a relapse of conflict and even facilitate building and sustaining peace, especially at the local level. 9 The project by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN in Abyei, South Sudan, is an example of a conflict-sensitive approach to adaptation. The provision of community-based animal health services to both the Dinka Ngok and the Misseriya communities increased dialogue and trust between these conflicting ethnic groups, thereby reducing resource-related conflicts and facilitating peace. 10 Thus, to prevent harmful impacts of adaptation, climate finance and adaptation programming should at a minimum apply the principle of do no harm, which includes promoting resilience and livelihoodbased solutions without creating further tensions and conflicts."},{"index":4,"size":187,"text":"Public finance actors, such as the Green Climate Fund, the Global Environmental Facility, and the Adaptation Fund, can and should directly contribute to peace and stability and address drivers of conflict, reinforce peace drivers, and where possible contribute to sustaining peace. At a minimum, conflict prevention and peacebuilding objectives must be included in the environmental and social safeguards. A more proactive peacebuilding approach would be to increase funds to tackle national and transboundary natural resource management issues that are at the root cause of conflict, while, for example, also delivering technologies that increase water use-efficiency at the local level. It is also crucial to ease entry barriers for fragile and conflictaffected countries, which are often automatically excluded from most common climate funds due to the scarcity of historical data to support their applications. At policy level, guidelines are needed to align adaptation and peacebuilding efforts from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change National Communications, and National Adaptation Plans. CGIAR and other academic institutions must actively support finance actors to mainstream climate security analysis and programming guidelines into daily operations."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"We declare no competing interests."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"Editorial note: the Lancet Group takes a neutral position with respect to territorial claims in published maps and institutional affiliations."}]},{"head":"Comment","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure: Overlay of adaptation potential and the Global Peace Index Adaptation potential assumes investments in agricultural adaptation are prioritised in areas where rural households are exposed to climate hazards. Global Peace Index measures the relative position of countries' peacefulness (a lower index indicates higher peacefulness). Grey indicates low adaptation potential and low index. Shades of green show increasing index values (light to dark green, over the x-axis of the colour scale); shades of blue show increasing adaptation potential (light to dark blue, over the y-axis of the colour scale). The top-right corner of the colour scale shows the combination of high adaptation potential and high index. "},{"text":" .com/planetary-health Vol 5 December 2021 "}],"sieverID":"77e3cd87-7d18-4597-8e11-d3ed8932e83e","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0325794de26c4f0ab2d9f016c702a0a3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0918ff9b-fb60-4f0f-b01d-f9f4fbe1f558/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"POLICY BRIEF: LAND DEGRADATION IN BURKINA FASO","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The methods conducted in this land degradation assessment were hierarchical (covering three different scales: national, department and watershed) and involved stakeholder consultations for field validation evidences (See Figure 1)."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Figure 1 illustrates the process and methodology that was followed in the degradation assessment:"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"The degradation was conducted at multiple scales from the national, department and watershed level."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Relevant data was collected for areas of interest, and this was subjected to modeling and analyses."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"Results from the modeling were shared with expert groups of stakeholders and feedback from this process was then incorporated back into the assessments. This was followed by field validation and verification exercises."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"Using the results from the field validation and verification, \"what if scenarios\" were then conducted to provide a suite of restoration options."}]},{"head":"Houet Tuy","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"target them as priority intervention sites with relevant management options. This national level policy brief is complemented by two other detailed policy briefs focusing on the departments of Houet and Tuy. In addition, this policy brief is supported by a detailed comprehensive assessment report which can be accessed at this link: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/97165 "}]},{"head":"MULTIPLE SCALES: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATIONS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"This policy brief highlights key messages that are pertinent at the national level complemented with Departmental level policy briefs for Houet and Tuy departments. The results highlight key priorities that may be considered by policymakers to develop feasible restoration options that are scalable. This policy brief highlights 3 key messages: i) the multi-dimensional nature of land degradation highlighting the most vulnerable areas; ii) the added need for concerted effort because land degradation is further worsened by climate change and variability as well as land use changes; iii) the need to tailor intervention options from the grassroots and scale these further to wider areas. The 3 key messages are not independent of each other but have inter-related linkages. It is therefore envisaged that the knowledge co-produced in this assessment, as well as its policy recommendations, will contribute to the development and implementation of multi-dimensional strategies and plans towards relevant land restoration options. The land degradation hotspot map was derived based on time series analysis of satellite (AVHRR NPP) and climate (CHIRPS) data in order to map the spatial distribution of land degradation risk for prioritizing intervention areas at national level. The map was classified into three trend levels: negative, neutral and positive trends. On the overall, the degradation trend, areas of significant trends and the trend map correlated with rainfall for Burkina Faso."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"Figure 2(a) shows the long-term trends of annual NDVI estimated using the linear slope method to represent annual accumulated NDVI over time. In the Figure , GREEN indicates positive trend while ORANGE and RED show transition to neutral and negative trend, respectively. Figure 2b is the trend after significant test was done while Fig. 2c shows the correlation between NDVI trend and rainfall supply over time. Based on Figure 2, the majority of the western, southern and southeastern part of Burkina Faso experiences significant land degradation compared to other parts of the country. Our work denotes that about 30% of the areas supporting about 27% of the population experience declining land productivity possibly due to human-related causes, which can be in the form of deforestation, soil surface crusting overgrazing and/or poor land management and gullies infringing on cropland areas as exemplified by Plate 1."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"The major drivers of land degradation can be \"climate induced\" and/or \"human-caused\". The long-term response of green biomass to changes in annual rainfall was tested using Pearson's correlation coefficient for every pixel. The areas that are YELLOW indicated areas showing significant negative trend in NDVI and are not affected by annual changes in rainfall. This could be attributed to 'other' factors excluding climate or human. Regions in RED have negative correlation with rainfall and are decreasing in NDVI. This could be an indication of human impact. GREEN shows areas of improving trend and positive correlation with rainfall. Additional preventive measures need to be taken for non-degraded areas since the costs of restoration will outweigh the preventive measures and will never attain its original state."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"For the western, southern and south-eastern parts of Burkina Faso, there are higher levels of land degradation compared to the other parts with about 30% of the population residing in the areas characterized by land degradation). Despite this, attention needs to be focused on the non-degraded areas as well because this can generally be the case in many arid and semi-arid areas where climatic factors drive population to less risk and relatively high potential areas (Ouedraogo et al. 2009;Lenhardt et al., 2014;Etongo, 2016) but the population pressure in turn can then result to land degradation over time if specific measures such as land use change policies are not strongly enforced. KEY MESSAGE 3: Integration of proven practices and scaling up of best management practices tailored for Burkina Faso coupled with innovative farming options promises to transform and restore the vulnerable and degraded areas."},{"index":5,"size":211,"text":"We used a suite of models SWAT and SWAT-APEX to explore potential feasible interventions for the hotspot areas e.g. around Poni. For Burkina Faso, sub-watersheds that were \"hotspots\" with high sediment loads, surface runoff and low water yields were used to demonstrate remediation or restoration options while the green-spots were used to demonstrate the need for preventive measures to avoid degradation even in places that are seemingly unaffected. For example, for Houet department, sub-watershed 11 was selected as a hotspot then processed through APEX to yield 33 additional smaller sub-areas. Thereafter, the 4 interventions for restoration or remediation were deployed within the sub-areas to assess their impact on sediment yield, surface runoff and water yield. Mitigating the risk of land degradation will require a basket of options/solutions deployed to address specific issues in relation to erosion reduction, reduce surface runoff losses within different areas especially the hotspot areas that were affected by land degradation. In this work, we conducted modeling scenarios with the APEX-SWAT model to develop specific \"What if scenarios\" for restoration to the hotspot areas. For example, in the Houet Department, the scenarios demonstrated that the use of stone bunds, ridges, half-moon and Zai pits has promising options to reduce sediment yield, reduce surface runoff and increase water yield. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 1: Land degradation assessment approaches "},{"text":" https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/97165 KEY MESSAGE 1: Land degradation in Burkina Faso needs concerted action especially within the vulnerable zones. The areas experiencing significant land degradation are the western, southern and southeastern parts. These are at higher risk than the central and northern parts of the country. Understanding the spatial locations helps identify hotspot areas and target them as priority intervention sites with relevant management options. INSIGHTS Efforts that use evidence-based approaches from these degradation assessments (supported by an enabling policy environment) will be needed to facilitate targeted strategies and interventions, in an inclusive manner with all the relevant stakeholders. Negative Trend-No Sig. Correlation Positive Trend-No.Sig Correlation Negative Trend-Positive Correlation Positive Trend-Positive Correlation VALUE High: 0.0313015 Low: -0.0627574 "},{"text":"Plate 1 .Figure 2 : Figure 2: (a) Long-term trends of annual NDVI; (b) trend after significant test and (c) correlation between NDVI and rainfall in Burkina Faso. "},{"text":" . 2016. Poverty and Environmental Degradation in Southern Burkina Faso: An assessment Based on Participatory Methods. Lenhardt, Amanda Glennie, J, Intscher, N and A, Ali, with Gabriel Morin (2014). A greener Burkina Sustainable farming techniques, land reclamation and improved livelihoods. Overseas Development Institute, Case Study Report. https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publicationsopinion-files/9153.pdf Ouedraogo I., M. Tigabu, R. Cole, P.C. Oden, J.M. Oudba, (2009). Is rural migration a threat to environmental sustainability in Southern Burkina Faso? Use of promising pilot areas to scale and leverage what is already working needs to be promoted and replicated elsewhere to restore ecosystem services in the areas around Poni, Lena, Bobo-Dioulassou and Karangasso-Vigue. Innovative landscape mechanisms proposed in the \"what-if\" scenarios modeling need to be complemented with demand driven economic options in order to promote uptake, sustainability, and scalability. In order for interventions to have impact, farmer centered capacity building needs to be emphasized using feasible interventions such as those proposed in the \"what-if\" scenarios for the hotspot areas. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Impact of restoration options on sediment yield, surface runoff and water yield in Houet Department "}],"sieverID":"58180f39-2e60-4326-a6e4-e1a47fc7a86b","abstract":"This policy brief aims to give an overview of land degradation hotspots in Burkina Faso and the policy options for land restoration. In this assessment, land degradation is referred to as the persistent loss of ecosystem function and productivity caused by disturbances from which the land cannot recover without human intervention (unaided). Hotspots are defined as places that experience high land degradation and if left unattended, will negatively affect both human wellbeing and the environment. The spatial location of hotspots was identified through a methodology combining modelling and field validation. Understanding the spatial locations helps identify hotspot areas and"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0347370d9f42a916bba6939a310283f2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0a8b0a1b-f5c1-4052-b82e-a7357103dd9b/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"A Complementary Approach to Developing Progress Markers","keywords":["Outcome mapping","outcomes","project indicators","progress makers","KAP"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Outcomes are the central focus of a project's planning, implementation and monitoring framework when using the Outcome Mapping (OM) approach (Earl et al, 2001). They describe changes in the boundary partners 1 (BPs) behaviour as a result of a project's intervention efforts and can include both quantitative and qualitative change. Outcomes in Outcome Mapping are specifically defined as changes in the actions, activities or relationships of individuals and groups, as well as changes in organizations and institutional systems with possible support of the activities and outputs of a project, programme or organization. The outcome challenge (OC) is the development intervention's idea 2 of how the BPs is successfully contributing to the desired vision of change. Progress markers describe the gradual or milestone changes in a boundary partner as they progress from their current situation to full achievement of their outcome challenge, from their very first steps right through to deeper transformative changes."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Identifying realistic and observable progress markers is essential to success in applying the Outcome Mapping methodology. Progress markers provide a framework for observing changes in the boundary partner's actions, interactions, relationships, procedures or policies over time, and can measure the direction of those changes in relation to the agreed intention. In this paper, we postulate that progress markers follow distinct patterns of change as the selected boundary partners' transformation progresses towards the Outcome Challenge. These patterns of change can be helpful within the Outcome Mapping intentional design work with boundary partners, to strengthen understanding about desired behavioural change and ultimately, the effectiveness of the project in achieving outcomes."}]},{"head":"Background, Justification and Hypothesis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Using sets of progress markers from different projects with different boundary partners, we set out to demonstrate that behavioural changes, while complex, nonlinear and somewhat unpredictable, can often follow a consistent pattern. We were aware that there is the Expect, Like and Love to see sequence of progress markers, but the exact meaning of this groups is indefinite and, in many instances, challenging to explain the difference. With a rather fluid difference between Expect, Like and Love sequence, it is not clear how a program can demonstrate progress was being made. If progress markers could be grouped into distinct describable groups, like Knowledge types to Attitude types to Practices (K-A-P) types of change, the resulting categorisation could support better their development. However, we also wanted to explore the implications of any emerging patterns to the generation of effective progress markers."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"The initial hypothesis for this research was that when projects developed a set of progress markers, with or without the involvement of boundary partners, they followed a KAP sequence. The model can be summarised as follows: the knowledge phase (K) is when the partner gets to learn the project's intentions and vision. It is followed by an attitude phase (A) when the partner demonstrates an 'emotional' and motivational connection to the project's intention. This may range from just a change from extreme negativity to tolerance, or from acceptance to avid enthusiasm (if demonstrable) to the project's vision and mission. The final practice phase (P) is when the partner undertakes actions corresponding to commitment to the project's intended goals. The research intended to test the hypothesis that the K-A-P model can be used as a simplified complementary approach to assist OM users in developing and monitoring effective indicators of progress (PMs)."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"In Outcome Mapping we speak about how to influence change and we acknowledge that there are many contributions to change which are outside our sphere of influence, and therefore not predictable. Change in Outcome Mapping is generally understood as complex and non-linear."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"The KAP model, on the other hand, views change as predictable and linear. We did not expect the KAP model would explain patterns of change in all cases. Our underlying research objective was to strengthen methods for developing effective (planned and achieved) progress markers. We set out to discover patterns of change in planned progress markers to see if ways of thinking about change (KAP or other) could contribute to the overall effectiveness of Outcome Mapping."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"We assumed that a set of markers did not have to cover all of the three phases of the model and that the markers may have been developed for only one or two collapsed phases. However, the K-A-P sequence was still expected to be maintained, so that attitude always followed knowledge, and practice always followed attitude. We were careful not to narrow down the focus on the K-A-P sequence alone, so that if the model was not proved, further analysis could allow us to explore patterns of change observed in the sets of PMs."}]},{"head":"Theories of Behaviour Change","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"There are numerous models of predicting individual behaviour change and, in the early 1990's, research was conducted to determine common elements between the most widely accepted models, (Prochaska, et al, 1992). Based on their research, the three necessary conditions that are required for individual behaviour change to occur are:"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"1. The person has the skills necessary to perform the behaviour 2. The person has formed a strong positive intention (or made a commitment) to perform the behaviour 3. There are no environmental constraints that make it impossible for the behaviour to occur"},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The three necessary conditions for behaviour change follow the first two phases of the K-A-P model to some extent. For example, 'having the necessary skills to perform the behaviour' could be viewed as the knowledge phase of the K-A-P model. Having made, 'a commitment to perform the behaviour,' could be viewed as the attitude phase of the KAP model."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"One initial challenge with applying the KAP model hypothesis is that, in Outcome Mapping, attitude change can be reflected in actions at every stage including the very beginning of the work with boundary partners. This is particularly true when BPs are active participants in the project from the beginning. Changes in attitude are very hard to measure and even harder to determine is the extent to which an attitudinal change has contributed to the new practice (behaviour)."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"Contributing to discussions in the Outcome Mapping Learning Community (OMLC) in 2007, Terry Smutylo (one of the authors of OM) points out that 'In OM we consider that, in general, attitudinal changes, if significant to the programme, will be reflected in the behavioural changes of the actors. The early progress markers (Expect to See) often indicate that the boundary partner perceives project intentions, recognizes the need for change, commits to making change and takes some first steps towards changing. These changes in perspective or intent on the part of the partner could be considered changes associated with attitudinal change'."},{"index":6,"size":116,"text":"On many occasions boundary partners are not just individual people but comprise groups, organisations and institutions. It is the intention of many development programmes to bring about transformation in groups, organisations and institutions, who may then go through phases of realisation, reflection, and implementation of change. When a program develops progress markers for these boundary partners, targeted change will consist of transformation similar to that expected in individual boundary partners, but demonstrated as changes in working relationships, institutional values and policies, and operating procedures (Practices). During the study, and without separating types of BPs, we sought to observe the patterns of change in such boundary partners, and if they also followed a K -A -P sequence."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data collection","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Contributions were invited from projects that have used OM in their programs. Data was collected using a questionnaire and telephone conversations. Progress marker data was also extracted from the researcher's own project case reports. In the end 32 sets of PMs were collected from 13 projects, which was not large or random enough to allow for statistical analysis. Therefore, the inferences made hereafter are based on an appraisal of what was observed from the sets provided and may not be generalised to a wider population of progress marker sets."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The sets of progress markers, together with details about the implementing organisations, projects and boundary partners have been compiled in a separate report (available upon request). Presented in this paper is the classification of progress markers and a few examples for demonstration."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Initially, each progress marker was reviewed and allocated into one of the KAP categories by reading about the project and the boundary partner, and selected a class (K, A or P) for a progress marker depending on our interpretation of which class it belonged. Later, when we concluded the invalidity of the K, A and P model, we repeated the analysis using our new observed 'Practice' outcome classes which we defined as P1, P2 and P3. The same process of scoring, using the new P-type classification was followed. It was not always possible to interpret the meaning and extent of the outcomes described, because we struggled to find observable action-oriented statements to facilitate interpretations. This also required an understanding of the project and the context of the change implied, leading to further consultations with the respondents."}]},{"head":"Findings and discussion","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Categorization of Progress Markers","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"To look for patterns in the arrangement of the markers, the sets were placed in a table as shown in Appendix 1. The top row lists the 32 boundary partners -not arranged in any specific order. The rest is a chart showing a colour-coded allocation of outcome type for each marker. Projects developed different numbers of progress markers for each of their BPs. Some only had seven PMs while the longest sets had up to 19 PMs for a boundary partner. Boundary partner No 28 also had seven PMs, but two of themthe first and the last -were not changes associated with the BP, so they were not scored. In all the discussions, hereafter, some progress markers have been extracted from the original sets and are presented as examples in various figures."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"As mentioned earlier, the progress markers obtained through the survey respondents did not fit into K, A and P categories. An examination of the PMs statements quickly revealed that change was not distinctly about knowledge acquisition (K), and attitudinal change (A), followed in the end by observable practices (P), especially in an exclusively separate sequenced manner. Almost all of the progress markers provided describe actions by the BP and therefore can be interpreted as practices. At the same time, many of the progress markers provided describe complex actions that encompass knowledge and attitude change with/or without practical actions. Furthermore, the markers varied from simple (oneline) actions (box 1) to a complex set of activities (box 2). This observation is important since it clearly illustrates that the hypothesis -(that PMs follow the K-A-P sequence) could NOT be proved by the sets of PMs received."}]},{"head":"Box 1. Examples of single-action PMs","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"...keep records of steering team meetings & activities (A and P) ...attend information sessions and ask questions (K, A and P) ...donate prizes (A and P) ...use the ILRI LFFS manual (P) ...mobilise communities into establishing LFFS (A and P) ...prepare informative materials to hand in to prospective employers (A and P) ...generate their own funds and reinvest in community projects (A and P) ...establish their own business (K, A and P)"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"A fresh analysis of the progress markers revealed that they fell into outcome classes that were about practices of different types in the change process. They were labelled practice level 1 (P1); practice level 2 (P2); and practice level 3 (P3)."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"P1 type of progress markers were outcomes related to BPs developing an understanding of the project goals, their role, that the role of other stakeholders (including the beneficiaries) and implications of the project's goals on their environment (social, economic and bio-geographical), plus feeding back any concerns implied by planned change. The examples below (box 3) demonstrate that these kinds of outcomes describe the BP as building their knowledge, awareness and gathering of information in preparation for change."}]},{"head":"Box 3. Examples of P1 types of progress markers: Knowledge acquisition processes and practices","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"...accept appointments with the project team to learn about the technology ...attending forums where (the project) elaborates about the technology ...raising questions and issues that (the Project) will address to encourage (the BP's) uptake of the technology ...attending events hosted by youth regarding the information society ...seek out information on issues related to the digital divide, digital opportunities, the information society, and ICT4D ...reading materials provided by CFC1 and their peers through the (Project's) Initiative ...seek out additional information on water and watershed issues from external sources ...requesting position papers from the relevant departments to solicit input into decisions ...clarify their purpose, methods of organisation and internal functioning ...identifying (their) environmental problems (in relation to the Project's initiative)"}]},{"head":"Box 2. Examples of complex-action PMs","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"...undertaking activities that enhance awareness and commitment on urban agriculture and food security at local and national level (K, A and P) ...select a real case to apply the research-action in MAC and follow its development until they obtain relevant outcomes and a joint learning (K, A and P) ...guarantee that their participation is representative of the group and maintain communication with the groups to which they belong so that decisions made are qualified and socialised among all stakeholders. (K, A and P) ...participating in joint research ventures with the (research) team, working with the researchers and veterinary authorities on policies and regulations for the region that will allow the adoption and implementation of the technology (K, A and P)"},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"The second cluster of progress markers, P2 types, is outcomes with more tangible engagement in the project's activities. The partner is acting independently in support of the project's mission and carries out proposed tasks as shown in box 4. These outcomes also include the partner communicating the project's intended goals to others and supporting the latter's participation or making the desired change relevant."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"The third and final cluster of progress markers (P3) are outcomes consistent with institutionalisation of intended change and ownership in continuing the desired changes. At the individual and group levels, the outcomes demonstrate cultural transformation. At institutional levels (national, regional or international organisations' levels) the actions are reflected in strategies, changed systems and policies embedded into rules and regulations. Examples are shown in box 5. ...provide human and financial support to young people and youth organisations engaging in national, regional, and international ICT4D policy dialogues ...sharing lessons and advocating the use of the (LFFS) methodology ... to (their) superiors, etc."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"...institutionalise the methodology, including the practice in all extension practices: have it written in their practice manuals, policies and mission statements ...contribute to the improvement of the methodology internationally to continually make it even more effective ...generate their own funds and re-invest in (related) community projects ...influence policies and local development (in line with the project's plans) ...developing and putting in place a communication policy guiding how information is shared within the organisation ...establishing mechanisms to share and review work programmes across departments, especially on research projects Can also be both type P2 (initiating and strengthening local platforms for dialogue is P2) and P3 ('joint planning, implementation and monitoring of action plans' is a made-for-sustainability P3-type of response)."},{"index":5,"size":100,"text":"Context is important when categorizing progress markers. Indeed Smutylo (2009) points out that the sets of progress markers will strongly be related to the context. One needs to understand what the project was addressing and/or the stage of implementation, the rationale for the boundary partner(s) selected and their attitudinal position in relation to the project's vision, their outcome challenge(s) and capacity to transform or influence transformation. Even external factors such as political and economic environments, can dictate the nature of progress markers to be planned for. In addition to understanding the context, the categorization of PMs is a subjective interpretation."}]},{"head":"Patterns in progress markers categories","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The P1, P2 and P3 classes of progress markers for the different BPs were categorized and colour coded. Appendix 1 shows that most PMs are at the P1 and P2 level, which occur during the earlier stages of planned changes. Though we believe change to be non-linear and cyclical in nature, P1 outcomes were consistently followed by P2 outcomes. The P3 types of PMs (sustained continuous change and Institutionalization) come at later stages."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"The metaphor that fits well with understanding the categories of PMs is that of a journey. Dr Barry Kibel, the founder of Outcome Engineering -a precursor to Outcome Mapping -identified six stages of group change using the metaphor of a journey as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Level 1: Knowing that there is a journey to take (Corresponds to the P1 level) Level 2: Taking the first Steps (P1) Level 3: Investing your own resources (P1/P2/P3) Level 4: Overcoming resistance to the change (P1/P2/P3) Level 5: Identifying with the journey by joining with others with a similar approach (Corresponds to the P2 level) Level 6: Leaving a legacy (now an expert for others) (Corresponds to the P3 level)."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"P1 progress markers can be equated with a boundary partner building knowledge and capacity in preparation for the journey. P2 progress markers contain steps about the boundary partner's ownership in the journey of change. They demonstrate commitment to the journey with the partners investing their own resources and time, and developing extended networks of support. The boundary partners communicate intended goals to others, encouraging them to join the journey. P3 progress markers describe steps about the boundary partner continuing the journey as leaders and experts for others. At the individual and group levels, the BPs undergo cultural transformation; at an organizational level there are institutional outcomes reflected in policies embedded into rules of interaction as the journey proceeds."}]},{"head":"Progress markers for particular boundary partners","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"As mentioned earlier any set of markers developed for a partner will strongly be related to the project's context. We have postulated that progress markers for any BP will depend on the stage of project implementation and the alignment status of that particular BP to the project goals and the shared vision of change. That is to say that once a program identifies which BPs they will work with, they will develop markers with or for each of them based on outcomes that should be supported."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"It is, therefore, easy to observe that P1 progress markers will be crucial when introducing a project to new boundary partners. It will be especially vital in getting support from those disinclined to the mission or vision. The focus should then be to increase their knowledge regarding the Program's background and justification so as to develop acceptance, even if only to a point of tolerance. Participatory processes should be applied to provide space for the partners to indicate how the project should proceed for them. The examples shown in box 3 are typical, especially if arrangements are made for opportunities the program has to address any questions and concerns raised by the boundary partners as well as other stakeholders they (the BPs) interact with."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"The P2 set of progress markers describe outcomes related to partners undertaking tasks and activities planned and supported by the project. In this set of outcomes, the project is working with BPs who are relatively more aligned and ready to support the project's mission. It is through this set of PMs (and related boundary partners) where the Program easily demonstrates progression beyond the initial introductory stages. Involving partners in project activities (undertaking assigned tasks, translating project intentions into what they would like/prefer and promoting the project's vision and mission to other stakeholders) has often been reported as progress made."},{"index":4,"size":237,"text":"For boundary partners demonstrating eager support, the program would be better served by working with boundary partners to entrench targeted changes using P3 types of progress markers ('culturalization', institutionalization and regularization of the change through long term policies). P3 level PMs indicate how the program is sustaining change. One may argue that P3 types of progress markers should occupy a dominant part of targeted change since they demonstrate a kind of permanence in targeted system change. The sampled 32 sets (though not random) do not show this. There is a possibility that most projects are more confident of getting partners convinced of their intentions and expect the ownership and entrenchment to develop in due time. It could also be that the P3 level progress markers require profound changes in individuals, organizations and systems and the process must first be owned and then directed by the partners in an emergent way. Another argument is that P3 types of outcomes should only be associated with partners who have the capacity to sustain such change, e.g. cultural leaders and policy makers, who may not be within the project's sphere of influence. That may be so, but change can also be effected by working at the level of the partners' environment. That way the institutionalization can be achieved if it is supported by members of a community able to communicate such development to its key members. Examples from the sets include:"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"Extension Agents/Workers... providing expertise on LFFS to policy planners and development organizations"}]},{"head":"Communities... providing inputs in policy formulation and decision making","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"The Association of Municipalities (villages)... defending the interests of member municipalities to (governing) institutions... and partners ... In conclusion, one may consider initial progress markers to be the 'low hanging fruits' and sometimes easily achievable if the targeted BP is aligned with the project's vision and mission. This conclusion supports the case for thorough stakeholder analysis, using an understanding of the dimensions of power to influence, accompanied by how well aligned the boundary partners are to planned changes. During the stakeholder analysis, projects should explore the outcomes to be targeted (to achieve the vision), what the gaps to achieve these outcomes are and, hence, who are the most effective to support (BPs) to address those gaps."}]},{"head":"Relating P1, P2, and P3 PMs with Expect, Like and Love to see categories","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"There were only a few progress markers provided that were categorised into the Expect to see ..., Like to see ... and Love to see ... groups mentioned in the OM manual. It appears as though projects developed markers convenient for their own planning and monitoring process. In addition, not many followed the guidelines recommended in the manual on numbers of progress markers at each category: three (Expect to see), eight (Like to see) and three (Love to see) progress markers. Out of the 32 sets only six sets had 15 progress markers of change and none of those six sets showed to which groups the PMs belonged."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"The manual describes the 'Expect to see' markers as 'what the partner would be doing as early response' to the project's mission, followed by what the programme would 'Like to see' the partner doing and then 'Love to see' them doing if the project was having a profound influence. The early progress markers are those seen to be 'low hanging fruit' (Smutylo, 2009), and are easy to achieve before planning for and recording changes that would take time or greater commitment by the partner. There may be no direct relationship between the Expect, Like and Love to see sequence and the P1, P2 and P 3 order, and this study did not try to find a relationship between the two ways of categorising progress markers."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Generally, our research results show that progress markers move from P1, where partners acquire knowledge and capacity building in preparation for change, to P2 where they are engaged in and embarking on a change process, and if possible, P3 the regularisation of the change process. As mentioned earlier, this research was exploring for a kind of classification that could provide a more distinct way of classifying outcomes, rather than the fluid and indefinite Expect, Like and Love to see groups. The difference between the two ways of categorising markers shows that P1, P2 and P3 categories can be used to build on the Expect, Like and Love sequencing."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"As argued earlier, when discussing the influence of alignment with the project, markers can start from one category or another; it will depend on how aligned the partner is to the project's initial approaches as well as to emerging developments and information. For some partners, information-seeking behaviour will be an expected starting point, for others it will be about getting immediately involved in planned activities and promoting the project's objectives, and so on."},{"index":5,"size":93,"text":"The sets provided by the respondents did not appear to always follow this sequence. Assuming the Expect, Like and Love to see sequence is reflected in the P1, P2 and P3 order, there were instances where outcomes describing entrenched or sustained change (P3) came before what may be considered early signs of influence involving awareness and capacity building (P1) . This is expected as programmes may support partners to get involved in project activities (P2 and Like to see) in order to realise early (expect to see or P1) types of progress markers."}]},{"head":"Progress markers are NOT supposed to be linear","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"Although the PM sets analysed were not comprehensive enough to demonstrate the cyclical nature of change, many authors reiterate that change in systems is not linear, but complex, adaptive development which depends on internal and external dynamics that influence direction. The Participatory Impact Pathway Analysis (PIPA) method -an approach complimentary in many ways to Outcome Mappingacknowledges that progress in complex adaptive systems is not linear, but emergent and unpredictable (Douthwaite, et al, 2008). A fundamental element of PIPA is stakeholders regularly planning, reviewing and revising for incremental progression. Reeler (2007) argues that approaching development as a linear process is a common delusion of programme designers. He argues that progress happens as a result of change that is emergent and transformative despite any projectable planning."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Developing progress markers is an example of projectable planning that assumes stability of various influential factors but it should be done as part of a cyclic learning process (Figure 1). Ideally PMs are supposed to be revised during (and even beyond) the project period. The outcomes of a boundary partner can vary, rendering planned evidence of change meaningless or its importance less significant. This variation can be a continuous progression from one P category to another."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"For example P1 progress markers for a project in mid-term review or at the end of a project cycle (for reflection in cycle-mode), are actions associated with how to better appreciate project progress and emergent changes for more appropriate contribution to the mission. They are outcomes associated with how partners appreciate progress that has been made so far and how to manage emerging developments for more effective contribution to the mission. A revision of P2 progress markers will then be about the BP promoting the programme's new vision and mission in line with the emerging changes, while P3 types will be about entrenching revised cultures and policies in consideration of these developments. An example of one set of PMs that possibly showed such a cycling is presented in Figure 1."}]},{"head":"Figure 1. A cyclic depiction of P1, P2 and P3 types of progress markers","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"From a planning and monitoring viewpoint there are two main challenges of this cycling trend. The first is the project's ability to predict in advance (during initial planning stages of a project) the nature of the second (or third) level changes (or steps). These can only become clearer during reviews of progress made and emerging factors influencing future plans. The second challenge will be the collection of evidence to demonstrate that the project was proceeding towards its long term vision."}]},{"head":"Figure 2. An example of a progress marker set with cycles of P, P2 and P3 types","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Boundary Partner: Senior Management Group (SMG) Outcome Challenge: The project intended to see the members of SMG seeking wide participation throughout the organization in the planning and implementation of the Change Management Programme (CMP), and in maintaining close working relationships with Head of Governments and other senior officials within the member countries. The SMG shows strong and visible leadership and have frequent face-to-face communication with staff. The SMG recognises the achievements of teams and staff in the development and implementation of the CMP. The SMG adheres to the agreed-upon model and champions and exemplifies the core values, particularly transparency and open communications, respect for staff, ensuring that staff are treated fairly and equitably and that policies are consistently applied. The SMG ensures that departments are adequately resourced with the required skill mix to meet client's current and future development needs."}]},{"head":"Progress markers","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Cycling P Types Senior Management Group ... develop and put in place a communication policy guiding how information is shared within the organisation. P3 They ... schedule regular meetings to communicate the decisions and rationale of board meetings."}]},{"head":"P2","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"They ... interact frequently with staff to exchange ideas and provide clarity and consistency in the formulation and implementation of policies."}]},{"head":"P1","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"They recruit and retain competent management teams and holding these reporting officers accountable for their work outputs."}]},{"head":"P2","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"They conduct performance appraisals with their staff members."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"P2/3 They ... are reviewing the current training committee and establishing a new committee. P3 They ... develop an annual rolling plan to be produced every six months. P3 They ... establish a procedure and process for the Staff Association Committee. P2"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"They ... are requesting position papers from the relevant departments to solicit input into decisions."}]},{"head":"P1","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"They ... are convening bi-monthly meetings with directors and deputy directors to receive feedback from units and divisions on issues and to encourage collaboration through the organisation."}]},{"head":"P2","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"They are consulting mangers on the re-allocation of resources and re-ordering of priorities."}]},{"head":"P2/3","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"They are collaborating with the heads of key regional organisations in setting developmental goals and formulating policies."}]},{"head":"P2/P3","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"As can be observed, a programme can start with policy-related long term changes (P3), even if the policy developed appears to be mere development of a document. This then is followed by adherence to that policy of institutional change (P2), from which the boundary partner will learn more about the programme's vision (P1), engage and promote more (P2), and take part in refining even more effective changes on the same policy (P3). This cycling of progress markers can contribute to instances where it is sometimes difficult to classify the stage of change because the PMs belong to more than one practice category."}]},{"head":"Types of boundary partners","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"Observations from the 13 projects about boundary partners revealed that most partners selected for support by projects could be described according the original OM guidelines, i.e. ' ... individuals, groups, or organisations with whom the program interacts directly and with whom the program can anticipate opportunities for influence'. However, some projects had broad, un-defined and non-specific groups as boundary partners such as Farmers, Villages, Communities, Foundations, International Donors, National Governments, etc., with no clear indication of how the project team would have opportunities for direct interaction. The quality of the progress markers varied in terms of the level of detail and description of actions (verbs) related to particular boundary partners. More detail is necessary to describe the change sought in the partner. It seemed to us that progress markers developed for BPs by the project teams lacked some important detail needed to strengthen strategies and capture and achieve change. These observations have a bearing on further research about how programs identify and work with boundary partners, and hence the kinds of BPs that should be deemed most effective for monitoring and achieving outcomes."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Recommendations","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"In conclusion we observed patterns in progress markers which provide a complementary approach to the 'expect, like and love to see' categories for developing progress markers described in the Outcome Mapping manual. These categories can enable programme and project teams to appreciate and visualise change with their boundary partners and can inform specific strategies to strengthen the effectiveness of Outcome Mapping. We are not assuming that BP change can be fully predicted and implemented without on-going monitoring, revision and adaptation. However, the initial analysis of 32 sets of progress markers from 13 Outcome Mapping projects shows a somewhat systematic progression of planned boundary partner change that can inform our understanding of change related to three practice categories:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"P1 Preparation for the Journey: building Knowledge and Capacity"}]},{"head":"P2","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The owned journey begins: building support, collaboration and networks"}]},{"head":"P3","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The owned journey proceeds: sustained continuous actions. Institutionalisation, Policies and/or Culture Change"},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The P1, P2 and P3 categories of practice can be usefully understood by thinking about the metaphor of a journey taken with our partners. A journey which is participatory and where all travellers are learning and integrating experiences as they move along. This is a journey taken with our boundary partners and using Outcome Mapping requires that the journey is based on building relationships of understanding, respect and support. The P1, P2 and P3 categories of practice help to make this relationship and process more explicit. Success on the journey happens as partners take more and more leadership for their direction and ownership of the process and of their accomplishments."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"The direction of the journey may be moving toward the project's desired vision or it may change course in a continuous way, depending on the complexity of the processes of change. There is a risk in assuming that the measure of success for determining the effectiveness of the journey is in predicting and arriving at 'the' destination. Change is continuous and therefore when monitoring and adapting progress markers, a linear approach erroneously assumes that once one gets past the capacity development stage, there will be no need to expect such changes in later stages. Boundary partners, like all other programme stakeholders, will always be confronted with emerging developments that require another level of understanding (capacity development), engagement and institutionalisation. Programmes should keep this in mind when reviewing progress markers developed in initial stages. Project designers should review (initially and at regular intervals) their vision, what gaps are to be addressed to achieve outcome challenges and, hence, who should be supported. That is, one must consider the proposed categorisation of practices within the context of each project stage and BP type."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"The P1, P2 and P3 categories describe projectable change in boundary partners and can be used by project teams to make OM's 'expect, like and love to see' PMs more specific and observable. For example, development interventions would 'like to see' their partners taking more ownership in the desired change (whatever that specifically looks like in the context of each project or programme)."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"Using the complementary categories for 'like to see', project teams can know generally to strengthen P2 level behaviours that support joining with others, building support and networks. At the P2 level they can plan strategies that build behaviours related to the BP's ownership in the desired change and those that reduce the project's influence, with the intention that the momentum for change can continue. At the 'love to see' level our partners become more and more self-determined in addressing challenges."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"Using the P3 practice category would look like BPs being advocates for policies and procedures that sustain system and cultural transformation."},{"index":7,"size":131,"text":"The complexity of change must be remembered here as we are speaking very generally about patterns that were observed in a limited sample of Outcome mapping projects. Our underlying research objective was to strengthen methods for developing effective progress markers. We set out to discover patterns of change in planned progress markers to see if ways of thinking about change (KAP or other) could contribute to the overall effectiveness of Outcome Mapping. The research did discover interesting patterns of change in planned progress markers however we were not able to determine the effectiveness in predicting actual change. Our research was not comprehensive enough to assess the effectiveness of the P1, P2 and P3 progress markers in particular cases and analyse how the planned PMs were monitored and which ones were achieved."},{"index":8,"size":125,"text":"We recommend follow-up research with the original sample of 13 projects to test the extent to which the model holds up to scoring by the project teams; and to discover which PMs were achieved and which were not achieved. In other words, how understanding projectable change and using the P1, P2 and P3 categories, and the participation of BPs in the planning processes, contributes to the overall effectiveness of OM. Research is required to investigate if and how the new complimentary approach is useful to project teams and their partners for developing, monitoring and evaluating outcomes. For this we recommend empirical studies using larger and more random sets of progress markers carried out to further analyse if projected change applies statistically across a larger sample."},{"index":9,"size":82,"text":"information about the project's mission. They are the followed by actions associated with the BP's decision to begin to participate in identifying and contributing toward the vision (at least in the initial stages). For a project in mid-term review or at the end of a project cycle (for reflection in cycle-mode), they are actions associated with how to better appreciate progress the project has made and how to manage emerging developments (both internal and external) for more effective contribution to the mission."}]},{"head":"P2","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The owned journey begins: building support and networks P2 progress markers are those associated with positive support to the project vision and mission through promotion of the goal, intentions and targeted benefits to the community or system. PMs in this phase will be associated with direct involvement in establishing project outputs, recruiting, influencing and building support in other stakeholders. In this phase the BPs contribute to the project's mission by sharing who else is crucial to the project's mission and vision and/or demonstrate how they contribute to the project's mission by developing outputs beyond the original project's direct sphere of influence."}]},{"head":"P3","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The owned journey proceeds: sustained continuous actions. Institutionalization, Policies and/or Culture Change P3 progress markers are actions by BPs that result in sustained change along the Project's mission, advocacy for entrenched system transformation through establishing or influencing policies. The BPs at this stage demonstrating ownership of targeted change; at the individual; level, this will be reflected in habit and cultural transformation, if any can be observed. They also contribute to arrangements (innovatively, creatively) that make targeted transformation deeply entrenched through permanency mechanisms."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Box 4 . Examples of P2 types of progress markers: Gettin g involved and enrolling others ...establishing and expanding the membership base of the national organisation in Indonesia ...organise 'popular education' to increase critical thinking of their members ...initiate activities/meetings during which farmers and farmer/producer organisations can share, learn and cooperate together on aspects of the value chain ...identify & collaborate with key actors of the supported value chain ...encourage club members to interact with local Orphaned and Vulnerable Children (OVC) so as to appreciate their plight ....organise OVC related activities targeting students, drawing on the expertise of student bodies ...publicize the network on their web site ...sign letters of commitment and respond to the intake survey ...brokering or developing partnerships with other agencies to take local action ...identify opportunities for collaboration with other institutions and stakeholders A strong element of P3 outcomes include partners generating lessons to be used in being more effective in advancing their outcome challenges and the project's vision. There were challenges in categorizing the progress markers. In some cases the PM's demonstrated actions of what appears to be different response levels at the same time depending on one's understanding and interpretation of the actions, e.g. \"Private Commercial Partners, Companies agree to feedback mechanisms with researchers and other partners so that any constraints to development, delivery and usage are adequately raised and addressed\" Can be both type P2 ('agreeing to feedback mechanisms' is P2-type of engagement shift) and P3 (ensuring the feedback mechanism works to continuously address constrains is a long-term P3-type of shift). Or \"AUB-ESDU ... initiating and strengthening local platforms for dialogue and cooperation among the various stakeholders in urban agriculture at local level and initiate and support joint planning, implementation and monitoring of action plans on urban agriculture and food security\" Box 5. Examples of P2 types of progress markers: Getting involved and enrolling others ...modifying/creating institutional structures to better enable the engagement of young people in ICT4D activities ...promoting the YCDO Coalition, their experiences and results "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"166bec28-0973-4576-920a-ede17c71df76","abstract":"Change cannot be engineered but can only be cultivated. Seeds must be chosen whose fruits not only suit the taste of the eaters, but also to suit the soil in which they are planted, the conditions for their fruition. Processes of change, whether emergent, transformative or projectable, are already there, moving or latent, and must be read and worked with as natural processes inherent to the lives and cultures of people themselves.\" -Doug Reeler"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03a41a71bfc1e25a6943e0cb79b8facc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/889af4f7-0644-415e-afa4-d24a64a8ce34/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Long term goals  Comparison with elsewhere (Ke, Rw)"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Globally, the livestock sector makes up about 40% of ag GDP (e.g., 42% of Ag GDP in Kenya)"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"• Kenya/Rwanda cattle examples:"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"-18m cattle in Kenya -Africa's 5 th "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" an inclusive and sustainable development of the dairy value chain by 2023. "},{"text":"- -R = Rural production milk sales mostly to rural consumers (pre-commercial) R-to-U = Rural production milk sales mostly to urban consumers (more commercial)Current dairy cattle distribution• R-to-R selected to extend the frontiers of commercial dairying How is it an improved AR4D model?Providing urgency, accountability and sharper prioritization: 1. Pragmatic objective of designing integrated interventions to facilitate more investments and going to scale 2. Longer-term commitment and engagement (to build trust and get to results) 3. Interdisciplinary value chain teams can understand fuller context and test appropriate solutions (while drawing lessons from elsewhere) 4. Value chain teams offer a better interface to partner with development actors to benefit from their knowledge and capacities and influence their actions 5. Deeper understanding of specific contexts by value chains teams defines better specific challenges as better guidance for upstream (longer-term and strategic) research There has been underinvestment in Tanzania dairy! (hence this focus in theory of change) Tanzania livestock and its economy • Third highest livestock numbers in Africa contribute to only 13% to ag GDP • Tanzania cattle examples: -25m cattle -Africa's 3 rd largest • 0.72 m improved dairy -2 billion litres per yr -Dairy cattle contributes 1.5% of total GDP History of low private and public investments -Investments now increasing (e.g., ongoing PAID project) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"requisite Maziwa Zaidi R4D underlying the policy highlights : on-going and closed  Feeds Feeds 1. Enhancing dairy-based livelihoods through feed innovation and VC dev approaches (MilkIT; IFAD) -$0.5m. closed 1. Enhancing dairy-based livelihoods through feed innovation and VC dev approaches (MilkIT; IFAD) -$0.5m. closed 2. Fodder & feed driving sustainable intensification of crop-livestock /Africa Rising (USAID) -Ongoing 2. Fodder & feed driving sustainable intensification of crop-livestock /Africa Rising (USAID) -Ongoing 3. Feed the Future Innov Lab on Small-Scale Irrigation in Tanz, Eth and Gh (USAID) -ongoing 3. Feed the Future Innov Lab on Small-Scale Irrigation in Tanz, Eth and Gh (USAID) -ongoing 4. Feeds (BMGF, USAID livestock Innovation lab) -pipeline 4. Feeds (BMGF, USAID livestock Innovation lab) -pipeline Genetics Genetics 5. Dairy Genetics East Africa Phase II (DGEA2, BMGF) -closed 5. Dairy Genetics East Africa Phase II (DGEA2, BMGF) -closed 6. Evaluation of breeds, productivity 6. Evaluation of breeds, productivity  "},{"text":"some closed, some ongoing Markets/hubs 12. More milk in Tanz: Adapting hubs for pro-poor smallholder value chains (MoreMilkIT; Irish Aid) -closing   "},{"text":"ongoing Complementary Livestock Master Plan developed in 2016/17 Pilot sites selected to target the poor and marginalized  Aim to prove Aim to prove the concept the concept that poor and that poor and marginalized marginalized (pre-commercial (pre-commercial cattle keepers in cattle keepers in extensive areas) extensive areas) can be targeted can be targeted successfully successfully  "}],"sieverID":"8d09bcee-f882-436e-95a6-0bea57598726","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04171b230810e11d5408b9588f831833","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d238537a-b4be-4482-884a-8385ee96cd49/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"1","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"POLICY BRIEF Why data gaps in Indian aquaculture need to be addressed to contribute to its efficient and sustainable development","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Aquaculture is an important and growing sector in India. There are various aspects of Indian aquaculture that can be improved further to contribute towards its sustainable development. Before proceeding with various developmental strategies, it is essential to identify the specific data gaps that hinder its development. Furthermore, it is important to identify appropriate ways to use the data to have a positive impact on the sector and the community. "}]},{"head":"HIGHLIGHTS","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DATA GAPS IN INDIAN AQUACULTURE AND POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF FILLING THE DATA GAPS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Improving aquaculture in India involves addressing various aspects, from sustainable practices to policy support. However, one key aspect that is often overlooked, but which can contribute significantly to the sustainable development of the sector, is addressing the specific data gaps that remain unfilled. There are several data gaps in Indian aquaculture, including but not limited to the following areas:"}]},{"head":"Farm Characteristics and Practices:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Information that is critical for the efficient operation of aquaculture farms, such as the number of farms, pond sizes, farming methods and intensity of labour, is not clearly available. Information is also limited with regards to the types of seeds and feeds used by small-scale farmers, as well as their practices related to feeding, water management, and disease control. Such information could help optimise resource use and improve productivity (Dhande et al., 2023). Furthermore, lack of data about the economic characteristics of a farm, such as production costs and income, creates barriers for designing targeted interventions."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Once these gaps are properly addressed, farmers can obtain improved data and use it to optimise conditions for aquaculture and enhance productivity, which would bring about higher growth rates and better yields. For example, farmers can optimise the use of resources, such as feed, water, and energy, based on accurate data, to make their operations more efficient, resulting in cost savings as well as reduced environmental impact (Parappurathu et al., 2023)."}]},{"head":"Production and Market Access Data:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"There is a distinct lack of detailed data on the production of various species, especially in small-scale and inland aquaculture. There is also a gap in information on the quantities produced, growth rates and market preferences for specific products, which is essential for farm planning and market access (Jaikumar et al., 2023). It should also be noted that market access is usually dependent on information about intermediary channels, processing facilities, and transportation networks, which is currently uncertain for Indian aquaculture."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Addressing these data gaps will provide farmers with access to economic data related to markets, such as pricing information and consumer preferences, which will help farmers align their production with market demand. This will also improve market access, reduce post-harvest losses, and ensure fair prices for aquaculture products (Sahoo et al., 2023)."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"More importantly, availability of robust data will attract investments into the aquaculture sector (Kuntagod et al., 2021). Investors are more likely to support ventures with a solid foundation of information, contributing to the growth and modernisation of the industry."}]},{"head":"Community Characteristics:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Aquaculture in India is also hampered by limited data on the societal characteristics of small-scale aquaculture communities, such as community capacity, gender roles, and social hierarchies. Lack of such information makes it difficult to design inclusive and sustainable policies for local aquaculture development (Shubin et al., 2023). Insufficient information about community characteristics also acts as a barrier towards the development of capacity-building programmes related to sustainable practices, technology adoption and business skills."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Data related to community characteristics can be used to tailor training programmes and capacity-building initiatives according to the needs of the community identified through such data (Duarah & Mall, 2020). In this way, data can be used to enhance the skills and knowledge of the farmers leading to a more empowered community."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Access to comprehensive and accurate data will allow stakeholders, including farmers, policymakers, and researchers, to make informed decisions (Rossignoli et al., 2023). Comprehensive data on the socio-economic aspects of aquaculture can guide community development initiatives such as promotion of inclusive practices, improvement of livelihoods, and equitable distribution of aquaculture benefits (Pragathi et al., 2023)."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"Finally, regulatory bodiescommunity managed or government driven -can use data to monitor and enforce compliance with aquaculture regulations. This will ensure that environmental and health standards are met, contributing to the sustainable and responsible growth of the sector (Lakra & Gopalakrishnan, 2021)."}]},{"head":"Environmental and Health Aspects:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Information on the environmental practices of small-scale aquaculture operations, including waste management and water conservation efforts, is critical for assessing and improving the sector's sustainability (Nair & Nayak, 2023). However, it is difficult for the local farmers to obtain such information currently due to a lack of access. Likewise, information about health aspects, which helps the aquaculture farms produce safe and nutritional food products, is also hard to access with ease (Rao et al., 2021). Both these types of information are necessary for aquaculture farms for maintaining regulatory compliance in line with the environmental and health standards."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Environment-related data such as weather conditions, water quality, disease outbreaks, and other risk factors can help in the early detection and mitigation of risks. This can lead to more resilient aquaculture operations and reduced losses due to unforeseen challenges (Chattopadhyay & Chandras, 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Similarly, data on climate patterns and their impact on aquaculture can help farmers and policymakers develop strategies to adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change. This will contribute to the long-term resilience of the sector (Tharanath et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Finally, data on environmental practices, compliance with environmental regulations, and the adoption of sustainable farming methods will contribute to the overall sustainability of the aquaculture sector by improving environmental performance as well as enhancing the efficiency of farming operations."}]},{"head":"Technology Adoption:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Data on the adoption of modern technologies, such as aeration systems, water quality monitoring devices, and digital farm management tools, can contribute towards more efficient aquaculture farms (Kar & Tripathy, 2020). However, information about technology adoption or the barriers facing it in Indian aquaculture is currently limited. Addressing this data gap will help farmers to improve their production practices, for instance, by using data on technology adoption to modernise their operations and enhance efficiency."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"In addition to the above benefits, addressing the aquaculture data gaps can contribute to the achievement of various SDGs as tabulated in APPENDIX I."}]},{"head":"POLICY INSIGHTS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"To address data gaps in Indian aquaculture, the following policy recommendations should be considered:"}]},{"head":"Aquaculture Database","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Create a comprehensive national aquaculture database that includes key information on important factors such as production, water quality, disease prevalence, and socio-economic aspects.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The importance of collecting aquaculture data and creating databases has been highlighted in recent studies from the North Atlantic region (Froehlich et al., 2022;Mikkelsen et al., 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"It is vital that the databases include accurate and up-to-the-minute data. Development of monitoring systems and real-time data collection tools can enhance accuracy and timeliness related to environmental conditions and production practices."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"In addition, standardised reporting practices should be established and farmers should be incentivised to report key data points accurately and regularly. More importantly, this database should be regularly updated and accessible to relevant stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Capacity Building","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Develop training programmes for aquaculture farmers and extension officers on effective data collection methods.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Capacity building programmes can also support farmers with technology adoption by providing small-scale farmers with access to modern and advanced data collection tools, record-keeping methods, and reporting practices. In addition to data collection, the programmes should also train the stakeholders in data analysis and interpretation, so that they are equipped with the skills to derive meaningful insights from collected data. Furthermore, extension officers can also facilitate knowledge dissemination locally and provide on-the-ground support for effective data collection and other capacity-building activities related to aquaculture development."}]},{"head":"Community-Based Monitoring","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Implement community-based monitoring programmes, involving local communities in data collection efforts."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Community-based monitoring of aquaculture has already been tried successfully in various countries. In Spain, Viet Nam, and Cambodia, monitoring and surveillance was included as one of the main activities of the community-based cooperatives managing their fisheries and aquaculture (García-Lorenzo et al., 2021). In the Pacific islands, specialised toolkits were developed and provided to the community to aid monitoring activities (Johnson et al., 2020). Community-based monitoring was also successful in Africa as demonstrated in Kenya where monitoring of mariculture projects was shown to be effective in poverty alleviation (Odhiambo et al., 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Furthermore, the community can also act as an important stakeholder in organising public awareness campaigns to highlight the importance and various benefits of data collection, including its environmental and economic benefits, as well as showing how it can be used to improve decision-making on aquaculture practices. More importantly, in addition to improving data accuracy, this method will also create a sense of ownership and participation among farmers."}]},{"head":"Collaboration","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Encourage collaboration among government agencies, research institutions, and industry associations to streamline data collection efforts.","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Collaboration can be local, national, regional, or global, providing access to best practices and shared data. Collaborative efforts would also allow farmers to be part of research initiatives and help broaden their understanding of aquaculture challenges and solutions globally."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Such collaboration should also explore the benefits provided by publicprivate initiatives which are becoming increasingly common (Jena & Tyagi, 2016;Silas, 2016). This includes partnering with some of the many existing digital technology companies in India, thereby exploiting and harnessing ICT, IoT, Cloudedge computing, AI, machine learning, immersive technologies and blockchain for aquaculture data acquisition, management, analyses, and dissemination (Rowan, 2023)."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Collaboration will be more effective if efforts are supported by coordinating bodies which oversee data-related initiatives and ensure cross-sectoral cooperation, such as the Department of Fisheries under the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry & Dairying of India. These specialised bodies can also conduct regular audits of data collection processes to ensure accuracy, completeness, and reliability of the data collected."}]},{"head":"Regulatory Framework","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Update aquaculture framework to include specific requirements for data reporting and adherence to sustainable practices."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The regulatory framework should be dynamic and be able to evolve according to industry requirements and scientific understanding."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The framework should also include a policy feedback mechanism whereby the stakeholders have an outlet to provide input on data collection policies and practices. This will ensure the policies and practices remain relevant and evolve in line with the needs of the aquaculture sector. It is also highly important that the framework is overseen by the national Department of Fisheries to monitor and maintain the necessary standards nationally."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"Implementing these policy recommendations can contribute to filling the data gaps, thereby enhancing the resilience of Indian aquaculture, and fostering a sustainable and innovative sector. Continuous evaluation and adaptation of policies based on feedback and emerging challenges will be crucial for the success of these initiatives."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"Effective implementation of these recommendations will make a significant contribution towards the success of the 'Blue Revolution' or the 'Neel Kranti Mission' launched by the Indian government to develop the fisheries sector and bring prosperity to the fishers (Ngasotter et al., 2020). Moreover, this will also be in line with the National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP), which is otherwise known as the open data policy of the Government of India."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"972f882d-cdcb-4700-bddd-41f3de945e4d","abstract":""}

data/part_5/043941cca21d5de9e91c36e44f96e495.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"043941cca21d5de9e91c36e44f96e495","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7eb72607-5893-4914-8eaa-43874f76d04a/retrieve"},"pageCount":75,"title":"Entendiendo las necesidades","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Variabilidad Climática","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Years Extremos"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Los agricultores necesitan información climática pero tienen acceso limitado."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Cuando tienen acceso a dicha información, apenas pueden comprenderla."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Cuando lo entienden, no saben cómo usarla, porque no es procesable ni contextualizada."}]},{"head":"Contexto","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Brecha entre la información y el usuario"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Producción -Traducción -Transferencia -Uso "}]},{"head":"MTA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Diálogo científico y local en las reuniones de las MTA Giraldo-Mendez, D.;Martínez-Barón, D.;Loboguerrero, A.M.;Martínez, J.D. & Ramírez-Villegas, J. (2018). Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas (MTA): Manual de Implementación. Cali, Colombia: Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS).  [5]"}]},{"head":"Contamos con un manual paso a paso para implementar una Mesa Técnica Agroclimática en otros países y adaptarlo al contexto especifico de cada región","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Analizamos el pronóstico y cómo responder a él","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Analizamos alertas y pronóstico de corto plazo y cómo responder","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Aprender y mejorar","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Manejando el clima desde el nivel más local","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• Lesotho"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Como inicio PICSA: Paso D -¿Qué opciones tiene el agricultor?"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Explorar las opciones existentes y nuevas de cultivos, ganado y medios de vida que pueden ser adecuados para el clima y el clima local."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Opciones pueden variar de acuerdo a:"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Actitudes individuales ante el riesgo • Acceso a los recursos • Otros factores"},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"• Por lo tanto, es importante considerar una amplia gama de opciones para garantizar que todos los agricultores con los que está trabajando puedan identificar opciones que puedan ser adecuadas para sus circunstancias."}]},{"head":"Tablas de información de cultivos","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Explique la forma en que las tres probabilidades calculadas en el Paso C se pueden combinar para generar una probabilidad para cada una de las variedades dentro de un rango de fechas potenciales de siembra. Esta información se puede utilizar para ayudar a entender cuáles son las variedades que mejor se adecúan a las condiciones climáticas locales (es decir, qué variedades tienen más posibilidades de recibir suficiente lluvia durante su periodo de madurez)."}]},{"head":"Matiz de opciones de prácticas","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"• Opciones de cultivos "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Abril de 2019: Primera reunión de la Mesa Técnica Agroclimática de Boyacá -Presentación de objetivos de la MTA. -Importancia de las predicciones -Mapeo de actores. -Establecimiento de roles • Septiembre de 2019: Publicación del primer boletín de la MTA de Boyacá • 5 sesiones presenciales en 2019 • 5 sesiones virtuales en 2020 • 6 boletines agroclimáticos generados • https://sites.google.com/view/mtaboyac a/boletines Tercera Comunicación Nacional de Colombia Resumen ejecutivo a la Convención Marco De Las Naciones Unidas Sobre Cambio Climático MTA & NDC https://public.wmo.int/es/media/noticias/colombia-pionero-en-servicios-clim%C3%A1ticos-para-latinoam%C3%A9rica Paso 1: Evaluación de la capacidad nacional • Identificar la oferta de datos, productos y servicios climáticos (IDEAM y sectores) Paso 2: Consulta nacional • Participan las partes interesadas claves, con la finalidad de determinar las necesidades prioritarias que requieren ser cubiertas, para un desarrollo y aplicación eficaz de los servicios climáticos Paso 3: Plan de acción & Validación plan de acción • Actividades que deben desarrollarse en el marco de los servicios climáticos por el gobierno y los principales asociados Paso 4 Lanzamiento Marco Nacional Servicios Climáticos • Organizado conjuntamente con la OMM la información climática sea de utilidad para los agricultores? ________________________________________ [5] Ortega L. et al (2018). Documento de Trabajo CCAFS no. 234. hdl.handle.net/10568/93424 [4] "},{"text":" Qué hace el agricultor actualmente?Para entender claramente • Las principales actividades que actualmente hace el agricultor • El tiempo de esas actividades • Entender como el clima afecta esas actividades • Crea un punto de inicio para explorar cómo usar la info de clima • Te ayuda como facilitador a entender las diferencias entre agricultores en el grupo de agricultores con respecto a actividades y recursos. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Flujos de conocimiento Entender las necesidades de los usuarios Necesidades 1 Mejores predicciones de clima y cultivos Predicciones 2 Empoderamiento 3 Fortalecimiento institucional Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas  ¿Debería conducir un plan de vacunación en mi region? Necesito plantas resistentes a sequía el próximo ciclo? ¿Cuánta energía solar puedo esperar en esta área? ¿Necisito evacuar la ciudad debido a las Fuertes lluvias pronósticadas? ¿Necesitamos empezar a restringir el uso del agua? ¿Debería conducir un plan de vacunación en mi region?Necesito plantas resistentes a sequía el próximo ciclo?¿Cuánta energía solar puedo esperar en esta área?¿Necisito evacuar la ciudad debido a las Fuertes lluvias pronósticadas?¿Necesitamos empezar a restringir el uso del agua?  "},{"text":"Agroclimático Local\" Enfoque promovido por  Revisión participativa del Información climática Revisión participativa delInformación climática pronóstico por los miembros de (Histórico, monitoreo, pronóstico por los miembros de(Histórico, monitoreo, la MTA y retroalimentación de la predicción) la MTA y retroalimentación de lapredicción) efectividad de las  efectividad de las recomendaciones anteriores  recomendaciones anteriores Desarrollo del boletín agroclimático por el líder de la MTA Presentación de resultados de modelos de cultivos con base en Desarrollo del boletín agroclimático por el líder de la MTAPresentación de resultados de modelos de cultivos con base en  pronóstico pronóstico Recomendaciones Discusión de opciones RecomendacionesDiscusión de opciones con base en mejores para optimizar opciones con base en mejorespara optimizar opciones opciones de manejo de manejo del cultivo opciones de manejode manejo del cultivo  "},{"text":"BOMBA TIPO CAMÁNDULA HUERTAS CASERAS Opciones para explorar PASO E Opciones por contexto  PASO F Comparación diferentes opciones y   PASO F Comparación diferentes opciones y • Opciones pecuarias   • Opciones pecuarias Presupuestos   Presupuestos participativos   participativos • Opciones de subsistencia Invernaderos o parabólicos Techos de trapiches • Opciones de subsistenciaInvernaderos o parabólicosTechos de trapiches  Invernaderos o parabólicos  Invernaderos o parabólicos  Huertas Caseras  Huertas Caseras Pilares ASAC Techos de trapiches  Pilares ASACTechos de trapiches  "},{"text":"planificación PASO G El agricultor decide PASO H, J El pronóstico estacional y los pronósticos de corto plazo  El IDEAM para nosotros los campesinos, hasta El IDEAM para nosotros los campesinos, hasta hace poco, era una institución del gobierno que no hace poco, era una institución del gobierno que no llegaba a nuestro territorio, pensábamos que solo llegaba a nuestro territorio, pensábamos que solo era para decir si iba a llover o hacer sol, pero en era para decir si iba a llover o hacer sol, pero en este proceso del TeSAC, nos dimos cuenta que es el este proceso del TeSAC, nos dimos cuenta que es el principal aliado de los productores y principal aliado de los productores y productoras campesinas, sin la información y los productoras campesinas, sin la información y los estudios que han hecho por muchos años, el estudios que han hecho por muchos años, el impacto del clima en nuestros predios seria mayor. impacto del clima en nuestros predios seria mayor. Con los pronósticos e información local que nos Con los pronósticos e información local que nos está brindando el IDEAM y el proceso de está brindando el IDEAM y el proceso de adaptación que estamos adelantando con adaptación que estamos adelantando con ECOHABITATS-CCAFS y CIAT, podemos decir que el ECOHABITATS-CCAFS y CIAT, podemos decir que el IDEAM es nuestro principal aliado a la hora de IDEAM es nuestro principal aliado a la hora de tomar decisiones para Manejar el Clima desde tomar decisiones para Manejar el Clima desde nuestras veredas. nuestras veredas.  "},{"text":"K Respuestas al pronóstico estacional y a los pronósticos de corto plazo   "}],"sieverID":"f13cae0e-2635-4fc9-8473-a5b182f512d2","abstract":"Fortalecimiento de capacidades y co-diseño ________________________________________ [3] Esquivel et al. (2018). Climate Services."}

data/part_5/04fbbeedf8ea2b0350a6d75f2bdf8f00.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04fbbeedf8ea2b0350a6d75f2bdf8f00","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/66444af0-db63-4add-b5a2-1723c7918767/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"EFFECTS OF PLANT DENSITY ON THE PERFORMANCE OF COWPEA IN NIGERIAN SAVANNAS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"low soil fertility, drought, inadequate planting systems, inappropriate cultivars and lack of inputs (Ajeigbe et al., 2010a). In addition to biotic and abiotic stresses, existing planting practices limit crop yields. Despite the availability of Striga and disease resistant cowpea cultivars, grain yields on farmers' fields are still low. However, onstation and researcher managed plot yields are high and encouraging. Grain yields ranging from 0.5 to 2.76 Mg ha −1 have been reported in sole crop (Ajeigbe et al., 2005(Ajeigbe et al., , 2008)), whereas grain yields ranging from 0.37 to 1.27 Mg ha −1 have been reported in intercrop in the savannas of Africa (Ajeigbe et al., 2005(Ajeigbe et al., , 2010)). Considering the large differences between farmers' yields (0.3 Mg ha −1 ) and experimental station yields (1.5-2.5 Mg ha −1 ), potential for on-farm yield increase in the region is high. This has stimulated interest in agronomic practices that could enhance crop yields."},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"Cowpea production in the northern Nigeria generally uses wide rows 75 cm apart. This may be because equipments used in Nigeria for ridging are the same as for the other grain crops such as maize, soybean, sorghum and millet. This general row spacing does not consider individual crop and varietal requirements, with low density resulted from wide row spacing usually leading to low yields in grain legume crops, such as cowpea in West Africa (Kamara et al., 2014). Grain yields of the widely available stress-tolerant cowpea cultivars hardly go above 1.7 Mg ha −1 on farmers' fields, despite the enormous gain in genetic improvement over the past three decades (Kamara et al., 2010). In Nigeria, cowpea planting density recommendation ranged from 33 000 plants ha −1 in the more spreading and traditional variety to 66 000 plants ha −1 in the improved erect varieties (Dugje et al., 2009;Utoh et al., 2008). Plant density is an important component of yield in grain crops such as cowpea and soybean and it is important to determine the optimum plant densities for different areas and varieties as they have different potential for crop growth (Kamara et al., 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":223,"text":"Adjusting planting density is an important tool to optimize crop growth and the time required for canopy closure, and to achieve maximum biomass and grain yield (Liu et al., 2008). Crop cultivars respond differently to high plant density because of differences in growth habit. Some cultivars record high grain yield when grown at high densities (Liu et al., 2008). High plant density increases light interception, dry matter and yield components (pods and seeds) by both decreasing row spacing and increasing plant density (Bruns, 2011). Ezedinma (1974) reported that close spacing between and within rows increased biological and grain yields of cowpea, with Jallow and Fergusson (1985) reporting a linear response of seed yield to plant density between 40 000 and 250 000 plants ha −1 . However, plant response to changes in density depends on the morphology of the cultivars. Kwapata and Hall (1990) found that cowpea seed yield for some cultivars was significantly greater at 400 000 plants ha −1 than at 100 000 plants ha −1 under irrigated conditions in California, USA. Jallow and Fergusson (1985) and Kwapata and Hall (1990) reported a significant cultivar × density interaction for cowpea grain yield, showing that cowpea cultivars rank differently at different plant densities. For instance, semi-dwarf lines produced relatively greater yield than standard lines at narrower row spacing (Ishmail and Hall, 2000)."},{"index":4,"size":234,"text":"The implements used for ridging are made for ridges spaced 75 cm apart. This reduces the flexibility of adjusting the distance between ridges. Since cowpea like Cowpea response to plant density 3 any other grain crop in northern Nigeria is grown on ridges spaced 75 cm apart, the only option to increase plant density is to increase the number of rows per ridge from 1 to 2 or 3 rows. Although there have been some reports elsewhere on cowpea response to plant density (Jallow and Fergusson, 1985;Kwapata and Hall, 1990), there is little information on the performance of current cowpea cultivars when grown at densities higher than the existing density of 133 333 plants ha −1 in the Nigeria Savannas. Information on response of modern cowpea cultivars to increasing plant density beyond 133 333 plants ha −1 are lacking for the Nigerian savannas where cowpea production is widespread. Thus, an understanding of how the modern cowpea cultivars will respond to increased plant density through increase in number of rows per ridges is very important. This will help growers' select appropriate number of rows per ridge corresponding to specific plant density that will increase grain yield in their locations. The aim of this paper was to determine plant density effects on cowpea performance in Northern Guinea and the Sudan savannas of Nigeria and also to determine if cowpea response to increasing density is genotype dependent."}]},{"head":"M AT E R I A L S A N D M E T H O D S","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental site","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Field studies were conducted during the 2013 and 2014 growing seasons at International Institute of Tropical agriculture (IITA) Experimental Stations at Zaria (11°11 N, 7°38 E, 686 m ASL) in the northern Guinea savanna and at Minjibir (12°4 2 N, 8°39 E, 509 m ASL) in the Sudan savanna. Prior to the trial establishment, soil samples were taken from each location and characterized according to the analytical procedures of IITA (1989). Weather information was collected from Accu Weather Stations installed at the trial sites."}]},{"head":"Cowpea varieties, plant density and experimental design","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Four cowpea varieties and three plant densities were compared. The experimental design was a randomized complete block in a split-plot arrangement with three replications. The main plot consisted of plant density of 133 333, 266 666 and 400 000 plants ha −1 . The cowpea varieties were assigned to the subplot. Two early maturing and determinate varieties (IT93K-452-1 and IT98K-205-8, which mature in 60 days) and two medium maturing and semi-determinate varieties (IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1, which mature within 75-80 days) were used. These varieties were developed by the IITA. The subplots were 3 × 5 m and consisted of four ridges with 75 cm spacing between the ridges and 20 cm between plant stands on each ridge. On each ridge, cowpea seeds were planted in single, double or triple rows to obtain the corresponding density of 133 333, 266 666 and 400 000 plants ha −1 , respectively."},{"index":2,"size":202,"text":"The field was disc-harrowed and ridged before planting. In Minjibir, the trial was planted on July 21, 2013 and July 26, 2014. In Zaria, planting was done on August 10, 2013 and August 1st, 2014. Cowpea was planted in the middle of each ridge for the single row planting. For the double row planting, two rows of cowpea were planted at a spacing of 20 cm between rows on the same ridge, whilst the triple row planting consisted of three rows planted 10 cm apart on the same ridge. Seeds of the cowpea cultivars were planted at a depth of 3 cm. Four seeds were planted and later thinned to two plants per stand. Thinning was performed 2 weeks after planting. At planting, the recommended fertilizer rate for legumes in the Nigerian savannas of 50 kg of P 2 O 5 in the form of SSP was applied. A mixture of pendilin (500 g L −1 pendimethalin manufactured by Meghmani Industries Limited, India) and gramaxone (1:1-dimethyl-4,4-bipyridinum dichloride, manufactured by Syngenta Crop protection AG, Switzerland) at a rate of 1 L ha −1 each was applied immediately after planting using a knapsack sprayer. This was followed by hoe weeding 4 weeks after planting."}]},{"head":"Evaluations","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"The two middle ridges were used for data collection. Leaf area index (LAI) and intercepted photosynthetic active radiation (IPAR) were measured simultaneously at full bloom stage using AccuPAR model LP-80 PAR/LAI Ceptometer (Decagon Devices, Pullman WA, USA). Five measurements of incident PAR above the cowpea canopy were taken from each plot and the average was recorded. IPAR was measured under the cowpea canopy for each plot. The sensor was placed diagonally across the two inner rows on the soil surface below the cowpea canopy so that the two ends of the sensor were in line with the cowpea rows. Five measurements were also taken and the average was recorded. Measurements were made under cloud free conditions between 12h00 and 14h00. The percentage of PAR intercepted by the cowpea canopy was calculated as: IPAR = [1.0 -(PARb/PARa)], where IPAR = intercepted PAR; PARa = PAR (μmol m −2 s −1 ) measured above cowpea canopy, and PARb = PAR measured below cowpea canopy."},{"index":2,"size":206,"text":"At pod maturity, sampling (1 × 1.5 m) was done across two middle ridges for measuring yield components and dry matter. Pods from all the other plants from the two middle ridges excluding the sampled area were harvested, threshed and weighed for grain yield. The moisture content of grain samples from each plot was determined using Farmex grain moisture tester Model MT-16 (agraTronix TM ). Grain yield (Mg ha −1 ) was calculated based on 12% moisture content. Leaves, twigs and stems from the harvested area of the two middle rows were rolled up together and left on the plot to sun-dry for a week before they were weighed to determine fodder yield. The pods in each sampled area were harvested and counted before threshing. Samples were then separated into leaves, stem, empty pods and grain. The number of grains in each sampled area was also counted. The samples were dried at 60 °C for 76 h in a force-draft oven to constant weight (Kamara et al., 2003). The weights of leaf, stem, empty pods and grain were expressed in g m −2 and summed to obtain total dry matter m −2 . The number of pods and seeds in the sampled area were also counted."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Combined analysis of variance (ANOVA) across years was performed for each location using the PROC Mixed procedure of SAS (SAS, 2014). Block was treated as a random effect whereas year, plant density and cowpea varieties and their interactions were considered as fixed effects in determining the expected mean square and appropriate F-test. Differences between two treatment means were compared using LSMEANS statement (with option pdiff) of PROC MIXED code of SAS at 5% level of probability. The statement calculates the difference between two means and the standard error of the difference (SED). Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to test for a correlation between cowpea grain yield and other measured parameters using PROC CORR of SAS (SAS, 2014)."}]},{"head":"R E S U LT S","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"Soils in Zaria are loamy with pH 6.1, soil organic carbon of 8.9 g kg −1 , total N of 0.8 g kg −1 , available P of 3.1 mg kg −1 and exchangeable K of 0.5 cmol kg −1 . Soil in Minjibir had sandy loam texture with pH 7.1, soil organic carbon of 6.9 g kg −1 , total N of 0.3 g kg −1 , available P of 8.5 mg kg −1 and exchangeable K of 0.3 cmol kg −1 . Total rainfall in Zaria was 1049.4 mm in 2013 and 1145.3 mm in 2014, whereas Minjibir had 568.6 mm of total rainfall in 2013 and 705.0 mm in 2014. Most of the rain in Zaria fell between June and October. In Minjibir, rains started in July and ended in September in both years. In Zaria, mean daily average maximum temperature was 32.6 and 31.6 °C with average minimum temperature of 22.9 and 20.3 °C in 2013 and 2014, respectively. In Minjibir, mean daily average maximum temperature was 34.7 °C in 2013 and 34.7 °C in 2014 with average minimum temperature of 23.9 °C in 2013 and 24.1 °C in 2014."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"In both locations, year had significant effects on all the parameters measured except for number of grains m −2 (Supplementary Table S1 available online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0014479716000715). Cowpea plant density and variety significantly influenced the fraction of IPAR, LAI, biomass, yield and yield components, and fodder yield in both locations (Table S1). Year × plant density was significant for total dry matter and 100 seed weight in Minjibir and for IPAR, LAI and grain yield in Zaria. Year × variety interaction was significant for number of pods m −2 and 100 seed weight in Minjibir and for IPAR, LAI, number of pods m −2 , total dry matter, 100 seed weight, grain and fodder yield in Zaria. There was no interaction between plant density and variety for all parameters measured in both locations except for IPAR and grain yield in Zaria."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Except for pods m −2 and seed m −2 in Minjibir, the medium maturing varieties IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1 produced values for all other traits measured that were higher than those produced by the early maturing cultivars IT93K-452-1 and IT98K-205-8. Cowpea performance was better in 2014 than in 2013 except for LAI and IPAR in Zaria (Table 1)."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"In Minjibir, IPAR was 37% higher when cowpea was planted at 266 666 plants ha −1 and 40% higher when planted at 400 000 plants ha −1 compared with that at 133 333 plants ha −1 . In Minjibir, there was no significant difference between densities of 266 666 and 400 000 plants ha −1 (Figure 1a). IPAR was higher for the medium maturing sister varieties IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1 than the earlier maturing varieties IT93K-452-1 and IT98K-205-8 (Figure 1b). In Zaria, IPAR was significantly higher at 266 666 plants ha −1 than at 133 333 plants ha −1 (Figure 1a). IPAR increased by 22% when planted at 266 666 plants ha −1 and 27% when planted at 400 000 plants ha −1 ."},{"index":5,"size":267,"text":"In Minjibir, LAI increased by 61% when cowpea was planted at 266 666 plants ha −1 and 56% when planted 400 000 plants ha −1 (Table 2). LAI of cowpea planted at 266 666 plants ha −1 did not significantly differ from that of 400 000 plants ha −1 (Table 2). In Zaria, LAI was 42% higher when cowpea was planted at 266 666 plants ha −1 and 78% higher when planted at 400 000 plants ha −1 as compared to 133 333 plants ha −1 . LAI was significantly higher at plant density of 400 000 plants ha −1 than at 266 666 plants ha −1 (Table 2). In both locations, the medium-maturing cultivars IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1 had higher LAI than the early maturing varieties IT93K-452-1 and IT98K-205-8 (Table 2). In Minjibir, number of pods m −2 was 54% higher when cowpea was planted at 266 666 plants ha −1 and 86% higher when planted at 400 000 plants ha −1 . Such increase was more pronounced when planted at density of 400 000 plants ha −1 (Table 2). In Zaria, the increases in number of pods ha −1 were 50% for planting at 266 666 plants ha −1 and 86% for planting at 400 000 plants ha −1 (Table 2). For example, in Minjibir, the early-maturing variety IT93K-452-1 produced number of pods m −2 that was similar to that of the medium maturing variety IT99K-573-2-1. The early maturing variety IT98K-205-8 produced the least number of pods m −2 . In Zaria, IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1 produced more pods m −2 than the other varieties (Table 2)."},{"index":6,"size":269,"text":"There were dramatic increases in the number of seeds m −2 when cowpea was planted at higher densities than 133 333 plants ha −1 in Minjibir (Table 3). The number of seeds produced at plant density of 266 666 plants ha −1 was 1.5 times of that produced at plant density of 133 333 plants ha −1 . When planted at density of 400 000 plants ha −1 , the number of seeds was two times higher than that of planting at density of 133 333 plants ha −1 . Differences between densities of 266 666 and 400 000 plants ha −1 were not significant. Number of seeds m −2 was 42% higher when planted at 266 666 plants ha −1 and 73% higher when planted at 400 000 plants ha −1 than when planted at a density of 133 333 plants ha −1 in Zaria (Table 3). In Minjibir, seed weight was 5% lower at planting density of 266 666 plants ha −1 and 9% lower at 400 000 plants ha −1 as compared to 133 333 plants ha −1 (Table 3) In Zaria, seed weight was 1.3% lower when planted at density of 266 666 plants ha −1 and 7% lower when planted at density of 400 000 plants ha −1 . There was significant variation amongst the varieties for 100 seed weight (Table 3). One hundred seed weight varied from 13.63 to 19.03 g in Minjibir (Table 3) and 14.60 to 17.79 g in Zaria (Table 3). In both locations, the 100 seed weight for IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1 were higher than that for IT98K-205-8 and IT93K-452-1."},{"index":7,"size":136,"text":"Total dry matter ranged from 313.6 g m −2 for density of 133 333 plants ha −1 to 445.3 g m −2 for density of 400 000 plants ha −1 in Minjibir (Table 4). There was an increase of 32% for density of 266 666 plants ha −1 and 42% for density of 400 000 plants ha −1 . In Zaria, total dry matter reached 685.8 g m −2 at planting density of 400 000 plants ha −1 (Table 4). This showed an increase in total dry matter of 86% when cowpea was planted at density 400 000 plants ha −1 . There was strong varietal effect for total dry matter in both locations. The two medium maturing varieties (IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1) presented higher dry matter yields than that of the early maturing varieties (Table 4)."},{"index":8,"size":187,"text":"Increasing plant density significantly increased grain yield in both locations (Figure 1c). Grain yield ranged from 1.20 Mg ha −1 for density of 133 333 plants ha −1 to 2.16 Mg ha −1 for density of 400 000 plants ha −1 in Minjibir. Yield increases were 68% when planted at density of 266 666 plants ha −1 and 79% when planted at density of 400 000 plants ha −1 . However, there was no significant difference between densities of 266 666 and 400 000 plants ha −1 . In Zaria, grain yield of cowpea ranged from 1.62 Mg ha −1 for density of 133 333 to 2.53 Mg ha −1 for density of 400 000 plants ha −1 . The increases were 48% when planted at 266 666 plants ha −1 and 56% at density of 400 000 plants ha −1 . Again, such differences between densities of 266 666 and 400 000 plants ha −1 were not significant (Figure 1c). Grain yield also differed amongst varieties in both locations (Figure 1d). Grain yield of IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1 were significantly higher than those of IT98K-205-8 and IT93K-452-1."},{"index":9,"size":181,"text":"In Minjibir, fodder yield ranged from 2.59 Mg ha −1 at 133,333 plants ha −1 to2.99 Mg ha −1 at density of 266 666 plants ha −1 . This shows an increase of 16% in fodder yield when planting at density of 266 666 plants ha −1 . Fodder yield for density of 266 666 plants ha −1 did not significantly differ from that of density of 400 000 plants ha −1 . In Zaria, fodder yield ranged from 2.71 to 4.37 Mg ha −1 . There was an increase of 36% for density of 266 666 plants ha −1 and 61% for density of 400 000 plants ha −1 . Fodder yield also varied amongst the cowpea varieties in Zaria but not in Minjibr (Table 4). IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1 exhibited higher fodder yields than  IT98K-205-8 and IT93K-452-1. The variety IT93K-452-1 produced the least fodder in both locations. Overall, seed yield was positively and strongly correlated with IPAR, pods m −2 , dry matter and fodder yield in both locations (Table 5), suggesting that these traits strongly influenced grain yield formation."}]},{"head":"D I S C U S S I O N","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Cowpea performance was influenced by location and year. The differences between locations are not surprising because the two locations have distinct weather and soil conditions. Minjibir is in the Sudano-sahelian agro-ecology region, with lower rainfall and poorer sandy soils than the northern Guinea savannas. Total rainfall in Minjibir was 568.6 mm in 2013 and 705.0 mm in 2014, far lower than the rainfall in Zaria, that lies in the northern Guinea savanna (1049.4 mm in 2013 and 1045.3 mm in 2014) agro-ecology region. Soil organic carbon and total N were higher in Zaria than in Minjibir. These differences in rainfall and soil fertility contributed to the differences in yield when comparing locations. There were also differences in cowpea performance between the 2 years. This was likely due to lesser available soil moisture as a result of low rainfall in 2013, which reduced crop growth and yield."},{"index":2,"size":210,"text":"There was no significant interaction between plant density and cowpea varieties in both locations for most traits, suggesting that the varieties responded similarly to plant density. IPAR and LAI increased with increasing plant density in both locations but differences between plant density of 266 666 and 400 000 plants ha −1 were not significant. The intensity and the quality of solar radiation intercepted by the canopy are important determinants of yield components in grain crops (Liu et al., 2010;Purcell, 2000). When crops are planted at high densities, the efficiency of light interception is improved as consequence of increases in LAI (Alessi et al., 1977;MacGowan et al., 1991;Xinyou et al., 2003). A reasonable LAI is critical to maintain high photosynthetic rates and yield (Xiaolei and Zhifeng, 2002). Our result is consistent with Purcell et al. (2002), who reported that increasing population increased the total interception of PAR for soybean during the growing season. Such increase may be due to early canopy closure, improving light interception. Herein, our data suggest that increases in LAI of cowpea at higher populations than the current recommended practice cause increases in IPAR and therefore in grain yield. Accordingly, Kamara et al. (2014) also reported increases in IPAR with increasing population of soybean in the Nigerian savannas."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"The results for seed weight are consistent with other reports (Egli, 1988;Elmore, 1998;Ethredge et al., 1989), revealing that seed mass decreased as seeding rates increased in soybean. This may be due to competition for light that reduced assimilate partitioning to the seeds at high plant population. The reduction in seed weight in our study was however negligible when compared to the increase in number of pods and seeds at higher planting densities. There were significant variations amongst the cowpea varieties for 100 seed weight. As IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1 matured later than IT98K-205-8 and IT93K-452-1, the former cultivars accumulated higher biomass and partitioned more of this biomass to the grain leading to high seed mass."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"Our results showed an increase of 46% in dry matter accumulation when cowpea was planted at density of 266 666 plants ha −1 and 86% when planted at density 400 000 plants ha −1 . This is consistent with results for soybean in northern Nigeria, where Kamara et al. (2014) reported increases in dry matter at high plant population. They attributed this to high light interception because of high LAI in high plant population. Varietal differences in total dry matter were dependent on growth duration. IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1 had a much longer growth period than IT98K-205-8 and IT93K-452-1 and therefore intercepted more light and consequently produced more dry matter."},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"The effect of plant density on seed yield was also consistent with published data on similar grain crops (Jallow and Fergusson, 1985;Kamara et al., 2014;Kwapata and Hall, 1990). Early season increases in LAI and light interception led to greater dry matter and grain yield of cowpea planted at high plant densities. Ismail and Hall (2000) reported that grain yield responses of cowpea to narrow row spacing compared with wide row spacing may be attributed to greater light interception, greater production of vegetative biomass and peduncles per area, and a proportionate increase in pod production and grain yield under narrow row spacing. The responses of the cowpea cultivars in our study are consistent with this model with the highest increases in biomass and grain yield occurring at high density of 400 000 plants ha −1 ."},{"index":6,"size":117,"text":"Yield increases were related largely to increased pod and seed production with effects on seed size being relatively minor. Egli (1988) showed that at low planting densities, where there was no interplant competition, soybean yield increased in direct proportion to increases in plant density. However, the rate of yield increase was reduced at plant densities providing interplant competition. In our study, yield increases from a base density of 133 333 plants ha −1 were very significant at density of 266 666 plants ha −1 . Although yield increase at 400 000 plants ha −1 was also significant compared with the base density further yield increase from 266 666 to 400 000 plants ha −1 was not significant."},{"index":7,"size":136,"text":"In both locations, grain yield of IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1 were significantly higher than those of IT98K-205-8 and IT93K-452-1. This is because the medium maturing (IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-2-1) varieties produced more pods and seeds m −2 and accumulated higher dry matter than the early maturing varieties (IT98K-205-8 and IT93K-452-1). The two early maturing cultivars are erect and grain type, which generally produce less fodder. There was an increase in fodder yield with increasing plant density in both locations. The increases were significant for all plant densities. Fodder is an important feedstuff in the dry savannas of northern Nigeria. Farmers prefer dual-purpose cowpea varieties that produce acceptable grain yield in addition to good fodder to feed their livestock. Crop management practices such as increase in plant density could increase fodder yield and are therefore desirable in this region."}]},{"head":"C O N C L U S I O N","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Cowpea population of 266 666 plants ha −1 allow optimal seed and fodder yield of determinate and semi-determinate cultivars. Such density may be achieved by planting cowpea in double rows on ridges spaced 75 cm apart. The small yield increases observed at the high plant populations of 400 000 plants ha −1 may not offset the increased seed costs for the smallholder farmers. Cowpea varieties responded similarly to plant density with the medium maturing cultivars performing better than the early maturing cultivars in all plant densities."}]},{"head":"S U P P L E M E N TA RY M AT E R I A L","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"To view supplementary material for this article, please visit http://dx.doi.org/10. 1017/S0014479716000715."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" H A Y. K A M A R A et al. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Effect of cowpea varieties and plant density on intercepted photosynthetically active radiation and grain yield averaged across three repleciations and 2 years in the two locations. (a) Effect of plant density on intercepted photosynthetically active radiation. (b) Effect of cowpea varieties on intercepted photosynthetically active radiation. (c) Effect of plant density on grain yield. (d) Effect of cowpea varieties on grain yield. "},{"text":" 10 A L P H A Y. K A M A R A et al. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Year effects on agronomic performance of cowpea varieties at Minjibir and Zaria. LAI, leaf area index; IPAR, intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (μmol m −2 s −1 ); TDM, total dry matter; SED, standard error of difference.    Pods Grains TDM 100-seed Grain yield Fodder yield PodsGrainsTDM100-seedGrain yieldFodder yield Effects LAI  † IPAR (unit m −2 ) (unit m −2 ) (gm −2 ) weight (g) (Mg ha −1 ) (Mgha −1 ) EffectsLAI  †IPAR(unit m −2 )(unit m −2 )(gm −2 )weight (g)(Mg ha −1 )(Mgha −1 ) Year         Year Minjibir         Minjibir 2013 2.0872 0.5113 153.46 1029.6 355.5 15.8 1.44 2.27 20132.08720.5113153.461029.6355.515.81.442.27 2014 2.6653 0.5791 178.77 1034.1 428.0 16.6 2.15 3.64 20142.66530.5791178.771034.1428.016.62.153.64 SED 0.266  * 0.031  * 8.341  *  * 48.29ns 17.3  *  * 0.2  *  * 0.13  *  * 0.15  *  * SED0.266  *0.031  *8.341  *  *48.29ns17.3  *  *0.2  *  *0.13  *  *0.15  *  * Zaria         Zaria 2013 3.8375 0.8405 153.74 1029.65 461.0 15.5 1.64 2.56 20133.83750.8405153.741029.65461.015.51.642.56 2014 3.2053 0.8104 203.72 1034.13 601.0 16.8 2.68 4.61 20143.20530.8104203.721034.13601.016.82.684.61 SED 0.114  *  * 0.014  * 6.862  *  * 47.59ns 30.9  *  * 0.2  *  * 0.04  *  * 0.13  *  * SED0.114  *  *0.014  *6.862  *  *47.59ns30.9  *  *0.2  *  *0.04  *  *0.13  *  * *  P < 0.05;  *  *  P < 0.01.        *  P < 0.05;  *  *  P < 0.01.            "},{"text":"Table 2 . Effect of cowpea variety and plant density on leaf area index (LAI) and number of pods of cowpea varieties at Minjibir and Zaria.   Minjibir  Zaria MinjibirZaria Factors LAI  * Pods (unit m -2) LAI Pods (unit m −2 ) FactorsLAI  *Pods (unit m -2)LAIPods (unit m −2 ) Density (plants ha −1 )     Density (plants ha −1 ) 133 333 1.7 113.2 2.5 122.9 133 3331.7113.22.5122.9 266 666 2.7 174.2 3.5 184.8 266 6662.7174.23.5184.8 400 000 2.6 210.9 4.4 228.4 400 0002.6210.94.4228.4 SED  † 0.3  *  * 10.2  *  * 0.1  *  * 8.4  *  * SED  †0.3  *  *10.2  *  *0.1  *  *8.4  *  * Variety     Variety IT93K-452-1 2.0 173.9 2.7 164.3 IT93K-452-12.0173.92.7164.3 IT98K-205-8 1.7 136.8 2.8 159.0 IT98K-205-81.7136.82.8159.0 IT99K-573-1-1 3.1 179.9 4.5 202.6 IT99K-573-1-13.1179.94.5202.6 IT99K-573-2-1 2.5 173.6 3.9 188.9 IT99K-573-2-12.5173.63.9188.9 SED  † 0.3  *  * 11.7  *  * 0.1  *  * 9.7  *  * SED  †0.3  *  *11.7  *  *0.1  *  *9.7  *  *  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Effect of cowpea variety and plant density on number of grains and 100 seed weight of cowpea variety at Minjibir and Zaria.  Minjibir Zaria  MinjibirZaria Factors Grains (unit m −2 ) 100 seed weight (g) Grains (unit m −2 ) 100 seed weight (g) FactorsGrains (unit m −2 )100 seed weight (g)Grains (unit m −2 )100 seed weight (g) Density (plants ha −1 )     Density (plants ha −1 ) 133 333 697.2 17.0 824.8 16.6 133 333697.217.0824.816.6 266 666 1153.9 16.2 1170.5 16.4 266 6661153.916.21170.516.4 400 000 1244.4 15.5 1430.4 15.4 400 0001244.415.51430.415.4 SED  † 54.1  *  * 0.2  *  * 58.2  *  * 0.3  *  * SED  †54.1  *  *0.2  *  *58.2  *  *0.3  *  * Variety     Variety IT93K-452-1 1012.2 14.5 920.5 14.9 IT93K-452-11012.214.5920.514.9 IT98K-205-8 939.9 13.6 1045.5 14.6 IT98K-205-8939.913.61045.514.6 IT99K-573-1-1 1129.6 19.0 1351.6 17.7 IT99K-573-1-11129.619.01351.617.7 IT99K-573-2-1 1045.7 17.8 1250.0 17.3 IT99K-573-2-11045.717.81250.017.3 SED 68.2  * 0.3  *  * 67.3  *  * 0.4 SED68.2  *0.3  *  *67.3  *  *0.4  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Effect of cowpea variety and plant density on total dry matter and fodder yields of cowpea variety at Minjibir and Zaria.   Minjibir  Zaria MinjibirZaria Factors TDM (g m −2 ) Fodder yield (Mg ha −1 ) TDM (g m −2 ) Fodder yield (Mg ha −1 ) FactorsTDM (g m −2 )Fodder yield (Mg ha −1 )TDM (g m −2 )Fodder yield (Mg ha −1 ) Density (plants ha −1 )     Density (plants ha −1 ) 133 333 313.6 2.59 368.9 2.70 133 333313.62.59368.92.70 266 666 416.7 2.99 538.4 3.67 266 666416.72.99538.43.67 400 000 445.3 3.29 685.8 4.37 400 000445.33.29685.84.37 SED  † 21.2  *  * 1.81 37.8  *  * 1.55  *  * SED  †21.2  *  *1.8137.8  *  *1.55  *  * Variety     Variety IT93K-452-1 362.0 2.21 417.9 2.68 IT93K-452-1362.02.21417.92.68 IT98K-205-8 324.4 2.22 434.2 3.16 IT98K-205-8324.42.22434.23.16 IT99K-573-1-1 428.6 3.91 631.5 4.39 IT99K-573-1-1428.63.91631.54.39 IT99K-573-2-1 452.2 3.48 640.6 4.11 IT99K-573-2-1452.23.48640.64.11 SED 24.23  *  * 2.09 30.56  *  * 1.25  *  * SED24.23  *  *2.0930.56  *  *1.25  *  * TDM, total dry matter.    TDM, total dry matter.        "},{"text":"Table 5 . Pearson's correlation coefficient (P value) of agronomic traits with grain yield at each location. Characters Minjibir Zaria CharactersMinjibirZaria LAI  † 0.5361 (<0.0001) 0.3904 (0.0007) LAI  †0.5361 (<0.0001)0.3904 (0.0007) IPAR (μmol m −2 s −1 ) 0.6790 (<0.0001) 0.4981(<0.0001) IPAR (μmol m −2 s −1 )0.6790 (<0.0001)0.4981(<0.0001) Pods (unit m −2 ) 0.5604 (<0.0001) 0.7978 (<0.0001) Pods (unit m −2 )0.5604 (<0.0001)0.7978 (<0.0001) Grains (unit m −2 ) 0.4614 (<0.0001) 0.6428 (<0.0001) Grains (unit m −2 )0.4614 (<0.0001)0.6428 (<0.0001) Total dry matter (g m −2 ) 0.6102 (<0.0001) 0.8153 (<0.0001) Total dry matter (g m −2 )0.6102 (<0.0001)0.8153 (<0.0001) 100 seed weight (g) 0.1633 (0.1705) 0.4469 (<0.0001) 100 seed weight (g)0.1633 (0.1705)0.4469 (<0.0001) Fodder yield (Mg ha −1 ) 0.7364 (<0.0001) 0.9154 (<0.0001) Fodder yield (Mg ha −1 )0.7364 (<0.0001)0.9154 (<0.0001) † LAI, leaf area index; IPAR, intercepted photosynthetic active radiation.  † LAI, leaf area index; IPAR, intercepted photosynthetic active radiation.  "}],"sieverID":"7caac2bd-e71d-4233-8443-23efc76dd275","abstract":"Grain yields of cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] in the Nigerian savannas are low even with the cultivation of improved varieties. The recommended spacing for cowpea is 75 × 20 cm with two seeds planted per stand. This corresponds to plant population of 133 333 plants ha −1 , which may not be sufficient for optimal cowpea yield. Field experiments were conducted to determine plant density effects on cowpea performance in the Northern Guinea and the Sudan savannas of Nigeria and also to determine if genotypes varied in their response to plant density. Four cowpea varieties with contrasting maturity duration were planted in single, double and triple rows on ridges spaced 75 cm apart to achieve corresponding densities of 133 333, 266 666 and 400 000 plants ha −1 , respectively. Plant densities of 266 666 and 400 000 plants ha −1 gave higher crop performance in terms of light interception, biomass production, yield and yield components for all cowpea varieties. Yield increases were related largely to increased pod and seed production but the effect of seed size on yield was relatively minor. Our results provide evidence that the current density of 133 333 plants ha −1 used by farmers is not optimum for cowpea production. Smallholder farmers can increase cowpea grain and fodder yields if they use a density of 266 666 plants ha −1 in cowpea cultivation. Further yield increases when cowpea is planted at 400 000 plants ha −1 may not be sufficient to offset the cost of seed."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0562bcad32cf5e59f2a5fda7c82dc250","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a2ae5d08-aa07-49cd-97de-9517840f27b7/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"2. Dong Nai is in the Mekong River Delta has high numbers of wildlife farms compared to the other southern provinces."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"3. Potential to brough together multiple stakeholders in the sectors. "}]},{"head":"Timeline and activities","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Activities","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Thanh Ha Nguyen, PhD Fellow International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Supervisors: Dr Hung Nguyen, Dr Johanna Lindahl, Dr Hu Suk Lee, Dr Bernard Bett One Health initiative in Vietnam Work package 01: Zoonoses Assessing wildlife value chain and interspecies transmission risk of zoonotic diseases using a One Health approach in Vietnam CONSULTATION MEETING Hanoi, December 8 th 2022 Background • Wildlife farming and trade have grown, primarily supplying • Food (supplementing food production gaps from the livestock industry) • Income and other livelihoods • 75% of all emerging diseases are zoonoses, with most of these being associated with wildlife, including Ebola, SARS, SARS-CoV-2, Nipah virus, highly pathogenic avian influenza… • To inform targeted surveillance and response, it is important to: \uD83E\uDC6A Characterize practices involved in wild meat production and marketing \uD83E\uDC6A Identify nodes where humans, domestic animals and wildlife interface and \uD83E\uDC6A Quantify the risk of spillovers Potential zoonotic pathogen exposure along the wildlife supply chain. Source: Belecky & Gray 2020 Objectives 1. To review the situation of wildlife value chain and interspecies transmission risk of zoonotic diseases in Vietnam and Southeast Asia, including relevant policies. 1. To assess the prevalence of selected zoonotic pathogens, identify associated risk factors in selected wildlife value chains and test a syndromic surveillance scheme. 1. To estimate interspecies transmission risks of zoonotic diseases using a risk assessment framework along wildlife value chains Study sites Lao Cai and Dong Nai provinces Study period: 2022-2024 Data collection period: Q3-4 of 2023 1. Lao Cai borders China and it falls in a route that is commonly used illegal trade of wildlife and has high number of wildlife farms. "},{"text":" activities (epidemiological investigation) -Conduct lab analysis (serological and/or DNA tests) -Conduct data analysis (quantitative and qualitative) -Write report (2-3 publications) Objective 3 -Draft a risk assessment framework -Implement expert consultation workshops on the risk assessment framework -Conduct statistical analysis and develop a disease transmission model from animal/wildlife to human -Write report and thesis (1 publication) "}],"sieverID":"99d6a288-18d0-4df3-9289-b46037f9cd2e","abstract":""}

data/part_5/057ab583297cd414e33f70c9f9a0e7dd.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"057ab583297cd414e33f70c9f9a0e7dd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/508b3334-bed0-4516-a49a-db41d2a3e83e/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Incubating Innovation: A One CGIAR Culture and Mindset","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The CGIAR partnership has reinvented itself as a single global research-for-development organization, building on the foundation of a successful half century of agricultural research. CGIAR's 2030 Strategy presents a roadmap for CGIAR to fulfill its mission by delivering innovations, capacity development, and policy change, using systems approaches that emphasize transformational change. The centerpiece of CGIAR's strategy is a prospectus of 32 Initiatives that are now undergoing independent review. With a new portfolio and strategy, implemented under unified governance, what does CGIAR need to focus on now to advance innovation in agri-food systems?"},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The Independent Science for Development Council (ISDC), which is conducting the independent review of the Initiatives, provides advice to the CGIAR System Council on topics of strategic scientific importance. Accordingly, this brief summarizes the ISDC's advice for the System Council on how the Council can help build an innovation culture and foster innovations that incorporate inclusiveness and recognize and address trade-offs. The brief is not meant to be comprehensive but timely: it points to priorities where the System Council may have the most immediate impact."}]},{"head":"This brief's purpose is to summarize ISDC's advice for System Council on what CGIAR needs to focus on now, as its core responsibility in improving innovation systems.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"In preparing the brief, ISDC is guided by several assumptions:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Agri-food systems are complex, evolving systems that are increasingly disrupted by transformative or radical innovations."}]},{"head":"•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Risks are implicit. In environments where standalone innovations are adopted, there will be winners and losers, and the position of losers needs to be understood and weighed. i • CGIAR is positioned among many innovators."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Innovation happens at all levels of agri-food systems and is not owned by any single sector or actor."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"This brief concentrates on immediate and practical steps, which complement ISDC's review of the Investment Prospectus Companion Document (CD) and the first 19 Initiative proposals."}]},{"head":"Complexity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"In the past, agricultural innovation consisted largely of prescriptive technology packages that traveled in a one-way flow from researcher to farmer (Hall &"}]},{"head":"ADVICE SUMMARY","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":" Identify and leverage CGIAR's comparative advantage to attract new innovation investors.  Foster an enabling environment that bolsters integrative and transdisciplinary skills.  Model an institutional culture of inclusion.  Require complexity-aware measurement and quality frameworks.  Create broad partnership networks built for scaling innovation.  Take a managed portfolio approach to investment.  Support a paradigm shift towards sophisticated risk management.  Keep the conversations active."}]},{"head":"WORKING CONSTRUCTS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"Innovation drives institutional and social change (Harris, 2012), and CGIAR's 2030 Strategy positions the organization at the center of innovation systems. The strategy defines innovations as \"new ideas, products, services and solutions capable of facilitating impact\" and innovation systems as \"the interlinked set of people, processes, assets, social institutions and commercial markets that enable the introduction and scaling of [innovations] to deliver impact.\" For this brief, ISDC relies on these definitions, noting that the strategy implies a range of innovation types, from incremental to transformative. This brief discusses innovation activity through an Agriculture Innovation System (AIS) lens (Aerni et al., 2015). Models such as AIS provide a useful way of conceiving the delivery of innovations in context; they portray the non-linear complexity that characterizes change in agricultural systems. Furthermore, the brief supports a shift from innovation system thinking toward system innovation thinking (Hall & Dijkman, 2019), which confers \"a framing concerned with the networks and institutional and policy conditions that enable the development and use of goods and services.\""},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Beyond this, in conceiving how innovations in agrifood systems contribute to impact, ISDC recommends the work of an international expert panel that has described the bundling of innovations as essential for scaling, in-built analysis of trade-offs, and delivery of broad-scale results (Barrett et al., 2020). Finally, One CGIAR board, researchers and partners have robust, ongoing work untangling the topic of innovation; all such work is acknowledged but not unpacked in this brief. Dijkman, 2019;Douthwaite & Hoffecker, 2017). Developing countries were regarded as \"technologyusers reliant on imports of technology\" (Mytelka, 2016). Now CGIAR is moving beyond linear thinking. In this new environment, understanding and responding to complex systems are essential to CGIAR's groundbreaking contributions."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Because CGIAR plays a key role within a broader array of international sustainable development efforts across food, land, and water systems, part of the complexity it must navigate relates to network effects in these systems. CGIAR simultaneously holds contributing, stimulating, and brokering roles in innovation system networks. To operate effectively, CGIAR must understand the networks in which it acts and its precise roles in them. At the same time, a fuller appreciation of complexity in the agri-food system calls for a more inclusive concept and practice of innovation."}]},{"head":"Inclusion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The United Nations Food Systems Summit Scientific Group articulated the need to accelerate the promotion of inclusive innovations. Innovation is an important driver of economic growth and social wellbeing. Yet \"conventional views of innovation (often implicitly) understand development as generalized economic growth. By contrast, inclusive innovation explicitly conceives development in terms of active inclusion of those who are excluded from the mainstream of development\" (Aghion et al., 2019). What is required is a paradigm change away from instrumental inclusion that is designed to address the barriers preventing excluded groups from adopting innovations and toward transformational inclusion in processes of \"co-innovation using multi-participant processes and partnerships\" (Fielke, 2017)."}]},{"head":"Billions of farmers, workers, firms, and food consumers each exercise agency within agrifood systems. Inclusion is essential to move forward highly decentralized systems that lack overarching coordinating institutions.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Inclusiveness here pertains not only to excluded actors in agri-food systems, such as poorer farmers cultivating more marginal lands, female and younger farmers, and agri-food system entrepreneurs. It also refers to domain expertise, breeds and crops, and innovative research that may lie outside of mainstream attention yet hold strong promise to boost sustainable food and nutrition."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"CGIAR and its partners indisputably spur agri-food system technological breakthroughs (Evenson & Gollin, 2003;Walker et al., 2014;SPIA, 2019). However, reinforcing and accelerating bottom-up innovation may take agri-food system transformation even further. Innovation in agriculture must evolve from being researcher driven to being co-created by Framing trade-off debates: breeder and farmer rights CGIAR has championed incremental and transformative breeding science for decades. It contributed enormously to the international public goods that were central to the Green Revolution (SPIA 2019, Pingali 2012) and, more recently, dramatically accelerated agricultural breeding including through biotechnology. In recent years, as the private sector has stepped to the fore in the biotech space, untangling the respective roles of CGIAR and the private sector in breeding partnerships reveals one of the fundamental agri-food system trade-off debates CGIAR must negotiate: between plant breeder rights and farmer rights."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Protection of breeders' intellectual property rights (IPRs) is a key enabler of private investment in breeding and the development of new varieties of plants (Smulders et al., 2021). Since the introduction of the plant variety protection regime under the 1961 International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, the number of new plant varieties developed and adopted has increased considerably for the benefit of society (UPOV, 2005(UPOV, , 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"Yet IPRs generally forbid seed saving, reuse, exchange, and commercial sale, all of which are strategies that smallholders often use to bolster their seed security. Thus, the challenge in public-private breeding partnerships involving CGIAR is to strike a balance between complementing private investment in developing varieties and supplying quality seed on the one hand and meeting the seed management needs of smallholder farmers on the other."},{"index":5,"size":147,"text":"Addressing this trade-off requires differentiated seed system development and IPR management: a differentiated approach refers to the formal, informal and intermediate seed systems (Mulesa et al, 2021) and ways to manage IPR that \"set different levels of protection for different crops in relation to different categories of farmers\" (De Jonge and Munyi, 2016). Governments can choose to adopt an intellectual property regime that promotes innovation, catalyzes diffusion, and encourages sharing to foster investment and economic growth. If IPRs apply to food crops, governments can preserve farmers' rights to save, reuse, exchange, and sell seeds. CGIAR must also consider mechanisms to privilege farmers in its public-private breeding partnerships. Differentiated IPR management for inclusive and equitable innovation systems, such as in the formal seed system, benefits all farmers. CGIAR involvement in public-private breeding efforts, as seen in proposals for Genetic Innovation initiatives, underscores the urgency of addressing this trade-off."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"researchers and farmers through partnerships that include farmers' voices."}]},{"head":"Trade-offs and Risks","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Inclusive innovation recognizes and addresses the trade-offs inherent in complex agri-food systems. Indeed, addressing such trade-offs is both fundamental for establishing the legitimacy of innovations to which CGIAR contributes and essential to sophisticated risk management."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"A key task in designing and assessing transformative research and socio-technical innovation efforts is to understand the disruptive and even destructive potential effects of innovation (Schumpeter, 1942;Hart, 2015;Anadon et al., 2016;Barrett et al., 2020). This task thus requires examining trade-offs, identifying and engaging prospective winners and losers from individual innovations, and co-producing, monitoring, and evaluating bundles of innovations customized to specific agri-food systems. When innovations are bundled, one innovation may compensate for the adverse effects of another innovation. Because CGIAR works across agroecosystems, commodities, and agri-food system components, it is especially well positioned to facilitate customized bundling of innovations."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"One example of trade-offs related to CGIAR's storied genetic innovation activities concerns potential conflict between the intellectual property rights of plant breeders and farmers (see box, previous page). Because innovations in plant breeding will continue to play a powerful role in addressing threats to food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis, the trade-offs described will require urgent and ongoing attention. Many other examples of trade-offs are ripe for examination, such as the trade-off between inclusion of farmers in global value chains and the preservation of local food systems in pursuit of food sovereignty."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"Another set of trade-offs relates to CGIAR's portfolio of activities. Bundling innovations and balancing a focus on areas of successful past research with exploration of new avenues of research are important mechanisms to ensure that innovations lead to impact. In presenting its portfolio, CGIAR has an opportunity to offer an array of investment opportunities, from business-as-usual research and innovation to high-risk/high-payoff activities. The right blend, across multiple investment pathways, will require sustained discussion and co-design among CGIAR and current and potential investors as the new portfolio rolls out."}]},{"head":"Culture and Capacity","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Institutions create the rules for human exchange not only economically, socially, and politically (North, 1990(North, , 1992(North, , 2005;;Erastus, 2014) but also productively. Institutional cultures may foster or thwart innovation and innovative thinking. For instance, incentive systems may inadvertently create outcomes that undermine innovative thinking by, for instance, offering rewards for maintaining the status quo rather than for taking risks and failing fast. CGIAR must commit to undertaking iterative discussions to understand how institutional and cultural constraints hamper transformational change (Conti et al., 2021) and addressing those constraints, towards a culture and mindset, not to mention the institutional infrastructure, of incubating innovation."}]},{"head":"We need bold action and leadership to avoid incentivizing simply doing what works rather than what is needed for transformation.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The culture of formal and informal institutions affects research outcomes. Within a network of partners, a virtuous cycle might unfold: a culture that fosters innovation at a global scale has the potential to motivate more transparency in local and domestic institutions and promote the pursuit of innovation. Of course, the opposite also applies. Furthermore, many partners in national agricultural research and extension systems may look to CGIAR as a model for how high-quality agricultural research-for-development institutes generate innovation. By default, then, the operational structure and expressed culture of CGIAR may themselves serve as change agents because they are a point of reference for local and domestic institutions."}]},{"head":"To drive innovation requires an innovation culture and mindset and the investment and patience to see these through.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The CGIAR System Reference Group underscored the need for a T-shaped profiles among researchers, loosely defined as a deep technical competence coupled by strong cross-disciplinary collaboration skills. Indeed, carrying out CGIAR's mission requires growing and maintaining a pipeline of CGIAR researchers and leaders who exhibit flexible, critical modes of thinking and are able to integrate diverse views of strategic, systemic change. An investment in the formation of early-career researchers that includes multi-and transdisciplinary views will undergird the design and delivery of a realistic and applicable research and innovation program."}]},{"head":"Identify and leverage CGIAR's comparative advantage to attract new innovation investors.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"To attract investors, CGIAR must provide a careful articulation of all of its current offerings, including where it is leading the innovation effort, where it is contributing, and where it is an innovation broker. ISDC stands ready to work with CGIAR to advise on an approach to articulating its comparative advantage as a matter of scientific and strategic positioning."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Foster an enabling environment that bolsters integrative and transdisciplinary skills. The System Council is encouraged to ask CGIAR leadership how One CGIAR will identify, invest in, and manage the pipeline for sustained capacities across all appropriate disciplines. In particular, what is being done to attract and motivate early-career researchers, particularly in underserved and rising disciplines, and to curate integrative skills profiles?"}]},{"head":"Model an institutional culture of inclusion.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Pooled funding Initiatives, as a centerpiece of CGIAR's portfolio, should model a research culture based on co-creation and inclusion. The System Council may want CGIAR to identify how the pooledfunded project reporting system will provide assurance of such a culture."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Require complexity-aware quality and measurement frameworks. CGIAR strategy and structure have changed fundamentally. CGIAR's results measurement system must therefore move beyond linearity and incorporate complexity thinking within its metrics."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Create broad partnership networks built for scaling innovation. CGIAR has a prime opportunity to build upon the solid, traditional core of national agricultural research and extension system partnerships to include other key partners. These may include, for example, more universities and agri-food system businesses. In addition, building broader networks of universities and advanced research institutes in countries where CGIAR operates will create positive feedback loops in the capacity-strengthening dimension of CGIAR's strategy."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"Take a managed portfolio approach to investment. The principle of providing inception funding for each Initiative to explore its potential is practical and should be supported. Subsequently, however, dynamic management of the portfolio on the basis of results, rather than parity of funding, is key to success. As the centerpiece of One CGIAR, the 32 Initiatives will need a coherent delivery, demonstrating compatibility with other CGIAR and partner interventions (OECD-DAC, 2021), to produce appropriate innovations and globally contribute to change."},{"index":5,"size":141,"text":"Be bold. Support a paradigm shift toward sophisticated risk management. CGIAR has had the privilege of access to patient capital for more than five decades through the strong support of System funders. Under One CGIAR, providing more opportunities for new investors who have a high appetite for riskier ventures may help attract financing to the entire portfolio. Members of the System Council have recently served as champions for new investment in CGIAR, which has been hugely important for attracting support to One CGIAR's agenda. Now, the System Council might consider how these champions can help CGIAR identify and engage investors with an interest in higherrisk/higher-reward innovations, including regionaland country-specific investors where CGIAR works. ISDC suggests that System Council members broker discussions with practices in their agencies (for instance, that fund development ventures) as CGIAR thinks through its approaches to innovative finance."},{"index":6,"size":121,"text":"Keep the conversations active. As a neutral convener of discussions, ISDC seeks System Council's endorsement of and participation in ISDC science fora for CGIAR stakeholders. A Science Forum Series would address core innovation topics such as those listed in this brief: complexity, inclusion, trade-offs, risks, innovation capacity, and culture. This series of targeted conversations, to coincide annually with System Council gatherings and crowding-in CGIAR colleagues, partners, and other experts, would promote sustained attention to the strategic transformation that will be the work of many years in CGIAR. Complementary capacity development and policy briefs, and application of the innovation lens in the Quality of Research for Development Frame of Reference may be among the topics of the fora and future ISDC work."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"WHAT CAN THE SYSTEM COUNCIL DO?"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"6b6da246-633d-465c-bfc7-e1eeb81fc920","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05ebbd0b361991ce0d9abc430124a35e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1653aa4c-dd60-4eaf-9529-de5f184b0316/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Desenredo en los Phaseoli (cont.):"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"'fríjol de montaña' 'fríjol de venado' en Costa Rica en estado silvestre (jamás sembrados por la gente) están: ver trabajos de: Araya et al. 2001; Debouck et al. 1989;Freytag & Debouck 1996, 2002;Zamora 2010. en Costa Rica en estado de escape pueden encontrarse:  1. La taxonomía de las plantas cultivadas NO es cosa del pasado:"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• aún puede haber verdaderas novedades botánicas"},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"• aplica inclusive a países con flora conocida 2. La siguiente metodología sí nos ha funcionado:"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"• se revisa en los Herbarios todas leguminosas llamadas \"fríjol\""},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"• en el campo se buscan los extremos en ecologías y/o en fechas 3. La situación de parientes silvestres de cultivos es precaria:"},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"• con excepciones no hay inventarios de estos en áreas protegidas"},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• muchas de sus poblaciones no tienen protección alguna "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Muchas gracias por su atención e interés!Gracias a: BMZ, CIAT, FAO, GCDT, IBPGR, MINAE, Noruega, Profríjol, UCR. "},{"text":"623 43 27 17 27 Número de materiales en banco de germoplasma:     y en zona de contacto y por unos años y en zona de contacto y por unos años Origen:     Origen: W. México Costa Rica W. Guatemala España Costa Rica W. MéxicoCosta RicaW. GuatemalaEspañaCosta Rica Edad:   P. dumosus cultivado o escape Edad:P. dumosus cultivado o escape 6,000 400,000 2,000 200 1,200,000 6,000400,0002,0002001,200,000 • peso 100 sem. 4-8 g  12-16 g   • peso 100 sem. 4-8 g  12-16 g • o peso 100 sem. 16 g  30-40 g   • o peso 100 sem. 16 g  30-40 g • colores distintos al patrón silvestre   • colores distintos al patrón silvestre  "}],"sieverID":"738877c4-48a5-4a3f-8ad3-34c734ea5a1b","abstract":"Avances en el conocimiento del número de especies de Phaseolus No. de especies 5 5 1 ¿Cómo fue posible este aumento? por trabajar en 1987-2019 según 3 líneas de acción Desenredo en los Phaseoli: quienes son los fríjoles y sp. relacionadas? 1. 'cuba' 'fríjol' 'blanco'en Costa Rica en estado cultivado (siembra intencional por parte de la gente) están:"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0623c547a7af959621efb38d137a254b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ef86524b-1aa9-4844-9627-20ca69dbf489/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Scaling up of high value multipurpose trees and their management practices at multiple scales: homestead to landscape","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Deliverables","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key lessons","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Avocado varieties begin to produce fruit in 2 to 4 years"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• Significantly highest mean fruit load was recorded for Nabal 281 (Fruit tree -1 ) and Hass 249 (Fruit tree -1 )."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• Positive correlation between fruit load and crown diameter for each cultivar, and stronger for Ettinger (r = 0.7), and for Nabal (r = 0.64)."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Fruit weight correlates significantly with fruit diameter and length"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• 80% of the fruit yield used for house consumption"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• 20% for sale, a household could generate income of 3000 birr year -1"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Farmers preferred the test of Hass avocado variety "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Data analysis and Journal article preparation• Measured avocado yield data in different sites following COVID 19 safety measures (Fig.1).• We harvested and weighted 1800 fruits from five cultivars grown in 30 smallholder farmlands. • Socio economic survey and status of avocado in Lemo (Fig 1) and apple in Maichew. • Manuscript submitted for review-\"Cultivar-Specific and Mixed-cultivar allometric models and estimation of fruit weight and yields of five Avocado varieties in Ethiopia\" To submit a journal article: 'Assessment of Persea Americana Miller (Avocado) improved variety growth performance, yield and income contribution to food security of rural households, the case of Lemo woreda (district), Southern Ethiopia' Partnerships • Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources • Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute • Local Universities in Africa RISING operating regions and private farms (e.g., Butajira nursery site, Wachemo University) • Leveraging on other ongoing projects funded by other donors "},{"text":"• Proper tree management practices is key to improve yield, fruit size Aster Gebrekirstos, Aster Gebrekirstos, and quality and quality  "},{"text":"Hadia Seid, Mulugeta Mokria, Niguse Hagazi, Kiros Hadgu, Gebrehiwot Hailemariam, Workneh Dubale World Agroforestry (ICRAF)   "}],"sieverID":"04f7fe40-12d9-4fa9-90a5-8acf04dcdec5","abstract":"1. Measure yield data for high value trees (HVT) 6 varieties of Avocado (Percia america) in Lemo; 2. Assess quality data of avocado fruit (in terms of fruit size, appearance, colour and farmers preference); 3. Quick assessment on the existing stocks to identify status of the apple fruit tree varieties Pictures"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"066ad566201110577b5fc2c99f5b93ca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fe6145fb-dbb3-4a74-8b00-e12182ba6a05/retrieve"},"pageCount":42,"title":"CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish 2013 Performance Monitoring Report","keywords":["CIAT","ICARDA","WorldFish"],"chapters":[{"head":"A. Key messages A.1 Progress and challenges","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The vision of the CGIAR Research Program (CRP) on Livestock and Fish is for the health, livelihoods and future prospects of the poor and vulnerable, especially women and children, to be transformed through two pathways: through consumption of adequate amounts of meat, milk and fish, and through benefits from improved incomes and livelihood by participating in the associated animal source food value chains. The program seeks to achieve this vision by increasing the productivity of small-scale livestock and fish production systems and improving the performance of their associated value chains."},{"index":2,"size":192,"text":"The program proposed a new model to enhance the relevance, urgency and impact of its research. It is designed to bring together collective capacity with CGIAR and other partners to develop and deliver appropriate integrated solutions for the pro-poor transformation of selected value chains. As part of the model, the program works with development partners to translate these solutions into large development interventions likely to achieve sustainable impact at scale. The process also defines longer-term research to prepare future breakthroughs that will ensure the continued viability and growth of these value chains. This model is a new way of working for CGIAR centers that requires reorienting capacity, mobilizing new resources and establishing new types of partnerships and capacity to engage effectively in the selected value chains. The past year was one of continuing consolidation and an evolving appreciation of the challenges in implementing such an approach. The larger share of the program devoted to technology development that supports sustainable livestock and aquaculture intensification demonstrated good progress. A key achievement was to secure major new funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to lead an initiative on East Coast fever vaccine development."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"The part of the program responsible for engagement in the selected value chains gained momentum with increased activity in four of the nine target value chains. Two value chains (aquaculture in Uganda and small ruminants in Mali) were not feasible and the program re-directed this effort towards aquaculture in Bangladesh and small ruminants in Burkina Faso. Work advanced in the remaining three value chains at a modest level of activity while adequate bilateral funding is sought. At the program level, the management unit achieved its full complement of staff, and the Science and Partnership Advisory Committee (SPAC) began its oversight role."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"The program faced three main challenges in 2013. The first has been to manage adaptively the under-resourced, yet overly ambitious plan of work described in the program proposal. This is being addressed by revising the work plan, sharpening the focus to match the available resources, and through active resource mobilization. Gaps in research capacity are being filled as new funding is secured and by leveraging the needed expertise through partnership."},{"index":5,"size":85,"text":"A second challenge has been to develop the appropriate internal capacity and modalities to implement the value chain approach proposed by the program. This approach envisages multidisciplinary teams of researchers applying both technical and social science to identify constraints and solutions within value chains, with cross-cutting support provided by researchers with global expertise in areas like genetics, health, gender and feeds. As noted by the SPAC, this vision was not automatically achieved and will require continued attention and investment if it is to be achieved."},{"index":6,"size":137,"text":"The final major challenge-shared across CGIAR-is developing the appropriate monitoring and evaluation (M&E) and performance management frameworks. Setting Intermediate Development Outcomes (IDOs) was an important step in defining the overall aim of our research efforts. Progress was made in developing indicators that will allow the program to monitor its contribution towards the IDOs. These indicators, however, are not well adapted to monitoring the progress of the research itself. The Theory of Change approach offers an improvement upon the logical frameworks used in the past, and we are exploring how it can be adapted for research M&E that would support and link to the development outcomes. Getting to a consensus on an M&E framework that is acceptable, feasible and affordable is critical since it will inform the appropriate strategy and investment required for establishing baseline or benchmark information."}]},{"head":"A.2 Two most significant achievements/success stories","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"We are highlighting two achievements by the Feed and Forages team. Both are significant in that they represent a new generation of increasingly sophisticated 'smart' research outputs that address multiple objectives. While both are intended to increase the supply and quality of feed resources that will translate into more productive and profitable livestock systems and more highly nutritious animal-source food on the plate of the poor, one also works to reduce the competition between food and feed for agricultural resources, the other reduces the potential trade-off between livestock production and climate change."},{"index":2,"size":191,"text":"BNI Brachiara: A key breakthrough in 2013 was a proof-of-concept that we can breed a tropical pasture grass that can significantly suppress greenhouse-gas emissions by increasing N use efficiency, reducing N2O emissions and increasing carbon accumulation. CIAT scientists were able to include level of Biological Nitrification Inhibition (BNI) as a breeding objective for Brachiaria humidicola hybrids recently developed, and demonstrate that effects from BNI from B. humidicola pastures can be measured in a succeeding maize crop which suggests the greenhouse-gas benefits. Better N-efficiency in the subsequent maize crop was shown through higher grain yield achieved with lower amount of N fertilizer application. This was reported in a news item in Nature (Grass gets greener: Plant secretion curbs greenhouse-gas emissions from soil, 17 Sep 2013, 501, 291 doi:10.1038/501291a) and through a keynote presentation at 22nd International Grassland Congress. These results suggest that the CRP will be able to contribute to substantially increasing livestock (and crop) productivity while reducing GHG emissions per unit livestock product. CIAT scientists expect commercial lines to be available in 3 to 5 years (lines for testing will already be shipped to a private sector partner in April 2014)."}]},{"head":"Dual purpose maize breeding:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"The publication of a special issue of the journal Field Crops Research (September 2013) devoted to dual purpose maize marked two major milestones. First, it established a technology of maize breeding for improved feed quality that does not compromise the food production value of the plant. Second, it provided evidence of the demand it can address and ways to promote its uptake. By improving whole plant utilization, cultivars selected for the combined traits of grain production and stover quality reduce competition between maize grown for food versus that used primarily for animal feed. The publication culminates a number of years of research in demonstrating the wide range of suitable cultivars that perform well both for producing food for people and fodder for their livestock. ILRI scientists are authors of many of the articles in the special issue, reporting on research undertaken in South Asia, East and Southern Africa and Latin America. Maize is already a key crop in many of the value chains targeted by the Livestock and Fish CRP, and its importance is increasing. The continued development of dual-purpose maize also makes a key contribution as a joint effort with the MAIZE CRP."}]},{"head":"A.3 Financial summary","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The program executed USD 24.5 million (88%) of the total 2013 USD 27.4 million budget. The realized budget, which included USD 5.51m carried over from 2012, was lower than the originally approved budget (USD 33.8 million), reflecting a continued shortfall in CGIAR's Window 3 (W3) and bilateral funding. The shortfall limited the implementation of the program in several value chains and research areas. Gender research accounted for 8.9% of expenditures and the realized budget."}]},{"head":"B. Impact pathway and intermediate development outcomes","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The overall program impact pathway and theory of change is described in the program's Results Strategy Framework and Intermediate Development Outcomes (IDOs) (v.2) (http://livestock-fish.wikispaces.com/IDO). The program has been gaining experience and better understanding of its impact pathway by using the theory of change approach to frame engagement with stakeholders and develop more detailed narratives for the value chains in Tanzania, Uganda, Nicaragua and Egypt. The six IDOs adopted by program are:"},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"IDO1: Increased livestock and fish productivity in small-scale production systems for the target commodities IDO2: Increased quantity and improved quality of the target commodity supplied from the target small-scale production and marketing systems IDO3: Increased employment and income for low-income actors in the target value chains, with an increased share of employment opportunities for and income controlled by low-income women IDO4: Consumption of the target commodity responsible for filling a larger share of the nutrient gap for the poor, particularly for nutritionally vulnerable populations (women of reproductive age and young children)"},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"IDO5: Lower environmental impacts per unit of commodity produced in the target value chains IDO6: Policies (including investments) and development actors recognize and support the development of the small-scale production and marketing systems, and seek to increase the participation of women within these value chains, will contribute to all outcomes at the system level."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"The wording of the IDOs may be further revised to improve consistency with the Common CGIAR IDOs once these have been decided. Two additional IDOs have been under consideration, but not yet adopted: one dedicated to gender (which is currently addressed as part of IDO3) and one to capture the multiple roles of forages and feed crops, especially in terms of productivity and environmental trade-offs."},{"index":5,"size":132,"text":"A major exercise has been ongoing to develop appropriate indicators for these IDOs and a methodology for their estimation and that of target values. The indicators identified are described in a draft IDO Indicator Manual. Much work remains to define how the monitoring and evaluation framework will be operationalized in practice, including the appropriate use of benchmarking, baselines and dedicated data collection. To date, the program is relying on situation analyses under preparation in the selected value chain countries that describe a range of indicators of the current status of the target pro-poor value chain based largely on secondary data in the public domain. These situation analyses will be available at http://livestock-fish.wikispaces.com/Situational+Analysis+Report once completed. More detailed baseline information is being collected as bilateral projects are funded and implemented in each value chain."}]},{"head":"C. Progress along the impact pathway","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The following summaries are derived from detailed annual reports by value chain and CGIAR center, and synthesis reports by program Theme; these can be accessed at: http://livestock-fish.wikispaces.com/2013+Annual+Report."}]},{"head":"C.1 Progress towards outputs","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The program is structured in six Themes, three of which support the principal technology drivers of productivity and intensification in livestock and aquaculture systems: animal health, genetics and (animal) nutrition. The other three Themes apply a combination of relevant biological and social science to address key dimensions associated with pro-poor value chain development and intensification and ensuring more effective agricultural research-for-development that translates into impact."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Theme 1 -Animal health: This Theme generates data and materials to improve the pro-poor management of animal health and food safety in the selected value chains. It is a good example of cross-CRP synergy with joint work on food safety issues in our livestock and aquaculture value chains led by and reported under the Agriculture for Nutrition and Health CRP (A4NH). A4NH developed a framework to design and conduct integrated assessments of food safety and nutrition that were applied in several of our target value chains. It also contributed to or led major assessments in five value chains reported in numerous communications (see the A4NH annual report documentation), including the first isolation of Trichinella (cause of measly pork) in Uganda."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"To initiate work in fish health, a literature review of aquatic animal diseases in Egyptian tilapia farms was completed which indicated a number of disease challenges that are present but so far have minimal impact on productivity. A related study on immunostimulants showed that Spirulina platensis improves resistance to Aeromonas among tilapia. Another study found that tilapia reduce grazing rates in the presence of toxic strains of cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa, a dominant member of the plankton community in highly productive fishponds. Observed clinical signs included sluggish movement and changes in blood chemistry, suggesting control strategies may need to be developed."},{"index":4,"size":152,"text":"In East Africa, the major threat to cattle remains East Coast fever. A key goal of the theme is to develop improved vaccines against the causative organism, Theileria parva, which requires a much better understanding of the interaction between the parasite and the host. To this end, comparative sequencing of parasites from the field and from the currently deployed live vaccine showed surprisingly that there is much greater heterogeneity among the field strains than in the vaccine. This raises further research questions as to how the current vaccine is so broadly protective in the field. In addition, work in this area will be accelerated by the production and validation achieved in 2013 of nine different peptide MHC tetramers, reagents which facilitate the detection and quantification of essential components of the host immune response (CD8 + T cell response) and which define more precisely the parasite components which could comprise a novel vaccine."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"Progress was also achieved in the development of new tools to identify the key components of improved vaccines against contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia (CBPP), a disease affecting the Tanzania dairy system, with a new mutagenesis method for Mycoplasma genes based on di-codon usage. Epidemiological modelling also permitted assessment of optimal interventions for progressive control of the disease. A lyophilized vaccine against the peste des petits ruminants (PPR) was successfully validated, which will now allow transfer of this process for this thermotolerant version of the vaccine to a commercial manufacturer. 1"},{"index":6,"size":119,"text":"Theme 2 -Animal genetics: This Theme targets improved strains and breeding strategies that sustainably improve animal productivity. In the lab this year, new embryo vitrification protocols were adapted to enable more successful application of in-vitro bovine embryo production, freezing and thawing that will speed the supply of desired cattle genetics in the dairy value chains. To improve the efficiency of field research and speed genetic improvement programs, an innovative electronic mobile-based livestock performance, survey and meta-data collection and collation system was developed. In Bangladesh, methods for the short-term preservation of freshly stripped fish sperm ('milt') were developed. This technology will allow longer-distance transport and so support increased fish hatchery production and the expansion of fish farming to remote areas."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"Increased community participation in sheep performance recording in community based improvement programs was achieved in Ethiopia (database accessible to flock owners), enabling best bet interventions to be tested and effective ram selection programs to continue. An information campaign on the benefits of biotechnological approaches to producing more resilient, productive livestock breed types was also undertaken."},{"index":8,"size":208,"text":"Theme 3 -Feeds and forages: This Theme develops superior feed and forage options that respond to current and evolving demands to increase meat, milk and fish production while reducing the ecological footprint. Three key milestones were achieved this year, two which have already been highlighted at the program's success stories (see Section A.2): BNI Brachiaria and dual purpose maize breeding. The first milestone on BNI Brachiara was also associated with other papers presented at the International Grassland Congress in Sydney that showed a) the positive impacts of tropical forages, b) the potential of forage-based systems to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions (including the effects of BNI to reduce N2O emissions) and c) the contribution of planted forages for adaptation to climate change (tolerance to waterlogging). The second milestone regarding dual purpose maize has been achieved to a considerable degree through jointly funded or complementary activities with the Maize CRP. Similarly, a range of collaborative activities that include joint training exercises and conventional and marker assisted breeding and gene association mapping for targeted genetic enhancement of fodder traits, biotic and abiotic stress traits and water-use efficiency have been undertaken with other commodity CRPs (GRISP, WHEAT, Dryland Cereals) and aligned with identification, breeding and dissemination of superior food-feed and forage cultivars."},{"index":9,"size":88,"text":"The third milestone was the identification and rapid response to an opportunity for a new line of research on exploiting the underuse of cassava peels for animal and fish feed. Led by the Global Cassava Partnership, Livestock and Fish, joined with the Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) and Humidtropics CRPs to contribute to a high-level consultation in Nigeria on cassava industry development, including the preparation of background studies. Joint research activities have been initiated to explore the potential for small-scale processing of this resource currently treated as waste."},{"index":10,"size":62,"text":"Other forage breeding progress included successful recombination and evaluation of 325 selected, hybrid-derived sexual clones for Brachiaria humidicola. In the B. ruziziensis/decumbens/brizantha program, open-pollinated progenies of 125 selected hybrids (from the 2,731 evaluated in 2012) were evaluated and 103 selected for further evaluation, and in another activity 3 of 325 hybrids tested were identified for drought resistance based on three plant traits."},{"index":11,"size":141,"text":"The Feed and Forage Technology Platform was further developed based on two key capacities. The first, the joint Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) network established in 2012, increased the number and scope of NIRS equations made available for comprehensive nutritive analysis of animal feeds and forages, and trained more staff in equations accession and standardization of NIRS spectra across NIRS machines. Representative feeds for aquaculture have now been included. The second key capacity further improved is the assessment methodology based on the FEAST and TechFit tools, which benefitted from feedback from their application in Ethiopia, Tanzania, India, Tunisia and Zimbabwe, and an expert workshop in Ethiopia that defined, developed and weighed appropriate criteria for prioritizing feed interventions. As another cross-CRP synergy, the tools were also applied in the Drylands CRP in Tunisia, Zimbabwe and India after joint training and capacity building exercises."},{"index":12,"size":216,"text":"Results from assessments of feed constraints became available for several of our target value chains. An analysis of the fish feed value chain in Bangladesh identified priority needs at both farm and sector level, and there and in Egypt, the need for early engagement with the private sector was highlighted. In Nicaragua, forage options that thrive on water-logged soils were given high priority. Chopping and pulverizing crop residues to increase intake, reduce feed wastages and optimize use of purchased supplementary feed has been successful and adopted in dairy value chains in India and Tanzania. Preliminary results from pilot development of small scale business around chopping and pulverizing and mixing and compounding of purchases supplement ingredients in India and Tanzania were promising and attracted donor attention. The conceptual framework for a tool to guide investments for these small scale enterprises in feed densification, fortification and transport was developed and a set of supporting algorithms compiled. Fodder preservation options were investigated (silages targeting ruminants and pigs) in Latin and Central America and (silages and hay targeting dairy) in India. Suitable cultivars for food-feed crops (maize, sorghum, wheat, groundnut and chickpea) and forages (B. humidicola, B. decumbens/B. brizantha/B. ruziziensis, Canavalia brasiliensis, forage-type sorghum and pearl millet) were identified for value chains in Nicaragua, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Vietnam and India."},{"index":13,"size":168,"text":"Theme 4 -Value chain development: This Theme develops and applies methods and tools to assess and engage in propoor value chains for animal-source foods. It simultaneously generates evidence about the appropriateness of the technologies and institutional innovations that will be the basis to design integrated gender-sensitive interventions to take to scale. Rapid assessments were completed in 2 more value chains in 2013: Uganda and Ethiopia. An engendered toolkit for assessing pork value chains was adapted and applied in 35 villages across three districts there. Eight value chain sites were characterized in the Ethiopia case, with 27 national partners trained in applying the benchmarking tools. Improved gendered value chain assessment tools were tested in Nicaragua. To take stock of the methodological progress achieved, an Agrifood value chain tools conference was organized in Kampala in September 2013 jointly with the Policy, Institutions and Markets (PIM) CRP. The conference brought together 57 stakeholders to compare experiences using these types of tools and define an agenda for their continued testing and development."},{"index":14,"size":254,"text":"Situational analysis is the approach developed to benchmark value chains at sectoral level. Analyses were completed in an additional 3 value chains -Ethiopia, India and Vietnam -and will be published in 2014. Based on the initial rapid assessment and situational analysis, in-depth value chain assessments are being designed and implemented. An in-depth assessment was completed in Tanzania and others initiated in 3 more countries (Ethiopia, Uganda, and Vietnam). Findings from the various analyses completed in 2013 increasingly reinforce evidence from earlier assessments of the challenges of high input costs and low output prices, together with high transactions costs associated with lack of standards and grades, poor market information and governance and inadequate coordination within the target value chains. Findings from a number of studies on the role of gender in livestock systems were synthesized in contributions to three major publications: an article on the gender asset gap, a book reviewing gender dimensions in a set of agricultural development projects, and a book on women and livestock. The case for gender transformative approaches in value chain research and strategies for integrating gender into rural advisory services were described, and a training manual on 'closing the gender gap in agriculture' was developed. Six training events and on gender concepts and research methods were provided to a total of 232 stakeholders. Gender analysis was mainstreamed in the target value chain assessments through studies completed in Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia and Nicaragua, and particular focus on a successful women's dairy cooperative in India in collaboration with the PIM CRP."},{"index":15,"size":112,"text":"With respect to our learning agenda, the principal focus in 2013 was developing the program's Results Strategy Framework described in Section B above and an IDO Indicator Manual to describe proposed metrics, and drafting of our Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning Framework. Implementation of the frameworks began with a series of exercises to articulate the program's Theory of Change and impact pathways in five target value chains. As the result, impact pathway narratives have been developed for the value chains in Tanzania, Uganda, Nicaragua and Egypt. Much work remains to define how the monitoring and evaluation framework will be operationalized in practice, including the appropriate use of benchmarking, baselines and dedicated data collection."}]},{"head":"C.2 Progress towards the achievement of research outcomes and IDOs","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The program devotes science to generating novel technologies and effective strategies that support pro-poor livestock and fish value chain development and transformation. At this stage in the program, much of the emphasis is on improving productivity, so research outcomes being observed are mostly related to this first IDO."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"IDO1 -Increased productivity: Two specific outcomes were achieved in promoting the uptake of East Coast fever vaccination in East Africa. ILRI responded to requests to provide 356,600 additional doses of the Infection and Treatment Method vaccine to distributors in Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda and Kenya. These requests confirm increasing uptake of the vaccine and brings the total number of doses from the current vaccine batch produced by ILRI released in the region to over a million doses, allowing an estimated 500,000 calves to survive and benefitting an estimated 50,000 cattle-keeping households. Progress was also achieved to promote its more widespread commercial uptake in using research evidence to obtain permission from the Ugandan authorities to allow use of the vaccine pending its registration there."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"A workshop was hosted to initiate establishment of a Global PPR Research Alliance led by regional and international organizations to capitalize on interest being generated by the development of the thermotolerant vaccine. The Alliance will be critical in identifying and coordinating key research issues linked to the scaling up of vaccine production and its deployment in vaccination campaigns."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"In Bangladesh, research results on better disease management contributed to the ability of more than 100 shrimp hatcheries to deliver larger volumes of quality aquaculture inputs, including disease-free seed. Some 6100 farmers there were given access to disease-free shrimp seed without which they are otherwise at risk of being excluded from profitable markets due to disease threats."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"The FEAST and TechFit tools continue to be taken up outside the program (500 downloads so far) and were introduced to national partners in Tunisia by the Drylands CRP. Similarly, the Ethiopia small ruminant value chain assessment toolkit was requested by an FAO development project."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"Although small scale feed processing options for crop residues based on mechanical choppers is not a new technology, its current re-evaluation in project sites in Tanzania and India indicates current socio-economic factors now favor its adoption in areas where they had previously failed to achieve uptake. Spontaneous adoption of the technology as the basis for small business service development is now being observed spilling out from the project sites in these two countries."},{"index":7,"size":87,"text":"Our work on dual purpose food-feed crop breeding, as highlighted in the success story for maize in Section A.2, aims at changing a still widely held research paradigm in crop and forage improvement from single trait focus to multi trait focus. This has been accepted only in certain instances to date, as for example in sorghum and pearl millet in India. It is now seriously being explored, however, for pulses in Ethiopia and maize, wheat and groundnut in India, and new cultivars release criteria are changing accordingly."},{"index":8,"size":65,"text":"Dissemination of superior food-feed and forage cultivars has started at various scales, for example based on royalty reports on seed sales, over 300 000 ha are now reported planted to B. decumbens/B. brizantha/B. ruziziensis hybrids in Latin and Central America and growing by 100,000 ha per year (confidential company reports held by CIAT), and at small scale district level in India for maize and sorghum."}]},{"head":"IDO2 -Increased supply:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The approach adopted by the program to promote stakeholder engagement in two of the program's target countries generated evidence that there is growing support for the development of the target pro-poor value chains. In Tanzania, the Dairy Development Forum reported in our 2012 Annual Report adopted a variant of our program tagline and name of our flagship project in Tanzania as its name -'Maziwa Zaidi' ('more milk' in Kiswahili) -to communicate its collective objective with an appropriate emphasis on increasing supply for food security. In Uganda, the Ugandan Pig Stakeholders Platform was established as a working group and forum where all actors of the smallholder pig value chain will meet and address the main constraints and issues related to the value chain, and collectively look for solutions that promote its ability to increase production."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"IDO3 -Increased employment and income (especially for women): An interesting result was observed in a study on root crops and dairy goats in Tanzania. Both male and female farmers from four study villages maintained that as a consequence of the gender mainstreaming in the study approach, which included participatory analysis of gender roles and relationship training, their families had begun sharing chores at home more equitably and were more aware of the household members' contribution to farm activities. The extent and modality of these reported changes in gender relationships will be explored further in this specific study, and monitored in other value chains."}]},{"head":"IDO6 -Policies and investments:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"In Uganda, the pig value chain is often not among the priority areas for public agricultural investment either in research or development. One of the explicit objectives defined by the Ugandan Pig Stakeholders Platform is to raise the profile of the sector and especially its role in livelihoods for the over 1 million smallholder households that keep pigs, and advocate for a national research and development agenda."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"No research outcomes were recorded for the remaining two IDOs on nutrition and environment."}]},{"head":"C.3 Progress towards impact","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Major contributions to understanding and validating the potential for impact from uptake of our research outputs, or impact per se, were mainly focused in the ongoing participatory development of Theories of Change and impact pathways for 5 of the program's target value chains. This process defines our best understanding as to how the program and its stakeholders expect to achieve their common objectives, and the associated assumptions. The outputs will be important to guide the program in identifying strategic studies to inform the program's progress towards impact."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"More specific evidence was generated regarding potential for impact of our productivity IDO. We estimated that phenotyping for fodder quality and genetic enhancement can benefit food-feed crop and forage digestibility by about 3 to 5 percent units, resulting in potential increases in livestock productivity of 15 to 25%. The potential beneficial knock-on effects of BNI Brachiaria on crop yields and nitrogen use efficiencies in subsequent crop cycles for broader agricultural productivity and environmental benefits has already been noted."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Dissemination of superior dual food-feed cultivars as hybrids (as in the case of maize) was found to be relatively easy with their short delivery pathways. This is in contrast to open pollinated varieties of sorghum and groundnut where lack of seed, and therefore the need for seed multiplication, posed constraints to on farm field testing and larger scale dissemination."}]},{"head":"D. Gender research achievements","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Efforts of the program's gender team have been directed towards implementing the Gender Strategy, which was approved by the Consortium in May, 2013. The team's capacity was significantly expanded with the addition of new gender scientists dedicated to delivering the agenda as part of the value chain teams in Tanzania, Nicaragua and Ethiopia. Resource mobilization for gender research across the various value chains has been a priority, while contributing to defining project and value chain strategies aligned to the CRP gender strategy and collaborating on gender responsive value chain tools."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"Gender mainstreaming is occurring in value chain countries by gender scientists reviewing all existing and proposed projects under the program. They have also begun reviewing and analyzing data from value chain assessments to determine key leverage points to achieve Gender Strategy outputs. Process indicators are also being developed in conjunction with the final gender indicators and impact pathway. Gender has been emphasized as a research topic within the program and the bilateral projects under the program, requiring the identification of new partners and continuing to expand gender capacity of both CGIAR and partner organizations from both the research and development sectors. To this end, the ILRI Capacity Development team has been engaged to develop a work plan to enhance gender capacity. A strategy to develop modular trainings adapted to various audiences has been agreed and presented at the CRP Gender working group workshop in October and through a poster."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Partners in the value chains have now been identified (in Uganda, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Nicaragua) to assist with expanding gender research. The gender team has taken a more active role in supporting efforts of the CGIAR Gender Network, with planned collaborative research efforts with gender scientists across the CRPs. The gender team played a central role in organizing the gender session at the CGIAR Knowledge Day in November, and where our program gender strategy was highlighted as a poster. The involvement of new recruits, the expansion and coordination of the gender research agenda across value chains, and the collaboration opportunities have contributed to enriching the scope of our work. A strong emphasis on research outputs and publications is expected in 2014."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"The program's gender strategy defines 4 main areas of focus. Integrating gender into programmatic work occurred primarily through outputs related to capacity development and increasing women's access and control of resources in the value chain. An annual workshop was organized for the gender working group of the CRP and their partners from the value chains to share research and tools across value chains. In consultation with value chain teams, gender scientists helped define project and value chain strategies and assessment tools aligned to the CRP gender strategy. Strategic gender research occurred primarily through another pair of outputs related to developing gender transformative approaches in the value chain and exploring gender issues related to animal-source food consumption in poor households."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"A guide for transformative approaches in the value chain was drafted and reviewed during the annual gender working group meeting. A study was commissioned in Ethiopia to identify existing opportunities to change gender norms that inhibit the range and quality of women's engagement in the small ruminant value chain and consumption of meat and milk. The gender team is exploring the linkages between gender analysis, transformative approaches and empowerment. The outputs from these explorations will contribute to the larger CGIAR-wide Gender Norms study in 2014 and an abstract on this research was submitted and accepted for the upcoming Food Security Conference."},{"index":6,"size":104,"text":"The increased visibility and importance assigned to social and gender issues within the program have augmented attention to the topic and demand for collaboration by other scientists and development partners. However, collaboration with other teams across the program needs strengthening, which will be a primary objective of the gender team in 2014. Limited success in attracting bilateral funding to complement the Window 1/Window 2 (W1/W2) investment in human resources for the gender program remains a constraint to achieving the overall program outcome of \"poor women, men and marginalized groups have improved and more equitable access to affordable animal source foods through gender equitable interventions.\""}]},{"head":"E. Partnerships building achievements","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The program has adopted a very intentional partnership strategy that recognizes the differences between tactical collaboration and more fundamental strategic partnerships, and the different nature of partnership with research versus development actors. While scanning widely and engaging in numerous tactical collaborations, particular attention is being given to establishing the foundation for selected strategic partnerships, both globally and within the selected value chains."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"On the research side, strategic partnerships at the program level are being explored with Wageningen University Research (WUR) and the Swedish Agricultural University (SLU). When ILRI renewed its agreement with SLU in 2013, a special clause was included to provide the basis for a joint program with the Livestock and Fish CRP. Careful consideration is being given to the appropriate arrangements that might allow WUR and SLU to become full partners in the CRP. Alignment with national and regional priorities is being achieved mainly through direct involvement of relevant national authorities such as the Ministries of Livestock and Fisheries, their line departments, and the national agricultural research system during stakeholder engagement events in each value chain, as well as often being directly involved in research activities. In Uganda, for example, the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, district veterinary officers and local governments are full partners in the ongoing value chain assessment activities. At the regional level, alignment is monitored through periodic meetings with ASARECA in East Africa."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"Joint work continued with other CRPs on food safety and zoonoses (A4NH), value chain assessment and foresight (PIM) and dual purpose food-feed crops (MAIZE, GRISP, WHEAT, Dryland Cereals). A particular highlight in the collaboration with PIM was a joint workshop organized in Kampala to share experiences with value chain assessment tools. Three new cross-CRP initiatives of note included the initiation of activities in the Bangladesh aquaculture value chain and efforts to identify how the work there can integrate with that ongoing in the Aquatic Agricultural Systems (AAS) hub. Secondly, a joint agenda with GRISP began to be developed on improving the utilization of rice straw for animal feed. Finally, we joined RTB and Humidtropics in an initiative led by the Global Cassava Partnership for the 21 st Century that organized a high level consultation on 'Cassava-Base Feed Systems for Africa' in Ibadan, Nigeria in October, which concluded that recovering cassava peels-now treated largely as waste-may now be a viable option as a new major animal feed resource."}]},{"head":"F. Capacity building achievements","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"The program recruited a Capacity Development Specialist in September 2013 to coordinate better capacity development efforts across the Themes and target value chains. A capacity development strategy and implementation plan is under preparation, and preliminary capacity assessments were conducted in Uganda and Tanzania to inform action plans. A specific effort was initiated in Uganda to prepare appropriate training interventions for various actor groups in the smallholder pig value chain. Training events were organized (in September and November) to support the Ethiopia small ruminant value chain and regional workshops to support the dissemination of animal genetic resources research results in West, East, and southern Africa. A total of 3,756 men and 1,371 women benefited from short-term training on topics such as value chain assessment/analysis, best aquaculture management practices, and better feeding and breeding practices. In addition, 24 male and 21 female MSc and PhD students were affiliated with research contributing to the program."}]},{"head":"G. Risk management","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The three major risks that may hinder the expected delivery of results by the program identified last year remain pertinent:"},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"1) Mobilizing sufficient W3/bilateral funding: The program relies on securing restricted project grants to fund half of the overall program budget, especially those portions supporting operational costs. If the program continues to fall short in mobilizing bilateral funding, it will face challenges implementing its full agenda. This is being partly addressed through additional W2 funding commitments that the program has attracted, together with new W1 funding and additional attention to a more aggressive and pro-active resource mobilization strategy for bilateral funding. 2) Poor alignment among partner centers: While the four partner centers have developed a shared understanding of the program and its value chain approach, implementation of the full program remains constrained by legacy projects, insufficient new bilateral funding and associated difficulties in re-orienting existing resources. In addition to mobilizing the needed new funding, the program is undertaking various internal and external reviews to protect and strengthen the alignment across the centers in implementing the core program concept of value chain research into development."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"3) Weak program management systems: The development of the CGIAR 'one corporate system' (OCS) has been expected to address the need for better performing systems, but so far among the program center partners, only WorldFish has come online. The program is investing in interim systems to address some critical needs, but may face challenges in adopting results-based management strategies."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"We also note that the political situation has been tense in the two aquaculture value chain countries, Egypt and Bangladesh, and yet to be resolved. In each case, appropriate security precautionary measures have been established and followed to ensure the safety of program staff."}]},{"head":"H. Lessons learned H.1 Confidence of indicators","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"The indicators reported in Table 1 are derived from detailed data presented in the various background reports, which cite the supporting evidence. The program is more confident this year in the quality of the indicator data supplied because of the development and use of a simple database to capture and aggregate the data across the nine value chains, four centers and six Themes. This allowed for duplications to be more easily detected and resolved. There is still a lack of clarity about the definition of some of the indicators that may lead to inconsistency in reporting the numbers across CRPs and that the Consortium should resolve ahead of the 2014 Annual Report."}]},{"head":"H.2 Changes in research direction","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"A few minor changes in research direction from those described in the approved program proposal were evident in the research strategies implemented by the program's six Themes in 2013. Two of the nine target value chains were reselected, reflecting the program's adaptive management. The aquaculture value chain in Uganda, which was determined to have insufficient potential for significant growth at this time, was replaced by one in Bangladesh, where there is the opportunity to co-locate activities with AAS. Due to civil unrest in Mali, the small ruminant value chain was shifted to Burkina Faso. Business cases using agreed selection criteria were developed to justify the selection of the new sites."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"The team in Egypt sought to re-orient the main project activity there, which has been focused on a largely technical intervention to disseminate an improved fish strain to commercial aquaculture farms, to align better with the pro-poor objectives of the program. With the support of the donor, Swiss Development Corporation, an M4P (Markets for the Poor) approach was adopted to identify opportunities to create youth employment and improve value addition by lower income value chain actors, while also considering strategies for fish products appropriate for poor consumers. An initial attempt to pilot small-scale catfish farming in backyard tanks there was not successful and will need to be reconsidered."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"The Feed and Forages team initiated a new research activity to explore small-scale business development services and technology to recover cassava peel waste as a new byproduct source of animal feed that could increase feed availability across the selected value chains. A new project funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation allowed the Targeting Theme to open its research agenda on developing methods for assessing environmental impacts anticipated with intensification and eventual expansion of our selected value chains."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Other gaps in the program's research agenda reported last year remain to be addressed. The program is investing strategically to establish new capacity to initiate research in the priority areas of feed bioscience and herd health."}]},{"head":"H.3 Lessons learned from evaluation","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"As the program's monitoring and evaluation system is being developed, the Science and Partnership Advisory Committee (SPAC) is playing a central role in evaluating progress. In 2013, the SPAC provided feedback in two critical areas. The first involved a review of the program Results Strategy Framework and logical framework (logframe) in which a number of weak points in the research work plan were identified. In response, the program is designing an intensive planning exercise in 2014 to guide the research teams in revising, harmonizing and refining their work plans and articulating more clearly their research strategies, while taking into account the anticipated evolution from Themes to Flagship Projects and to the program M&E system under development."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"The second exercise undertaken by the SPAC was to evaluate the implementation of the program's value chain approach in the Tanzania smallholder dairy value chain during the SPAC meeting there in December. While endorsing the overall approach, including the engagement with local research and development actors and the appropriateness of the research activities underway, the Committee highlighted the need for more effective integration and interaction across disciplines within the team, and between the value chain team and the other Themes, especially the technology platforms for animal health, genetics and feed and forages. Additional investment in creating a dynamic of cross-learning within the research team will be key to achieving the envisaged interdisciplinary approach. Mechanisms will also need to be devised that permit the value chain team to leverage the engagement of the other Themes."}]},{"head":"I. Financial report","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The financial reports are attached as Annex 3."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Annex -Procedures defined to report use of available diagnostic or baseline knowledge on gender routinely for assessment of the gender equality implications of the CRP's flagship research products as per the Gender Strategy -CRP M&E system has protocol for tracking progress on integration of gender in research"},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"The Gender Theme currently has two fulltime gender scientists and one gender research technician with clear TORs and work plans. We also have the equivalent of one additional full-time gender position but split across three countries."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"The Gender Theme has drafted process indicators to monitor and evaluate progress on the Gender Strategy, and is working with the M&E team to draft gender -appropriate IDOs."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"The Gender team (in conjunction with the CG Gender Network) has begun to define standards for assessing the gender implications of the CRP flagship projects."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"-CRP scientists and managers with responsibility for gender in the CRP's outputs are appointed, have written TORS and funds allocated to support their interaction."},{"index":7,"size":81,"text":"-Procedures defined to report use of available diagnostic or baseline knowledge on gender routinely for assessment of the gender equality implications of the CRP's flagship research products as per the Gender Strategy -CRP M&E system has protocol for tracking progress on integration of gender in research And A CRP plan approved for capacity development in gender analysis CRP scientists and managers with responsibility for gender in the CRP's outputs are appointed, have written TORS and funds allocated to support their interaction."},{"index":8,"size":77,"text":"-Procedures defined to report use of available diagnostic or baseline knowledge on gender routinely for assessment of the gender equality implications of the CRP's flagship research products as per the Gender Strategy -CRP M&E system has protocol for tracking progress on integration of gender in research And A CRP plan approved for capacity development in gender analysis  And  The CRP uses feedback provided by its M&E system to improve its integration of gender into research"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"for tools and methods for ex ante environmental impact assessment This Theme ensures that the program focuses on the appropriate value chains, sites, beneficiaries and solutions that will generate the most impact with the best environmental outcomes. The site selection process was completed for an additional value chain, Vietnam. A stakeholder consultation in East Africa confirmed the demand associated with pro-poor livestock and aquaculture value chain development. This permitted the start of a new Bill & Melinda Gates Foundationfunded project with this objective implemented in partnership with the Stockholm Environment Institute and CSIRO (Australia). An early output from the project was a review of applications of the Life Cycle Assessment methodology to livestock value chains.  "},{"text":" An important new partnership in 2013 formed in the Animal Health Theme is a consortium led by ILRI that attracted funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for a new East Coast fever vaccine initiative. The consortium builds on earlier collaborations with the Center for Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases (Malawi), GALVmed (UK), the Institute of Tropical Medicine at Antwerp (Belgium), the Institute for Genome Sciences at the University of Maryland (USA), the Roslin Institute at University of Edinburgh (UK), the Royal Veterinary College (UK), the United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USA) and Washington State University (USA). Under the Targeting Theme, another project funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation is allowing the program to tap into complementary expertise at CSIRO (Australia) and the Stockholm Environment Institute (Sweden) to address methods needed for assessing environmental impacts associated with development of our target value chains.At value chain level, the program strengthened its strategic partnership with Sokoine University of Agriculture (Tanzania) to bring a broad range of faculty expertise and student research to the successful extension of a joint project funded by As endorsed at GCARD2, the program is dedicating particular attention to the challenge of working more closely with development partners, critical to our theory of change. Discussions have been initiated with two international NGOs, SNV and CARE, to explore whether, in addition to collaborative activities, there is sufficient interest in integrating our research and development efforts more systematically globally. At value chain level, scoping exercises have led to a number of MoUs being initiated with local development actors, such as VEDCO, SNV, NAADS, BRAC and AFRISA in Uganda and SNV, Land O'Lakes and Heifer International in Tanzania. The program is strengthening its collaboration with the Tanzania Dairy Board by providing targeted training and support to improve communication and management skills for its stewardship of the Dairy Development Forum. Collaboration was strengthened with Save the Children in Bangladesh in complementary provision of nutrition training to households involved in aquaculture training. Private sector actors Skretting, Aller Aqua and MAKRO as well as local private hatcheries are participating actively to improving business skills among commercial farmers in the main Egypt aquaculture project.  "},{"text":" 1. Program indicators of progressDetailed explanation for the source of the indicators can be found at http://livestock-fish.wikispaces.com/2012+Annual+Report in the Source of Summary Indicators file and in the various Theme, center and value chain reports posted there. Explanatory notes at the bottom of the table are provided for selected indicators.-CRP scientists and managers with responsibility for gender in the CRP's outputs are appointed, have written TORS.  1. Gender  Sex-disaggregated social  Sex-disaggregated social data  Sex-disaggregated social  1. Gender Sex-disaggregated social Sex-disaggregated social data Sex-disaggregated social inequality data is being collected collected and used to data collected and used to inequalitydata is being collectedcollected and used todata collected and used to targets and used to diagnose diagnose important gender- diagnose important gender- targetsand used to diagnosediagnose important gender-diagnose important gender- gender- Performance mb defined 34,123 (Animal Genetic Resources) analysis-of-Egyptian-fish-seed-production.pdf http://www.worldfishcenter.org/resource_centre/Value-chain-analysis-of-Egyptian-fish-6,707ha; Improved Red Masaai sheep; Machakos, Kisumu, Narok, Nakuru and Kajiado important gender-related related constraints in at least related constraints in at least  CRP performance  CRP performance meets  CRP performance exceeds gender- Performance mb defined34,123 (Animal Genetic Resources) analysis-of-Egyptian-fish-seed-production.pdf http://www.worldfishcenter.org/resource_centre/Value-chain-analysis-of-Egyptian-fish-6,707ha; Improved Red Masaai sheep; Machakos, Kisumu, Narok, Nakuru and Kajiado important gender-related related constraints in at least related constraints in at least  CRP performance  CRP performance meets  CRP performance exceeds Indicator KNOWLEDGE, TOOLS, DATA Deviation narrative (if actual is more than 10% away from target) 1. Number of flagship \"products\" produced by CRP 2. % of flagship products produced that have explicit target of women farmers/NRM managers 3. % of flagship products produced that have been assessed for likely disaggregated impact 4. Number of \"tools\" produced by CRP 5. % of tools that have an explicit target of women farmers 6. % of tools assessed for likely gender-disaggregated impact 7. Number of open access databases 9. Number of publications in ISI journals produced by CRP 10. Number of strategic value chains analyzed by CRP CAPACITY ENHANCEMENT AND INNOVATION PLATFORMS 2012 Target Actual 20 70% 60% 38 72% 72% 14 78 24 13. Number of trainees in short-term programs 54,253 14. Number of trainees in short-term programs facilitated by CRP (female) 17,143 technologies/NRM 18. Number of TECHNOLOGIES/PRACTICES IN VARIOUS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 2013 Target 15. Number of trainees in long-term programs facilitated by CRP (male) 33 16.Number of trainees in long-term programs facilitated by CRP (female) 21 er constraints in at least one Actual n = 4 1. Concept; Biological Nitrification Inhibition 2. Concept; Mitigation potential of tropical forages and 3. Analytical framework; New aquaculture technology, Bangladesh 4. Analytical framework for piloting of best-bet interventions; Tanzania n = 0% n = 25% (Item 4 above) n = 11 1. Training: Aquaculture Best Management Practices (set of 10 films) 2. Decision-Support Tools: Manual of Strain comparisons in Aquaculture species 3. Training: Carp Hatchery Manual 4. Training: Tilapia Hatchery Manual 5. Training: Traceability of carp and shrimp seed (poster) 6. Assessment Tool: Value Chain Assessment tool for dual-purpose cattle producers in Nicaragua 7. Decision-Support Tools: FEAST Feed Assessment Tool (updated from 2012 version) 8. Decision-Support Tools: Discussion tool for livestock keepers, TechFit (updated from 2012 version) 9. Training: Closing the Gender Gap in Agriculture: A trainer's manual 10. Assessment Tool: Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) tool for dairy cow breed identification 11.Assessment Tool: Tool for rapid baseline assessment of trait, breed and breeding services preferences 27% (Items 7,8 & 9 above) 27% (Items 7,8,9 &11 above) n = 6 n = 77 of which: 1. 5 shared 50% Livestock and Fish CRP and 50% AAS CRP 2. 3 shared 50% Livestock and Fish CRP and 50% CCAFS CRP 3. 1 shared 50% Livestock and Fish CRP and 50% Humid Tropics CRP 4. 3 shared 33% Livestock and FishCRP, 33% CCAFS CRP and 33% Humid Tropics CRP n = 9 1. Ethiopia sheep value chain; Amhara, Tigray, Oromia, Somalia, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region (SNNPR) 2. Ethiopia goat value chain; Amhara, Tigray, Oromia, Somalia 3. Nicaragua dual-purpose cattle value chain 4. Tanzania dairy value chain, Mvomero, Lushoto, Kilosa, Handeni, Morogoro, Tanga, Dodoma 5. Vietnam pig value chain, Nghe-An, Hung Yen, Dak Lak, Dak Nong 6. Bangladesh mud crab value chain 7. India dairy value chain, Bihar and Assam 8. Uganda pig value chain, Kamuli, Mukono and Masaka districks, Uganda 9. West Africa small ruminant value chains, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali and n = 3,756 of which 4 shared with CRP A4NH (underlined below) 63 -Fish hatchery management skills; http://www.worldfishcenter.org/our-research/outcomes/stories-of-change/milt-preservation-technique-doubles-fish-hatchery-production 1 -Mass fry production for commercial producers 102 -Principles of profitable fish farming 12 -Management of value chain analysis feedback sessions with farmers 45 -Pig farming 16 -Immuno-informatics n = 1,371 of which 2 shared with CRP A4NH (underlined below): 40 -Fish Retailer marketing 5 -Molecular characterization 3 -Systems Dynamics modeling 14 -FEAST & Techfit Tool Use 20 -Dairy feed/health management; http://milkit.wikispaces.com/Meetings+and+Workshops 22 -Dairy cooperative management 822 -Dairy feeding 30 -Tropical livestock and fish breeding; inequality. identify drivers of gender Therefore, the tools aim to 2 -Food safety (milk) (50% A4NH CRP & 50% Livestock and Fish CRP) transformative interventions. 1 -Vitrification method for bovine embryos gender responsive and Bachelors: 0 provide data needed to design 146 -Biogas production from cattle manure Fellowships: 3 in value chain analysis to 25-Chicken production gender norms and attitudes, Post-Doctoral: 1 'transformative' issues around 40 -Dairy processing seed-production.pdf 38 -Animal genetic resources 4 -Research skills for dairy genetics 1 -NIRS Feed & Fodder Technology Platform 4 -Management of value chain analysis feedback sessions with farmers 25 -Pig farming 111 -Gender integration and tools 17 -Immuno-informatics 1 -GIS and spatial analysis n = 24 male trainees: Masters: 10 PhD: 14 Post-Doctoral: 0 Fellowships: 0 Bachelors: 0 n = 21 female trainees: Masters: 6 PhD: 11 counties, in Kenya one of the CRP's main target one of the CRP's main target 2014 Target N = 5 N = 25 N = 6 N = 57 N = 9 N = 5,976 N = 5,666 n = n = Indicator approaches requirements requirements requirements  of of the CRP's main target populations populations  tec hn  populations  And  2.  And b. Continuing areas   The CRP has defined and Institutional  The CRP has defined and olo gie  collected baseline data on the collected baseline data on architecture 300,000ha; Latin and Central America (Bracharia hybrid Mulatto)  main dimensions of gender for integration the main dimensions of s inequality in the CRP's main of gender is in gender inequality in the /N R M pr act ice s fiel d (p II) b. Male farmers b.i. New areas 1,600 fish farmers; Governorates of Kafr el Sheikh, Behera, Fayoum, Sharkia in Egypt b.ii. Continuing areas gender, and even 342 sheep farmers; Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR in Ethiopia populations in the chains. These tools aim to integrate  tools being tested in the CRP.  with the value chain analysis  data in most instances, in line  collecting sex disaggregated  These efforts go beyond  se operating among key  ha gender based constraints  29 sheep farmers; Amhara, Oromia, SSNP in Ethiopia Nicaragua) to identify relevant  d a.ii. Continuing areas Egypt, Ethiopia, Uganda, populations te baseline data collection (in beneficiaries in main target tes 34. Number of farmers and others who have applied new technologies or management numbers of men and women and/or gender integrated Meneya in Egypt contribute, with related conducting gender analyses of CRP research 500 fish retailers; villages near Governorates of Kafr el Sheikh, Behera, Fayoum, Sharkia, which the CRP is or plans to conducted (in Tanzania) or are practices as a result 26,105 n = 2,471 farmers/others (1,942 male & 529 female) a. Female farmers/others a.i. New areas target populations relevant to CRP's main target place n = 2,040 of gender inequality to chain countries have female)  CRP targets changes in levels  Teams in the program's value 520  And male + expected outcomes (IDOs) (1,520 its expected outcomes ( IDOs) populations relevant to its  Indicator KNOWLEDGE, TOOLS, DATA Deviation narrative (if actual is more than 10% away from target) 1. Number of flagship \"products\" produced by CRP 2. % of flagship products produced that have explicit target of women farmers/NRM managers 3. % of flagship products produced that have been assessed for likely disaggregated impact 4. Number of \"tools\" produced by CRP 5. % of tools that have an explicit target of women farmers 6. % of tools assessed for likely gender-disaggregated impact 7. Number of open access databases 9. Number of publications in ISI journals produced by CRP 10. Number of strategic value chains analyzed by CRP CAPACITY ENHANCEMENT AND INNOVATION PLATFORMS 2012 Target Actual 20 70% 60% 38 72% 72% 14 78 24 13. Number of trainees in short-term programs 54,253 14. Number of trainees in short-term programs facilitated by CRP (female) 17,143 technologies/NRM 18. Number of TECHNOLOGIES/PRACTICES IN VARIOUS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 2013 Target 15. Number of trainees in long-term programs facilitated by CRP (male) 33 16.Number of trainees in long-term programs facilitated by CRP (female) 21 er constraints in at least one Actual n = 4 1. Concept; Biological Nitrification Inhibition 2. Concept; Mitigation potential of tropical forages and 3. Analytical framework; New aquaculture technology, Bangladesh 4. Analytical framework for piloting of best-bet interventions; Tanzania n = 0% n = 25% (Item 4 above) n = 11 1. Training: Aquaculture Best Management Practices (set of 10 films) 2. Decision-Support Tools: Manual of Strain comparisons in Aquaculture species 3. Training: Carp Hatchery Manual 4. Training: Tilapia Hatchery Manual 5. Training: Traceability of carp and shrimp seed (poster) 6. Assessment Tool: Value Chain Assessment tool for dual-purpose cattle producers in Nicaragua 7. Decision-Support Tools: FEAST Feed Assessment Tool (updated from 2012 version) 8. Decision-Support Tools: Discussion tool for livestock keepers, TechFit (updated from 2012 version) 9. Training: Closing the Gender Gap in Agriculture: A trainer's manual 10. Assessment Tool: Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) tool for dairy cow breed identification 11.Assessment Tool: Tool for rapid baseline assessment of trait, breed and breeding services preferences 27% (Items 7,8 & 9 above) 27% (Items 7,8,9 &11 above) n = 6 n = 77 of which: 1. 5 shared 50% Livestock and Fish CRP and 50% AAS CRP 2. 3 shared 50% Livestock and Fish CRP and 50% CCAFS CRP 3. 1 shared 50% Livestock and Fish CRP and 50% Humid Tropics CRP 4. 3 shared 33% Livestock and FishCRP, 33% CCAFS CRP and 33% Humid Tropics CRP n = 9 1. Ethiopia sheep value chain; Amhara, Tigray, Oromia, Somalia, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region (SNNPR) 2. Ethiopia goat value chain; Amhara, Tigray, Oromia, Somalia 3. Nicaragua dual-purpose cattle value chain 4. Tanzania dairy value chain, Mvomero, Lushoto, Kilosa, Handeni, Morogoro, Tanga, Dodoma 5. Vietnam pig value chain, Nghe-An, Hung Yen, Dak Lak, Dak Nong 6. Bangladesh mud crab value chain 7. India dairy value chain, Bihar and Assam 8. Uganda pig value chain, Kamuli, Mukono and Masaka districks, Uganda 9. West Africa small ruminant value chains, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali and n = 3,756 of which 4 shared with CRP A4NH (underlined below) 63 -Fish hatchery management skills; http://www.worldfishcenter.org/our-research/outcomes/stories-of-change/milt-preservation-technique-doubles-fish-hatchery-production 1 -Mass fry production for commercial producers 102 -Principles of profitable fish farming 12 -Management of value chain analysis feedback sessions with farmers 45 -Pig farming 16 -Immuno-informatics n = 1,371 of which 2 shared with CRP A4NH (underlined below): 40 -Fish Retailer marketing 5 -Molecular characterization 3 -Systems Dynamics modeling 14 -FEAST & Techfit Tool Use 20 -Dairy feed/health management; http://milkit.wikispaces.com/Meetings+and+Workshops 22 -Dairy cooperative management 822 -Dairy feeding 30 -Tropical livestock and fish breeding; inequality. identify drivers of gender Therefore, the tools aim to 2 -Food safety (milk) (50% A4NH CRP & 50% Livestock and Fish CRP) transformative interventions. 1 -Vitrification method for bovine embryos gender responsive and Bachelors: 0 provide data needed to design 146 -Biogas production from cattle manure Fellowships: 3 in value chain analysis to 25-Chicken production gender norms and attitudes, Post-Doctoral: 1 'transformative' issues around 40 -Dairy processing seed-production.pdf 38 -Animal genetic resources 4 -Research skills for dairy genetics 1 -NIRS Feed & Fodder Technology Platform 4 -Management of value chain analysis feedback sessions with farmers 25 -Pig farming 111 -Gender integration and tools 17 -Immuno-informatics 1 -GIS and spatial analysis n = 24 male trainees: Masters: 10 PhD: 14 Post-Doctoral: 0 Fellowships: 0 Bachelors: 0 n = 21 female trainees: Masters: 6 PhD: 11 counties, in Kenya one of the CRP's main target one of the CRP's main target 2014 Target N = 5 N = 25 N = 6 N = 57 N = 9 N = 5,976 N = 5,666 n = n = Indicator approaches requirements requirements requirements  of of the CRP's main target populations populations  tec hn  populations  And  2.  And b. Continuing areas   The CRP has defined and Institutional  The CRP has defined and olo gie  collected baseline data on the collected baseline data on architecture 300,000ha; Latin and Central America (Bracharia hybrid Mulatto)  main dimensions of gender for integration the main dimensions of s inequality in the CRP's main of gender is in gender inequality in the /N R M pr act ice s fiel d (p II) b. Male farmers b.i. New areas 1,600 fish farmers; Governorates of Kafr el Sheikh, Behera, Fayoum, Sharkia in Egypt b.ii. Continuing areas gender, and even 342 sheep farmers; Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR in Ethiopia populations in the chains. These tools aim to integrate  tools being tested in the CRP.  with the value chain analysis  data in most instances, in line  collecting sex disaggregated  These efforts go beyond  se operating among key  ha gender based constraints  29 sheep farmers; Amhara, Oromia, SSNP in Ethiopia Nicaragua) to identify relevant  d a.ii. Continuing areas Egypt, Ethiopia, Uganda, populations te baseline data collection (in beneficiaries in main target tes 34. Number of farmers and others who have applied new technologies or management numbers of men and women and/or gender integrated Meneya in Egypt contribute, with related conducting gender analyses of CRP research 500 fish retailers; villages near Governorates of Kafr el Sheikh, Behera, Fayoum, Sharkia, which the CRP is or plans to conducted (in Tanzania) or are practices as a result 26,105 n = 2,471 farmers/others (1,942 male & 529 female) a. Female farmers/others a.i. New areas target populations relevant to CRP's main target place n = 2,040 of gender inequality to chain countries have female)  CRP targets changes in levels  Teams in the program's value 520  And male + expected outcomes (IDOs) (1,520 its expected outcomes ( IDOs) populations relevant to its   "}],"sieverID":"c0e26912-a0a3-4892-b43a-3b532ae34fe5","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish aims to increase the productivity of small-scale livestock and fish systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and fish more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together four CGIAR Centers: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; WorldFish with a mandate on aquaculture; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; and the International Center for Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants. http://livestockfish.cgiar.orgThe Program thanks all donors and organizations who globally supported its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Fund."}

data/part_5/0712082bff4fa51d1f874f48656b0e85.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0712082bff4fa51d1f874f48656b0e85","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8c13dfde-3edf-448a-888c-e8655395d1c5/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Relearning traditional knowledge to achieve sustainability: honey gathering in the miombo woodlands of northern Mozambique","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction, scope and main objectives","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The miombo woodlands are the most widespread forest type in southern Africa, covering approximately 3.2 million km 2 across seven countries (Angola, DR Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe). Of the 50 million people who live there, 80% are rural, their livelihoods depending on miombo for agricultural and grazing land and products including fuel wood, construction materials, traditional medicines and foods such as wild tree fruits and mushrooms. Particularly for poorer households, miombo woodland resources account for a larger percentage of household income than subsistence agriculture (Campbell et al. 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":242,"text":"The Niassa National Reserve extends over 42,000 km 2 and includes one of the least disturbed areas of Africa's deciduous miombo woodlands. Established to protect important populations of wildlife species, it also includes populations of a number of the world's threatened tree species (Oldfield, Lusty and MacKinven 1998 in Timberlake et al. 2004) as well as other plant species of conservation importance (Timberlake et al. 2004). The Niassa Reserve is home to more than 40,000 people, most from two ethnic groups, the Ajaua (Yao) and Macua, who inhabit 50 settlements, and live, on average, on less than one dollar/day (Cunliffe et al. 2009). They depend largely on subsistence rain-fed agriculture, but soils are poor and nutrients quickly depleted, so agricultural productivity is low and short-lived; new forest land must continuously be cleared for cultivation. Reserve inhabitants also hunt, fish and harvest forest products. These activities, depending how they are managed, have the potential to negatively impact both the sustainability of harvests and biodiversity. To help the reserve managers address their two principal objectives, biodiversity conservation and community development (GOM & SGDRN 2006), a multiinstitutional team carried out research to evaluate inhabitants' uses of forest species and to determine if and how these activities affect key tree species. Further, the project sought to develop, in a participatory way, approaches to better meet the needs of local people while supporting the conservation objectives of the reserve through improved management and use of natural resources."}]},{"head":"Methodology/approach and initial results","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"of trees by local people","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Questionnaires applied to 30 % of households in 7 settlements revealed that 47% of households gathered honey, mostly from wild hives, a major source of cash. This led to a decision to focus on honey as a potential livelihood option that could be compatible with the conservation objectives of the reserve."}]},{"head":"Honey collection and production, a threat and an opportunity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"In focus group discussions, separate groups of 20-25 men or women answered 28 questions about honey gathering. Mr Alberto Siabo, from the local Macua community, was also interviewed as an expert informant, as he was very knowledgeable about plants and honey harvesting. They all confirmed that honey was an important source of income, and identified the principal tree species important to bees (Table 1). Julbernardia globiflora and Brachystegia boehmii were most frequently mentioned. Gathering techniques reported by collectors threaten future harvests and the woodland: setting fire to the grass below the honey tree to pacify the bees with smoke (75% of collectors); and then felling the tree (82% of collectors) to reach and cut out the hive, thus destroying the colony and the future potential for bees to use that cavity. Collectors commonly set several fires and fell several trees a day. Since excess fire frequency was a concern of the reserve managers and the tree populations of the Niassa Reserve were of conservation interest, it was decided to further study honey harvesting, its effects on the woodland, and the potential to improve its management and benefits from its harvest."}]},{"head":"Impact of honey harvesting on honey trees","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Three areas that had experienced different intensities of honey harvest (a long period, i.e. high; a medium period, i.e. medium; or starting recently, i.e. low) were selected for systematic, stratified sampling on 2 blocks/area within 7-13 rectangular transects of 200 m x 40 m per block. On each transect, all trees > 20 cm dbh of 8 tree species important for hives and nectar and a threatened species, Dalbergia melanoxylon were identified and measured at 1.3 m above the ground (dbh). Stumps and felled trees were also identified and measured and likely cause of mortality was determined (i.e. windfall, felling and removal, felling for honey harvest, elephant damage). In addition, evidence of recent fire was recorded."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"The most intensively harvested area had the highest density of stumps, 36/ha (Fig 1). Felling for honey gathering was the principal source of tree mortality (Fig 2). The proportion of transects with evidence of recent fire was also highest in intensively harvested areas (Fig 3). Research in the reserve had revealed that trees grew, on average, only 0.25 cm/year (Ribeiro, unpublished data), so the average honey tree was about 200 years old. "}]},{"head":"Sharing information about the impacts of honey harvesting and alternative approaches","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The 13th Congress of the International Society of Ethnobiology took place in France in May, 2012, shortly after this stage of the research. One of the events focused on honey gathering by indigenous peoples around the world. This represented an opportunity to learn about traditional methods used to sustain honey production. After determining that Mr Siabo had sufficient respect among the local communities, the research team arranged that he be invited to attend the meeting,accompanied by the reserve's conservation coordinator, who translated for him when he and other honey gatherers shared their experiences. When Mr Siabo returned, he had a newfound recognition of the value and importance of his own knowledge."},{"index":2,"size":296,"text":"Mr Siabo described nondestructive ways of gathering honey that he had been taught by an uncle in 1975, \"a year of hunger when honey was all there was to eat or sell\". These techniques involved using certain plants, spread on the skin and around the cavity, to prevent the bees from stinging (\"Namalungo grande\", Ampelocissus obtusata; \"Namalungo pequeno\", Rhoicissus digitata, \"Chiwambola\", Olax dissitiflora, and \"Nacaute\", Steganotaenia araliacea). In addition, a smoke torch of green leaves or \"Ntomonhi\" (Diplorhynchus condylocarpum), wrapped around burning kindling, is placed in a cleared area below the tree to provide smoke, and the collector climbs the tree, using a rope, to remove the honeycombs. Mr Siabo agreed to join the research team at meetings to disseminate and discuss the results of the impact study, and to describe and demonstrate these nondestructive methods. The Niassa Reserve has a community monitoring agent in each village who collects data for the reserve's management. They helped organize meetings with nine groups honey hunters, and accompanied the team to share the main findings. Figures 1-3, drawn on flip charts, were explained to the honey hunters, followed by a discussion of the consequences for future production of destroying hives, colonies and cavity trees, and of alternatives. The honey hunters acknowledged that their practices were destructive, and that heavily collected areas no longer produced honey. Mr Siabo described the methods he used, and when others indicated interest in learning them, he showed them his techniques. The demonstrations included making a rope from bark, preparation and use of the protective plants, making and using the smoke torch, climbing the tree, tranquilizing the bees, removing the honey combs and extinguishing the torch. Mr Siabo also emphasized the importance of leaving the larval combs in the hive so the colony could reproduce."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"These demonstrations revealed that climbing a tree to obtain the honey was faster and less work than felling one. The idea of revisiting the same trees to harvest honey repeatedly was also appealing, and led to extensive discussions about rights to particular trees. People claimed to recognize trees from which others had obtained honey, and respected collectors' exclusive rights to collect from these trees. During the discussions, honey hunters also revealed that community leaders had agreed which honey harvesting zones could be used by each community."}]},{"head":"Adoption of improved harvesting methods","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"To build on the recognition of rights on the part of communities and individuals to continue to obtain honey from certain areas and certain hive trees, an incentive for repeated and therefore nondestructive honey gathering, the research team proposed that the communities monitor their honey harvests, documenting who obtained honey when and where. This would also provide a foundation for developing honey marketing plans. Forms were developed and distributed to the agents, thereby providing the research team with a means for evaluating the extent of adoption of improved practices."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Groups of honey collectors in seven communities were revisited a year after the initial discussions and demonstrations. All the monitoring agents indicated that collectors had obtained honey through climbing, not felling. In response to researchers' questions, the honey hunters' corroborated the records, saying they preferred climbing because it was less time-consuming than felling. A few of them said they had previously heard of nondestructive ways to obtain honey, but that no one had been willing to teach them. Now that the 'secrets' were 'out', they agreed to teach others."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"Many people have recently arrived in or returned to the Niassa Reserve after a period of conflict. This may have led to the loss of traditional knowledge about nondestructive honey harvesting methods. It seems, too, that traditional knowledge about honey collection may have been held within families. Giving Mr Siabo the opportunity to participate in an international conference about honey collection and production, and to exchange knowledge with indigenous people from other countries, helped him recognize its value. Having observed the felling of trees and the progressive degradation of areas where he had collected honey, he also recognized the importance of promoting nondestructive methods that would allow for continuous and sustainable harvests. Empowering local people and supporting them to diffuse crucial information may be a more effective way of igniting change in a community than campaigns or programmes by outsiders. Local honey hunters' interest in adopting these practices may reflect their trust in and respect for the individual conveying the message, as well as the fact that he spoke the same language (both verbally and contextually)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Outlook","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Widely recognized as a vital habitat for elephants and other large mammals, the Niassa Reserve also retains extensive populations of miombo woodland trees. During this project and since, the human population density within the reserve has continued to increase, and with it, the extent of agricultural clearing. In addition to a controlling poaching, the reserve managers propose to work with the communities to encourage livelihood options that are compatible with biodiversity conservation. Honey based on nondestructive gathering from the wild, represents one of these. Its promotion will require continuing support to honey gatherers, including capacity development and marketing."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 (left). Stumps per ha in three honey collection areas with different intensities of use. Figure 2 (right). Sources of mortality of trees with different intensities of honey collection. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 3 (left). Evidence of recent burning in areas with different intensities of honey collection. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Tree species important for hives and/or nectar. Trees with asterisks were sampled within the impact study (section 3).  Local name Scientific name Hive tree Nectar source Local nameScientific nameHive treeNectar source Njombo Brachystegia boehmii* x x NjomboBrachystegia boehmii*xx Nchenga Julbernardia globiflora* x x NchengaJulbernardia globiflora*xx Nzolo Pseudolachnostylis x x NzoloPseudolachnostylisxx  maprouneifolia*   maprouneifolia* Ncueso/Mkwesu Tamarindus indica* x x Ncueso/MkwesuTamarindus indica*xx Nchiso/Ntxisu Terminalia sericea* x x Nchiso/NtxisuTerminalia sericea*xx Nzacala Diospyros kirkii   NzacalaDiospyros kirkii Npindimbi Vitex payos x  NpindimbiVitex payosx Ncalati Burkea africana*  x NcalatiBurkea africana*x Ntumbati Pterocarpus angolensis*  x NtumbatiPterocarpus angolensis*x Mnonji (Baobab) Adansonia digitata x  Mnonji (Baobab)Adansonia digitatax Mbanga Pericopsis angolensis   MbangaPericopsis angolensis Mpapa Brachystegia spiciformis*  x MpapaBrachystegia spiciformis*x  "}],"sieverID":"4862ecf4-f183-4dbc-b99a-af20cdbb509a","abstract":""}

data/part_5/073085da690068e888a74eab4cdc2fd2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"073085da690068e888a74eab4cdc2fd2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6b37d3da-d6ad-44ac-932a-5c98a5f3bd38/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"¿Cómo las plantas resistentes logran reducir o evitar el desarrollo de la enfermedad? mente sana. Sin embargo, esta resistencia es de corta duración, pues se producen mutaciones en el patógeno para vencer esta resistencia. El Centro Internacional de la papa (CIp) actualmente cuenta con materiales mejorados con resistencia horizontal al tizón tardío, altos rendimientos, precoces y de buena calidad culinaria (Foto F y G, Tabla 2 y 3). Estos clones están disponibles para los programas nacionales de papa, que son los encargados de la liberación de variedades después de cumplir procedimientos estipulados por cada Ministerio de Agricultura."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Se han reportado en el ámbito de Latinoamérica variedades con un buen comportamiento frente al tizón tardío (Tabla 1)."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"¿Qué variedades resistentes al tizón tardío existen en América Latina?"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Tabla 1. Algunas variedades con resistencia al tizón tardío en países de América Latina"},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"En las variedades con resistencia horizontal las manchas necróticas no aíslan al patógeno y continúan creciendo en forma más lenta (Foto D) y la producción de esporangios en el lado inferior de las hojas es menor en comparación con las plantas susceptibles (Foto E)."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"El Centro En zonas de producción con incidencia moderada del tizón tardío puede ser suficiente, aunque el agricultor siempre debe estar alerta a la necesidad de usar un fungicida. En cambio, en zonas de alta presión de la enfermedad es preferible complementar con prácticas adicionales de manejo integrado (Foto H)."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"¿Es suficiente tener una variedad con resistencia horizontal para controlar el tizón tardío? Si, porque Phytophthora infestans tiene la capacidad de formar nuevas razas que pueden vencer la resistencia genética de las variedades, especialmente las que tienen resistencia vertical, por ello algunas variedades que antes eran resistentes ahora se comportan como susceptibles."},{"index":8,"size":61,"text":"El uso de las variedades resistentes en muchos casos quedaba descartada por las preferencias del consumidor o de la industria de alimentos, por ello, los programas nacionales de mejoramiento genético de papa en alianza estratégica con el Centro Internacional de la papa están trabajando para obtener variedades con resistencia múltiple y de acuerdo a las exigencias y preferencias locales (Foto K)."},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"¿Se deben buscar siempre nuevas variedades resistentes al tizón tardío? "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Fuente: Huarte, M. 2001. Niveles disponibles de resistencia al tizón tardío en Latinoamérica. Proceedings of the International Workshop Complementing Resistence to Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans) in the Andes. Febrero 13-16, 2001 Cochabamba, Bolivia "},{"text":"Foto  "},{"text":"Foto fungicidas los costos de producción del cultivo de papa serán menores y los beneficios económicos que obtendrá el agricultor serán mayores (Foto I y J). por lo tanto si se usan menos fungicidas habrá menor contaminación del medio ambiente y una menor exposición del agricultor y sus familiares a estos productos químicos.¿Qué ventajas adicionales se logran al usar variedades con resistencia horizontal? "}],"sieverID":"46e17a75-14bd-489e-917c-9b6d52db3692","abstract":"Hay dos tipos de resistencia: vertical y horizontal.Las variedades de papa con resistencia vertical son aquellas que sólo resisten a ciertas razas del patógeno. Estas plantas no muestran manchas necróticas y las plantas presentan una apariencia total-¿Cuántos tipos de resistencia a Phytophthora infestans existen?En las variedades con resistencia vertical se produce la muerte rápida de las células alrededor del punto de ingreso del patógeno, aislándolo y no permitiendo su expansión y desarrollo posterior de la enfermedad (Foto B y C)."}

data/part_5/073344516ff437a61e4e5f299c711360.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"073344516ff437a61e4e5f299c711360","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8968264d-4436-47ae-97b3-1d4827e07c1b/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"An assessment of irrigated rice production energy efficiency and environmental footprint with rice straw management practices","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"d5ab5512-768a-4e01-ad85-641530937b45","abstract":"Scope: <Not Defined> Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Description of Stage reached: IRRI participated in a comparative analysis to identify the environmental impact of contrasting straw management options on basis of the energy balance and productivity of rice farming. The research paper provides scientific evidences for improved rice straw management and is published as a journal article. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: IRRI -International Rice Research Institute Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: <Not Defined>"}

data/part_5/075589b73b8e17bcaa3dfff6dd6d0208.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"075589b73b8e17bcaa3dfff6dd6d0208","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1900d0a6-fc38-4bd0-8539-51124208204f/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"§ Integrate standardized SLiM with GIS data on socio-ecological drivers and impacts § Provide tested typologies of socio-ecological contexts, which are used as extrapolation/recommendation domains in outscaling § Enable stakeholders to overview, evaluate comparatively SLiM options in a context, and map potential areas for SLiM outscaling","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Our innovative approach","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• Unique integration between descriptive data on SLiM options and GIS data on socio-ecological context."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Tested spatial extrapolation domains based on typologies of socio-ecological context."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• It provides stakeholders with multiple entry points to view and evaluate SLiM options in context and visualize potential areas for scaling."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Its design is open for continuous improvement and customization."}]},{"head":"Future steps","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• Continue tool development in 2020."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Deliver capacity development and facilitate uses for stakeholders in Ethiopia, Tanzania and elsewhere in 2021."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• The online feature of GeOC4SLiM would support a wider applicability beyond 2021."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Pilot outputs demonstrate the tools's potential value for stakeholders to target SLiM investments to specific contexts, indicating which contextual factors are important for management. Stakeholders can also anticipate relevant areas for effective scaling The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock thanks all donors & organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. cgiar.org/funders This document is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. June 2020 GeOC4SLiM tool integrates standardized system characterizing SLiM with user-friendly WebGIS Context • Adoption and effectiveness of SLiM depend on specific contexts. The high contextual diversity of drylands makes uniform blanket policies promoting SLiM less effective and the synthesis and scaling of site-based successful lessons difficult. • Geoinformatics Options by Context for SLiM (GeOC4SLiM) is a WebGIS-based tool to help stakeholders in Ethiopia and Tanzania select SLiM options by context and map the areas of contextual similarity for scaling. "}],"sieverID":"014acb1e-69c0-4f1e-8c0c-ac146cd1675e","abstract":"A part of standardized SLiM template for \"Community-based breeding program for goat in North Ethiopia."}

data/part_5/0763fa9e87399da8337e4cda9d2a7f14.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0763fa9e87399da8337e4cda9d2a7f14","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cb0c85b2-ddf9-4e1e-a4ec-910100c6c4bc/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Classification and Phylogenetic Typing of Rift Valley fever virus","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"• Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) has a complex evolutionary history that is greatly influenced by the dramatic changes to environment throughout Africa in the past 150 years [1] ."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• RVFV has a stable genome but no welldefined variable sites have been identified that can be used to differentiate different strains. This can only be achieved through genome sequencing [2] ."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• There is the need for methods that can reliably classify arbovirus sequences."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• Genomic surveillance to elucidate genetic diversity of viruses is crucial for understanding transmission dynamics, virus evolution and disease outcome."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"-We have developed a user-friendly open-source tool for classifying and assigning lineages of Rift Valley fever virus consensus genomes/sequences with high specificity, sensitivity and accuracy."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"-This tool will be useful in tracing the origin of outbreaks and supporting surveillance and vaccination efforts. "}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"d32da8c9-f3ce-470e-8fc0-c991feefa26d","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0784e91c326eed8074c8ce6f9b3a0c8b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0784e91c326eed8074c8ce6f9b3a0c8b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5891cdb7-4023-4e5c-899f-8ec115e3b4fb/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"1","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The Second Meeting of the Working Group on Fibre Crops (Flax and Hemp) of the European Cooperative Programme for Plant Genetic Resources (ECPGR) was held 7-9 July 2010 in Velké Losiny (Šumperk), Czech Republic."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The meeting was attended by six participants from ECPGR member countries, three observers and one representative from the ECPGR Secretariat (see Appendix III, p. 12)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Martin Pavelek, Chair of the Working Group (WG), opened the meeting and welcomed the participants to the Czech Republic. He was pleased to host the meeting and to be able to introduce the Group to the activities carried out by AGRITEC Research, Breeding and Services, Ltd., and to show the participants the flax and hemp field trials during the visit planned on the last day. He wished the Group a fruitful meeting."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"The participants introduced themselves briefly. Only two members had also attended the previous meeting of the WG in Wageningen, The Netherlands, in 2006."}]},{"head":"List of presentations and other contributions","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"(* = Corresponding papers and/or presentations by the participants and other WG members were uploaded after the meeting on the Web page of the WG on Fibre Crops and can be downloaded from http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/Workgroups/Flax_Hemp/Presentations_2010.htm)"}]},{"head":"Background information","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"General briefing on ECPGR *","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Elinor Lipman, ECPGR Secretariat","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Chair's report (activities of the WG since the first meeting)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Martin Pavelek, Chair of the WG The Chair reported on the First Meeting of the Working Group (14-16 June 2006, Wageningen, The Netherlands) and on the Third Meeting of the Network Coordinating Group on Sugar, Starch and Fibre Crops (8-9 October 2009, Quedlinburg, Germany). The reports of these meetings are available online. 1 In his capacity as Database Manager of the International Flax Database (IFDB), the Chair also presented the progress made on the IFDB and its current status (see further, section on IFDB).  "}]},{"head":"Status of national flax and hemp collections","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"International Hemp Database (IHDB) -Current status and perspectives","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gianpaolo Grassi","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A European Genebank Integrated System (AEGIS) -General presentation (background, current status and perspectives)*","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Elinor Lipman"}]},{"head":"Summary of discussions and recommendations","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"International Flax Database","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The International Flax Database (IFDB) is managed by M. Pavelek, AGRITEC. As indicated in the IFDB status report, most of the workplan agreed upon at the first meeting in 2006 2 has been completed, but the IFDB faces several crucial problems that need to be solved urgently."}]},{"head":"Structure of the IFDB","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"As agreed at the first meeting, the IFDB structure currently includes the 39 passport descriptors of the European Plant Genetic Resources Catalogue (or European Internet Search Catalogue, EURISCO) + 7 characterization descriptors (stem length, flower: corolla size, flower: shape, petal colour, anther colour, 1000-seed weight, seed colour). However, it was noted that some members do not have this latest format; therefore the DB manager will have to re-send it to all members of the WG."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Regarding the inclusion of characterization and evaluation (C&E) data in the IFDB, M. Pavelek requested WG members to check their national databases for material that is already documented with data in agreement with the seven C&E descriptors listed above, select these records (i.e. records compliant with the above C&E structure) and send them to AGRITEC for inclusion in the IFDB."}]},{"head":"Composition of the IFDB","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The IFDB is now composed of several heterogeneous files which need to be standardized and merged:"},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"• New data received since the first meeting: a total of 2903 records were provided by Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Poland and Portugal following the agreed format. These records will become the base of the new IFDB. • Previous IFDB data: the 7934 records will be revised and adjusted as much as possible to the most recent IFDB structure."}]},{"head":"Scope of the IFDB","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The IFDB is still far from containing all European data concerning approximately 27 000 accessions. Efforts should be made to obtain the missing data."}]},{"head":"Online availability","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The IFDB is not searchable online yet, only downloadable as an Excel table (http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/databases/Crops/flax.htm)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The current resources available at AGRITEC do not allow the IFDB manager to carry out the work required to put the DB online. The proposal submitted to the Steering Committee, requesting funds for this activity, was not accepted (Tenth Meeting of the SC, September 2006); 3 therefore, another source of funding must be found."}]},{"head":"EURISCO and the IFDB","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Given the amount of work to be done on the IFDB and the fact that EURISCO is planning to include C&E data, the participants discussed the option of feeding EURISCO with the new data rather than continuing with two separate databases. However, since the contents of EURISCO did not appear to be fully reliable in some cases (e.g., verification of Russian data on 5282 accessions recorded in EURISCO), it was decided to pursue improvement of the IFDB. "}]},{"head":"International Hemp Database","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"G. Grassi reminded the Group that Andrea Carboni, former manager of the International Hemp Database (IHDB), had taken new responsibilities and was not working on hemp any more. The IHDB was therefore \"frozen\" but the issue was taken up again at the time of preparation of this meeting. G. Grassi, current representative of Italy in the WG, believed that the development of the database should continue and agreed to also take on the responsibility of Hemp Database Manager. G. Grassi demonstrated the prototype database under development at CRA-CIN. The new database will follow the structure of the IFDB. The data already available will first be converted into the new format, with the support of Claudia Maestrini. The description of accessions needs to be completed but the recording of data for agreed descriptors is an issue, since it is forbidden by law in Italy to grow accessions with a THC value above 0.2%; the plants therefore have to be grown in a greenhouse. G. Grassi wished this issue to be discussed with other partners working on hemp in order to find a way of standardizing the procedures for observations and recording of data."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The hemp descriptors currently used at CRA-CIN are listed below. It was noted that yield descriptors should be compared to one or more standard varieties, to be proposed."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Since few members of countries holding active hemp collections were present at the meeting, G. Grassi underlined the need to coordinate with other WG members to decide on the most urgent tasks."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"The absence of representatives from France was mentioned several times during the meeting. It was agreed that the WG would benefit from the inputs of French partners."}]},{"head":"Workplan","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"• G. Grassi will contact all WG members working on hemp to define a common strategy to (1) identify ways to improve hemp production and breeding, and (2) obtain data to complete the new Hemp Database. G. Grassi will circulate a questionnaire to identify the problems specific to each country and will share the results with all WG members by end 2010. • G. Grassi will coordinate with the ECPGR Secretariat for updating of the Hemp DB homepage as necessary. • G. Grassi will contact French partners to try to involve them in the WG's activities. 4"}]},{"head":"A European Genebank Integrated System","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Based on the suggestions made by the ECPGR Secretariat, the implementation of \"A European Genebank Integrated System\" (AEGIS) by the WG on Fibre Crops was discussed. This being the first exposure of the WG to AEGIS, no formal workplan was drawn but the following recommendations and decisions were agreed upon: • Participants felt that more time was needed to fully absorb the information on AEGIS and that the involvement of all members of the WG was necessary in order to implement the process. It was therefore recommended that all members familiarize themselves with the available documentation (http://www.aegis.cgiar.org/). • The participants agreed to suggest Most Appropriate Accessions (MAAs) to the European collection. However, since the information on hemp is very scarce, the WG will concentrate first on flax. • All WG members need to be involved in the various steps of the AEGIS process; no formal decision could therefore be made at this meeting. The discussions will continue after the meeting on issues such as:"},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"-The formal procedure for selecting the MAAs needs to be defined. This issue will be followed up by the Chair in consultation with all WG members and the AEGIS Coordinator (Jan Engels). -Similarly, the development of a \"List of selection criteria for flax accessions\" will be followed up after the meeting. This exercise can be supported by the activities/results of other WGs that have advanced further in the process."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"During the discussions, various aspects of the practical implementation of AEGIS were questioned, such as:"},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"-Value of the European Collection (EC): since the accessions selected for the European Collection will be available freely, some of the most valuable accessions (e.g., higher 4"},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"First contact was taken in September 2010 with Olivier Beherec, from the French Fédération Nationale des Producteurs de Chanvre (FNPC). The French delegate to the WG has not been identified yet."},{"index":6,"size":137,"text":"yielding) may not be selected since they could potentially be a source of income. This entails the risk of ending up with an EC that contains only the less valuable accessions, while the best ones would be available only from the private sector and on payment. -Cost issue: the participants cautioned that the selection process of the MAAs will be time-consuming and involve costs that cannot be supported by the institutes. There should be a financial contribution from ECPGR/AEGIS. It was reiterated that participation is based on the principle of \"input in kind\" for the benefit of all. -It was also noted that WG members have limited power and their decisions have to be confirmed by higher management levels. This issue might be critical in particular for countries that have not yet signed the MoU for AEGIS."}]},{"head":"Closing session Election of Chair and Vice-Chair","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Martin Pavelek was unanimously reconfirmed in his responsibility of Chair of the Fibre Crops Working Group. He thanked the members and suggested that the new Vice-Chair should be a hemp specialist to ensure a balance between the two crops. He proposed the name of Gianpaolo Grassi. The proposal was approved by the participants and accepted with thanks by G. Grassi, who added that although he was a new member, he would strive to contribute effectively to the WG's work. The venue of the next meeting was discussed. The WG members agreed that France would be an appropriate place for the meeting, but this would be possible only if the issue of the membership of France in ECPGR is settled. Other options proposed were Latvia, Poland and Portugal. The Chair will contact the WG members in due time to discuss the organization of the meeting."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Thanks were extended to the local organizers, including colleagues from AGRITEC who provided technical support and participated in the meeting."}]},{"head":"Field visit","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"On Friday 9 July, the participants visited AGRITEC's flax and hemp field trials and the company's headquarters, where they were received by the Director, Miroslav Hochman. In the afternoon, the Group visited the water dam Dlouhé Stráně. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2 See Appendix I, p. 15 in Bas et al. 2010 (footnote 1) 3 Report available from http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/SteeringCommittee/SC10/SC10_report.pdf Workplan • M. Pavelek will send the most recent version of the IFDB data format to all members by end 2010. • M. Pavelek will check the two current sets of data and merge them into one single Excel file by end 2012. • M. Pavelek will put the DB online by end 2013 if an appropriate source of funding is found. • M. Pavelek will integrate new data continuously as they are received. • G. Pereira will complete the Portuguese data with the seven characterization descriptors agreed by the WG by July 2011, after completion of the next growth cycle. • The Russian data currently integrated in EURISCO must be checked. The ECPGR Secretariat/EURISCO Coordinator will inform the Russian National Inventory Focal Point that the set of Russian data for Linum spp. needs to be checked and validated. At the same time, Nina Brutch is welcome to extract the relevant data from EURISCO and inform the National Inventory Focal Point of what needs to be changed. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Czech Republic -Flax and hemp*  Martin Pavelek Martin Pavelek Germany -Flax and hemp* Germany -Flax and hemp* (Frank Höppner and Helmut Knüpffer; paper submitted before the meeting) (Frank Höppner and Helmut Knüpffer; paper submitted before the meeting)  "},{"text":"Latvia -Flax and hemp* Dace Grauda Portugal -Flax* Maria da Graça Mendonça Pereira Italy -Flax and hemp* Gianpaolo Grassi Russian Federation -Flax* Nina Brutch Turkey -Flax and hemp* Abdullah Inal Additional presentations on national activities Flax descriptors for Linum usitatissimum* Janka Nôžková Production of fibre hemp at CIN-Rovigo Gianpaolo Grassi Databases International Flax Database (IFDB) -Current status and perspectives* Matin Pavelek   "}],"sieverID":"fbe18c14-4968-45ea-9934-2ef5e4197e6d","abstract":"or from Bioversity's Web site (www.bioversityinternational.org).The European Cooperative Programme for Plant Genetic Resources (ECPGR) is a collaborative programme among most European countries aimed at contributing to national, sub-regional and regional programmes in Europe to rationally and effectively conserve ex situ and in situ Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and increase their utilization. The Programme, which is entirely financed by the member countries, is overseen by a Steering Committee composed of National Coordinators nominated by the participating countries and a number of relevant international bodies. The Coordinating Secretariat is hosted by Bioversity International. The Programme operates through nine networks in which activities are carried out through a number of permanent working groups or through ad hoc actions. The ECPGR networks deal with either groups of crops (cereals; forages; fruit; oil and protein crops; sugar, starch and fibre crops; vegetables) or general themes related to plant genetic resources (documentation and information; in situ and on-farm conservation; inter-regional cooperation). Members of the working groups and other scientists from participating countries carry out an agreed workplan with their own resources as inputs in kind to the Programme.The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Bioversity or the CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the texts and taxonomic definitions in these proceedings reflect the views of the respective authors and not necessarily those of the compilers or their institutions.Mention of a proprietary name does not constitute endorsement of the product and is given only for information."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0791c65e90cb18fc39ae76db555e7a64","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/93e07fc3-0582-477c-bae4-fd6ba0f7babe/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"SOUTH AFRICA HOSTS MID-TERM MEETING 2001: CGIAR CHARTS NEW DIRECTIONS IN DURBAN Appreciation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"WARDA' s successful efforts to breed a New Rice for Africa (NERICA) has won praise from one of the world' s leading scientists, Gordon Conway, President of the Rockefeller Foundation."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"After visiting farmers' fields in Côte d'Ivoire, Conway said, \"NERICA rice varieties represent genuine new potential for resource-poor farmers throughout sub-Saharan Africa and should be disseminated widely throughout the continent.\""},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"In cooperation with its partners, WARDA has launched the NERICA Consortium for Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa. The new consortium brings together a broad range of institutions and stakeholders, including leading national agricultural research systems, civil society groups, and farmer organizations in West and Central Africa, as well as leading donors such as UNDP, Japan, the World Bank, the African Development Bank, the Rockefeller Foundation, USAID, and Sasakawa 2000. WARDA' s success is a good example of South-South cooperation. African and Asian research partners collaborated to produce the new rice, which is substantially richer in protein, more tolerant to drought, and more resistant to disease than other rice varieties."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"NERICA produces 50 percent more grain and matures 30 to 50 days earlier than other rice varieties."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"Rice is a major staple food in sub-Saharan Africa. African countries spend an estimated $1 billion in scarce foreign reserves to import 4 million tons of rice annually."},{"index":6,"size":80,"text":"Lentils, a leading source of protein, iron, and vitamin B, are an increasingly popular crop in Bangladesh, with more than 40,000 hectares-about 25 percent of the area on which lentils are grown in Bangladesh-planted to Barimasur lentils. These plant varieties, derived from Middle Eastern lentils provided by ICARDA, have natural resistance to disease, and their larger seed size makes them attractive to consumers. Farmers growing the Barimasur lentils have helped add nearly $7 million to Bangladesh' s rural farm economy."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"\"Lentils are a critical part of Bangladesh' s food supply,\" says Adel El-Beltagy, Director General, ICARDA. \"They're not only affordable, nutritious, and easy to cook but also easily digestible, a characteristic that is extremely important for young children."},{"index":8,"size":79,"text":"Barimasur lentils produce yields as much as 40 percent higher than Bangladesh' s traditional varieties, generate stable yields, and carry broadbased disease resistance, characteristics that have prompted thousands of farmers to switch from growing traditional varieties. A massive farmer education campaign has been launched, and over the next five years, Barimasur lentils are expected to spread rapidly to all corners of Bangladesh. The release of similarly bred varieties in India, the world' s largest lentil producer, is also expected."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"Lentils have been around for at least 8,000 years and were known to the ancient Egyptians, who placed them in the tombs of their pharaohs. The varieties grown in Bangladesh were first brought to the South Asia region around 1000 BC by Arab tribes migrating from the Middle East."},{"index":10,"size":43,"text":"For full story, see A highlight of South Africa Day was CIMMYT' s announcement of the release of two new maize varieties-Grace and ZM521-that have 30-50 percent higher yields than traditional varieties grown by smallholder farmers in South Africa' s drought-prone, nutrient-depleted soils."},{"index":11,"size":34,"text":"\"Higher maize yields mean more food and income for poor farmers,\" says CGIAR Chairman and World Bank Vice President Ian Johnson. \"The hardier maize plants will help prevent agricultural expansion in alreadystressed fragile ecosystems.\""},{"index":12,"size":55,"text":"The two varieties have characteristics that are specifically valued by smallholder farmers. First, they act as a hedge against hunger. Grace matures earlier than traditional maize varieties and can be eaten as green maize. The new open-pollinated maize varieties can have a significant effect on poverty because their seed is cheaper than commercially available hybrids."},{"index":13,"size":53,"text":"\"We are very proud of the results of our collaborative research,\" says Timothy Reeves, Director General of CIMMYT. \"The products are the result of a farmer-and South African-led development strategy that is helping to make a positive impact in the lives of thousands of poor farmers who have been bypassed by modern technology.\""},{"index":14,"size":73,"text":"\"For a resource-poor farmer who plants only two hectares of maize, use of the new varieties would add more than half a ton to household grain stores each year,\" says Marianne Bänziger, a CIMMYT maize physiologist based in Zimbabwe. \"That is a significant contribution to food security in isolated areas, where one failed har-vest means hunger.\" Bänziger' s work on stress-tolerant maize won her the CGIAR' s Promising Young Scientist Award in 1998."},{"index":15,"size":102,"text":"Maize is the dominant staple food in southern Africa. Per capita consumption in the region surpasses 100 kilograms. CIMMYT collaborated extensively with South African partners to develop the new maize varieties. \"The IPCC has warned that the latest scientific evidence points strongly toward a steadily warming world in the 21st century,\" said Dr. Robert T. Watson, Chairman of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and World Bank chief scientist. In launching the report, he stated that \"The question is no longer whether the earth' s climate will change, but rather how much it will change, how fast, and where.\""},{"index":16,"size":73,"text":"The effects of climate change on agriculture can be profound, touching nearly all aspects of the agricultural enterprise. Recent findings from the IPCC indicate that the earth' s average surface temperature could rise by 1.4-5.8 degrees Celsius (2.5-10.4 degrees Fahrenheit) over the next 100 years. Such an increase is more than 60 percent higher than predictions scientists made just five years ago. It would represent the most rapid climate change in 10,000 years."},{"index":17,"size":109,"text":"\"A warmer world will surely impact the yields of staple crops, increase the incidence of pests, and exacerbate drought -all with profound effects on the well-being of small farmers in developing countries,\" said CGIAR Chairman Ian Johnson at the press conference. \"As an international public research organization, the CGIAR' s challenge is to mobilize the best of science for poor farmers at risk.\" s MarkSim, a computer model developed at CIAT and ILRI, can simulate weather data and predict day-by-day rainfall and temperature information for any point in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The information obtained from MarkSim will help poor farmers accurately predict yields of staple food crops."},{"index":18,"size":103,"text":"s Climate change specialists have long agreed that forestry and land-use changes in the tropics are, on balance, large sources of greenhouse gas emissions. CIFOR has been working on the management and use of forests to sequester carbon or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. This research also examines the opportunities and risks to local communities, a major concern of governments and environmental groups. Preliminary results of this work have been presented as policy briefs that help to inform and guide public policymakers about the need to increase economic opportunities for local communities and protect livelihoods of people in project areas."},{"index":19,"size":83,"text":"Agriculture is the economic mainstay in most African countries, contributing about 35 percent of GNP, 40 percent of exports, and 70 percent of employment. About 70 percent of Africa' s poor live in rural areas. According to the IPCC, the main challenges facing Africans will emanate from tropical storms, floods, droughts, landslides, abnormal sea-level rises, and other extreme weather expected to result from climate change. These events will increase problems of pollution, sanitation, waste disposal, water supply, public health, infrastructure, and production technologies."},{"index":20,"size":37,"text":"\"Through our partnership with CGIAR scientists, we are laying a solid foundation for improving our strategies to anticipate, mitigate, and cope with climate change,\" said Bongiwe Njobe, Director General of the South African National Department of Agriculture."},{"index":21,"size":54,"text":"Global climate change is inexorably linked to the CGIAR' s goals of food security, poverty reduction, and environmental protection. By focusing its annual report on this important topic, the CGIAR is helping to bring the drivers of global climate change into the agricultural research and capacity-building agenda for the ultimate benefit of developing countries."},{"index":22,"size":47,"text":"The Challenge of Climate Change: Small Farmers at Risk is available at the CGIAR website, www.cgiar.org. In Durban, CGIAR members and stakeholders took strong actions to reinvigorate the system and to strengthen its potential to make a difference in the fight against hunger, poverty, and environmental degradation."}]},{"head":"RISKS TO POOR FARMERS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"In brief, the CGIAR decided to establish new \"challenge programs\" that respond directly to major concerns on the global development agenda. In addition, it decided to limit meetings of the CGIAR to once a year and conduct business through a small executive council between annual meetings; to transform the CGIAR Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) into a science council consisting of a few, high-level science policy strategists; and to establish a CGIAR system office to facilitate coherence and cost-effectiveness in system management."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"To accelerate implementation of these actions, four Task Forces have been established together with a dedicated web site and listservs to facilitate communication."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"s Challenge programs will elevate the significance of CGIAR-supported research by aligning it more closely with international development goals and opening up the CGIAR to broader research partnerships. Over time, these programs will induce structural change among the international centers. (Task Force Co-Chairs: Eliseo Ponce, Philippines, and Klaas Tamminga, Netherlands). s The science council will ensure that the science practiced by the Centers continues to meet the highest international standards for quality and relevance and is consistent with development priorities. (Task Force Co-Chairs: Lauritz Holm-Nielsen, Denmark, and Joseph Mukiibi, Uganda)."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"s The system office will bring cohesion through an integrated communication, public awareness and fundraising strategy. It will help the Centers to work better as a system and attract new donors. (Task Force Co-Chairs: Hans-Jochen de Haas, Germany, and Meryl J. Williams, Australia)."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"CGIAR Chairman Ian Johnson emphasized that the reform program will help ensure CGIAR science is closely linked with the international development agenda. \"Next year, South Africa will be hosting the Johannesburg Earth Summit, and discussions such as the ones held in Durban will help to restore the importance of agriculture to its rightful place in public policy debate, both at the summit and beyond.\""},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"The meeting was a landmark event in other ways as well. South Africa Day and Sub-Saharan Africa Agricultural Research Day dominated the proceedings. They were attended by nearly 500 of the world' s top agricultural scientists, policy makers, and civil society representatives."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"\"Agriculture and its sustaining force, agricultural research, are at the heart of any realistic effort to build the components of sustainable development,\" said Thoko Didiza, the South African Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs. \"We are delighted to host the CGIAR meeting because we want to strengthen our partnership with some of the best minds working in agricultural research.\""},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"In addition to discussing traditional topics such as challenges in improving crop productivity, natural resource management, and soil fertility, CGIAR members focused attention on some of the most serious issues facing Africa: from the risks posed by climate change, to the costs and cures of foot-and-mouth disease, to the impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic that is threatening agricultural production in some of the poorest parts of sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":9,"size":61,"text":"\"Despite progress, the development agenda continues to grow. We must confront environmental threats, including climate change, water scarcity, land degradation, loss of biodiversity, and HIV/AIDS,\" said Johnson. \"Agriculture alone cannot solve these problems, but it can make a big dent in reducing poverty and hunger and promoting growth. The CGIAR meeting in South Africa was critical for charting the way forward.\" "}]},{"head":"NEW DIRECTIONS IN DURBAN","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LINKING RESEARCH TO PEOPLE CGIAR CHAIRMAN VISITS ICRISAT AND FINDS \"A RECIPE FOR SUCCESS\"","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Most people know of peanut butter, one of America' s favorite foods. But few have heard of tigadege, a peanut paste that has for centuries been the most popular ingredient for making sauce in Niger and Mali in West Africa. Few also know that groundnuts, or peanuts as they are called in North America, are largely grown by smallholder farmers in the semi-arid tropics (SAT)."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Such interesting facts greeted Ian Johnson, CGIAR Chairman and World Bank Vice President for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development, when he visited the Patancheru headquarters of ICRISAT in February 2001."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Groundnut is one of five ICRISAT mandate crops. Concern over aflatoxin (a toxin produced by a mold) in groundnut has been growing. Aflatoxin in food and feed has been found to cause liver cancer and is a big health risk to both human beings and animals."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"\"A collaborative project led by ICRISAT led to the development of very cheap kits that can be used by our national partners and health officials to detect aflatoxins,\" says William D. Dar, ICRISAT Director General. Dr. Dar noted that such successes are possible because ICRISAT takes its corporate motto-science with a human faceseriously. \"In consultation with our partners, we have formulated a work plan with a clear idea of how our research effort will deliver real benefits to the most disadvantaged people in the SAT.\""},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"Johnson also saw ICRISAT' s partnership in action when he visited the Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), a leading national program of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and a communitymanaged watershed in a nearby village. He was briefed about the joint ICRISAT-ILRI project on improving the nutritional quality of SAT crop residues for ruminants."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"\"The impact has been spectacular,\" said Dr. Dar. \"Over 400 improved varieties of ICRISAT mandate crops have been released around the world, yielding over US$ 200 million in benefits to poor farmers across the entire SAT region.\""},{"index":7,"size":94,"text":"During the visit, Mr. Johnson also paid a courtesy visit to Mr. N. Chandrababu Naidu, the dynamic Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh state, which hosts ICRISAT. Mr. Naidu expressed his appreciation for ICRISAT' s support when the groundnut crop covering nearly 300,000 hectares-the largest groundnut growing belt in the world-was devastated by a deadly disease last year. ICRISAT researchers made a quick breakthrough by identifying the attack as an outbreak of peanut stem necrosis disease caused by a new virus-and not peanut bud necrosis, as was previously thought. This diagnosis helped speed mitigation efforts."},{"index":8,"size":58,"text":"\"I was really impressed by the quality of science and the degree of ownership that the state government has exhibited toward ICRISAT,\" said Johnson in concluding remarks. \"I think that the ICRISAT partnership is a very promising way of building the kind of alliances that the CGIAR has to continue to develop as we move into the future.\" "}]},{"head":"EXCERPTS FROM THE DURBAN STATEMENT","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The Way Forward for Agricultural Research and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"1. Agriculture is the engine for improved rural livelihoods and economic development in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Recognizing this, African political leaders have positioned agriculture at the center of their new vision for the future of the continent."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"2. The African vision envisages that by 2020, the region should have dynamic agricultural markets, be a net exporter of agricultural products, have food available at affordable prices, develop a culture of sustainable use of natural resources, and position itself as a strategic player in agricultural science and technology development."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"3. The target growth rate of 6 percent per annum cannot be achieved without a focused and market-driven technology development and transfer system, an enabling policy environment, and effective institutions."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"4. The considerable efforts and financial investments that have been made by national and international institutions over the past 30 years have had limited payoff. At present, SSA is dealing with first-order challenges of increasing agricultural productivity, and newer challenges-urbanization, globalization, lack of market competitiveness, resource degradation, and HIV/AIDS-are threatening the potential of agriculture to contribute to sustainable economic development. "}]},{"head":"5.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"To address these challenges, we, the members of the SSA agricultural research and development community, recognize that effective and broadened partnerships are essential. The national agricultural research systems (NARS) must play a central role in these partnerships. African countries have made considerable efforts over the past decades to develop a solid research infrastructure. They have strengthened regional collaboration through the formation and development of sub-regional organizations (SROs) and, more recently, through the creation of the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA). Other partners, including the CGIAR-supported Future Harvest Centers, have similarly responded to the challenge through more intensive consultation with NARS and greater collaboration among themselves."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"6. The way forward is to build on gains already made. We agree to pursue the stated vision by developing and disseminating technologies for increased agricultural productivity and sound natural resource management, utilizing the benefits offered by emerging technologies (information and communication technology and safe use of biotechnology); adopting the principle of inclusive partnerships; and using trained human resources, increased and sustained financing, and effective institutions."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"7. On the occasion of the CGIAR Mid-term Meeting held in Durban, South Africa, we call on SSA governments to translate political commitment to agricultural development into concrete actions by providing resources, creating an enabling policy and institutional environment, and ensuring that sustainable agriculture is on the agenda of the Johannesburg Earth Summit. FARA and the Global Forum on Agricultural Research must play an advocacy role for placing agricultural research at the center of the SSA development agenda, and the international investor community must coordinate its efforts and significantly increase financial support for African agricultural research. The CGIAR, advanced research institutions, and other components of the international agricultural research system should forge effective partnerships with African NARS and achieve greater programmatic integration. Finally, changes underway in the CGIAR should reinforce efforts to achieve the African vision. The complete Durban Statement is available at www.cgiar.org."}]},{"head":"DURBAN STATEMENT EXCERPTS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Continued from page 9"}]},{"head":"CGIAR INTERNAL AUDITORS MEET","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The first CGIAR seminar for internal auditors and finance staff, \"Internal Auditing Practices and Concepts for the 21st Century,\" was held at the Institute of Internal Auditors Inc. (IIA) in May in Florida. Internal auditors and finance staff from 14 Centers participated."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"The seminar' s objectives were to introduce new internal auditing concepts and tools to increase efficiency and accountability in the CGIAR, discuss common issues and knowledge for a better understanding of internal auditing practices, and foster a network of CGIAR internal auditors to share best practices."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"\"As publicly funded institutions, CGIAR-supported Centers are unambiguously committed to ensuring the highest levels of integrity in financial processes,\" said Hock-Chye Ong, Director, CGIAR Internal Audit, who is based at IRRI. \"By their work, internal auditors can help ensure that these standards are consistently met.\""},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"A major highlight of the seminar was an inspirational speech by J. Graham Joscelyne, Auditor General of the World Bank Group. Louis Wong, a former General Auditor of the Asian Development Bank spoke on the \"Economic Impact of Corruption and the Anti-Corruption Strategy and Experience of the Asian Development Bank\"."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"Participants explored new internal auditing standards, internal control models, risk management, internal auditing services, audit and technology tools, and interactions between the audit committees and management. Participants are considering joining IIA' s Global Auditing Information Network (GAIN), of which ICARDA is already a member."}]},{"head":"PAGE 11","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CIFOR","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"David Kaimowitz has been selected as the new Director General of the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and will take up that position in August 2001. An economist by training, Dr. Kaimowitz joined CIFOR in 1995 and until recently was the team leader of CIFOR' s program on underlying causes of deforestation, forest degradation, and changes in human welfare, which investigates ways in which policies and social trends outside the forest sector affect forests and the people who rely on them for daily needs and income. He has conducted research in Latin America, Africa, and Asia."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Dr. Kaimowitz completed a B.A. degree in development studies at the University of California-Berkeley and received M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in agricultural economics from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He has published widely and wants to strengthen the special relationship that exists between CIFOR and its host country, Indonesia."}]},{"head":"ICRAF","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Dennis Garrity has been appointed fourth Director General of the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF). He will succeed Pedro Sanchez in October 2001. Dr. Garrity brings a wealth of CGIAR experience to the position, having worked at IRRI for 12 years. After join-ing ICRAF in 1992, he successfully built one of the largest research programs covering Southeast Asia, with more than 40 international and national professional staff working in six countries. His work on developing agroforestry alternatives to slash-andburn agriculture is widely recognized, as are his efforts to develop institutional innovations related to farmer-led organizations in sustainable agriculture and natural resources management. He has actively promoted the landcare movement in Southeast Asia."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Dr. Garrity received a B.Sc. in agriculture from Ohio State University, an M.Sc. in agronomy from the University of Philippines at Los Baños, and a Ph.D. in crop physiology from the University of Nebraska."}]},{"head":"IITA","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Peter Hartmann will be the sixth Director General of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), succeeding Lukas Brader in November 2001. An expert in agricultural economics, policy, and marketing, he has worked in Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean. He was Director of International Programs at the University of Florida, where he helped develop institutional linkages with universities in Cameroon, Honduras, the Netherlands, Nicaragua, Nigeria, and Uganda as well as with international and national agricultural research cen-ters. He also served as private sector advisor for USAID in Tanzania, and believes that training is a fundamental dimension of development."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Dr. Hartmann received an M.S. in agricultural marketing and a Ph.D. in agricultural policy and marketing from the University of Illinois."}]},{"head":"ILRI","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Carlos Seré was named Director General of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), and will succeed Director General Hank Fitzhugh in December 2001. For the last seven years, Dr. Seré has worked for the Latin America and Caribbean office of the International Development Research Centre (Canada), first managing a portfolio of agricultural and natural resource management projects and later serving as regional director. His expertise includes tropical livestock production systems, foot-and-mouth disease, smallholder dairy farming, tropical pastures, and quantification of the costs and benefits of research. His CGIAR experience includes working at CIAT and CIP and serving as reviewer of the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD, whose merger with ILCA led to the formation of ILRI)."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Dr. Seré hails from Uruguay and received a Ph.D. in agricultural economics from the University of Hohenheim, Germany."}]},{"head":"FOUR NEW CENTER DIRECTORS APPOINTED","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The Boards of Trustees of four Centers-CIFOR based in Bogor, Indonesia; ICRAF and ILRI based in Nairobi, Kenya; and IITA based in Ibadan, Nigeria-announced the selection of new directors general for their","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Centers. Each CGIAR-supported Center is an autonomous institution, with an independent board. The appointments were made at the culmination of international searches. Brief profiles are sketched below."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Helping farmers to better manage land and water resources and battling livestock disease are some of the ways in which CGIAR scientists help promote sustainable agriculture for food security in developing countries. This year' s meeting in Durban featured major presentations by the Centers on three significant topics: integrated natural resources management, improved management of water, and livestock disease."}]},{"head":"Integrated Natural Resources Management and the CGIAR","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"\"How we value and use natural resources, as commodities for trade, or for non-trade functions, or even for environmental services,\" are questions that can be best answered by using an integrated natural resources management (INRM) framework, said Joachim Voss, Director General, CIAT, and Chairman of the Inter-Center Task Force on INRM."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"INRM is where the \"brown side\" of agriculture meets the \"green side\" of environment. It helps CGIAR scientists to better understand the context of the problems on which they are working and the context and systems for which they must develop solutions."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"INRM is a conscious process for incorporating multiple aspects of natural resource use into a system of sustainable management to meet farmers and others' explicit production goals (including those tied to profitability and risk reduction) and to provide broad environmental and social benefits."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"As an approach to management of complex technical change and dealing with complexity, INRM itself need not be complex. Voss offered a counter-intuitive example from CIAT' s research to make this point. Climbing beans have tremendous potential on small, fertile parcels of land. It follows that they would perform well in the highly fertile areas of Rwanda. To test the hypothesis, trials were conducted on a transect going from the poorest, most acidic, degraded, and eroded soils on the Nile Zaire crest, down to the more fertile areas. Much to everyone' s surprise, adoption rates were highest in the highaltitude, low-fertility areas. Why? Because farmers concentrated organic matter and the small amounts of fertilizer they could buy on small plots so that they could double their returns by growing climbing beans. And the staking material, essential for climbing beans, required adoption of agroforestry systems. Therefore, farmers were able to create a triple win situation: reduced erosion, improved soil fertility, and greatly enhanced productivity."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"As a framework, INRM allows researchers to capture contextual factors. Hence it can benefit work on global issues such as climate change, the water crisis, conservation and use of genetic resources, desertification, and conservation of the Amazon."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"An international \"Integrated Management for Sustainable Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries\" workshop will be held in Cali, Colombia, August 28-31."}]},{"head":"Solving the World's Water Crisis -A CGIAR Perspective","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Agriculture is a profligate user of water. Seventy percent of all water withdrawn is used for irrigation. Other pressures-pollution, salinization, rising demand for drinking water from teeming cities, industrialization, and the need for ecological services-are reducing the overall availability of water. Recognizing the threat of the water crisis to sustainable develop-ment, at the Millennium Conference held last year, U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan said, \"We need a 'Blue Revolution' in agriculture that focuses on increasing productivity per unit of water-more crop per drop.\""},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Ensuring the availability of water for food and environmental security was the focus of a presentation by David Molden, Principal Researcher, IWMI. In exploring anew the question of productivity of water in agriculture, IWMI conducted a \"water accounting exercise\" in the irrigated area in Chistian, Pakistan. Of the 740 million cubic meters of water that entered the area from irrigation deliveries, rain, and groundwater, nearly 90 percent was used by agriculture. The finding clearly indicated that management of water in agriculture is the key to solving the water crisis. \"From an IWMI perspective, in essence, the global challenge for us is to grow more food with less water -decreasing water use in agriculture to meet environmental goals and other human needs,\" said Molden. \"IWMI research must provide feasible, sustainable choices and solutions that do not exist today.\""},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"\"Can the CGIAR solve the world water crisis?\" That provocative question was posed by Frank Rijsberman, Director General, IWMI. Rijsberman reported that IWMI is developing a new program, Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management, with strong support from ICARDA, ICRISAT, IRRI, ICLARM, and IFPRI. Future attempts to achieve food security, reduce poverty, and protect the environment will require a paradigm shift, one that requires a systematic examination of productivity in yield per unit of water as well as yield per unit of land, said Rijsberman. Also needed, he said, is an integrated, systemwide approach encompassing genetic improve-CGIAR PROGRAM OF SEMINARS ment, better management of soil water and soil fertility, improved delivery of water services, as well as a participatory approach to natural resources management with a focus on resource-poor farmers. \"The answer from IWMI to the provocative question is a resounding \"'Yes,'\" said Rijsberman."}]},{"head":"Costs and Cures of Livestock Disease -A CGIAR Perspective","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"\"Livestock disease has been etched in our collective memory as never before,\" said Hank Fitzhugh, Director General, ILRI, in kicking off a special seminar on livestock disease and its implications for trade and agricultural competitiveness. The recent outbreak of foot-and-mouth (FMD) disease has caused enormous losses running into billions of dollars in the United Kingdom, said Fitzhugh. The disease affected nearly every farm there and caused a major setback to Britain' s tourism industry."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Why should the CGIAR care about livestock diseases? Quite simply, because of their adverse impacts on the food security, nutrition, health, and well-being of poor rural communities. But we should also care about them for reasons of enlightened self-interest, suggested Fitzhugh. Globalization of disease allows an influenza virus to hop on a jet plane and cross continents."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"A livestock revolution is underway, reported Fitzhugh. Demand for meat and milk products is expected to more than double during the next 20 years. Livestock disease results in lost production potential and diminished marketing opportunities for the poor. Moreover, the poor are the people who live close to livestock and run the risk of contracting transmitted diseases. Trade standards and in-country regulations and restrictions also work against the poor. \"Livestock disease is a tremen-dous disincentive,\" said Fitzhugh. \"What incentive do the poor have to invest in better feed, better genetics, better health care if their animals are at risk of death and loss?\" he asked."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"In Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond points out the consequences of major diseases originating in livestock and infecting humans in the New World and Pacific Islands during the past 13,000 years. Those consequences are only the tip of the proverbial iceberg. A University of Edinburgh study found that 1,709 organisms cause diseases in people and that nearly 50 percent of those organisms (called zoonoses) are naturally transmitted from animals to people. Of the 1,709 organisms, 156 cause the fairly new diseases, such as ebola and BSE, that make the headlines. Of those 156 organisms, 114 are zoonoses."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"Milk-borne diseases-tuberculosis, brucellosis, and a variant of E. coli, 157-pose serious threats to human health, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where 80 to 90 percent of milk is not pasteurized. Pasteurization increases the cost of milk by 30 percent in rural areas, and by nearly 70 percent in periurban areas. To avoid milk-borne disease the poor generally boil their milk."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"ILRI' s pro-poor research focuses on the acquisition of knowledge about diseases, their causes, and their consequences. Working with partners, ILRI is developing diagnostics, vaccines, and various therapeutics. The Institute is also working on effective delivery services. A good vaccine that is not delivered in viable form, or not delivered at all, is useless."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"The session also featured presentations on FMD outbreak in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, and by the World Organization for Animal Health, known by its French acronym OIE. "}]},{"head":"CIAT JOINS CONDESAN","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"IBSRAM AND IWMI RESEARCH PROGRAMS MERGE","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"CGIAR' s expertise in sustainable land and water management was strengthened when research programs of the Bangkok-based International Board for Soil Research and Management (IBSRAM) and IWMI were merged."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"\"We are very pleased with the merger,\" said Frank Rijsberman and Eric Craswell, Directors General of IWMI and the former IBSRAM. \"The result is an international research institute that combines expertise in sustainable water and land resources management with a focus on poverty.\" IWMI, founded in 1985 as the International Irrigation Management Institute, broadened its scope by moving from irrigation to water management in a river basin context. IWMI is headquartered in Colombo, Sri Lanka. With the merger, IB-SRAM' s former office is now IWMI' s new Southeast Asia Regional office in Kasetsart University in Bangkhen, Bangkok."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"IBSRAM brings to IWMI 15 years of research expertise in sustainable land management: soil erosion, management of sloping lands and acid soils, nutrient balances of farms on marginal lands, nutrient recycling in urban and peri-urban areas, land management information for farmers, and a training program on land and water legislation."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"The merger helps IWMI to enhance its research capacities in land and water management, create innovative programs that foster broad cooperation, and assist in building the technical and institutional capacities of national agricultural research and extension systems of developing countries. The event is being organized by Prabhu Pingali, director of CIMMYT' s economics program. More information and registration details can be obtained at the conference website (www.cimmyt.org/research/economics/impacts) or by sending an e-mail to impacts@cgiar.org. Please mark your calendars."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" on biotechnology and sustainable development is scheduled for October 15-17, 2001 at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, the Library of Alexandria, Egypt. Ismail Serageldin, former CGIAR Chairman and newly-appointed Librarian of Alexandria chairs the program committee. In addition to the CGIAR and ICARDA, other major partners and co-sponsors include the Paris-based United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS), Trieste, Italy. Featured speakers include two Nobel Laureates, top scientists and decision-makers, and civil society representatives (more details including the program available by clicking on www.egyptbiotech2001.com). SOUTH AFRICA DAY South Africa Day got off to a rousing start with participants visiting Cedara Agricultural Centre, near Pietermaritzburg. The inaugural program featured a stellar cast of speakers: King Zwelithini of the Zulus; Thoko Didiza, South African Minister of Agriculture and Land Affairs; Narend Singh, member of the Executive Committee for Agriculture and Environmental Affairs in KwaZulu-Natal; Bongiwe Njobe, Director General of the South African Agricultural Research System; CGIAR Chairman Ian Johnson; and others. "},{"text":" global warming increasingly suggests that the steady warming of the earth' s surface temperature has enormous implications for agriculture and the well-being of poor farmers all over the developing world. This was the main message of the CGIAR annual report for 2000, The Challenge of Climate Change: Small Farmers at Risk, released at a press conference held in Durban,May 23, 2001.    "},{"text":"s The work of the executive council, based on \"new age\" modes, will lead to clarity, focus, and speed in decision-making. An interim executive council was formed and held its first meeting on May 25, 2001. In line with the recommendations, International Centers Week will henceforth be called the Annual General Meeting (AGM). The first AGM is scheduled for October 29-November 2, 2001, in Washington, DC. (Task Force Co-Chairs: Emmy Simmons, USA, and Gilles Saint-Martin, France). "},{"text":" CGIAR Chairman Johnson visits \"SatVenture\" -a display for visitors showcasing rural semi-arid tropics and how ICRISAT' s research is making a difference in the lives of the region' s farmers \"Agriculture must be put back on the development map,\" said Ian Johnson, CGIAR Chairman and World Bank Vice President for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development, in inaugural remarks at the Sub-Saharan Africa Agricultural Research Day conference. \"We have to do that at the World Bank, the United Nations, and the CGIAR and in governments, the private sector, and civil society. Agriculture' s importance must pervade all discussions we have on sustainability and sustainable development,\" he added.The conference, a major highlight of Agricultural Research Week, was hosted by the Republic of South Africa. The conference' s overarching purpose was to explore ways of jump-starting growth and development in SSA-a global strategic priority. A majority of the participants were African. They represented a diverse range of viewpoints: the public and private sectors, national research programs, regional organizations, and civil society.Agriculture and agricultural research must serve as the engine of growth in sub-Saharan Africa. About 70 percent of Africa' s poor live in rural areas, and rural populations will continue to outnumber urban populations for nearly three decades to come.Agriculture accounts for about 35 percent of the region' s GNP, 40 percent of exports, and 70 percent of employment. \"Farmers need technology,\" said Mandivamba Rukuni, Chairman of Zimbabwe' s Agricultural Research Council and program director of the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. \"Africa' s overall development strategy should be based on an ABCD approach-Asset-Based Community Development-in which the operative words are assets and community.\" Rukuni' s paper \"Challenges and Opportunities for Sub-Saharan Africa\" made a seminal contribution to the conference. A major outcome of the conference was \"The Durban Statement-Way Forward for Agricultural Research and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa\" (see box on pages 9 & 10). The statement, a road map that represents the collective vision and aspirations of African leaders, was signed by all major regional organizations and the CGIARsupported Future Harvest Centers. \"We have identified several elements-Forum for Agricultural Re-search in Africa (FARA)' s vision for African agricultural research and the CGIAR strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa as well as the four pillars of germplasm and natural resource management, technology dissemination, policy research, and capacity building-that are absolutely essential to support a strategic action plan,\" said Kanayo Nwanze, Chairman of the Center Directors Committee on Sub-Saharan Africa and Director General of WARDA. \"Strengthened, inclusive partnerships are the way forward.\" CGIAR has been a strong partner in the overall agricultural development effort in sub-Saharan Africa. Four Centers (ICRAF, IITA, ILRI, and WARDA) are headquartered in the region, and most Centers have research programs underway in the region. Other speakers included Guido Gryseels of CGIAR' s Technical Advisory Committee; Bongiwe Njobe of the South African National Department of Agriculture; Geoffrey Mrema of Association for Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa (ASARECA); Keoagile Molapong of Southern African Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research and Training (SAC-CAR); Ndiaga Mbaye of Conseil Ouest et Centre Africain pour la Recherche et le Développement Agricoles (CORAF/WECARD); and Per Ryden of Global Mechanism, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). \"The way forward is to build on the gains already made,\" said Joseph Mukiibi, Director General of the Ugandan National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) and Chairman of FARA. \"Agriculture must receive due place on the agenda of the Johannesburg Earth Summit next year. It is only through partnerships that we can hope to make a major impact on the agricultural development challenges facing Africa.\" At the concluding session, Hans Binswanger, the World Bank Sector Director for Environment, Rural and Social Development in the Africa region, made an impassioned plea for urgently addressing the special challenges posed by HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. The pandemic has the potential to severely curtail agricultural growth, hobble whole economies, and reverse hard-won gains. The meeting ended with a vote of thanks to Moctar Touré, outgoing Executive Secretary of Special Program for African Agricultural Research (SPAAR), and Manuel Lantin, CGIAR Science Advisor.Speakers at the press conference launching \"The Durban Statement.\" Seated (from L to R) Njabulo Nduli and Bongiwe Njobe of the South African National Department of Agriculture; Joseph Mukiibi, National Agricultural Research Organization, Uganda; and Hans Binswanger, The World Bank Photo: Chas Geer "},{"text":" CIAT has joined the Andean ecoregional program CONDESAN (Consortium for the Sustainable Development of the Andes) and will contribute to the program through its community-based watershed resource management project, usually known as the Hillsides Project. CIP is already a member of CONDESAN. \"We are very pleased with CIAT's decision to join CONDESAN\" said Jaime Tola, President of the CONDE-SAN Board of Directors. \"It considerably strengthens the CGIAR-CON-DESAN partnership.\" CIAT's Hillsides Project is recognized for addressing critical resource management issues by developing decision-support tools that combine the best of scientific research with participatory methods and farmers' knowledge in Central America. CIAT will also bring its knowledge and experience in maize, bean, and forage commodity research to the ecoregional issues addressed by CONDESAN. CONDESAN was established in 1993 in response to growing interest in natural resource management and ecoregional research within the CGIAR. CONDESAN brings together a coalition of 75 development institutions in the Andes. "},{"text":" partnership with the Peoples Republic of China received a boost with the opening of a new Secretariat office in Beijing on February 23, 2001. Established as China Leading Group for Coordination of China-CGIAR Cooperation, the office is housed at the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science (CAAS) and will be responsible for coordination of collaboration between the CGIAR and Chinese agricultural research institutions. Dr. Zhao Longyue will chair the group. The inaugural ceremony was chaired by Dr. Zhang Lijian, Vice President of CAAS. Making presentations were Mr. Liu Jian, Vice Minister of Agriculture; Dr. Zhao Longyue, Deputy Director General of the Department of International Cooperation at the Ministry of Agriculture; and Professor Lu Feijie, President of CAAS. Dr. Ren Wang, Deputy Director General of IRRI, represented the CGIAR. Researchers from CIFOR, CIMMYT, CIP, ILRI, and IPGRI attended the ceremony. The new Secretariat will play a key role in strengthening the China-CGIAR partnership and helping ensure that the fruits of agricultural research benefit China' s farming communities. Currently, 11 Centers have formal links with Chinese research institutions, and five Centers operate offices in Beijing. to CIMMYT, IRRI, and National Agricultural Research Systems of Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, in the Rice-Wheat Consortium for the Indo-Gangetic Plains, Outstanding Scientific Partnership to Alberto Barrion, IRRI, Outstanding Local Scientist to Ellen Payongayong, IFPRI, Outstanding Local Scientific Support Staff to Bernard Vanlauwe, IITA, Promising Young Scientist CIMMYT International Conference on Impacts of Agricultural Research CIMMYT, in partnership with the Standing Panel on Impact Assessment (SPIA) of the CGIAR' s Technical Advisory Committee (TAC), is hosting a major international conference-Impacts of Agricultural Research and Development: Why Has Impact Assessment Research Not Made More of a Difference? February 4-7, 2002, in San José, Costa Rica. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"CLIMATE CHANGE POSES Speakers at the press conference launching CGIAR Annual Report \"The Challenge of Climate Change: Poor Farmers at Risk.\" Seated (from L to R) Bongiwe Njobe, Director General, National Department of Agriculture, South Africa; Ian Johnson, CGIAR Chairman; Robert Watson, Chairman, Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change and Chief Scientist, The World Bank; and Pedro Sanchez, Director General, ICRAF.  s Agroforestry-planting trees on \"CGIAR scientists are developing a s Agroforestry-planting trees on\"CGIAR scientists are developing a farms-has the highest potential to coherent, systemic response to the po- farms-has the highest potential tocoherent, systemic response to the po- soak up atmospheric carbon, at rates tential effects of climate change on agri- soak up atmospheric carbon, at ratestential effects of climate change on agri- of approximately three tons per culture,\" said Pedro Sanchez, Director of approximately three tons perculture,\" said Pedro Sanchez, Director hectare per year. CGIAR scientists are General of ICRAF and leader of the hectare per year. CGIAR scientists areGeneral of ICRAF and leader of the converting degraded croplands and CGIAR' s Inter-Center Working Group converting degraded croplands andCGIAR' s Inter-Center Working Group grasslands into agroforestry systems that are estimated to save 390 million metric tons of carbon from being emitted into the atmosphere per year by the year 2010. This effort is led by ICRAF. on Climate Change. \"Our research must help poor farmers adapt to the conse-quences of climate change and mitigate its deleterious effects.\" Some examples of CGIAR research already underway: grasslands into agroforestry systems that are estimated to save 390 million metric tons of carbon from being emitted into the atmosphere per year by the year 2010. This effort is led by ICRAF.on Climate Change. \"Our research must help poor farmers adapt to the conse-quences of climate change and mitigate its deleterious effects.\" Some examples of CGIAR research already underway:  s CGIAR scientists are working to re- s CGIAR scientists are working to re-  duce tillage in rice-wheat rotations duce tillage in rice-wheat rotations  in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the  most intensely cropped agricultural most intensely cropped agricultural  land in the world. This work will land in the world. This work will  help reduce large amounts of car- help reduce large amounts of car-  bon emissions (by cutting tractor bon emissions (by cutting tractor  use). This innovative effort involves use). This innovative effort involves  CIMMYT, CIP, ICRISAT, IRRI, and CIMMYT, CIP, ICRISAT, IRRI, and  IWMI. IWMI. Photo: Chas Geer  Photo: Chas Geer  "}],"sieverID":"95c0da3a-18d5-4e9b-bf7f-45a73a1673c1","abstract":"The CGIAR's website is growing in popularity as a one-stop source for crisp, concise, and timely information. Since January 2001, the site has received more than 7 million visitors, and during June 2001 alone, the site received a record half a million visitors. To browse the new website, please type www.cgiar.org in your browser bar."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07cb90765893d017ce91865426c44e23","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H044080.pdf"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Does Access To Small Scale Irrigation Promote Market Oriented Production In Ethiopia?","keywords":["irrigation","change in cropping mix","market participation","volume of sale","Probit and Truncated regression; Ethiopia","Africa"],"chapters":[{"head":"While","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"irrigation enhances market production, there are series of factors that pose serious constraints to market production. Land size, oxen holding, access to market and means of transport were found to be important determinants of market oriented production calling for policy interventions in land markets, access to productive assets and infrastructure development and policy measures to improve the performance of agricultural markets. The study also found education has market promoting effect in terms of increasing the probability of participation and volume of sale. Increased support to education can, thus, help in the long-term to transform traditional subsistence agriculture into more market-oriented agriculture. Finally there are unobserved site specific effects, related to location and other covariates, which influence market participation and volume decisions."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Irrigation development is expected to increase market participation of producers (Rosegrant et al., 1995;MoFED, 2006). Higher yields, higher cropping intensity and all year round farm production leads to increased market-oriented production, implying a shift in supply (marketable surplus production) and perhaps food security. Irrigation is also expected to lead to changes in crop mix (cash crop orientation) which is expected to have far reaching consequences on household welfare (Joshi et al., 2003). Crop-switching as Hussain and Hanjra (2004) noted involves substituting low yielding and low profitable crops with new high-yielding and more profitable crops. Implicitly this implies switching from subsistence production to market-oriented production (ibid.). There are reports, however, that indicate that increased market orientation may not necessarily ensure food security especially if the macroeconomic environment is not conducive or there are distorted trade policies or there is poor infrastructure development (Van Braun, 1995) or social protection for food security is not provided through markets and government interventions (de Janvry et al.1991)."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"In risky environments such as Ethiopia, smallholder farmers, who constitute the bulk of the population, are often caught in production of low-risk/low-return food grains. With insufficient cash funds, and unpredictable outcomes, they cannot afford to take the risk of diversifying from subsistence food production into potentially higher-return ventures (such as growing cash crops for market), or of spending their limited cash on purchased agricultural inputs, because if they fail -either because of crop failure, price collapse, or lack of demand -they will not have either the basic food they would otherwise have produced, nor the cash to purchase it, and their families will go hungry (MOFED, 2006 p.6). Irrigation removes some of the risks associated with rainfall variability and thereby increases the likelihood of using purchased quality inputs due to the reduced risk of crop failure. Irrigation is, hence, expected to remove or ease risk so that farmers can venture into an inherently high risk-high return production pathway, which may have a significant effect on poverty reduction (MoFED, 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":332,"text":"While irrigation development is expected to induce such changes, the realization of these effects cannot be taken for granted. This could be especially true in countries like Ethiopia, where many of the preconditions for market production seem to be missing. The households' orientation towards market production is often hampered by various factors at the household and village levels, by market access conditions and other institutional and policy factors. The World Bank (2006) indicated that current limited access to transportation and markets undermines incentives for surplus agricultural production and reinforces the highly vulnerable subsistence-oriented structure of the economy. It further indicated that smallholder farmers, generally with less than 1 hectare of land, account for about 95 percent of the agricultural output. In times of good weather, roughly 75-80 percent of the output is consumed at the household level (World Bank, 2006). Bhattarai and Pandy (1997) in their study in Nepal indicated that wheat production was economically more profitable in locations with better access to irrigation and rural infrastructure. They also found that farmers with access to irrigation and markets are found to be much more responsive to changes in wheat prices than farmers without access to such infrastructure, indicating the complementarity between infrastructure development and access to market and crop productivity. Lapar et al. (2003) pointed out that smallholders generally have inadequate capital resources-including, physical and financial resources, but also intellectual capital resources such as experience, education and extension-which limits their ability to diversify production portfolios. Lapar et al. (2003) further indicated that the inability of smallholder producers to take advantage of economies of scale in production and marketing is a significant impediment to market participation. Smallholders are often disadvantaged due to poor access to information and marketprecipitating services such as extension visitation and credit assistance and these impediments often give rise to low rates of adoption of improved technologies that could potentially increase productivity, diversification and, hence, market participation. In addition, poor infrastructure often increases the transaction costs of smallholder market participation."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"However, there is little empirical evidence on market participation in developing countries, particularly in Africa. The limited studies there are focus on smallholder producers' decision to participate in coarse grain markets (Goetz, 1992) or in livestock markets (Lapar et al. 2003;Bellemare and Barrett, 2006). To our knowledge there is no study, which has systematically investigated the role of irrigation in inducing marketoriented production in Sub-Saharan Africa. A sound understanding of the patterns of market oriented production and the constraints it faces could contribute to the development of more appropriate policies regarding institutional arrangements and the creation of adequate infrastructure, which could benefit a large mass of smallholder producers. This study is an attempt in this direction. Specifically it aimed to: (i) examine the extent and nature of market oriented production in irrigated sites in contrast to rainfed areas in Ethiopia; (ii) identify the determinants of market-oriented production, including the role of irrigation in the process, and (iii) draw implications of market oriented production on food security and poverty reduction."},{"index":5,"size":152,"text":"We used a unique dataset covering various small and medium scale irrigation schemes, both traditional and modern. Corresponding data from rainfed systems were used as a control. We explored the differential impact of irrigation development on market production as contrasted to rainfed systems. In explaining a household's decision to participate in the market we introduced the distinction between participation per se and volume decisions (i.e. level of participation). Where participation investigated whether the household produces and sells products to the market regardless of the amount (value) of sale and the level of participation investigated the factors that influence the quantity of sale. It is difficult to assume a priori that the factors that influence the household's decision to participate in the market are different from the factors that influence volume decisions. Hence, we also tested whether the decision to participate and the volume of sale are made simultaneously using appropriate econometric techniques."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"The paper is presented as follows. Part two presents a theoretical model for modeling participation and volume decisions followed by the presentation of testable hypotheses and econometric approaches in parts three and four. In section five the study site and data description and some descriptive statistical summary results are presented. Part six discusses the econometric results and part seven concludes and draws policy conclusions."}]},{"head":"Modeling participation and supply decisions","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"We developed a simple conceptual framework that captures interactions, processes and outcomes that result from irrigation development. Unlike rainfed agriculture, irrigation development enhances cropping intensity as households are able to produce more than once in a year. Irrigation also opens new horizons for growing new crops which are not usually possible under rainfed conditions (Joshi et al., 2003;Hussain and Hanjra 2004;Hussain, 2005;Huang et al., 2006). Furthermore, irrigation development enhances increased use of purchased inputs by reducing the risk of crop failure and increasing returns to agriculture and, hence, increasing household's willingness to use purchased farm inputs such as fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides and also hired labor (Hussain and Hanjra, 2004). These changes in cropping intensity and shift in cropping choice (diversification) are expected to have far reaching consequences on food security and poverty, not least through the market behavior of smallholder farmers (Pandey and Sharma, 1996;Hussain and Hanjira, 2003;Hussain and Hanjra 2004;Huang et al., 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Irrigation development is expected to trigger this host of processes. However, while irrigation is the necessary condition to induce these changes, it is not as such a sufficient condition as there are various factors that influence these processes. First we present the theoretical model that focuses on the household's decision to produce for the market before we present the possible factors that influence market participation and volume decisions."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"We consider market participation and supply decisions in the context of traditional Probit and Tobit models applied to household production data (see Lapar et al. 2003). For each household, i , i = 1, 2,…N, assume that the observed data, namely i y = 1 if participation is observed and i y = 0 otherwise, is conditioned by a K-vector of household-specific covariates, i x . The decision rule is to participate when the utility of doing so, say,"},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":", which is the utility reaped from some alternative enterprise ( e.g. to produce food crops). Taking Taylor-series expansions of these two utility functions around the point i x = 0, yields the linear"},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":", where γ and μ are K-vectors of first-order effects depicting the impacts on the two utilities of changes in the levels of the covariates. Subtracting the left-handside from both sides of the inequalities, equating the result to a latent variable, i Z , and permitting the equality to hold with error, i μ , we are left with"},{"index":6,"size":132,"text":"(1) Here μ γ β − ≡ p measures the difference in allocating resources to either enterprise, i.e. food or cash crop production. Supply decisions are modeled in a similar way. We assume that the quantity supplied on the market is a linear function of another set of household characteristics, which may be the same as the set represented by the covariates xi, above. Specifically, the supply relationship is: Unlike the latent specification in the Probit model, the dependent variable in (2) takes on positive and zero values. When a zero value is observed, we assume this to imply that the household in question, rather than possessing an excess of the marketable product, actually has a demand for the commodity (that is, a negative supply). Hence, sales quantities are left-censored at zero."}]},{"head":"Hypotheses","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"In this section we present, in the form of testable hypothesis, various factors that influence the irrigation-market production nexus. In most rural economies, farm households are dominant decision-makers when it comes to the management of land and water resources. Farm households appear to represent an extremely robust and dominant decision-making unit in relation to production, consumption and market exchange in the types of economies we studied. Farm households, therefore, become the natural core units in our models and analysis."},{"index":2,"size":331,"text":"Various development interventions, including irrigation development, may have changed their decision-making environment, however, in terms of their capacity to produce, access markets and the prices and price variability they face in these markets. In a world with well developed markets, households will participate in all factor and commodity markets when these factors are used in production and commodities are produced and/or consumed by the households, as long as factors and commodities are imperfect substitutes and distribution of factors and commodities vary across households. There will always be gains from trade when trade is costless (zero transaction costs). Such a world favors specialization. Under such scenario, irrigation development is expected to promote market oriented production regardless of the households' consumption demand. In the real world there are transaction costs causing there to be price bands where purchase prices are higher than selling prices. Significant positive transaction costs and information asymmetries can lead to market imperfections (de Janvry et al., 1991). For an economy where there are both sellers and buyers of a factor or commodity, in the so called two-sided markets, positive transaction costs and information asymmetries lead to non-participation and a \"self-sufficiency orientation\" for factors that are owned and used in production and commodities that are produced and consumed by households. In general, we expect that the higher the transaction costs, the wider the price band and the larger share (%) of households that will be nonparticipating. An implication of this is that market non-participation can be an indicator of the size of the transaction costs in a specific two-sided market. However, the distribution among households and substitutability of factors in production and commodities in consumption within households may also influence the degree of non-participation. The higher the elasticity of substitution in production and consumption the higher we expect the probability of non-participation to be. Overall, significant market non-participation is a sign of significant market imperfections in an economy. On the basis of these broader perspectives, we developed some testable hypothesis."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"H1. Smallholder producers with access to irrigation are more likely to participate in markets than farmers under rainfed systems."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"H2. Smallholder farmers with better access to markets (i.e., close to larger markets) are expected to be much more likely to participate in the market than farmers without access to such infrastructure."}]},{"head":"H3.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Households with better endowments such as labor, capital (including livestock), land and other resources such as information and education are more likely to participate in markets than households with fewer endowments."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"H4. Smallholder farmers are often disadvantaged due to poor access to information and market-supporting services such as extension services and credit assistance and these impediments often give rise to low rates of adoption of improved technologies that could potentially increase productivity, diversification and, hence, market participation."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"Hypothesis three implies that poverty may limit households' participation in markets. Besides, food insecure households may allocate most of their resources to meet their food demands, even if growing for the market is economically more rewarding. Hypothesis four implies that availability of inputs and new technologies also facilitate market oriented production. In this case, the functioning of input markets and extension services play an important role in facilitating increased adoption of new technologies (improved seeds, agronomic practices, etc) by farmers. Adoption of new technologies plays a critical role in farmers' increased market oriented production as technological change without increased commercialization seems unlikely because of the increased use of purchased inputs and diversification/specialization are inherent elements of most technological innovations in agricultural production. Hence, policies to speed up commercialization and technological change move jointly in a reinforcing way (von Braun, 1995). Hence, we propose that households with good access to services (input and capital markets) are more likely to participate. These hypotheses were tested systematically. The results are reported in the subsequent sections."}]},{"head":"Econometric estimation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Let the amount of crops supplied by a household i be given by:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"where si y is the volume of sales supplied by the household that is expected to depend on the vector 1"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"x regressors outlined in equation ( 2). As si y is censored this can be estimated using variants of censored regression models. The most often used model is the Tobit model (Wooldridge, 2002)."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"The participation equation, whether the household decides to participate or not, is given by:"},{"index":5,"size":241,"text":"where ( ) pi y x, are always observed whereas si y is observed only when 1 = pi y . Eq. ( 4) can be estimated using variants of the binary choice model, in our case we used the Probit model. We assumed that ( )  (Cragg, 1971) or Wooldridge's model using Probit plus lognormal regression models (Wooldridge, 2002). Hence, nested (log-likelihood ratio test) and non-nested Voung test (Voung, 1989) model test statistics were derived to determine whether to use the Tobit model formulation or either the Cragg or Wooldridge model. If these test results showed that these were separate decisions, then we used the double hurdle model (Cragg, 1971) or Probit plus lognormal regression models (also known as Wooldridge model) along with other explanatory variables to explain volume decisions of households. The Cragg model has the advantage that it nests the Tobit model and a likelihood ratio test can be performed easily to determine if the household market supply decision is best modeled by a one-step or a two-step procedure. The difficulty in comparing the Wooldridge model against the Cragg model is that they are not nested to each other. The same is true for Tobit model and Wooldridge model. We used the Voung (1989) non-nested model selection test. Following, Greene (2000) and Fin and Schmidt (1984) the restriction imposed by the Tobit model is tested against the Cragg model by performing a likelihood ratio test of the following."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":") ln ln (ln 2"},{"index":7,"size":220,"text":"where L is distributed as chi-square with k degree of freedom ( K is the number of independent variables including a constant). The Tobit model was rejected in favor of the Cragg model if L exceeded the chi-square critical value. The likelihood ratio test statistics of chi2 (37) = 4574.21, p=0.0000, indicated that the restrictions imposed by the Tobit model is rejected in favor of the Cragg model. Thus, the same household and farm characteristics did not have equal influence on both the participation decision and the decision for how much to sell. It also implies that the participation decision and volume decision are not made simultaneously. However, hypothesizing that a given variable is interrelated with the participation decision and not with volume decision or vice versa is difficult. Consequently, the three models are estimated with the same variables. Once the Tobit model was rejected, the Cragg model could be compared with Wooldridge model using Voung's nonnested model specification test. Voung's non-nested model specification test is given by Finally, we also corrected the standard errors for clustering effects by assuming that observations are not independent within the cluster although they are independent between clusters, in this case the household (Rogers, 1993). This is fair assumption as management could vary across households but not within plots run by the same household."}]},{"head":"Study site description and data description","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"This study is part of a comprehensive nationwide study on the multiple impacts of irrigation on poverty and environment run between 2004 and 2007 in Ethiopia. It was a component of the Impact of Irrigation on Poverty and Environment (IIPE) research project run by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) with support from the Austrian government. The socioeconomic survey, which investigated the impact of irrigation on poverty and irrigation contribution to national economy, addressed a total sample size of 1024 households from eight irrigation sites from 4 regional states involving traditional, modern and rainfed systems (see Fig. 1 and Table 1A). The total sample constitutes 397 households practicing purely rainfed agriculture and 627 households (382 modern and 245 traditional) practice irrigated agriculture. These households operate a total of 4,953 plots (a household operating five plots on average). Of the total 4,953 plots covered by the survey, 25 percent (1,250 plots) are under traditional irrigation, 43 percent (2,137 plots) are under modern while the remaining 32 percent (1,566 plots) are under rainfed agriculture. The data collected include demographics, asset holdings, access to services, plot level production and sale and input use data (distinguished between irrigated and rainfed), constraints to agricultural production and household perceptions about the impact of irrigation on poverty, environment and health and other household and site specific data. The data was collected for the 2005/2006 cropping season."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary statistics","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"We present a summary of some of the most important variables here (for details see Table 1 below). Of the total households surveyed, about 54 percent of the households participated in the market by selling a product and earning an average of Birr 591 (SD 2169) † † † † † † . The gross value of sales realized by households varies greatly † † † † † † 1 US Dollar (USD) = 8.39625 Ethiopian Birr (ETB) in May 2006."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"as can be seen from the high variance. This variation is also stronger between farmers working in different irrigation types. Households in traditional irrigation and in modern schemes earn an average income of Birr 699 (SD 2679) and Birr 779 (SD 4090) respectively from crop sales in contrast to rainfed Birr 476.10 (1076.1). It seems that average gross value of sales from modern irrigation schemes is higher than those from traditional schemes. However, testing for equality of the mean, in sales between the three irrigation types, indicated that there is a statistically significant difference (p-value 0.0001). However, a separate test for traditional and modern scheme indicated that the mean difference is not statistically different (p-value 0.5354). This indicates that there was no difference in mean value of sales between traditional and modern schemes, although average sales from both sources are higher than those obtained from the rainfed system."},{"index":3,"size":150,"text":"When asked about whether the households faced any output market and marketing problems about 59 percent responded that they did not face any problems while the remaining 41 percent said that they did. There is a difference in the perception of the presence of a market and marketing problems between farmers working in rainfed systems and under irrigation systems. More farmers under irrigation systems seem on average to face market and marketing related problems than those working under rainfed systems. The major problems include: market problem (low demand and low selling price) (30.7%), distance to market, road and transport problems (23%), same product & peak time supply (20 %), unstable prices (11%), lack of services (information, service cooperatives, high tax) (5.3%), high purchase prices of agriculture goods when they want to buy them (4.4%), low supply and poor quality (3.3%), exploitation by local traders (1%), and others (additional costs) (0.7%)."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"The functioning of input markets is expected to influence the functioning of output markets through its influence on production. Hence, we wanted to understand whether farmers faced any input access problem during the 2005/06 cropping season. Reporting on their experience of input access, about 53 percent of the households responded that they had no input access problem, compared with 47 percent who indicated that they did. The problems included: high input prices (45.8%), shortage of capital (high down payment, not member of service cooperatives and lack of access to credit) (18 %), lack/shortage of supply of inputs (mainly pesticides and herbicides but also fertilizer) (16 %), lack of timely supply (10 %), shortage of equipment and materials and skilled labor to apply these inputs (2.4), and distance to input markets and lack of supply locally (1.9%)."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"The most important problems are, hence, high input prices, lack of credit access and lack of availability of inputs in space and time. There is a significant difference in the perception of the presence of input related problems between farmers working in rainfed systems and under irrigation systems. On average more farmers under rainfed systems seem to face input access problems than those working under irrigation."},{"index":6,"size":78,"text":"Moisture stress and water shortages could pose serious constraints to agricultural production and, hence, to market supply of agricultural outputs. Asked if households faced any shortfall in rain during the production season about 61 percent of the respondents indicated they did not, while the remaining 39 percent indicated that they did. Similarly, irrigation farmers asked if they faced water shortage during the irrigation season, 73 percent responded that they did not, while 27 percent of the respondents did."},{"index":7,"size":218,"text":"We present the composition of crops under different irrigation systems. The percentage values indicated the percentage of the plots covered by these crops (Figure 3). The dominant crops under traditional irrigation system, in order of importance are: maize, wheat, teff, followed by horticultural crops such as mango, potato, banana and tomato (Figure 3a). In the modern irrigation schemes, in the order of importance, the dominant crops are teff, maize, onion, wheat, tomato, barley and potato (Figure 3b). In the rainfed agricultural system cereals are the dominant crops: teff, wheat, maize, sorghum, barley and pulses and oil crops. Horticultural crops such as onion, potato and perennial crops such as mango and gesho (local hops) each cover less than 1 percent of the total plots (Figure 3c). Finally we looked into the nature of market production, i.e. whether households are really exercising shifts in their cropping choice? Or is it just the produced surplus which is supplied to the market? How are the quantity of sales and value of sales correlated? We estimated a simple correlation coefficient between quantity and value of sales. A calculated correlation coefficient of 0.18 indicates that there is low linear association between quantity and value of outputs. Therefore, it could be that farmers are shifting to more valuable products as the crop composition also attest."}]},{"head":"Explaining market participation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":257,"text":"The results from the Probit regression model on factors that determine households' market participation, are reported in Table 2 below. The fitted binary choice model is found to explain the observed variation with the observed probability of 0.60 and predicated probability 0.62. We also estimated the marginal effects for the Probit model and these are reported here. Farmers working under different irrigation management schemes may have different probabilities to participate in the market. Households working in modern irrigation schemes were found, albeit at 10 percent level of significance, less likely to participate in the market compared to rainfed farmers. Similarly, farmers working under the traditional irrigation scheme are found to have not significant difference in participating in output markets. These results show that participation per se is not influenced by whether the household works under irrigation system or not. However, when we disaggregate by crop types, farmers growing irrigated annuals and irrigated perennials are more likely to participate in the market in contrast to farmers that grew rainfed annual crops, with marginal effects 0.21 and 0.29 respectively. It is believed that this is because the rainfed annual crops tend to be mainly food crops. The participation of the farmers growing rainfed perennials is found not to be significantly different from those growing rainfed annuals perhaps indicating the inherently low scale of cash crop production in the former. Hence, the result strongly indicates that irrigation significantly contributes to market participation by enabling farmers to grow crops that are marketable although rainfed growers also sell crops for various reasons."},{"index":2,"size":269,"text":"Various household characteristics and resource level endowment variables were found to have a significant effect on any households' decision to participate in the market. From among the household characteristics education attainment of the head of the household and family size were found to be significant in explaining market participation. The number of years of education of the head was found to be positively and significantly associated with the households' decision to participate in the market implying that educated households are more likely to participate in the market. As education increases by a unit, the probability of participation increases by about 2 percents. On the other hand family size was found to have a negative effect on market participation indicating that households with more family members are more likely to focus on food production to meet family food requirements. This is typical of economies where food markets are not well developed and, hence, households choose to first be food-self sufficient, before they produce for the market. From among the household resource endowments, the size of the operated land area has a positive and highly significant effect on the decision to participate in markets. A unit increase in area of operated holding leads to a 23% increase in the likelihood of participation. This result indicates that land holding size could be an important constraint to market participation even if irrigation access is ensured. Other resources such as labor (both female and male), oxen holding were found to be insignificant in explaining market participation perhaps indicating that these resources may not pose as significant constrains to participation per se in rural Ethiopia."},{"index":3,"size":207,"text":"Distance to the market where produce is sold and type of means of transport had also significant effect on market participation. Market participation per se increased with distance to market where the products are sold. Although this sounds counter intuitive, this may be related to the fact that households who manage to transport to distant but larger markets are likely to benefit from the high price differentials manifest in fragmented markets. As agricultural markets in Ethiopia, as in most rural economies of the developing world, are not well developed, price effects are not easily transferred across locations. This implies that farmers need to select markets where their products can fetch good prices and the incentive to take a product further afield requires market knowledge as a precondition. Below we test this theory by determining if the value of output increases with distance to the market where the output is sold. Conversely, this may also suggest that irrigation schemes are not positioned close to markets. Participation also seems to increase with the use of donkeys as a means of transport in reference to use of human power. Those who used donkeys are 6 % more likely to participate in the market compared to those who used human power."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"Access to input markets were also found to have significant effect on market participation of households. The households who reported to have faced input access problems were found to be the most likely ones to participate. This may reflect a reverse causality in that those who participated in the market ones most likely to face input access problems. Households producing for the market were about 6 percent more likely to face input access problems such as untimely availability of seeds, seedlings, and chemicals. This result was reflected during the rapid appraisal study which indicated that farmers had a hard time getting vegetable seeds and pesticides. This may call for reorientation of the input supply system to meet the requirements of the irrigation system."},{"index":5,"size":181,"text":"Community (site) level effects were also found to be significant in explaining variations in the probability of participation. These effects could be related to village level covariates (such as location of the site, agro-ecology and crop suitability factors, irrigation experience, weather conditions and other external effects) which may influence market conditions. So taking Debre Zeit (Wedecha Belbela systems) as a reference, we found that households in Endris (marginal effect -0.20), Golgol Raya, Haiba (marginal effect -0.17) and Hare (marginal effect -0.11) are less likely to participate in the market while households in Golgotha are more likely to participate (marginal effect 0.28). Both the Wedecha and Golgotha irrigation schemes are located close to the major markets, Addis Ababa and Nazareth, on a well established marketing route for vegetables (see Fig. 1). However, from the results we have here it is difficult to attribute to one factor, e.g. distance to market, as being the principal factor influencing market participation. It is likely that the dummy variables confound various factors. Hence, we can only say that there are site level covariates influencing market participation."},{"index":6,"size":146,"text":"Finally, although less expected plot level characteristics such as slope of the land and soil quality were found to be significant in explaining market participation. Accordingly, households operating land with medium (marginal effect 0.07) and steep slope (marginal effect 0.08) were found to be more likely to participate than those operating flat lands. One possible explanation could be that the slope of land may influence crop choice, so irrigated annuals and/or perennials are grown on such lands. Households operating medium (marginal effect 0.06) and good quality lands (marginal effect 0.08), i.e. with more productive soils, were found to be more likely to participate. The effect of these plot characteristics on market participation could be through their influence on crop choice and productivity. Below we will explore further if the same set of factors also affect the level of participation, the volume of sale made by households."}]},{"head":"Explaining volume decisions","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"The most important determinants of volume decisions (measured by the value of sale) are reported below. But for the truncated model we did not report the calculated marginal effects as the purpose of our analysis is not confined to the sub population. Hence we report the coefficients as indicated in Table 3. Households operating both modern and irrigation schemes supply more to the market than farmers working in the rainfed system. In line with the results from the binary choice model, farmers growing irrigated annuals and irrigated perennials supply more to the market in comparison to farmers that grow rainfed annuals because, as indicated above, the rainfed annual crops tend to be mainly food crops. The results here, hence, strongly indicate that irrigation significantly contributes not only to market participation but also to increased supply of produce to the market. This could be the result of increased cropping intensity and diversification into more cash crops, mainly horticultural crops."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Households that reported to have faced shortages in rainfall supplied significantly lower volumes of produce, and hence, earned less from the market. This indicates that shortfalls in rain, may pose a serious constraint to market development."},{"index":3,"size":220,"text":"In line with the results in the probability model, education and family size were also found to be significant in explaining the amount of sale. The education level of the head of household was found to be positively and significantly associated with high value of sale, implying that educated households are more likely to be market oriented. This may be because they are well positioned to choose high return crops and introduce innovative technologies. In contrast to the negative influence of family size on explaining market participation, here family size was found to have a significant and positive effect on volume of sale. This suggests that once households have decided to grow for the market, the family size does not negatively influence volume of sale. Furthermore, households' resource endowments, specifically the size of the operated land area and oxen holding, have positive and highly significant effects on the volume of sale. Farmers usually allocate part of their land to grow high value crops after they have allocated sufficient land to grow food crops. Oxen holding increases the chance of increasing operating land holding through informal land transaction such as sharecropping and fixed renting. Therefore, households endowed with more land and oxen holding are more likely to sell more to the market than households with smaller land holding and no oxen."},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"Distance to market where the output was sold has significant effect on the volume of sale strengthening our conjecture that households who are able to participate transport their produce further but to more attractive markets. In line with this, the volume of sale was found to be significantly influenced by the choice of transport. In this case, households who rent vehicles have higher volumes of sale compared to those using human power. Moreover, unlike the result in the Probit model, use of donkeys as a means of transport has a negative effect on the volume of sale indicating perhaps that higher volume of sale requires other means of transport than pack animals or human power (e.g. ISUZUs, the famous small trucks which can operate deep in rural areas.)"},{"index":5,"size":158,"text":"In contrast to the participation decision, reported market related problems were found to have no significant effect on the amount of goods sold. This implies that market and marketing related problems may deter households from participation but once they have made the decision to participate they supply what they can. However, those who reported input access problem were also found to be supplying more produce to the market. This may reflect, as argued earlier, a reverse causality in that those who participated in the market are more likely to face inputs access problems. It could also be related to the location of the irrigation schemes in relation to input supply centers and the orientation of the input supply system of the country. Access to off-farm income was to have a negative effect on the value of sale perhaps indicating that those who have access to off-farm income do not consider it worth the effort of growing for markets."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"The same community (site) level effects were also found to be significant in explaining variations in the volume of sale. So taking Debre Zeit (Wedecha Belbela systems) as a reference, we found that households in Haiba, Hare and Tikurit supply low volumes of output while households in Golgotha and Zengeny supply more output (i.e., more valuable), Disentangling which specific site level variables are important in explaining market participation is something that needs further inquiry."},{"index":7,"size":97,"text":"Finally, the same plot level characteristics such as slope of the land and soil quality were also found to be significant variables in explaining volume decisions. Accordingly, households operating lands with steep slopes were found to supply more than those operating flat lands. One possible explanation is that the slope of land influences crop choice, so irrigated seasonal or perennials are grown on such lands. Households operating medium and good quality lands, i.e. with more productive soils, were found to be supplying higher volumes of output, underlining that production enhancing factors have also market participation enhancing effects."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":249,"text":"The objective of this study was to examine the extent and nature of market oriented production under irrigated systems in contrast to rainfed systems in Ethiopia. The study t identified determinants of marketoriented production, including the role of irrigation in the process, in order to understand the main constraints and opportunities for market oriented development. Based on the study findings we have drawn policy implications relating to institutional arrangements and the creation of adequate infrastructure, which could benefit a large mass of smallholder producers. One of the most important findings of this study is that irrigation contributes to a significant increase in market participation, volume of marketed produce and, hence, income. Farmers working under irrigation, traditional or modern, supply more marketed produce and earn more income than farmers operating under the rainfed system. The bulk of the contribution comes from irrigated annual and perennial crops, which indicates that farmers are shifting their cropping mix as a result of access to irrigation. While irrigation enhances marketed oriented production, there are a series of factors that pose serious constraints to the process. Households having on average relatively larger plots are found to be more market oriented. This implies that those who have smaller plots on average have access problems and tend to focus on food production. This is especially true with households that have bigger family sizes. This calls for policy intervention in the area of easing land transactions and assisting household's to access important productivity increasing assets such as oxen."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"The study also shows while the impact of market oriented production on income poverty is direct and immediate; households are faced with a possible trade-off between growing for the market and growing for home consumption. Growing for the market may not ensure household food security in a situation where food markets function poorly. Under this situation of market failure households prefer first to be food selfsufficient and only then become involved in market production. Another entry point for policy could, therefore, be to create the necessary infrastructure and policy environment to improve the performance of food markets. Such measures could induce farmers to be more market oriented."},{"index":3,"size":192,"text":"Market problems and input access problems seem to be pervasive in Ethiopia, and more so in areas where irrigation-induced market oriented production is high. The study indicated that farmers face diverse market problem such as low demand and low selling price, distance to market, road and transport problem, same product and peak time supply, unstable prices, lack of services (information, service cooperatives, etc) and high tax. Similarly farmers reported that they faced diverse input access problems the most important of which were high input prices, lack of credit access and lack of availability of inputs in all seasons and sites. Transport problems seem to pose a serious problem as well. Households who are able to rent vehicles supply more to the market. Those unable to transport their produce are unable to reap the benefits of better markets. The implication of this evidence is that irrigation development and market infrastructure development are poorly linked. Hence, there is a need to link irrigation development with road infrastructure development and improvements in other marketing services. There is also a need for reorientation of the input supply system to fit the requirements of the irrigation system."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"The study also found that education has market promoting effects in terms of increasing the probability of participation and volume of sale. Adequate support to education can, thus, help in the long-term transform traditional subsistence agriculture into more market oriented and modern agriculture. Finally there are unobservable site specific effects that influence market participation and volume decisions. Identification of the most important village level effects requires further inquiry.    = 0.0969 *, **, *** significant at 10, 5 and 1 percent level of significance. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" assumptions in, and important limitation of, the Tobit model is a single mechanism determines the choice between 0 in reality participation decisions and volume decision could be separate, and are influenced by different factors. Estimating these decisions simultaneously while the decisions are separate may lead to inconsistent estimates and wrong conclusions. Alternatives to censored Tobit have been suggested to allow the initial Cragg's double hurdle model (Probit plus Truncated regression model) "},{"text":"Fig Fig. 1: Sample sites "},{"text":"Fig. 3a :Fig. 3c : Fig. 3a: Dominant crops under traditional irrigation system (n= 1240) Fig. 3b: Dominant crops under modern irrigation system (n= 2092) "},{"text":"Table 1 : Summary statistics Mean (Standard in parenthesis)  Variable name    Variable name  Overall Rainfed Irrigated OverallRainfedIrrigated Age of household head, years (n= 4915) 46 (15) 45.0 (15.09) 46.29 (15.05) Age of household head, years (n= 4915) 46 (15)45.0 (15.09)46.29 (15.05) Years of education of household head 2.0 (3.1) 2.05 (3.06) 1.98 (3.07) Years of education of household head2.0 (3.1)2.05 (3.06)1.98 (3.07) (n= 4900)    (n= 4900) Family size, (n= 4948) 5.7 (2.4) 5.54 (2.35) 5.87 (2.48) Family size, (n= 4948)5.7 (2.4)5.54 (2.35)5.87 (2.48) No. of Female adults (n= 4948) 1.4 (0.85) 1.34 (0.74) 1.39 (0.89) No. of Female adults (n= 4948)1.4 (0.85) 1.34 (0.74)1.39 (0.89) No. of male adults (n= 4948) 1.5 (1.0) 1.45 (0.94) 1.58 (1.07) No. of male adults (n= 4948)1.5 (1.0)1.45 (0.94)1.58 (1.07) Amount of income from non-farm, Birr 537 (3067) 705.54 (4125.69) 459.60 (2422.15) Amount of income from non-farm, Birr537 (3067)705.54 (4125.69)459.60 (2422.15) (n= 4948)    (n= 4948) Remittances, Birr (n= 4948) 243 (1973) 27.38 (646.05) 342.89 (2339.14) Remittances, Birr (n= 4948)243 (1973) 27.38 (646.05)342.89 (2339.14) Number of oxen (n= 4923) 1.4 (1.2) 1.56 (1.07) 1.32 (1.21) Number of oxen (n= 4923)1.4 (1.2)1.56 (1.07)1.32 (1.21) Number of donkeys (n= 4923) 0.5 (0.9) 0.65 (0.94) 0.50 (0.86) Number of donkeys (n= 4923)0.5 (0.9)0.65 (0.94)0.50 (0.86) Number of contacts of household with 1.6 (3.2) 2.36 (3.97) 1.25 ( 2.73) Number of contacts of household with1.6 (3.2)2.36 (3.97)1.25 ( 2.73) extension agent (n= 4948)    extension agent (n= 4948) Number of contacts of extension agent 2.5 (5.3) 3.79 (6.38) 1.89 (4.59) Number of contacts of extension agent2.5 (5.3)3.79 (6.38)1.89 (4.59) with households (n= 4948)    with households (n= 4948) Land area, ha (n= 4786) 1.4 (1.2) 1.34 (1.39) 1.42 ( 1.19) Land area, ha (n= 4786)1.4 (1.2)1.34 (1.39)1.42 ( 1.19) Distance to market where output was 7.6 (6.9) 8.36 (7.49) 7.18 (6.67) Distance to market where output was7.6 (6.9)8.36 (7.49)7.18 (6.67) sold, km (n= 4947)    sold, km (n= 4947) Gross value of Sales, birr (n= 4948) 591 (2169) 476.10 (1076.1) 645.14 (518.65) Gross value of Sales, birr (n= 4948)591 (2169) 476.10 (1076.1)645.14 (518.65) Market problem Dummy (yes =1) (n= 40.7 37.7 42.1 Market problem Dummy (yes =1) (n=40.737.742.1 4953)    4953) Input access problem Dummy (yes =1) 46.6 53.3 43.4 Input access problem Dummy (yes =1)46.653.343.4 (n= 4953)    (n= 4953) Rain/water shortage Dummy (yes =1)  39.1 26.8 Rain/water shortage Dummy (yes =1)39.126.8 (n= 4953)    (n= 4953)  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Determinants of the probability of participation (standard errors adjusted for cluster effects) Dependent variable : Whether the household sells a product to the market or not (0/1) Variable description Coefficient Standard errors Variable descriptionCoefficientStandard errors Female headed household (dummy variable male =0) 0.022 0.078 Female headed household (dummy variable male =0)0.0220.078 Age of the household head 0.001 0.002 Age of the household head0.0010.002 Education level of head 0.017 .010* Education level of head0.017.010* family size -0.026 0.016* family size-0.0260.016* Female adult -0.050 0.037 Female adult-0.0500.037 Male adult 0.038 0.032 Male adult0.0380.032 Off-farm income 1.02e-06 7.69e-06 Off-farm income1.02e-067.69e-06 Remittance income 0.0001 0.00003 Remittance income0.00010.00003 Oxen holding -0.013 0.025 Oxen holding-0.0130.025 Distance to the market where output is sold (in km) 0.016 0.005*** Distance to the market where output is sold (in km)0.0160.005*** Means of transport (donkey) (reference= human) 0.151 0.090* Means of transport (donkey) (reference= human)0.1510.090* Means of transport (horse) (reference= human) 0.228 0.171 Means of transport (horse) (reference= human)0.2280.171 Means of transport (mule) (reference= human) 0.115 0.199 Means of transport (mule) (reference= human)0.1150.199 Means of transport (vehicle) (reference= human) 0.059 0.118 Means of transport (vehicle) (reference= human)0.0590.118 Household's contact with extension agent 0.003 0.011 Household's contact with extension agent0.0030.011 Land area (in ha) 0.062 0.023*** Land area (in ha)0.0620.023*** Rain shortage (dummy 1= yes) 0.026 0.074 Rain shortage (dummy 1= yes)0.0260.074 Irrigation water shortage (dummy 1= yes) -0.021 0.085 Irrigation water shortage (dummy 1= yes)-0.0210.085 traditional scheme (dummy reference =rainfed) -0.050 0.084 traditional scheme (dummy reference =rainfed)-0.0500.084 Modern scheme (dummy reference =rainfed) -0.278 0.075*** Modern scheme (dummy reference =rainfed)-0.2780.075*** Input access problem (dummy 1= yes) 0.171 0.065*** Input access problem (dummy 1= yes)0.1710.065*** Marketing problem (dummy 1= yes) 0.042 0.059 Marketing problem (dummy 1= yes)0.0420.059 Dry land perennial (reference dry land seasonal) 0.109 0.120 Dry land perennial (reference dry land seasonal)0.1090.120 Irrigated seasonal (reference dry land seasonal) 0.582 0.070*** Irrigated seasonal (reference dry land seasonal)0.5820.070*** Irrigated perennial (reference dry land seasonal) 0.996 0.158*** Irrigated perennial (reference dry land seasonal)0.9960.158*** Endris irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit) -0.506 0.095*** Endris irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit)-0.5060.095*** Golgol Raya irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit) -0.448 0.136*** Golgol Raya irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit)-0.4480.136*** Golgota irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit) 0.921 0.192*** Golgota irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit)0.9210.192*** Haiba irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit) -0.441 0.112*** Haiba irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit)-0.4410.112*** Hare irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit) -0.281 0.152* Hare irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit)-0.2810.152* Tikurit irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit) -0.020 0.128 * Tikurit irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit)-0.0200.128 * Zenegeny irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit ) -0.038 0.184 Zenegeny irrigation scheme (reference= Debere Zeit )-0.0380.184 Medium Slope (dummy reference= flat) | 0.190 0.0622*** Medium Slope (dummy reference= flat) |0.1900.0622*** Steep slope (dummy reference= flat) 0.215 0.102** Steep slope (dummy reference= flat)0.2150.102** Medium fertility (dummy reference= poor) 0.165 0.077** Medium fertility (dummy reference= poor)0.1650.077** good fertility (dummy reference= poor) | 0.228 0.078*** good fertility (dummy reference= poor) |0.2280.078*** _cons | -0.194 0.176 _cons |-0.1940.176  Number of obs = 3754 Number of obs =3754  Wald chi2(36) = 300.17 Wald chi2(36) = 300.17  Prob > chi2 = 0.0000 Prob > chi2 = 0.0000  Log pseudo-likelihood = -2276.33 Log pseudo-likelihood = -2276.33  Pseudo R2  Pseudo R2  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Level of participation (Value of sale) Dependent variable: Value of sale (in Birr) , **, *** significant at 10, 5 and 1 percent level of significance. Variable description Coefficient Standard errors Variable descriptionCoefficientStandard errors Female headed household (dummy variable male =0) -3679.5 (473.846) Female headed household (dummy variable male =0)-3679.5(473.846) Age of the household head 37.04 (79.00) Age of the household head37.04(79.00) Education level of head 2001.188 (486.2001)*** Education level of head2001.188(486.2001)*** family size 2831.62 (689.7989 )*** family size2831.62(689.7989 )*** Female adult -4731.888 (1960.598)** Female adult-4731.888(1960.598)** Male adult -2636.161 (1702.532) Male adult-2636.161(1702.532) Off-farm income -1.124729 (.3445668)*** Off-farm income-1.124729(.3445668)*** Remittance income -.5153223 (.7632368) Remittance income-.5153223(.7632368) Oxen holding -2780.298 (1304.623)** Oxen holding-2780.298(1304.623)** Distance to market 160.1715 (107.3297) Distance to market160.1715(107.3297) Means of transport (donkey) (reference= human) -23025.99 6164.656*** Means of transport (donkey) (reference= human)-23025.996164.656*** Means of transport (horse) (reference= human) -2342.406 6569.129 Means of transport (horse) (reference= human)-2342.4066569.129 Means of transport (mule) (reference= human) 7528.12 8567.152 Means of transport (mule) (reference= human)7528.128567.152 Means of transport (vehicle) (reference= human) 19583.99 5675.037*** Means of transport (vehicle) (reference= human)19583.995675.037*** Household's contact with extension agent -1264.534 (688.0457)* Household's contact with extension agent-1264.534(688.0457)* Land area 6722.116 (728.9046)*** Land area6722.116(728.9046)*** Rain shortage (dummy 1= yes) -7626.328 (4227.934)* Rain shortage (dummy 1= yes)-7626.328(4227.934)* Irrigation water shortage (dummy 1= yes) -3272.534 (4214.353) Irrigation water shortage (dummy 1= yes)-3272.534(4214.353) traditional scheme (dummy reference =rainfed) 20030.93 (5983.328)*** traditional scheme (dummy reference =rainfed)20030.93(5983.328)*** Modern scheme (dummy reference =rain fed) 17768.58 (5768.995)*** Modern scheme (dummy reference =rain fed)17768.58(5768.995)*** Input access problem (dummy 1= yes) 13467.66 (3457.655)*** Input access problem (dummy 1= yes)13467.66(3457.655)*** Marketing problem -4479.403 (3194.229) Marketing problem-4479.403(3194.229) Dry land perennial (reference dry land seasonal) -11678.92 (10525.31) Dry land perennial (reference dry land seasonal)-11678.92(10525.31) irrigated seasonal (reference dry land seasonal) 17526.23 (4057.36)*** irrigated seasonal (reference dry land seasonal)17526.23(4057.36)*** irrigated perennial (reference dry land seasonal) 24931.89 (7034.23)*** irrigated perennial (reference dry land seasonal)24931.89(7034.23)*** Endris irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit) -5600.18 (5543.335) Endris irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit)-5600.18(5543.335) Golgol Raya irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit) -9191.548 (6577.918) Golgol Raya irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit)-9191.548(6577.918) Golgota irrigation (reference= deberezeit) 11853.08 (6385.049) * Golgota irrigation (reference= deberezeit)11853.08(6385.049) * Haiba irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit) -197758 (24293.52)*** Haiba irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit)-197758(24293.52)*** Hare irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit) -47682.18 (11743.92)*** Hare irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit)-47682.18(11743.92)*** Tikurit irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit) -28460.84 (7124.578)*** Tikurit irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit)-28460.84(7124.578)*** Zenegeny irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit) 39782.97 (9889.322)*** Zenegeny irrigation scheme (reference= deberezeit)39782.97(9889.322)*** Medium Slope (dummy reference= flat) | 2169.702) (3414.557 Medium Slope (dummy reference= flat) |2169.702)(3414.557 Steep slope (dummy reference= flat) 26719.8 (6862.004)*** Steep slope (dummy reference= flat)26719.8(6862.004)*** Medium fertility (dummy reference= poor) 11340.24 (6171.729)* Medium fertility (dummy reference= poor)11340.24(6171.729)* good fertility (dummy reference= poor) | 12887.67 (6265.083)** good fertility (dummy reference= poor) |12887.67(6265.083)** _cons -106551.5 (13938.39)*** _cons-106551.5(13938.39)*** sigma _cons | 8990.92 (327.1781)*** sigma _cons |8990.92(327.1781)***  Number of obs = 4610 Number of obs = 4610  (2086 left-censored observations at (2086left-censored observations at  gvout<=0 2524 uncensored observations) gvout<=0 2524 uncensored observations)  LR chi2(31) = 294.28 LR chi2(31) = 294.28  Prob > chi2 = 0.0000 Prob > chi2 = 0.0000  Log likelihood = -32017.082 Log likelihood = -32017.082  Pseudo R2 = 0.0046 Pseudo R2 = 0.0046  "}],"sieverID":"6270b6e1-067d-41cd-95bb-0f578ba76eff","abstract":"The study examined the extent and nature of market oriented production in irrigated compared to rainfed systems in Ethiopia. By doing so the paper identifies the role of irrigation in market-oriented production, while at the same time highlighting the main constraints to market oriented development.Our results indicate that irrigation contributes significantly to increases in market participation, volume of marketed produce and, hence, income, by inducing shifts in farmers' cropping mix. The impact of commercialization of production on household food security is not direct and immediate mainly because of failures in the food market."}

data/part_5/086aff4eb6a3ab7a42b7e7ba30e03c99.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"086aff4eb6a3ab7a42b7e7ba30e03c99","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/362ed06d-9fa7-4d7a-b91e-50b99554ac3e/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Participación del CIAT en la Mesa de ganaderia Colombiana Sostenible -MGS","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"La Mesa de Ganadería Sostenible -Colombia (MGS-Col), es un espacio de participación interinstitucional que nace como un compromiso para identificar la importancia de contar con un órgano consultor que tenga conocimiento técnico sobre la ganadería sostenible en el país y que sea un referente en el proceso de construcción de planes, programas y proyectos en torno a la ganadería sostenible."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"La Mesa tiene como objeto principal, la realización de actividades encaminadas a apoyar en la estructuración de políticas públicas, y el desarrollo de programas, planes y proyectos relacionados con la ganadería sostenible en Colombia."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"El roll del CIAT en la Mesa es muy importante, ya que representa una institución la cual cuenta con amplia experiencia y personal calificado con sustento técnico no solo para los productores, sino también para a las entidades del Estado Colombiano en la toma de decisiones y acciones encaminadas al desarrollo de la ganadería sostenible en Colombino, lo que permitirá que el país sea un referente en procesos de implementación de la ganadería sostenible a nivel mundial. Es así como el CIAT lidera la elaboración de las NAMAS siendo una de las instituciones responsables de esta meta, lugar que se ha ganado gracias a las capacidades que se tienen para la elaboración, monitoreo y aplicación de prácticas y tecnologías en pro de la sostenibilidad y conservación del medio ambiente."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"El CIAT participa en la Mesa de ganadería Colombiana Sostenible Durante el año 2017 se realizaron 6 reuniones programadas por parte de la secretaria de la MGS, en las que se tuvo participación del 100% en estas. Así mismo se realizaron 5 foros regionales, dos conversatorios y tres talleres, dos de ellos liderado por el CIAT."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":" Primer Taller Nacional para la Formulación de la Política de Ganadería Sostenible para Colombia En el marco de la Mesa de Ganadería Sostenible -Colombia, se desarrolló primer taller para la formulación de la política nacional de ganadería sostenible. Este fue un espacio de participación y construcción conjunta entre los miembros de la Mesa y demás entidades interesadas en el tema, en la cual el CIAT fue ficha clave para la identificación de estrategias que permitan alcanzar el objetivo de recolectar insumos para la construcción de éste documento. https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B7PViM4Yj8qQX3FEVUEzV3BJV1U"},{"index":6,"size":185,"text":" Talleres ''NAMA´s, Contribuciones Nacionalmente Determinadas -NDC, Contribución determinada Nacionalmente'' y el taller asistencia técnica en el marco de la Mesa de Ganadería Sostenible -Colombia''. Durante el mes de Noviembre el CIAT lidero el diseño, elaboración y ejecución de los dos Talleres en mención; el taller NAMA's se elaboró como parte de las actividades identificadas en Plan de Acción 2017, Ésta actividad tenía como objetivo principal identificar los avances que el país ha tenido en éstos temas, las acciones pendientes aún por realizar y las contribuciones que éstos asuntos técnicos tienen en la elaboración y construcción del documento de propuesta de política de ganadería sostenible. En cuanto al taller de asistencia técnica, el objetivo fue identificar cuáles son las necesidades y falencias que se tienen bajo el modelo actual de asistencia técnica, de manera que se lograra diseñar un nuevo modelo con el cual se mejoren los procesos de transferencia, adopción de tecnologías y los procesos de implementación de la ganadería sostenible en Colombia, con los cuales en busca tener mayor impacto en el sector agropecuario cerrando la brecha existente entre trasferencia y adopción. https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1ahOge6tPbGPRf7wmychVw2xN-W3wyB4H"},{"index":7,"size":167,"text":" En el mes de Junio se llevó a cabo en la sede principal del CIAT la tercera reunión de la Mesa de Ganaderia sostenible-Colombia, en la cual el investigador Mauricio Sotelo investigador del programa de Forrajes Tropicales, realizó la presentación del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical -CIAT, en conmemoración de los 50 años de la institución, mostrando el enfoque que ha tenido el programa de Forrajes durante estos 50 años, así como el trabajo dentro del Centro con el cual se busca que a través de la investigación en el sector agropecuario se generen importantes impactos que permitan que los productores logren ser competitivos, rentables y sostenibles. Así mismo con esta presentación, el CIAT mostró que su trabajo no solo está basado en Colombia, sino en otros 52 países en donde tiene presencia alrededor del mundo enfocando sus esfuerzos en temas de agrobiodiversidad, análisis de políticas y suelos y paisajes para la sostenibilidad, análisis económico de costo beneficio de las tecnologías generadas por el centro, etc."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B7PViM4Yj8qQamhnb1MzeHVlZlU/view?ts=5a9073bb"},{"index":9,"size":69,"text":" Presentación de resultados 2017 El 7 de diciembre se llevó a cabo la presentación de resultados de las actividades realizadas por parte de las comisiones y grupos de trabajo que conforma la MGS-Col, en cumplimiento de los objetivos propuestos para el plan de acción 2017. En éste encuentro se evidenciaron los resultados obtenidos, las dificultades presentadas y las oportunidades de mejora para el trabajo de la Mesa. https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1yt0_iA_YUAlkvbrXRnvWyYXJ6Y7ZbhJZ"},{"index":10,"size":285,"text":" A través de los miembros de la Mesa de ganaderia Colombiana y las mesas Regionales, se logró identificar actores de potenciales en cada una de las zonas de acción del proyecto Visión Amazonia con los cuales se realizó la socialización del proyecto y se seleccionaron los propietarios interesados en participar de esta iniciativa los cuales demostraron que en sus predios realizan conservación de áreas de bosques Amazonicos. De ahí la importancia de pertenecer y trabajar con las mesas regionales y la MGS-COL, ya que mediante este tipo de alianzas se puede tener una red muy amplia de actores del sector agropecuario Así mismo a través de los foros y talleres regionales se logró llegar a las comunidades de los departamentos del Caquetá y del Guaviare, zonas tradicionalmente ganaderas, en donde se ha tenido un fuerte impacto ambiental sobre la selva Amazónica, desarrollando una serie de talleres en el trascurso del año 2017, en donde se pudo capacitar un poco más de 60 representantes de diferentes comunidades y asociaciones ganaderas de los departamentos, en el establecimiento y manejo de sistemas silvopastoriles como herramienta para frenar la tala de bosques y optimizar el uso de las áreas ya intervenidas por la ganadería o como estrategia para la sustitución de cultivos ilícitos a través de la ganaderia ambientalmente sostenible. Así mismo se elaboró una cartilla técnica denominada '' Sistemas sostenibles de producción ganadera en el contexto amazónico Sistemas silvopastoriles: ¿una opción viable? Con la cual se busca concientizar a los productores sobre los beneficios ambientales y económicos que se tienen bajo la estrategia de una ganaderia planificada. Estas actividades se encontraban en el marco del Proyecto Visión Amazonia y fueron apoyadas por la Mesa de Ganaderia Sostenible."},{"index":11,"size":3,"text":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320689937_Sistemas_sostenibles_de_produ ccion_ganadera_en_el_contexto_amazonico_Sistemas_silvopastoriles_una_opcion_viab le"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"42161dd8-cc65-405c-bc6b-8215bddb71d9","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09575fc73047f41d43530fbbb828233c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.resakss.org/sites/default/files/090222-Biennial-review-Angola.pdf"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Africa Agriculture Transformation Scorecard: Performance and Lessons 2019 CAADP Biennial Review Brief: Angola","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"The 2014 Malabo Declaration outlines Africa's vision for accelerating agricultural growth and transformation on the African continent through seven broad commitments from 2015 to 2025. The commitments include: (1) upholding the principles and values of the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), (2) enhancing investment finance in agriculture, (3) ending hunger in Africa by 2025, (4) reducing poverty by half by 2025 through inclusive agricultural growth and transformation, (5) boosting intra-African trade in agricultural commodities and services, (6) enhancing the resilience of livelihoods and production systems to climate variability and other related risks, and (7) ensuring mutual accountability to actions and results by conducting a continent-wide biennial review (BR) to monitor progress in achieving the seven commitments. As part of fulfilling commitment 7 to mutual accountability, the second (2019) BR report and Africa Agriculture Transformation Scorecard (AATS) were launched at the 33rd African Union (AU) Summit in February 2020. This brief highlights Angola's performance in the second BR and assesses challenges faced and lessons learned by Angola during the review. The brief also reviews policy and programmatic changes in Angola that can be attributed to the first (2017) and second (2019) BRs. It concludes by highlighting required policy actions for Angola to implement to meet the Malabo Commitments by 2025."}]},{"head":"Progress in Achieving the Malabo Declaration Commitments","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"The benchmark (minimum score for a country to be on track in implementing the Malabo Declaration commitments) for the second BR was 6.66 out of 10 (AUC, 2020). Angola had an overall score of 4.77 in the second BR, which is far below the 2019 Benchmark of 6.66 indicating that the country is not on track to meet the Malabo commitments and targets by 2025 as shown in Table 1. Only four countries (Ghana, Mali, Morocco, and Rwanda) were on track on the overall commitments in the second BR and no country in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) was on track, indicating a regression from the first BR, when 8 countries in the SADC region were on track."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The second BR process helped to show the importance of having relatively good agricultural data management systems in producing better quality data. In addition, aligning and implementing policies and programs based on CAADP principles was shown to contribute to better country performance."},{"index":3,"size":292,"text":"Angola received an overall score that is below the benchmark due to its poor performance on all the Malabo themes except on intra-Africa trade in agriculture commodities and services (theme 5) (Table 1). Even though Angola performed higher than the average score in five thematic areas in Table 1 (themes 1, 3, 5, 6 and 7) compared to the group of SADC low-income countries, the country was below the average score in three other thematic areas (themes 2, 4, 7) compared to the group of SADC middle-income countries.  As shown in Table 2, Angola did not perform well across all the themes during the first BR compared to the second BR. In the second BR, the country did not perform well in 6 thematic areas: recommitment to CAADP (8.18), enhancing agriculture finance (3.23), ending hunger by 2025 (3.13), halving poverty through agriculture (0.75), enhancing resilience to climate change (6.72) and mutual accountability for actions and results (6.00) and was therefore not on track to meeting any of these commitments by 2025. Even though the country did not perform well in six commitments indicated above, there was improvement in theme 5 (intra-Africa trade in agriculture commodities and services) which is above the second BR benchmark, hence the country was on track on theme 5. Overall, the Angola showed improvement in the second BR across all commitments (4.77) compared to the first BR (2.10). Even though Angola performed better in the second BR, the overall score was still below the benchmark of 6.66, hence the country was not on track toward meeting all the Malabo commitments. In order to improve in the future, Angola needs to focus more on key areas of weakness which are caused notably by data gaps in various thematic indicators."}]},{"head":"Challenges and Lessons Learned from the Second BR","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Angola faces challenges of limited data quality and quantity which continue to a ect its performance in the BR process. During the second BR, the country had missing data on a number of Malabo thematic indicators including data on domestic and foreign private sector investment in agriculture. Angola needs to prioritize making improvements to data availability and quality as well as focusing on thematic areas in which it did not perform well by, for example, increasing yields of the country's priority agricultural commodities, improving food safety measures, ensuring inclusive institutionalized mechanisms for mutual accountability, peer review, and evidence-based policies, and strengthening supportive institutions and corresponding human resources."}]},{"head":"Policy and Programmatic Changes Following the First and Second BRs","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Even though the country did not meet the overall benchmark to be on track, Angola made some necessary policy and programmatic changes based on both its the first BR and second BR results. For example, Angola has made progress, in terms of the country CAADP process, in the following areas:"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• Surpassed the 2018 milestone of 30 percent by doubling the current levels of quality agricultural inputs for crops (seed), livestock (breed), and fisheries (fingerlings) by 2025."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"• Consistently invested at least 1 percent of its agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) toward agricultural research and development between 2017-2018. This shows an increase in Angola's total agricultural research spending as a share of agriculture GDP."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Reduced post-harvest losses by 15 percent between 2015 and 2018."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• Improved in intra-African trade in agriculture by increasing the value of intra-Africa trade in agriculture by 57.3 percent between 2015 and 2018."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• Improved country capacity for evidence based planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation by adopting an inclusive agricultural sector review mechanism."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• Improved public agriculture expenditure as a share of agriculture value added by allocating more public resources to the agriculture sector."},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"• Increased the size of irrigated area from its 2000 to 2018 by 400 percent which led to improved productivity and food security and nutrition."}]},{"head":"Recommendations for Ensuring Achievement of Malabo Commitments by 2025","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"To improve implementation of the Malabo Declaration commitments and to achieve set goals by 2025, Angola needs to implement the following recommendations:"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"• Recommitment to CAADP process: Since the country did not perform well on this first commitment, Angola should improve on the overall CAADP process by making its national agriculture investment plan Malabo compliant and developing a Malabo compliant monitoring and evaluation system."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"• Enhancing investment finance in agriculture: It is recommended that Angola should improve on its agriculture investment by providing financial support systems. It is also recommended that the country increase its agriculture budget to at least 10 percent of its total public expenditure in line with the CAADP target. Angola should also work to promote both domestic and foreign private sector investment in agriculture and improve farmers' access to finance."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"• Ending hunger by 2025: Angola was also not on track for this commitment hence the country should improve access to agricultural inputs and technologies, agricultural productivity, social protection and food security and nutrition. It is imperative for the country to make e orts to increase yields for the country's priority agricultural commodities including rice, maize, cowpea, peanuts, and cassava to ensure food security and nutrition. Angola should strive to improve its food safety health index by putting in place su icient legal as well as policy and institutional frameworks on food safety."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"• Halving poverty through agriculture by 2025: It is recommended that Angola increase its agriculture sector growth through value-added production as this will improve food security and nutrition. In addition, Angola should promote inclusive public private partnerships (PPPs) for commodity value chains, creating youth jobs in agriculture and promoting women's participation in agri-business."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"• Boosting intra-African trade in agriculture commodities: While Angola is on track to meet this commitment, there is still need for the country to improve its intra-African trade in agriculture commodities and services through value addition and a deliberate e ort to expand and diversify its agricultural export basket."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"• Enhancing resilience to climate change: Angola needs to increase its investment in resilience building initiatives such as the development of social safety nets for vulnerable households."},{"index":8,"size":61,"text":"• Mutual accountability for actions and results: Angola should strengthen its peer review and mutual accountability processes by improving its BR process through strong stakeholder engagement. The country should strengthen its statistical o ices to better collect data that feeds into the monitoring indicators of the BR process with a view to promoting inclusive mechanisms for mutual accountability and peer review."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 : Angola summary of BR scores by Malabo theme Authors' calculations based on country 2 nd BR scores. Legend: not on track on track Notes: SADC Low-income Countries: Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe. SADC Middle-income Countries: Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Mauritius, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, and Zambia. Tanzania was not included in the SADC average and the SADC low-income category because it was grouped as part of the East African Community. Theme Second BR Benchmark SADC Regional (Southern Africa) SADC Low-income SADC income Middle- Angola ThemeSecond BR BenchmarkSADCRegional (Southern Africa)SADC Low-incomeSADC income Middle-Angola Recommitment to CAADP 10.00 7.42 7.50 6.76 7.03 8.18 Recommitment to CAADP10.007.427.506.767.038.18 Enhance Agriculture Finance 10.00 4.22 4.15 3.25 4.20 3.23 Enhance Agriculture Finance10.004.224.153.254.203.23 Ending Hunger by 2025 5.04 2.51 2.47 2.07 2.42 3.13 Ending Hunger by 20255.042.512.472.072.423.13 Halving Poverty Through Agriculture 3.94 1.29 1.25 1.18 1.14 0.75 Halving Poverty Through Agriculture3.941.291.251.181.140.75 Intra-Africa Trade in       Intra-Africa Trade in Agriculture Commodities 3.00 2.66 2.91 3.24 2.35 5.35 Agriculture Commodities3.002.662.913.242.355.35 and Services       and Services Enhancing Resilience to Climate Change 7.00 4.81 4.65 3.78 4.61 6.72 Enhancing Resilience to Climate Change7.004.814.653.784.616.72 Mutual Accountability for Actions and Results 7.64 7.04 6.95 5.43 7.03 6.00 Mutual Accountability for Actions and Results7.647.046.955.437.036.00  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Angola BR scores by theme (first and second BRs)  First BR Second BR Change % Change Second BR First BRSecond BRChange% ChangeSecond BR      Benchmark Benchmark Recommitment to CAADP 3.40 8.18 4.78 140.6 10.00 Recommitment to CAADP3.408.184.78140.610.00 Enhancing Agriculture Finance 2.33 3.23 0.90 38.6 10.00 Enhancing Agriculture Finance2.333.230.9038.610.00 Ending Hunger by 2025 2.08 3.13 1.05 50.5 5.04 Ending Hunger by 20252.083.131.0550.55.04 Halve Poverty Through 0.63 0.75 0.12 19.0 3.94 Halve Poverty Through0.630.750.1219.03.94 Agriculture      Agriculture Intra-Africa Trade in Agriculture 0.00 5.35 5.35 - 3.00 Intra-Africa Trade in Agriculture0.005.355.35-3.00 Commodities and Services      Commodities and Services Enhance Resilience To Climate 3.33 6.72 3.39 101.8 7.00 Enhance Resilience To Climate3.336.723.39101.87.00 Change      Change Mutual Accountability for Actions 2.93 6.00 3.07 104.8 7.64 Mutual Accountability for Actions2.936.003.07104.87.64 and Results      and Results All Commitments 2.10 4.77 2.67 127.1 6.66 All Commitments2.104.772.67127.16.66  "}],"sieverID":"ba6664f1-80ca-409f-90ae-a12cd246f3bd","abstract":"Established in 2006 under the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), the Regional Strategic Analysis and Knowledge Support System (ReSAKSS) supports e orts to promote evidence-and outcome-based policy planning and implementation. In particular, ReSAKSS provides data and related analytical and knowledge products to facilitate CAADP benchmarking, review, and mutual learning processes. AKADEMIYA2063 leads the work of ReSAKSS in partnership with the African Union Commission, the African Union Development Agency-NEPAD (AUDA-NEPAD), and leading regional economic communities (RECs)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09cd29ae6c5cb2fab991f55d7f5eb35b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f9424690-f5e7-475f-8913-6f180db0f3cc/retrieve"},"pageCount":30,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"List of Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"China is the largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG) and one of the countries most affected by climate change. China's food systems are a major contributor to climate change: in 2018, China's food systems emitted 1.09 billion tons of carbondioxide equivalent (CO2eq) GHGs, accounting for 8.2% of total national GHG emissions and 2% of global emissions. According to the Third National Communication (TNC) Report, in 2010, GHG emissions from energy, industrial processes, agriculture, and waste accounted for 78.6%, 12.3%, 7.9%, and 1.2% of total emissions, respectively, (excluding emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF). Total GHG emissions from the waste sector in 2010 were 132 Mt CO2 eq, with municipal solid waste landfills accounting for 56 Mt."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"The average temperature in China has risen by 1.1°C over the last century , while nationally averaged precipitation amounts have increased significantly over the last 50 years. The sea level and sea surface temperature have risen by 90 mm and 0.9°C respectively in the last 30 years. A regional climate model predicted an annual mean temperature increase of 1.3-2.1°C by 2020 (2.3-3.3°C by 2050), while another model predicted a 1-1.6°C temperature increase and a 3.3-3.7 percent increase in precipitation between 2011 and 2020, depending on the emissions scenario. By 2030, sea level rise along coastal areas could be 0.01-0.16 meters, increasing the likelihood of flooding and intensified storm surges and causing the degradation of wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Addressing climate change is a common human cause, and China places a high value on combating climate change. Climate change has been incorporated into national economic and social development plans, with equal emphasis on mitigation and adaptation to climate change, including an updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in 2021. The following overarching targets are included in China's updated NDC:"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Peaking carbon dioxide emissions \"before 2030\" and achieving carbon neutrality before 2060"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Lowering carbon intensity by \"over 65%\" by 2030 from the 2005 level"},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• Increasing forest stock volume by around 6 billion cubic meters in 2030 from the 2005 level"},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"The targets have come from several commitments made at various events, while China has explained very well the process adopted to produce its third national communication report."},{"index":8,"size":74,"text":"An examination of China's NDC reveals that it has failed to establish quantifiable and measurable targets in the agricultural sectors. According to the analysis of the breakdown of food systems and their inclusion in the NDC, the majority of food system activities are poorly mentioned. China's interventions or ambitions in this sector have received very little attention. The adaptation component is mentioned in the NDC, but is not found to be sector-specific or comprehensive."},{"index":9,"size":136,"text":"A few studies have rated the Chinese NDC as insufficient, one of the reasons being its failure to list the breakdown of each sector's clear pathway to achieving its goals. China's NDC lacks quantified data on food system sub-sectors. Climate Action Trackers' \"Insufficient\" rating indicates that China's domestic target for 2030 requires significant improvements to be consistent with the Paris Agreement's target of 1.5°C temperature limit. Some efforts are being made: for example, scientists from the Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (IEDA-CAAS) have developed methods for calculating GHG emissions from livestock and poultry farmers that have been published as an industrial standard by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, PRC (Prof Hongmin Dong, personal communication) but this still needs to be consolidated and linked to China's NDC."},{"index":10,"size":79,"text":"The updated Nationally Determined Contributions fall short of quantifiable targets in agriculture and food systems as a whole, necessitating clear pathways. China's NDC is found to be heavily focused on a few sectors, including energy, transportation, and urban-rural development. The agricultural sectors' and food systems' targets are vague, and China's agrifood system has a large carbon footprint. As a result, China should focus on managing the food system (production, processing, transportation, and food waste management) to reduce carbon emissions."},{"index":11,"size":111,"text":"Furthermore, China should take additional measures to make its climate actions more comprehensive, quantifiable, and measurable, such as setting ambitious and clear targets for the agriculture sector, including activity-specific GHG-reduction pathways; prioritizing food waste and loss reduction and management; promoting sustainable livestock production and low carbon diets; reducing chemical pollution; minimizing the use of fossil fuel in the agri-system and focusing on developing green jobs, technological advancement and promoting climate-smart agriculture; promoting indigenous practices and locally led adaptation; restoring degraded agricultural soils and enhancing cooperation and private partnership. China should also prepare detailed NDC implementation plans including actions and the GHG reduction from conditional targets. Some specific recommendations include the following:"},{"index":12,"size":85,"text":"• Ambitious and clear targets for the agriculture sector: The NDC describes multiple ambitions to reduce GHG emissions and reach carbon neutrality by 2060, but the clear and quantified targets of the agriculture sector are largely missing. The agriculture sector only accounts for 7.9% of its overall GHG emissions, thus the Chinese government should focus on enhancing efforts and preparing a holistic action plan and sectoral targets (He, Li & Zhang, 2020). In addition, China should focus on the quantifiable sectoral targets of its NDC."},{"index":13,"size":94,"text":"• Activity-specific GHG reduction pathways: The agriculture sector emitted approximately 828 Mt CO 2 eq, from enteric fermentation, manure management, rice cultivation, agriculture soils, and agricultural residues, accounting for 26.2%, 16.6%, 22.1%, 34.1%, and 1.0%, respectively (UNFCCC, 2018). The NDC fails to mention quantifiable ambitions to reduce such emissions from these foodproduction processes. The trajectories of each activity within a specific frame in the NDC are critical. For example, reducing emissions from a food-related activity until 2030, then reducing emissions by 50% by 2040, and then aiming for a carbonneutral food system by 2060."},{"index":14,"size":88,"text":"• Food waste reduction and management: Reducing food loss and waste relative to the baseline in China would reduce agricultural GHG emissions by 2.0-5.6% by 2030 and 4.0-7.0% by 2060. (AGFEP, 2021). There is thus an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions by around 7% from the food waste sector alone. Reducing food loss and waste would also improve food security, reduce financial losses for farmers and consumers, and have a positive impact on the environment (e.g. on GHG emissions, water consumption, and pesticide/fertilizer pollution) (Government of China, 2022a)."},{"index":15,"size":73,"text":"• Promote sustainable livestock production: The production of animal-derived food (ADF) accounts for 19% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and therefore sustainable livestock production is an important for reducing GHG emissions. These include better animal husbandary practice e.g. better feed management, genetic improvement, management of livestock health. China can reduce GHG emissions from livestock sector by promoting better manure management systems, rangeland and forest protection and sustainable grazing and pasture management."},{"index":16,"size":203,"text":"• Promote low-carbon diets: By 2050, the world's dietary trends, if not controlled, will be major contributors to an estimated 80% increase in global agricultural GHG emissions (Zhong et al., 2020). Under the business as usual (BAU) scenario, daily per capita ADF consumption is projected to have increased by 58.5% in 2050 compared to 2018, increasing ADF consumption-related GHG emissions up to 463 Mt CO2-eq per year by 2050 and posing a challenge to China's \"carbon neutrality\" (Wang et al., 2022). If the Chinese follow good dietary guidelines, ADF consumption-related GHG emissions can be reduced to 245 Mt CO2-eq per year, which is 47.1% lower than the BAU scenario in 2050 and comparable to 2018 levels (Wang et al., 2022). Reducing the consumption of unhealthy, unsustainable, carbon-intense diets could reduce GHG emissions by 150 million to 200 million tons by 2030, a reduction of 18-25% (AGFEP, 2021). The reduction in unhealthy diets could contribute to China's aspiration of achieving its carbon neutrality and food security (Government of China, 2022a). A study carried out by Qi et al. (2022) posited that transformation of the nutrient-oriented dietary pattern of China would lead to a 14.9% decrease in the emission of GHGs from the food system."},{"index":17,"size":19,"text":"Promoting the consumption of plant-based and alternative protein sources can reduce the demand for livestock products, thus lowering emissions."},{"index":18,"size":61,"text":"• Reduce chemical pollution: Pollution from agricultural production plays a crucial role in contributing to GHG emissions. Therefore, several approaches for reducing harmful chemical fertilizers should be promoted: for example, precision agriculture could decrease the utilization rates of fertilizers and pesticides, thereby lowering the total amount of inputs applied and the amount of runoff into the environment (Government of China, 2022a)."},{"index":19,"size":113,"text":"• Minimize the use of fossil fuel in agri-systems: China's fossil-fuel CO 2 (FFCO2) emissions accounted for approximately 28 % of the global total FFCO2 emissions in 2016. A study shows that total emissions increased from 3.4 (3.0-3.7) in 2000 to 9.8 (9.2-10.4) Giga tons ( Gt CO2 eq) per year in 2016 (Han et al., 2020). Thus, reducing inefficiency and the use of fossil fuels in the agriculture sector is essential to help China increase its overall reduction in GHG emissions. Options could include adoption of reduced tillage and other farm operations, precision water and nutrient management, use renewable energy sources for farm equipment, food storage, and transportation (Government of China, 2022a)."},{"index":20,"size":100,"text":"• Technological advancement and promotion of climate-smart agriculture: Energy consumption is the primary source of carbon emissions, and China's energy consumption accounts for more than 90% of its carbon emissions. China needs to promote agricultural strategies and approaches that can ensure sustainable food production under predicted climate-change scenarios, e.g., climate-smart agriculture (CSA). Climate-smart agriculture emphasizes improving risk management, enhancing information flows, and promoting local institutions to increase the adaptive capacity of communities to climate change (Campbell et al., 2014). The agriculture sector in China accounts for 7.9% of GHG emissions, thus CSA could contribute to reducing portion of these emissions."},{"index":21,"size":44,"text":"• Preparation of detailed NDC implementation plans: With the NDC and other policy instruments in place, China should prioritize the preparation of the NDC implementation plan. The plan should provide clear and quantified short, medium, and long-term low-carbon development pathways in food system management."},{"index":22,"size":10,"text":"Chapter One: Aspects of food included in their NDC target"}]},{"head":"Context","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"China is one of the countries most affected by climate change. Climate change has had a long-term impact on China's ecological environment and socioeconomic development, posing serious threats to the security of its food, water, ecology, energy, and urban operations, as well as to people's safety and property (UNFCCC, 2021). China's food systems are a major contributor to climate change (He, Li & Zhang, 2020). China's food systems emitted 1.09 Gt of CO2 eq greenhouse gas (GHG) in 2018, accounting for 8.2% of the total national GHG emissions and 2% of global emissions. The primary sources of emissions in food systems are agricultural inputs, particularly fertilizer use. However, following a rapid increase in emissions between 1997 and 2012, food-related emissions have proportionately decreased."},{"index":2,"size":218,"text":"Moreover, as per the Third National Communication Report, GHG emissions in 2010 from energy, industrial processes, agriculture, and waste were 8,283 Mt, 1,301 Mt, 828 Mt, and 132 Mt CO2 eq. respectively (UNFCCC, 2018). These four sectors accounted for 78.6%, 12.3%, 7.9%, and 1.2% of the total emissions (without LULUCF) respectively, as shown in Figure 1. Further, total emissions from the agriculture sector were around 829 Mt CO2 eq, of which the emissions from enteric fermentation were 217 Mt CO2 eq, accounting for 26.2%; the emissions from manure management were 137 Mt CO2 eq, accounting for 16.6%; the emissions from rice cultivation were 183 Mt CO2 eq, accounting for 22.1%; the emissions from agriculture soils were 283 Mt CO2 eq, accounting for 34.1%; and the emissions from field burning of agricultural residues were 9 Mt CO2 eq, accounting for 1.0%, as shown in Figure 2 (UNFCCC, 2018). In total emissions, CH4 accounted for 56.8%, and N2O accounted for 43.2% (UNFCCC, 2018). Similarly, in 2010, the total GHG emissions from the waste sector were 132 Mt CO2 eq (Table 1), of which 56 Mt were from municipal solid waste landfills, accounting for 42.7%; and 76 Mt were from wastewater handling, accounting for 57.3%. The proportions of CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions were respectively 6.4%, 69.9%, and 23.7% (UNFCCC, 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Further, China's agrifood system generated 1.09 GT of CO2 eq in 2018, the (AGFEP, 2021, Government of China, 2022a). This amount represents 12% of the 13 billion tons of CO2 eq emitted by China that year, a substantial increase from the 1997 level of 0.94 billion tons of CO2 eq (Government of China, 2022a). While GHG emissions from the country's agrifood system span multiple sectors, the majority come from food production activities (Figure 4) (Government of China, 2022a).  Similarly, a study carried out by the Government of China, (Government of China, 2022a) shows the potential for reducing GHG emissions under BAU, low, medium, and high emissions reduction scenarios:"},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"• Under BAU, GHG emissions from agrifood systems will reach 1.17 GT in 2030, an increase of 7.7%, compared with 2020, and then they decline again to 1.09 billion tons in 2060, returning to their 2018 level. • In the low, medium, and high emission reduction scenarios, GHG emissions from agrifood systems in 2060 are 17-63% lower than under BAU and 19-63% lower than in 2020."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• The medium-level scenario would contribute to a reduction of 47% of GHG emissions in agrifood systems in 2060, compared with 2020."}]},{"head":"The country's climate change scenarios","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"China is the largest emitter of GHGs, a triggering factor for human-caused climate change. The climatic system of China has also been changing and making China vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change (JGRI & BMI, 2009). The changes include the following:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Over the past century (1908 to 2007), the average temperature in China has risen by 1.1 degree Celsius"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• Although no significant trend was observed in nationally averaged precipitation amounts over the past 50 years, a drying trend was observed in the Yellow River Basin and North China Plain"},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"• Over the past 30 years, the sea level and sea surface temperature have increased by 90 millimeters (mm) and 0.9°C, respectively"},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"• China has experienced more extreme events (floods, droughts, storms) in recent years than ever before. The extreme weather events cause direct economic losses of US$ 25 to 37.5 billion in China per year."},{"index":6,"size":95,"text":"A regional climate model projected a country-averaged annual mean temperature increase of 1.3-2.1°C by 2020 (2.3-3.3°C by 2050); another regional climate model projected a 1-1.6°C temperature increase and a 3.3-3.7 percent precipitation increase between 2011 and 2020, depending on the emissions scenario. By 2030, the rise in sea level along coastal areas could be 0.01-0.16 meters, increasing the possibility of flooding and intensified storm surges, leading to the degradation of wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs (JGRI & BMI, 2009).  , 2021). The LTS also incorporates the following targets to promote agriculture's green and low-carbon development:"}]},{"head":"Mitigation Priorities and actions for the agriculture, food, and LULUCF sectors","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Change the development orientation of agriculture from increasing production to improving quality and efficiency, and develop green, low-carbon circular agriculture"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"• Promote the resource-saving and recycling-oriented development of agriculture, focusing on saving land, water, fertilizer, medicine, energy, and labor, effectively reducing material consumption and resource inputs in agricultural production including breeding for resources-use-efficiency thereby improving agricultural production efficiency and comprehensive benefits."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"• Introduce a mechanism and formulate and implement policies for the comprehensive utilization of agricultural waste, optimize the industrial structure and improve the quality and efficiency of the comprehensive utilization of agricultural waste,"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• Promote the recycling of waste from straw, livestock, and poultry breeding, protect and improve the quality of cultivated land, and achieve healthy and sustainable development"},{"index":5,"size":211,"text":"• China will strictly control the consumption of fossil energy, and vigorously accelerate the development of non-fossil energy (Government of China, 2021). By 2030, the proportion of non-fossil energy in energy consumption will reach about 25%, and total installed wind and solar power capacity will reach over 1.2 billion kilowatts China's food systems are critical to both the country's economy and the world's food supply. China and its food systems feed 1.4 billion people, accounting for nearly onefifth of the world's population. China is the world's largest producer of food (Fan et al., 2021). In 2014, China produced 50% of the world's vegetables, 29% of its meat, 70% of its fish, 30% of its rice, 17% of its corn, and 15% of its wheat (Ghose, 2014). Agriculture, agribusiness, food processing, packaging, transportation, wholesale and retail trade, food services, finance, insurance, advertising, and input supplies account for 23% of China's GDP and employ 30% of its workforce (Fan et al., 2023). China's food systems are major contributors to climate change (He, Li & Zhang, 2020). However, various advancements can be made to achieve low-carbon development of the food systems. • By 2035, a perfected climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technology system will be constructed and promoted in well-positioned agricultural areas (Government of China, 2022b)."}]},{"head":"Carry out certification of climate-friendly, low-carbon agricultural products","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"By 2025:"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Climate-friendly, low-carbon agricultural product certification standards will be drawn,"},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"• Synergies between adaptation and mitigation will be fully reflected, • High-value-added economic crops will be selected to carry out climate-friendly, low-carbon quality agricultural product certification pilots, • Quality climate-friendly, low-carbon agricultural product brands with local characteristics will be launched in key agricultural counties and cities,"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• By 2035, certification of climate-friendly, low-carbon agricultural products will be fully promoted (Government of China, 2022b)."}]},{"head":"Policy measures on mitigation and adaptation reflected in the NDC of China","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"As the world's largest emitter of GHGs, China has increased its efforts in recent years to promote low-carbon development by effectively mitigating GHG emissions, proactively enhancing climate resilience, and continuously improving systems and mechanisms. China has taken several policy measures and made national, regional, and international commitments to achieve carbon neutrality, including a recently published (July 1 2022) action plan aimed at reducing carbon emissions in agriculture and rural areas jointly released by the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA). Other initiatives include:"},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"• China's goal of establishing an \"Ecological Civilization\" (MARA, 2021; The State Council, 2021). \"Decreasing GHG emissions and increasing the carbon sink of agriculture and rural areas are critical measures for achieving carbon peaking before 2030 and carbon neutrality before 2060,\" President Xi Jinping stated (Government of China, 2022a)"},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"• Furthermore, at the Climate Ambition Summit in December 2020, President Xi Jinping announced some additional commitments for 2030: China will reduce its CO2 emissions per unit of gross domestic product (GDP) by increasing its total installed capacity of wind and solar power to over 1.2 billion kW (UNFCCC, 2021)"},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"• China has also officially submitted its long-term, low-greenhouse-gas emission development strategy for the mid-century. China's targets are supported by the 14th Five-Year Plan (FYP), as well as its action plan for carbon dioxide peaking before 2030 and working guidance for carbon dioxide peaking and carbon neutrality (FYP)"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"• China has stated that it will strictly control coal consumption during the 14th FYP (2021-2025) and phase out coal consumption during the 15th FYP"},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"• China has decided to accept the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol and tighten regulations on non-carbon dioxide emissions through the 14th Five-Year Plan. Non-CO2 GHG reduction in agri-food systemsfeatures predominantly in China's 2021-2025 five-year plan, National Determined Contributions (UNFCCC, 2021), 2060 climate goals, and other policies as a contributor to national priorities such as food security, climate neutrality, common prosperity, and public health (Government of China, 2022a)."}]},{"head":"Chapter Two: Scientific basis, data, and analytics behind NDC targets","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"In recent years, China has stepped up efforts to promote low-carbon development by effectively mitigating GHG emissions, proactively enhancing climate resilience, and continuously improving systems and mechanisms. China has also played a constructive role in the finalizing of the Paris Agreement and its rapid entry into force."}]},{"head":"The process adopted","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"China has prepared the Nationally Determined Contributions as an update to the Enhanced Actions on Climate Change following paragraph 24 of Decision 1/CP.21 of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC and the relevant requirements of the Paris Agreement. This includes policies and measures adopted and results achieved by China about NDCs, new goals and measures for enhanced climatechange action, and active efforts in international climate change cooperation. The goals are the result of several pledges made at various events. In April 2020, President Xi Jinping stated that \"food security is an important foundation for national security\" (Xinhuanet, 2020;Government of China, 2022a). In addition, China established a leading group on carbon peaking and carbon neutrality in May 2021 to strengthen overall planning, coordination, and promotion of the work to achieve carbon peaking and carbon neutrality (Government of China, 2021)."}]},{"head":"Scientific basis and data used","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"China's NDC fails to explain the scientific basis, data, and methodologies used in setting the various ambitions and targets. The targets, however, are the result of several commitments made at various events."},{"index":2,"size":204,"text":"China, on the other hand, has clearly described the procedure used to create its third national communication report via the GHG Inventory, 2010. The 2010 agricultural inventory includes CH4 emissions from livestock enteric fermentation, CH4 and N2O emissions from manure management, CH4 emissions from rice cultivation, N2O emissions from agricultural soils, and CH4 and N2O emissions from field burning of agricultural residues. The enteric fermentation inventory tracks CH4 emissions from 12 different livestock species, including beef cattle, dairy cows, goats, and sheep (UNFCCC, 2018). The CH4 emissions from beef cattle, dairy cows, buffalo, yak, and other types of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were calculated using the Tier 2 method of the Revised 1996 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines, while those from other sources were calculated using the Tier 1 method. In manure management, the CH4 emissions from pigs, beef cattle, dairy cows, poultry, buffalo, and goats were calculated using the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines Tier 2 method, while those from other sources were calculated using the Tier 1 method. CH4 emissions from rice paddies were again estimated using China's rice paddy methane model (CH4 MOD) that was developed using the methods of the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines and Chinese statistical data."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"According to the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines, the model (CH4 MOD) is a Tier 3 method. The N2O emissions from farmland were calculated by adding the emissions from different provincial and regional farmlands using the regional nitrogen-cycling model (IAP-N) that was rated as a Tier 2 method in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. The CH4 and N2O emissions from agricultural residue field burning were calculated using "}]},{"head":"Analytics behind NDC targets (Adequacy and feasibility)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"China is the world's largest food producer (He, Li & Zhang, 2020). According to 2014 figures, China produces 50% of the world's vegetables, 29% of the world's meat, 70% of the world's fish, 30% of the world's rice, 17% of the world's corn, and 15% of the world's wheat (Ghose, 2014). Agriculture, agribusiness, food processing, packaging, transportation, wholesale and retail trade, food services, finance, insurance, advertising, and input supplies account for 23% of China's GDP and employ 30% of its workforce (Fan et al., 2023). Overall, China's NDC has failed to set quantifiable and measurable targets in the agricultural sectors, as shown in the analysis breakdown as shown in Table 5. • By 2030, the proportion of non-fossil energy in energy consumption will reach about 25%, and the total installed wind and solar power capacity will reach over 1.2 billion kilowatts (Government of China, 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"• By 2060, China will have fully established a clean, lowcarbon, safe, and efficient energy system, reached energy efficiency at international advanced levels and improved the proportion of non-fossil fuels in energy consumption up to over 80% (Government of China, 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"The NDC specifically mentions productive and regenerative agriculture, a healthy and productive ocean, stronger and better-adapted rural livelihoods, and decreased food loss/waste. However, it fails to provide the specific pathways that China will take in achieving this, making it difficult to understand China's targets of carbon neutrality by 2060. In addition, issues such as sustainable healthy diets, digitalized and efficient food and land use systems, and gender and equal access are largely absent from China's NDC."},{"index":4,"size":134,"text":"Further, the analysis of the breakdown of food systems and its inclusion in the NDC revealed that most activities of food systems are poorly mentioned. Specifically, the activities related to food production have very little or zero mention. The Chinese government aims to increase the forest stock volume by 6 billion m 3 from the 2005 level by 2030. The targets seem ambitious as it has not been able to reflect clear pathways to achieve them. Another component of the food system, i.e. marketing and consumption, has no specific information or targets in the NDC. Lastly, reducing food loss and waste management was mentioned in the NDC without having specific targets. China has prioritized the increment of the carbon sink potential. However, it has not set specific quantified pathways to achieve such a target."}]},{"head":"Overall","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rating: Medium","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Marketing and consumption","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"No specific information on food production activities NDC does not mention any specific information on policy interventions for the critical transition."}]},{"head":"Overall Rating: Low","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Reducing food loss and waste management","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The NDC mentions the release of the Code of Conduct for Environmental Protection (Trial) to encourage the public across the country to practice low-carbon lifestyles through measures such as energy conservation and green consumption. Public attention has been especially drawn to food security, and the \"emptyplate\" campaign has been launched nationwide to reduce food waste."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"NDC has not set specific targets for reducing food loss and waste management, however, it has touched upon the promotion of activities like minimizing food waste and waste to energy."}]},{"head":"Overall","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rating: Medium","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Note: High: Highly sufficient and highly adequate interventions proposed; Medium: adequate and sufficient; Low: inadequate and insufficient"}]},{"head":"Adequacy and feasibility of adaptation targets","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Overall, the adequacy of China's adaptation targets in the NDC was found to be low, given the country's global contribution to GHG emissions, vulnerability, and risks. Future climate risk and vulnerability in agriculture were found to be very high, whereas the Chinese government's adaptation activities and targets were found to be relatively low. The adaptation component is mentioned fairly in the NDC but was not found to be sector-specific or comprehensive. Overall Rating: Very High (5)"},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Agricultural growing seasons will lengthen and the risk of extreme heat episodes will increase. Storms may intensify, but warming temperatures are likely to enhance drying in already-dry areas, so both droughts and floods may increase (JGRI & BMI, 2009). Overall, climate change will reduce food production, raise prices, increase net imports of most food, and lower China's overall food self-sufficiency. Considering the impact of temperature and precipitation on grain yield, climate change will certainly have an impact on China's food security (Xie et al., 2019)."}]},{"head":"B. Adaptation activities and targets","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Overall Efforts rating: Medium (3)"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"The NDC mentions the preparation of the National Strategy on Climate Change Adaptation. It also mentions the adaptation practices that China has been taking in key areas including agriculture."}]},{"head":"Differences in the degree of risk and level of adaptation efforts = Gap","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Overall Gap rating: Low (2)"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Rating: Very high ( 5), high (4), moderate (3), low (2), very low (1)"}]},{"head":"Chapter Three: Missing data gaps","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"A few studies have rated the Chinese NDC as insufficient, one of the reasons being its failure to give the breakdown of each sector's clear pathways for achieving its goals. Furthermore, China's NDC submitted an unconditional NDC target but did not specify the level of emissions achievable with international assistance (a conditional target) (CAT, 2021). China's NDC lacks quantified data on food system sub-sectors. The emissions and thus the potential reduction trajectories of important components of food systems such as production activities, food processing, transportation, marketing, consumption, and food loss & waste are largely absent from documents submitted to the UNFCCC (i.e. both NDC and Third National Communication). As a result, the NDC fails to set any quantifiable targets for those sub-sectors. Although China is one of the major global importers of food, both the NDC and the TNC fail to account for the emissions associated with food imports. All of these initiatives help to promote data retention and thus MRV systems. Despite the presence of these instruments, the documents submitted by China to the UNFCCC appear to be unquantifiable, unmeasurable, and not disaggregated. In China's NDC, a proper breakdown of the system and timewise target trends and scenarios is largely missing, necessitating updates."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"On July 1 2022, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) jointly released an action plan aimed at reducing carbon emissions in agriculture and rural areas. The plan proposes ten major actions in these areas in crop, livestock and fisheries production as well as means of increasing carbon sequestration and improving energy-efficiency in production. This is not only highly significant for China's climate mitigation and adaptation efforts, but also for the acceleration of agricultural modernization, rural revitalization, and the promotion of a rural ecological civilization and the targets in this plan should be included in China's NDC."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Table 6: Analysis of the data and information reflected in the NDC"}]},{"head":"Data and information management","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Focus of NDC"}]},{"head":"Availability of information on the mitigation targets","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The NDC of China has set overall mitigation targets in its updated NDC, but it fails to provide data, the basic, present context and the targeted scenarios."}]},{"head":"Availability of information on emissions","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The TNC of China gave sufficient information on the data and the methods used to generate GHG emission levels."}]},{"head":"Availability of information on GHG reduction","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The NDC has broadly mentioned the overall reduction of GHGs and aims to be carbon neutral by 2060. However, the NDC has not provided clear, sector-specific and disaggregated emission reduction models or trajectories. Submission of other required information to UNFCCC Besides the NDC, China has submitted various other requirements of UNFCCC. These include the third national communication report and GHG inventories in 2018, the second BUR in 2018, and the Mid-Century Long-Term Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Development Strategy in 2020. However, these documents also failed to provide quantified targets."}]},{"head":"Carbon accounting system","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The NDC states that China will press on with the capacity-building of carbon emission statistical accounting and accelerate the construction of a unified and standardized statistical accounting system for carbon emissions. The working mechanism for national and local GHG emission inventories will be improved, and a compliance reporting system with the full participation of all sectors will be established. However, the quantified ambitions or the targets are missing."}]},{"head":"Strengthen the Supporting and Safeguard Systems","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The NDC states that China will comprehensively clear existing laws and regulations that are incompatible with the work of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality, fortify the coherence of laws and regulations, research the formulation of special laws on carbon neutrality, expedite the formulation of an energy conservation law, electricity law, coal industry law, renewable energy law, circular economy promotion law, etc., and strengthen the pertinence and effectiveness of relevant laws and regulations."}]},{"head":"Technological advancement","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The NDC mentions harnessing next-generation information technology to provide more support for climate change monitoring, impact, and evaluation, and states that a dynamic and systematic climate change monitoring and evaluation system will be established."}]},{"head":"Chapter Four: Additional mitigation options and their abatement potential for the possible update of NDC","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"China's domestic target for 2030 needs substantial improvements in ambition to be consistent with the 1.5°C temperature limit. If all countries were to follow China's approach, warming would reach above 2°C and up to 3°C. This rating takes into account that the part of China's domestic target consistent with the 1.5-degree limit would need international support (CAT, 2021)."}]},{"head":"General recommendations","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Food system management: Food systems are responsible for a third of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Xu et al., 2021). The carbon footprint of China's agrifood system is high as it also includes GHG emissions from imported food used for domestic processing and/or consumption. Therefore, China should focus on the management of the food system (production, processing, transportation, and food waste management) to make it low-carbon emitting. China should pursue a program to ensure that the food it imports is low carbon, thereby helping reduce food supply GHG emissions (Government of China, 2022a)."}]},{"head":"Formulation of research-based plans:","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The NDC of China is lacking in accounts of how the commitments are set. There are key data gaps in the agriculture and food systems sector. Therefore, the government needs to invest in generating data and information on the analysis of GHG trends and scenarios and mitigation potentials in the sub-sectors of food systems, including the existing cropping systems and the use of technology and practices."}]},{"head":"Recommendation for adopting additional mitigation options","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Ambitious and clear targets for the agriculture sector: The NDC describes multiple ambitions to reduce GHG emissions and reach carbon neutrality by 2060, but clear and quantified targets of the agriculture sector are largely missing. The agriculture sector only accounts for 7.9% of its overall GHG emissions, thus the Chinese government should focus on enhancing efforts and preparing a holistic action plan and sectoral targets (He, Li & Zhang, 2020). China should also focus on the quantifiable sectoral targets of its NDC."}]},{"head":"Activity-specific GHG reduction pathways:","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The agriculture sector emitted approximately 828 Mt CO2 eq, from enteric fermentation, manure management, rice cultivation, agriculture soils, and agricultural residues, accounting for 26.2%, 16.6%, 22.1%, 34.1%, and 1.0%, respectively (UNFCCC, 2018). The NDC fails to mention quantifiable ambitions to reduce such emissions from the these food production processes. The trajectories of each activity within a specific frame within NDC are critical. For example, reducing emissions from food production-related activities until 2030, then reducing emissions by 50% in 2040, and then aiming for a carbon-neutral food system by 2060."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Food waste reduction and management: Reducing China's food loss and waste relative to the baseline would reduce agricultural GHG emissions by 2.0-5.6% by 2030 and 4.0-7.0% by 2060. (AGFEP, 2021). There is opportunity to reduce GHG emissions by around 7% from the food waste sector alone. Reducing food loss and waste would also improve food security, reduce financial losses for farmers and consumers, and have a positive impact on the environment (e.g., GHG emissions, water consumption, pesticide/fertilizer pollution) (Government of China, 2022a)."}]},{"head":"Promote sustainable livestock production:","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The production of animal-derived food (ADF) accounts for 19% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and therefore sustainable livestock production is an important for reducing GHG emissions. China should promote better animal husbandary practice e.g. better feed management, genetic improvement, management of livestock health and quantify their mitigation potential to include them in its updated NDC. China should also include GHG emissions reduction by promoting better manure management systems, rangeland and forest protection and sustainable grazing and pasture management in its NDC."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Promote low-carbon diets: By 2050, the world's dietary trends, if not controlled, will be a major contributor to an estimated 80% increase in global agricultural GHG emissions (Zhong et al., 2020). Reducing the consumption of unhealthy, unsustainable, carbon-intense diets could reduce GHG emissions by 150 million to 200 million metric tons by 2030, a reduction of 18-25% (AGFEP, 2021). A reduction in unhealthy diets could contribute to China's aspiration of achieving its carbon neutrality and food security (Government of China, 2022a). A study carried out by Qi et al. (2022), posited that transformation of the nutrient-oriented dietary pattern of China would lead to a 14.9% decrease in GHG emissions from the food system that can be included in its updated NDC."}]},{"head":"Fertilizer-induced emission reduction:","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"China has implemented zero fertilizer growth policy, an initiative aimed at reducing excessive use of chemical fertilizers in agricultures to address environmental concerns including GHG emissions. Fertilizer consumption has decreased since the implementation of this policy. GHG emissions reduction of such policy should be quantified and included in its updated NDC."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Minimize the use of fossil fuels in the agri-system: China's fossil-fuel CO 2 (FFCO2) emissions accounted for approximately 28 % of the global total FFCO2 in 2016. A study by Han et al. (2020) shows that total emissions increased from 3.4 (3.0-3.7) in 2000 to 9.8 (9.2-10.4) Gt CO2 per year in 2016. Thus, reducing inefficiency and the use of fossil fuels in the agriculture sector is essential to help China reduce its overall reduction in GHG emissions. Options could include renewable energy sources for farm equipment, food storage, and transportation (Government of China, 2022a)."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Technological advancement and promotion of climate-smart agriculture: Energy consumption is the primary source of carbon emissions. China's energy consumption accounts for more than 90% of its carbon emissions. China needs to quantify systematic approaches and agricultural strategies that can ensure sustainable food production under predicted climate change scenarios, e.g., climate-smart agriculture. Climate-smart agriculture emphasizes improving risk management, enhancing information flows, and promoting local institutions to increase the adaptive capacity of communities to climate change (Campbell et al. 2014). The agriculture sector in China accounts for 7.9% of GHG emissions, thus CSA could contribute to reducing the emissions."},{"index":4,"size":146,"text":"Promote Green Financing: by establishing a clear framework for green financing within the agricultural sector, making it easier for farmers and agricultural businesses to access funding for adaptation and mitigation options within food systems. This can be done by encouraging financial institutions to offer preferential loans for regenerative agricultural practices that have lower GHG emissions and promote C sequestion, by promting partnerships between financial institutions, agricultural stakeholders and government agencies to develop innovative financial products tailored to low-emission food sytems Repurposing Agricultural Subsidies: to ensure that agricultural subsides are aligned with low-emission pathways. This may involve reducing subsidies to practices that are environmentally harmful (e.g. intensive tillage, irrigation, fertilization etc) and increasing support for regenerative practices such as conservation agriculture, residue recycling, energy-efficient machinery, precision nutrient/water management etc. The government could also introduce tax incentives for farmers and businesses that follow such regenerative and low-emission systems."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"Enhance Data Collection and Monitoring: Develop robust data collection and monitoring systems to track emissions from the food systems accurately. This will enable evidence-based decision-making and the adjustment of policies as needed."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Preparation of detailed NDC implementation plans: With the NDC and other policy instruments in place, China should aim to prioritize the preparation of the NDC implementation plan. The plan should provide clear and quantified short, medium, and long-term low-carbon development pathways in the food system management."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: GHG Emissions by Sectors in China in 2010 (without LULUCF) ................ "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: GHG Emissions from Agriculture by Sector in China in 2010.................... "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Greenhouse gas emissions from China's agrifood system (2017) ............ "},{"text":" GHG Emissions and Removals of China in 2010 (Mt CO2 eq) ...................... Table 2: Highlighted GHG reduction targets of China ............................................. Table 3: Technologies and practices to reduce GHG emissions from food production ................................................................................................................................ "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: GHG emissions by sectors in China in 2010 (without LULUCF) "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions from China's agrifood system (2017) Source: AGFEP, CARD, CIFAE, IAED, and IFPRI. 2021. China and Global Food Policy Report. (Government of China, 2022a). "},{"text":"Table 4 : Adaptation Targets in National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy,  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Current GHG emissions and the reduction targets.....................................  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Qualitative assessment of the food systems inclusion in NDC ...................  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Adaptation adequacy rating of Chinese NDC .............................................  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Analysis of the data and information reflected in NDC ...............................  "},{"text":"Table 1  : China's GHG emissions and removals in 2010 (Mt CO2 eq) : China's GHG emissions and removals in 2010 (Mt CO2 eq) Sector CO2 CH4 N2O HFCs PFCs SF6 Total SectorCO2CH4 N2O HFCs PFCs SF6 Total Agriculture  471 358  829 Agriculture471 358829 Waste 8 92 31  132 Waste89231132 Total (without LULUCF) 8,707 1,127 547 132 10 21 10,544 Total (without LULUCF)8,707 1,127 547 132102110,544  "},{"text":" China has formally submitted its updated NDC to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change (UNFCCC), updating its four separate NDC targets and Long-Term Strategy (LTS) 2021 accelerates the promotion of nature-based solutions; integrates the sustainable use of natural resources into the policy and action framework for addressing climate change; maximizes nature's mitigation effect in forestry, agriculture, oceans, water resources, ecosystems, and other fields; and comprehensively improves resilience in addressing climate change (Government of China before before 2060. 2060. 2. Lower carbon intensity by \"over 65%\" in 2030 from the 2. Lower carbon intensity by \"over 65%\" in 2030 from the 2005 level, (up from the previous \"by 60-65%\"). 2005 level, (up from the previous \"by 60-65%\"). 3. Share of non-fossil fuels in primary energy consumption 3. Share of non-fossil fuels in primary energy consumption to \"around 25%\" in 2030, (up from \"around 20%\"). to \"around 25%\" in 2030, (up from \"around 20%\"). 4. Increase forest stock volume by around 6 billion cubic 4. Increase forest stock volume by around 6 billion cubic meters in 2030 from the 2005 level, (previously 4.5 meters in 2030 from the 2005 level, (previously 4.5 billion cubic meters). billion cubic meters). 5. Increase the installed capacity of wind and solar power 5. Increase the installed capacity of wind and solar power  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Technologies and practices to reduce GHG emissions from food production GHG emissions source Annual emissions (MtCO 2eq) Technologies and practices that can reduce emissions GHG emissions sourceAnnual emissions (MtCO 2eq)Technologies and practices that can reduce emissions  "},{"text":". Adaptation Targets or ambitions reflected in NDC China has developed the National Strategy for Climate Change Adaptation, 2035, to fulfill the NDC commitments in the new situation. The national strategy strengthens the integration of adaptation actions with economic and social development goals, as well as developing a work plan for climate change adaptation over the next 15 years. To build a climate-resilient and climate-smart society, China will vigorously improve the national guaranteed capacity for climate security and comprehensively enhance climate resilience in natural ecological, economic, and social fields. Table4shows the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy highlights.  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Adaptation Targets in National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, 2035 Promote the construction of high-standard farmland, achieving 177 million acres of such land by 2025, • Vigorously develop climate-smart agriculture. • For agricultural climate-change adaptation, technological innovation will be strengthened and demonstrated • Improve the agricultural weather service system and risksharing mechanisms, gradually promote weather indexbased insurance, and explore agricultural catastrophe insurance mechanisms (Government of China, 2022b). By 2035, coupled with the construction of national agricultural science and technology parks and modern agricultural science and technology demonstration bases, several national-level demonstration bases for climate change adaptation technologies in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fisheries, and aquaculture will be established (Government of China, 2022b). Area Adaptation Targets AreaAdaptation Targets Establishment of a climate-change-adapted food security assurance • Implement the strategy of preserving farmland and improving agricultural technology, • Construct agricultural infrastructure based on the distribution of climate and climate-related disasters, Establishment of a climate-change-adapted food security assurance• Implement the strategy of preserving farmland and improving agricultural technology, • Construct agricultural infrastructure based on the distribution of climate and climate-related disasters, system  system  "},{"text":" Tier 1 of the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines(UNFCCC, 2018). Further, the activity data of enteric fermentation, manure management, rice paddies, and farmland were mainly from the China Statistical Yearbook-2011, China Animal Husbandry Yearbook 2011 and 3rd agricultural census results, and the Department of Animal Husbandry, Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) (UNFCCC, 2018).The CH4 MOD was used to calculate the factors of CH4 emissions from rice paddies. The empirical formula was used to calculate the factors of CH4 emissions from a flooded paddy field during the non-rice growing season. The emission factors of direct N2O emissions from farmland were calculated using statistical analysis of nearly 30 years of observational data from various farmland categories. The emission factors for N2O emissions from grazing were the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines default values. The direct emission factors of farmland were the emission factors of direct N2O emissions from atmospheric nitrogen deposited into farmland. The factors of direct N2O emissions caused by atmospheric nitrogen deposited outside farmland, as well as nitrogen leaching and runoff, were all set to default values of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines (UNFCCC, 2018).Similarly, the inventory of Chinese GHGs from the waste sector in 2010 includes CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions from municipal solid waste (MSW) treatment, as well as CH4 and N2O emissions from domestic, commercial, and industrial wastewater treatment. The solid waste sector inventory reports GHG emissions from municipal solid waste landfills, incineration, and biological treatment (UNFCCC, 2018). The CH4 emission factors from municipal solid waste landfills were country-specific The CH4 emission factors from municipal solid waste landfills were country-specific values. In the inventory year, the emission factors for CH4 and N2O emissions from values. In the inventory year, the emission factors for CH4 and N2O emissions from industrial, domestic, and commercial wastewater treatment were country-specific industrial, domestic, and commercial wastewater treatment were country-specific values. The emission factors for CH4 and N2O emissions from biological waste values. The emission factors for CH4 and N2O emissions from biological waste treatment were the IPCC GPG 2000 default values. The emission factors for CO2, CH4, treatment were the IPCC GPG 2000 default values. The emission factors for CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions from waste incineration were determined using the scope of default and N2O emissions from waste incineration were determined using the scope of default values in the IPCC GPG 2000 and 2006 IPCC Guidelines to select emission factors values in the IPCC GPG 2000 and 2006 IPCC Guidelines to select emission factors that were appropriate for China's actual circumstances (UNFCCC, 2018). that were appropriate for China's actual circumstances (UNFCCC, 2018).  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Current GHG emissions and reduction targets  GHG  GHG  Emission  Emission Categories in 2010 Broad targets for GHG reduction Categoriesin 2010Broad targets for GHG reduction  (Mt CO2  (Mt CO2  eq)  eq) Agriculture 828 • NDC fails to mention quantified targets Agriculture 828• NDC fails to mention quantified targets Waste 132 • NDC fails to mention quantified targets Waste132• NDC fails to mention quantified targets   • BY 2030 forest stock volume will increase 6 billion • BY 2030 forest stock volume will increase 6 billion LULUCF -993 cubic meters over the 2005 level (Government of LULUCF-993cubic meters over the 2005 level (Government of   China, 2021). China, 2021).   • CO2 emissions peak before 2030 and achieve carbon • CO2 emissions peak before 2030 and achieve carbon   neutrality before 2060 (UNFCCC, 2021). neutrality before 2060 (UNFCCC, 2021). Overall   Overall  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Qualitative assessment of the food systems inclusion in NDC Systems What is included Adequacy of the NDC SystemsWhat is includedAdequacy of the NDC    (High, Medium, Low) (High, Medium, Low) Production No specific information on food NDC does not mention ProductionNo specific information on foodNDC does not mention activities production activities. However, the any specific information activitiesproduction activities. However, theany specific information  NDC touched slightly upon the on policy interventions NDCtouched slightly upon theon policy interventions  adaptation/mitigation activities that for the critical transition. adaptation/mitigation activities thatfor the critical transition.  China has carried out recently. Overall Rating: Low China has carried out recently.Overall Rating: Low Transportation China will accelerate the construction China's NDC has TransportationChina will accelerate the constructionChina'sNDChas  of a comprehensive transportation prioritized  the of a comprehensive transportationprioritizedthe  network, channel energy into multi- transportation sector. network, channel energy into multi-transportation sector.  modal transportation, and increase the However, it has not modal transportation, and increase theHowever, it has not  share of railways and waterways in been specific as to share of railways and waterways inbeen specific as to  integrated transportation, constantly transportation sector integrated transportation, constantlytransportationsector  reducing the energy consumption and enhancement related to reducing the energy consumption andenhancement related to  carbon intensity of transportation the food system. carbon intensity of transportationthe food system.    Overall Rating: OverallRating:    Medium  Medium LULUCF NDC aims to increase the forest stock   LULUCFNDC aims to increase the forest stock  volume by 6 billion m 3 from the 2005   volume by 6 billion m 3 from the 2005  level. China's forest stock volume has   level. China's forest stock volume has  increased by 2.423 billion m3 and the   increased by 2.423 billion m3 and the  forest coverage rate has increased   forest coverage rate has increased  from 21.63% to 22.96%. The National   from 21.63% to 22.96%. The National  Forest Fire Prevention Plan (2016-   Forest Fire Prevention Plan (2016-  2025) was issued and implemented to   2025) was issued and implemented to  strengthen forest disaster prevention   strengthen forest disaster prevention  and control.   and control.  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Adaptation adequacy rating of Chinese NDC Category Overall Rating CategoryOverall Rating A. Future Climate Risk  A. Future Climate Risk and Vulnerability in the  and Vulnerability in the Agriculture Sector  Agriculture Sector  "},{"text":" Table8shows the adequacy and the missing context/gaps in China's NDC and other relevant documents.On the other hand, the Chinese government has taken several initiatives to strengthen the data collection system for climate change. They have established a national system for the preparation and reporting of National Communications on Climate Change since the Initial National Communication on Climate Change and formed a team for the preparation of National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and Biennial Update Reports. China continues to provide update reports in the form of Biennial Update Reports (BUR) as a form of communication material. In 2016, appropriate accounting and reporting methods were established, as well as assessments of each province's implementation of target tasks.Developing countries must build national capacity for measurement, reporting, and verification (MRV) to effectively address climate change. The Chinese government places a high value on basic climate change work and capacity building. The \"Twelfth Five-Year Plan\" Greenhouse Gas Emissions Control Work Plan was issued by the State Council of China in November 2011, requiring the establishment of a national, local, and corporate three-level basic statistics and accounting system for greenhouse gas emissions, as well as strengthening monitoring, evaluation, and assessment. The National Development and Reform Commission and the National Bureau of Statistics issued \"Opinions on Strengthening Statistical Work on Climate Change\" in May 2013, requiring all regions and departments to prioritize statistical work on climate change. The National Development and Reform Commission issued the \"Notice on Organizing and Carrying Out the Reporting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Key Enterprises (Institutions)\" and the \"Responsibility Assessment Measures for Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions per Unit of GDP\" in 2014. Scientists from the IEDA-CAAS have developed methods for calculating GHG emissions from livestock and poultry farmers, which have been published as an industrial standard by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, PRC (Prof Hongmin Dong, personal communication).  "}],"sieverID":"0355abd9-9af5-4924-931d-e61041c92b56","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09dc444d875c4e41b21b19742249f266","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8d088a4a-af75-4e0c-8500-3bff7b615c7e/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"BUNGOMA COUNTY POLICY BRIEF ON LAND DEGRADATION","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The methods conducted in this land degradation assessment were hierarchical (covering three different scales: national, province and watershed) and involved stakeholder consultations for field validation evidences (See Figure 1).  "}]},{"head":"THE FOOD INSECURITY ZONES IN BUNGOMA","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Local knowledge (experts from Bungoma County and at national level) contributed in a participatory manner to identify hotspot areas of food insecurity and vulnerability. To accomplish the task, consensus was reached with the stakeholders during the workshop on indicators of food security and vulnerability so that evaluation by each county team would be consistent across the board where the stakeholders discussed and mapped their ideas. To facilitate this exercise, Google earth images complemented formation of detailed maps for each county by the stakeholders. Complementary land degradation risk maps based on modeling approaches were also provided to each team. The areas identified on the map for food insecurity from the participatory process clearly indicate that there is an overlap with the land degradation map depicted in Figure 2. The sugarcane areas seem to have a more pronounced overlap."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"To account for the role of differences in land use/cover on land degradation, we used land use/cover data generated from Landsat satellite image analysis. This figure exemplifies the land use and land cover changes in Bungoma County. Since agriculture is most predominant, the figure portrays values above zero which are areas in square kilometers converting into agriculture in relation to other classes. Values below zero are areas in square kilometers for agriculture converting into another land use class. Land use conversions and transitions for Bungoma County show that the most pronounced changes were in the agriculture land use category."},{"index":3,"size":219,"text":"This study further analyzed both sediment and runoff load reductions obtained from simulated scenarios for current (business as usual) and proposed best management practices within a selected watershed of Bungoma. This served as a means to explore possible intervention options that can be promoted by decision makers for implementation by local communities. We describe the identification of dominant sediment and runoff delivery mechanisms in the watershed with readily available tools consisting of SWAT and Agricultural Policy and Environmental Extender (SWAT-APEX) models for conducting the \"What-if\" scenarios. These tools also developed multiple regression equations to estimate the sediment and runoff ratios for the subwatershed areas of interest. The models used 35 years of weather data from 1981 to 2016. The \"What if\" scenarios that were conducted in the SWAT-APEX interface were selected based on Kisumu workshop participants inputs and from quantitative data on the current status quo or business as usual in case no interventions were done. The applicable interventions are presented in the \"What if scenarios\" section.  The combination of contours and forage strips yielded the greatest percentage of water and biggest decrease in both sediment and surface runoff. The performance of the terraces was also quite good. The sole implementation of forage vegetative strips or the contours did not perform as well as the combination of the interventions."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Land degradation assessment approaches "},{"text":"Fred Figure 2: Degradation levels for Bungoma "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Food insecurity zones in Bungoma "},{"text":" Figure 4: Changes in agriculture in Bungoma "},{"text":"KEY MESSAGE 2: Food insecurity within Bungoma county is specific to the Southern parts of Bungoma specifically around Nzoia, Chwele, South of Bungoma, Mayanja and South of Webuye and to the North East of Webuye areas and deserves tailored management interventions Sugarcane belt   "},{"text":"REASONS ZONE Extended tobacco zone Tobacco zone INSIGHTS The preference dynamics in relation to the crop of choice being grown affects food insecurity, even if there is low degradation risk. North of Kimilili, Misikhu and Tongaren areas which focus on a single cash crop need concerted efforts towards enterprise diversification. This may come in the form of subsidies towards improved crop varieties, enabling friendly land tenure policies in the areas as well as training towards multiple enterprise management to realize optimal outcomes. High levels of degradation risk can cause food insecurity especially due to soil degradation in the sugarcane areas, specifically around Malakisi, Mayanja,  Bungoma Interventions may include and Sirisia. promoting soil health for improved productivity; sensitization of communities about the importance of conducting soil tests to ensure that specific problems are correctly identified in order to tailor relevant interventions for the area. Bungoma Interventions may include and Sirisia. promoting soil health for improved productivity; sensitization of communities about the importance of conducting soil tests to ensure that specific problems are correctly identified in order to tailor relevant interventions for the area.  "},{"text":"require context specific or tailored approaches in the areas with high food insecurity around Malakisi, Mayanja, Bungoma and Sirisia as well as for the areas with high degradation risk around Webuye and Chwele.  Sustainable management techniques for land interventions should focus on creating a permanent cover and target the most vulnerable zones. The proposed interventions will Sustainable management techniques for land interventions should focus on creating a permanent cover and target the most vulnerable zones. The proposed interventions will  "}],"sieverID":"b5860c87-e456-41c3-9957-3b3e400c8cee","abstract":"This policy brief aims to give an overview of land degradation hotspots in Bungoma County and the policy options for land restoration. In this assessment, land degradation is referred to as the persistent loss of ecosystem function and productivity caused by disturbances from which the land cannot recover without human intervention (unaided). Hotspots are defined as places that experience high land degradation and if left unattended, will negatively affect both human wellbeing and the environment. The spatial location of hotspots was identified through a methodology combining modeling, participatory stakeholder consultations and field validation. Understanding the spatial locations helps identify hotspot areas and target them as priority intervention sites with relevant management options. This county policy brief is complemented by detailed National comprehensive assessment report which can be accessed at this link: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/97165 KEY MESSAGE 3: Land use changes in Bungoma County have greatly contributed to land degradation highlighting the need for policy reforms in land use decisions INSIGHTS Concerted efforts are needed to build the capacity of County officials towards both technical and policy oriented interventions such as zonal ordinances and land use policy regulations. This permits policy-makers to understand the value of investing in Sustainable Land Management (SLM) options around Webuye and Chwele. Land cover class (1995-2017) Area in km 2 converted to agriculture Settlement Forest Shrubland Grassland Wetland Water Bareland SWAT-APEX FOR BUNGOMA CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE IN BUNGOMA"}

data/part_5/09ddeee744d5885c0028e4e0fa740435.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09ddeee744d5885c0028e4e0fa740435","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4089/4110e51e40ccf67ec112780bf2abbcdd.pdf"},"pageCount":17,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Challenges to aquaculture development","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Pond water can improve maize growth parameters and yield "}]},{"head":"Revenue stream with integration","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Selection for Feed Efficient (FE) tilapia?"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"o Improving feed efficiency (FE) key to reducing production costs and achieving sustainability."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"o Only 5-15% of the nutrient input in fertilizer only pond systems is converted to harvestable products (Schroeder et al., 1990;Edwards,1993)."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"o To improve the overall nutrient use efficiency of fish in fertilized ponds and reduce cost of production, efficient breeding programs are crucial o High heritability for fish reared in low input conditions (Charo-Karisa et al., 2006) o The 9th generation of the Abbassa tilapia strain + BMP helped reduce lifecycle environmental impacts with up to 36% (Henrikson et al., 2016)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"• Integrating agriculture and aquaculture realizes higher economic efficiency than each component separately • Integrating fishponds with crops unlocks nutrients from the sediments leading to better nutrient use efficiency • Lowers use of fertilizers Use of genetically improved strains and awareness of limits in use of feeds and fertilizers empowers farmers, lowers production costs and increases overall water and nutrient use efficiency Thank you!"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"•Fertilizer Climate change and its effects • Less sources of fish feed ingredients • Water scarcity • Increase in fish disease and shift in parasite incidences • by farmers Farm performance depends on access to a number of inputs: seed, feed, culture system, market access, and integrating technologies genetics important for improved seed "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Return on unit of water used (EGP/m 3 )  Water use efficiency  Water use efficiency Parameter  Site 1 Site 2 ParameterSite 1Site 2 Water use in m 3    Water use in m 3 Trait Water discharge to maize Traditional Total water use m 3 culture (Canal water + 100% Yield fertilization) Fish yield in kg Fish pond 405 1,005 water + 0 fertilization 407 720 Fish pond 1,320 water + 50% fertilization 350 Trait Water discharge to maize Traditional Total water use m 3 culture (Canal water + 100% Yield fertilization) Fish yield in kgFish pond 405 1,005 water + 0 fertilization 407720 Fish pond 1,320 water + 50% fertilization 350 Plant Length Maize yield 158±5.7 158±1.5 750 161±1.1 850 Plant Length Maize yield158±5.7158±1.5 750161±1.1 850 Plant Weight Revenue 0.6±0.05 0.5±0.02 0.7±0.1 Plant Weight Revenue0.6±0.050.5±0.020.7±0.1 Crop weight (kg) 0.34±0.02 Maize Revenue EGP Fish revenue 0.3±0.03 2,775 9,138 3,175 0.35±0.01 7,523 Crop weight (kg) 0.34±0.02 Maize Revenue EGP Fish revenue0.3±0.03 2,775 9,1383,175 0.35±0.01 7,523 Production kg/ Fed. Fertilizers saving Total Gross Revenue (EGP) 137±8.2 126±7 560 12,473 460 142±5.9 11,158 Production kg/ Fed. Fertilizers saving Total Gross Revenue (EGP) 137±8.2126±7 560 12,473460 142±5.9 11,158   12.4 8.5 12.48.5  "}],"sieverID":"1427a5f0-1b87-4b1c-b076-41c064df37d0","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0a7cf275d04f8bc5e2c7656164f77870.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a7cf275d04f8bc5e2c7656164f77870","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9293758e-d79e-464c-894a-27329f47f37f/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative: Outlier observations","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"First thoughts","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"• Very nice presentations yesterday • Well prepared project description • Enthusiastic group with a lot of energy • Topical subjects and comprehensive programme • Very ambitious programme (luckily the 1.5 million need not to be reached by 2024) BUT...."}]},{"head":"Second thoughts","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• Can you really do all the work, time and money-wise, to achieve the ambitions?"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• A 3-year programme is too short to realise all proposed changes/innovations in farming practice à anticipating longer time horizon? Where do you set the aim "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Build on what is known already is mentioned in the proposal, but did not come out clearly yesterday à requires more explicit and specific attention, start with an analysis of the achievements so far -SIAF(Musumba et al.)     "}],"sieverID":"36c735ae-0552-41bb-9067-c7bd06417fa3","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0aa3edf228a216a3b4f7790edb73578a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0aa3edf228a216a3b4f7790edb73578a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d5891823-1fe9-457d-809e-a3c0b261f365/retrieve"},"pageCount":54,"title":"Epidemiology of Village Chicken Diseases: a Longitudinal Study on the Magnitude and Determinants of Morbidity and Mortality -the case of Newcastle and Infectious Bursal Disease","keywords":["Incidence rate","Survival analysis","Seroprevalence","Lume district"],"chapters":[{"head":"LIST OF TABLES","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LIST OF FIGURES","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Alarming poverty has been reported in Ethiopia with food and financial crisis. Poultry is an interesting tool to respond rapidly to poverty gaps if included in rural development strategies. It has fast generation interval and high reproductive rate. It is prolific, easy to rear and their output can be generally expanded more rapidly and easily than that of other livestock. Different scales of poultry productions are available in Ethiopia: scavenging, large, small-scale and commercial."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"The 3 production systems have their own specific chicken breeds, inputs and production properties. Each can sustainably co-exist and contribute to solve the socio-economic problems of different target societies (Duguma, 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":349,"text":"Chicken production under backyard system has long been practiced in Ethiopia and almost every rural family owns which has been widely used for egg, meat production, other purposes (Ogle, 2001;Halima, 2007). Village chickens contribute more than 98% of the total meat and egg production in the country (Udo et al., 2006). The total chicken population in Ethiopia is estimated to be 50.38 million out of which 97% is indigenous breed that are well adapted to the local environmental conditions (hot, humid, dry and rainy weather, feed and disease challenges (CSA, 2013). The majority (97%) of these chickens are maintained under this scavenging production system with no inputs for health care (CSA, 2010). In fact, 80% of the total poultry population in the world is in traditional village-based production systems, being ''low input_/low output'' systems (Permin et al., 2000). They have deep-rooted impact in the socio-cultural and economic profile of the rural community. However, in research, extension and development agenda the village indigenous chickens are poorly considered. The commercial poultry sector which covers only approximately 3% is distributed in a limited urban and pri-urban location in Ethiopia, as it demands electricity, infrastructure and investment for intensification. It is found at an infant stage. It is constrained by high cost of input supplies such as day-old exotic chicks and feed (Duguma, 2009;CSA, 2010). Some published information on the constraints to backyard chicken production in Ethiopia indicated, it is characterized by high mortality caused by disease, predators, and poor management and nutrition. Out of which, infectious diseases are one of the most important cause of mortality in village chicken (Tadesse, 2005;Selam and Kelay, 2013;Ashenafi, 2000). The most devastating diseases of village chicken in Ethiopia are Newcastle disease (NCD) and Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD) (Chaka et al., 2013, Serkalem et al., 2005;Zeleke et al., 2005;Shiferaw et al., 2012). An overall 32.7% and 50% mortality rates caused by NCD and IBD were reported by Mohamed et al. (2014) and Zeleke et al. (2005), respectively. The high mortality rate caused by NCD and IBD make the diseases compulsory to get priority over the other diseases."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"Numbers of works have been published on the seroprevalence of NCD and IBD in village chicken population. Despite the fact that the seroprevalence of NCD and IBD is increasing at an alarming rate all over Ethiopia, no works has been done so far towards estimating incidence of mortality and morbidity and identifying the associated risk factors in East Showa zone via follow up and sero-epidemiology methods. Therefore, the general and specific objectives of this study were the following; Different works have been conducted in Ethiopia (Nasser, 1998;Ashenafi, 2000;Serkalem et al., 2005;Zeleke et al., 2005 and2005b;Mazengia et at., 2009;Chaka et al., 2012and 2013and Belayheh et al., 2014) to assess the problem of NCD in backyard and commercial production system. It is mentioned as one of the most important disease problems that are related with high morbidity and mortality in commercial and backyard chickens in most parts of Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"General","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Similarly, from the works of others that have been done in Ethiopia (Aschalew et al., 2005;Zeleke et al., 2005;Woldemariam and Wossene, 2007;Mazengia et al. 2009 and2010;Hailu et al., 2010;Shiferaw et al., 2012;Kassaa and Molla, 2012;Tesfaheywet and Getnet, 2012;Chaka et al. 2012), IBD is also regarded as the other most important diseases problem that is related with high morbidity and mortality of backyard and commercial chickens production in Ethiopia."},{"index":2,"size":278,"text":"From the works of Bettridge et al., 2014;Duguma et al., 2005;Lobago and Weldemeskel, 2004 who conducted study in backyard and commercial poultry production, MD has been identified as a problem of poultry industry in Ethiopia. Salmonella and other related infections studied by some author in Ethiopia (Endrias and Poppe, 2009;Genet et al., 2014;Kassaye et al., 2010 andMedina et al., 2013) indicated as a problem in backyard and commercial chickens production system. In the same way, little works have been done in Ethiopia (Abadi et al., 2013 andTesfaheywet andBerhanu, 2013) to identify the problem of colibacillosis in commercial poultry farm. It has been said one of the common bacterial diseases in Ethiopia. One Study conducted in commercial poultry farm (Mersha et al., 2009) identified mycoplasmosis as problem of chicken production in Ethiopia. Studies have been conducted on coccidiosis (Ashenafi et al., 2004;Getachew et al., 2008;Lobago et al., 2005;Luu et al., 2013) to identify its problem in different production system. These works indicated that coccidiosis is a disease impacting Ethiopian chicken's production. On the other hand, studies conducted on Helminthosis (AshenafI and Eshetu, 2004;Eshetu et al., 2004;Tesfaheywet et al., 2012) indicated that chicken raised under traditional and small scale management system in Ethiopia are invariably infected by diverse species of cestodes and nematodes. Toxoplasma gondii which are widely prevalent in humans and free-range chicken in Ethiopia is also identified as the problem of poultry industry in Ethiopia (Gebremedhin et al., 2014 andTilahun et al., 2013). Although all the above mentioned diseases are the problem of chicken production in Ethiopia, NCD and IBD are identified as the major cause of chicken diseases that related with high morbidity and mortality in Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Newcastle Disease (NCD)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Definition: ND is caused by avian paramyxovirus serotype 1 belonging to the family Paramyxoviridae, genus Avula virus (Mayo 2002). NCD is a highly contagious and the most dreaded disease of chickens, turkeys and many other birds and can be categorized in to highly pathogenic (velogenic), intermediate (mesogenic), and less pathogenic (lentogenic) strains based on pathogenicity in chickens. The Velogenic strains of NCD virus are widely distributed throughout the world and divided in to two classes (class I and class II). Class I contains, almost exclusively, low virulence strains recovered from wild waterfowl worldwide. Class II includes strains of low and high virulence isolated from poultry and wild birds (Czegledi et al., 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Clinical symptom: the frequent clinical symptom of virulent NCD; chicken fluffs its feathers and appears to 'have its coat dragging on the ground, lethargy and inappetance, respiratory signs such as mild rales and snick can be detected by careful observation, severe respiratory distress and gasping, swelling of the head and neck, pink eye and swollen eyelids with abnormal accumulation of liquid, foamy discharge from respiratory tract, greenish diarrhea. When the disease is advanced nervous signs of tremor, torticollis, convulsions and paralysis of wings and legs will be seen (Czegledi et al., 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Transmission: the transmission of NDV occurs through respiratory aerosols, exposure to fecal and other excretions from infected birds, through newly introduced birds, selling and giving away sick birds and contacts with contaminated feed, water, equipment and clothing. The usual source of virus is an infected chicken, and spread is usually attributed to the movement of chickens through chicken markets and traders."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Diagnosis: is made by virus isolation from tracheal or cloacal swabs together with blood testing to demonstrate high antibody levels. Infectious bronchitis or infectious laryngotracheitis can give similar clinical signs, but lesions, blood tests, and virus isolation tests are decisive. In chickens NCD is characterized by lesions in the brain or gastrointestinal tract. More specific serological techniques most notably monoclonal antibody based serology, have shown the existence of considerable antigenic variation between the different strains of NCD (Ouandaogo, 1990)."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"Prevention and control of ND: there are three general approaches to the control of NCD: Hygiene: this is always important, especially in the control of NCD in semi-intensive systems where birds are confined within a fenced yard or house. Hygiene includes measures such as cleaning, disinfection, limiting access to wild birds, and personal hygiene of the farm staff."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"Slaughter of infected flocks: this is a drastic measure, which has been successfully employed in isolated regions or islands that are essentially free of the disease."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"Vaccination in combination with appropriate hygiene measures: this remains the most effective way of controlling NCD (Moerad, 1987). Vaccination campaign is the only form of prevention."},{"index":8,"size":163,"text":"A proper vaccination campaign can rapidly and significantly minimize losses due to disease. In Indonesia, after a NCD vaccination campaign, mortality in village flocks dropped from 50 to 8 percent and the population of chickens increased from 900 to 3 500, representing a 250 percent increase. NCD vaccines are available in either \"live\" or \"dead\" forms: Live vaccines are fragile and have very precise rules for use, requiring a cold chain up to the point of application to the bird. Their effectiveness is reduced if there are residual antibodies in the chickens. Killed vaccines give good immunity but require priming with a live vaccine for best results, unless a natural infection has already served this purpose. They have been used successfully in Burkina Faso (Verger, 1986, andOuandaogo, 1990). In Ethiopia, vaccination has been reported as the only safeguard against endemic NCD. However, vaccines currently in use are mainly of benefit to commercial poultry producers whose chickens are kept in large, single-age, confined flocks."},{"index":9,"size":71,"text":"Manufacturers produce heat-labile NCD vaccines in multi-dose vials, often containing 1,000 or 2,500 doses, which must be kept cold (within19a 'cold chain') from manufacture until administration to the chickens. In contrast, village chickens are raised in small, multi-age, freerange flocks and large multi-dose vials of vaccine are inappropriate. The cold chain is difficult to maintain under village conditions and purchase of commercial vaccines is a drain on foreign exchange (Usman, 2002)."}]},{"head":"Epidemiology of Newcastle Disease in Ethiopia","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"ND is endemic in the village chicken population in Ethiopia. A number of studies have been conducted to determine the prevalence of ND in different agro-ecology and season of Ethiopia (Nasser, 1998;Ashenafi, 2000;Serkalem et al., 2005;Zeleke et al., 2005 and2005b;Mazengia et at., 2010;Chaka et al., 2012and 2013and Belayheh et al., 2014) Figure1: Yearly increasing of NCD prevalence in Ethiopia (Source: synthesized by the author)"}]},{"head":"Infectious Bursal Disease(IBD)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Definition: IBD is a highly contagious, acute viral disease of poultry caused by IBD virus (IBDV). IBD is caused by the genus Avibirna virus of the family Birnaviridae. It is very pathogenic to chicks, although it may affect other avian species (Van den berg, 2000). Infectious bursal disease virus replicates in lymphocytes of the Bursa of Fabricius, causing the immunosuppressive and often fatal condition called infectious bursal disease (IBD) or Gumboro (Muller et al., 2003;Sapats and Ignjatovic, 2000). It is double stranded RNA virus in the genus Avibirnavirus. This virus may exacerbate infection with other etiologic agents and reduce the chicken's ability to respond to vaccination. Two serotypes of IBD virus strains are described: 1 and 2. Serotype 1 strain, pathogenic to chickens, is classified into several pathotypes, from mild to hypervirulent, according to their virulence. Serotype 2 strains are classified as pathogenic."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"One of the most interesting features of IBDV is its ability to remain infectious for a very long period of time and its resistance to commonly used disinfectants."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Clinical symptom: Clinical IBD occurs usually between 4 and 8 weeks of age. clinical sign of include white watery droppings, ruffled feathers, loss of appetite, and a tendency to sit when forced to move and have an unsteady gait, accumulation of urate in the urinary structures, and severe depression and finally may die. The subclinical form caused by the immunosuppressive effect of the IBD virus is now of more economic importance in that the immune system of the bird is damaged. Gumboro disease related diseases such as inclusion body hepatitis are more frequent in these birds. In broilers this form of the disease results in bad performance with lower weight gains and higher feed conversion ratios (Saif and Barnes, 2003)."},{"index":4,"size":161,"text":"Transmission: the disease is transmitted through water, feed, droppings and through fomites (Sun Ming et al., 2001). Some of the factors that have been associated with the maintenance of IBDV include carrier chickens, village poultry population dynamics, other poultry species, including wild birds, and heterogeneity of IBDV (Wei et al., 2006;Kasanga et al., 2007 andWu et al., 2007). One of the most interesting features of IBDV is its ability to remain infectious for a very long period of time and its resistance to commonly used disinfectants. Poor sanitary conditions, continuous exposure of chickens to range conditions and wild birds, nutritional deficiencies, the absence of vaccination in traditionally managed chickens, and contact of chickens of 1 village with those in other villages may facilitate the spread of IBDV. The ease of contact at local open-air markets between chickens from different areas, which are then taken back to various localities, can undoubtedly facilitate the rapid spread and persistence of IBD among indigenous chickens."},{"index":5,"size":167,"text":"Diagnosis: in acute cases the bursa of Fabricius is enlarged and gelatinous, sometimes even bloody. Muscle haemorrhages and pale kidneys can be seen. Infection by variant strains is usually accompanied by a fast bursal atrophy (in 24-48 hours) without the typical signs of Gumboro disease. Also in chronic cases the bursa is smaller than normal (atrophy). The bursa destruction is apparent on histologic examination. The lack of white blood cells (lymphocytes) results in a reduction in the development of immunity and decreased resistance of the birds to other infections. Typical signs and lesions are diagnostic of IBD. Histopathological examination, serology (ELISA) and/or virus isolation are helpful tools. IBD can be confused with sulfonamide poisoning, aflatoxicosis, and pale bird syndrome (Vitamin E deficiency) Prevention and control: vaccination of parent breeders and/or young chicks is the best means of control. The induction of a high maternal immunity in the progeny of vaccinated breeders, together with the vaccination of the offspring is the most effective approach to successful IBD control."},{"index":6,"size":100,"text":"Vaccination: In-ovo injection for embryonated broiler chicken eggs at 18 days of incubation: the dose of rehydrated vaccine is 0.05 ml (i.e. 2,000 doses reconstituted with 100 ml of diluent or 5,000 doses reconstituted with 250 ml of diluent). Subcutaneous injection for day-old chicks: the dose of rehydrated vaccine is 0.1 ml (i.e. 1,000 doses reconstituted with 100 ml of diluents or 2,500 doses reconstituted with 250 ml of diluents). Dissolve completely the freeze-dried contents of the vial in a volume of diluents that complies with the size of the packaging and the route of administration (Saif and Barnes, 2003)."}]},{"head":"Epidemiology of Infectious Bursal Diseases","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Currently, IBDV has a worldwide distribution, occurring in all major poultry producing areas (Tesfaheywet et al., 2012). It was estimated that IBD has considerable socio-economic importance at the international level, as the disease is present in more than 95% of the OIE member countries (Eterradossi, 1995). Infectious bursal disease is a viral disease regarded as the second most important diseases of village chickens in Africa (Abdu et al., 1992) following NCD."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"The disease imposes threat through mortality, reduced weight gain, and condemnation of carcasses due to marked hemorrhage in the skeletal muscle. It represents one of the most severe chicken diseases and is responsible for marked economic losses (Van den berg, 2000; Tesfaheywet et al., 2012). Losses due to very virulent strains of the virus in Europe have reached approximately 30-40% mortality in broilers and 50-70% in commercial layers (Contreras et al., 2000). IBDV infection also lowers the egg production, leads to deterioration of egg shell and internal egg quality (Moody et al., 2000). The first report of IBD in Ethiopia was in 2005 involving 20-45 day old broiler and layer chickens from commercial farms (Zeleke et al., 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Since its inception, prevalence of IBD is increasing from year to year and has become a priority problem in backyard poultry production system in Ethiopia, shown in figure 2."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Figure2: Yearly increasing of IBD prevalence in Ethiopia (Source: synthesized by the author) Aschalew et al. (2005)  "}]},{"head":"Determinants of NCD and IBD in Village Chicken in Ethiopia","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Area-wide variation in prevalence of Newcastle Disease","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"According to existing knowledge in literature, NCD is the most dominant infectious disease which is widely distributed throughout the country as shown in Table 1.  ND is the first most endemic and prevalent chicken disease in most parts of Ethiopia. These diseases are determined as the most important causes of morbidity and mortality that resulted in periodic outbreaks with subsequent destruction of large proportion of chickens. It is possible to say that currently all areas in Ethiopia are at risk to ND."}]},{"head":"Area-wide variation in prevalence of Infectious Bursal Disease","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"IBD is found as the second most important diseases of village and commercial chickens in Ethiopia. Continuous presence of these diseases in village poultry populations has been reported"},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"elsewhere (Aschalew et al., 2005;Mazengia et al., 2009;Hailu et al., 2010;Kassaa and Molla, 2012;Shiferaw et al., 2012;Tesfaheywet and Getnet, 2012), shown in Table 2. The distribution of improved breed of chickens from infected poultry breeding and multiplication centers to the village is suspected of disseminating diseases to village chicken. "}]},{"head":"Age-wise variation in prevalence of Infectious Bursal Disease","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The magnitude of IBD is found high in young age group while the lowest prevalence's are seen in adults as shown in Figure 3. The prevalence of these diseases reaches a peak for some weeks of age group and then decline as the age increase. seroprevalence in chicken aged 13-24 and 25-36 weeks, respectivel. This difference could be due to the immune status of the chicken; young chickens have less immunity as compared to adult chicken. "}]},{"head":"Sex-wise variation in prevalence of Newcastle and Infectious Bursal Disease","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Different studies have been conducted on ND and IBD to see whether the susceptibility of chickens to these diseases is influenced by the sex of chickens (Serkalem et al., 2005;Zeleke et al., 2005;Kassaa and Molla, 2012;Shiferaw et al., 2012;Tesfaheywet andGetnet, 2012 andBelayhehet al., 2014). But no significance differences in magnitudes were observed between male and female, although some diseases are more prevalent in male than female."}]},{"head":"Season-wise variation in prevalence of Newcastle Disease","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"In general, higher prevalence of ND is during dry season than wet season. However, rare higher prevalence of ND is also seen during wet season that may be related to Ethiopian Holidays (Filseta, Enkutatesh etc) celebrated during wet season. Human activity and increased turnover in the chicken markets during dry season could leads to outbreaks of NCD that have been attributed to high prevalence during dry season. In many areas the villagers recognize the season when NCD will occur, or they recognize the early cases, and they dispose of their chickens by sale, thus initiating or sustaining outbreaks (Zeleke et al., 2005;Chaka et al., 2012and 2013and Nega et al., 2012). Table 3 shows the prevalence of chicken diseases in different season.  Belayheh et al. (2014). The possible explanation they indicated was few chickens in the highland area of the country and chicken population number is a factor for the transmission of the disease. Another explanation may also be because of ecological variations in NCD activity and may perhaps be a reflection of the impact of environment on the speed of transmission and viability of NDV and epidemiology."}]},{"head":"Production system as a factor for variation in prevalence IBD","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The result of studies indicates that challenge of free ranging village poultry production and intensive poultry production system in Ethiopia. Difference prevalence's of IBD under different production system were reported. Higher magnitude (85.9%) and 81.6% was recorded in intensive and backyard production system, respectively (Shiferaw et al., 2012). It has been said"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"that this difference might be due to the fact that local breeds have better resistance to IBD as compared to exotic breeds (Aschalew et al., 2005 andShiferaw et al., 2012)."}]},{"head":"Prevalence's of IBD in relation to different hygiene condition","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The prevalence of IBD is found to be very high (83.3%) in village chicken kept under poor hygienic condition as compared to chicken kept under good hygienic condition (54.2%) . This may be due to poor management of the village chickens and high contact to the stressful external environment as compared to moderate and good management of chicken. High prevalence IBD in poor management of village chicken might also be due to frequent exposure of local backyard chickens to immunosuppression causing factors such as heat stress during scavenging seeds, water deprivation, and poor nutrition (Hailu et al., 2010 andTesfaheywet andGetnet, 2012)."}]},{"head":"MATERIAL AND METHODS","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Description of the Study Area","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The study was conducted in East Showa zone of Oromia most rural and urban of Lume district. The area is assumed to be suitable which gave a characteristic climatic condition that is conducive for the production of chicken. Furthermore, due to the geographical proximity of the zone to capital city Addis Ababa, it has a great advantage for market access for poultry products."}]},{"head":"Study Design","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"A prospective study was carried out from September 2014 to May 2015 on village chicken of Lume district for the aim of determining incidence of NCD and IBD and their associated morbidity and mortality. In addition a retrospective survey past occurrence of these disease was assessed by recall methods. Random sampling technique was used to select 6 out of 35 PA found in the district. Then, a list of farm households was prepared jointly with the community representatives, village leaders, village elders and the development agents working in the selected PA's. Finally, simple random sampling technique was employed to select 20 households from each PA, which made a total of 120 households. All chicken in a farm household was sampled as a cluster. A total of 1358 chickens from these 120 household were included in the study. The average flock size per house hold was 11.3. The sample population was unvaccinated apparently health and sick backyard chickens population of all age and sex group found in different PAs of the district."}]},{"head":"Methods of Data Collection and Procedures","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Questionnaire Survey","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Questionnaire survey was conducted to gather owner's and veterinary field professional's knowledge of chicken diseases. In all study PAs veterinary personnel and poultry owners were interviewed with a structured questionnaire. Emphasis was given on the frequent clinical symptoms manifested; possible source of the disease; season of the year the disease commonly occurs; more affected chicken groups and history of vaccination, whenever outbreaks of poultry diseases occurred in the study PAs. Tentative diagnosis was made based on the classical disease manifestation and the epidemiological information available. A total of 120 respondents were set for the interview and to follow up their chicken throughout the study period. The respondents were provided with variables such as flock size change, major causes of chicken mortality, date of outbreaks, major disease responsible for the mortality of chicken, seasonality of the diseases, and relation of diseases occurrence with chicken market turnover."}]},{"head":"Follow up Data collection","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"A prospective study was conducted to determine the incidence rate, survival rate and predictors of NCD in village chicken death during the nine months (September 2014 to May 2015) of follow-up period. Chicken were visited every week and also visits were made upon argent telephone call. Records were made on chicken flock size dynamics, disease outbreaks, clinical findings and serum sample collection. Formats was prepared for recording of monthly chicken population dynamics and health status of local chickens enable to determine aspects like the incidence of diseases, mortality and morbidity rate, symptoms of the disease and season of occurrence. Data were extracted from the chicken follow up records by investigator and animal health professionals working in the PA clinics of the district. To ensure quality of the collected data one day orientation was given by the investigator to the animal health professionals, Development agents (DAs) and chicken owner. Regular visit and telephone call by the owner of the chicken, animal health professionals and DAs was the main means of communication whenever any morbidity and mortality of chicken were occurred."}]},{"head":"Laboratory Investigation","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Based on congregated epidemiological information, laboratory investigation of causes and determinants of morbidity and mortality of village chicken was made. Apparently health and sick chicken were observed and sample was collected. Then, determining prevalence of ND and IBD virus was done."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Blood Sample Collection: blood sample was collected from the brachial vein in 3-mL disposable syringes, left horizontally for 3hr, and then vertically for the serum to ooze out."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Serum was collected in labeled 2-mL cryovial tubes and kept cool for transportation to National Animal Heath Diagnostic and and Investigation Center (NAHDIC), Sebata and National Veterinary Institute (NVI). The serum in the cryovial tubes was stored at −20°C until testing."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Serum samples were analyzed using Indirect ELISA for IBD and HAI test for ND."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Serology test: Serum samples were analyzed at NAHDIC and NVI, using Hemagglutination Inhibition (HAI) test for ND and Indirect ELISA for IBD."},{"index":6,"size":209,"text":"Indirect ELISA: IDvet innovative diagnostic indirect ELISA kit (Louis Pasteure-Grabels, France) was used to detect the presence of anti-IBD antibodies in the chicken serum following the kit manufacturers' recommended protocol. The test sera were pre-diluted by dilution buffer 14 in a pre-dilution plate according to the established protocol or kit instructions, and each was dispensed into the requested number of micro wells. In the ELISA plate pre-diluted samples and dilution buffer 14 were added and incubated for 30min + 3min at 21 0 C. After incubation, the sera were discarded from the plates, and each well was washed 3 times by 300μl of washing solution. About 100μl anti-chicken immunoglobulins peroxidase conjugate was dispensed into the wells and the plates were incubated for 30min + 3min at 21 0 C. After incubation, again the sera were discarded from the plates, and each well was washed 3 times by 300μl of washing solution. About 100μl substrate solutions were dispensed into each test well and again incubated for 15 min+ 2min at 21 0 C in the dark place. After a final incubation, the substrate chromogen reaction was stopped by adding about 100μl stop solution and the color reactions were quantified by measuring the optical density of each well at 450 nm."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"To check the validity of IBD ELISA result, validity test was done. In valid IBD ELISA result, the mean Optical Density (OD) value of positive control serum is greater than 0.250, and the ratio of the mean value of the positive and negative control (ODPC and ODNC) is greater than 3."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"For the interpretation of the result, serum sample positive (SP) control ratio was required."},{"index":9,"size":6,"text":"Accordingly, the following equation was applied."},{"index":10,"size":4,"text":"S/P = ODsample -ODNC"}]},{"head":"ODPC -ODNC","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"If SP value was ≥0.3, the IBD antibody status was considered to be positive but <0.3 was taken as negative."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"HAI test: was done according to the procedures of NAHDIC ( 2009). The test was carried out by running two fold dilutions of equal volumes (25μl) of PBS and test serum (25μl) in a Vbottomed micro titer plates. Four HAU of virus/antigen were added to each well and the plate was left at room temperature for a minimum of 30 minutes. Finally 25μl of 1% (v/v) chicken"},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"RBCs was added to each well and, after gentle mixing, the RBCs were allowed to settle for about 30 minutes at room temperature. The HI titer was read from the highest dilution of serum causing complete inhibition of 4 HAU of antigen. The agglutination was assessed by tilting the plates. Only those wells in which the RBCs stream at the same rate as the control wells (containing 25μl RBCs and 50μl PBS only) were considered to show inhibition. A titter greater than or equal to2 3 or 3 (log to base 2) was taken as positive."}]},{"head":"Data Analysis","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Data obtained from Questionnaire, follow up and Laboratory test (HAI and Indirect ELISA) "}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"4.1.Questionnaire Survey","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Flock size change and major causes of chicken mortality","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"As to chicken flock size, 95.8% (115/120) of the respondents indicated that flock size of chicken was decreased during the last 5 months while 2.5% (3/120) of the respondents indicated that flock size of chicken was increased during the last 5 months. The rest 1.7% (2/120) respondents indicated that flock size of chicken was constant during the last 5 months (Table 4)."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"In this study, 75% (90/120), 20% (24/120) and 5% (6/120) of the respondents indicated that the higher death of their chicken was due to diseases, predation and unknown cases, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Specific chicken diseases that lead to high mortality were also mentioned by the respondents."},{"index":4,"size":232,"text":"Most of the respondents were familiar with NCD locally known as \"Fengel\" which was manifested by frequent clinical symptoms (greenish dropping, swelling of eyelid with abnormal accumulation of liquid, black comb and brachial vein, lowering the head down, paralysis and sudden death) during disease outbreak. Overall, 78.3% (94/120) of the respondents indicated that \"Fengel\" was the leading disease to cause mortality of their chicken in the village. While, 15.8% (19/120) of the respondents indicated that Fowl pox locally known as \"Fentata\" which has frequent clinical symptoms (nodules on the wattles comb and face) was the leading disease to cause chicken mortality. The other 5.8% (7/120) of the respondents indicated that Marek's disease which was manifested by symptoms like paralysis of wing, dropping of limb and twisted neck was the leading cause of mortality. In relation to season of the year when the diseases frequently occur, most of the respondents (80.8%) indicated, disease occurrence was higher at dry season. However, 10% of the respondents experienced high rate of disease occurrence at the wet season. There were also respondents (9.2%) who experienced disease occurrence at any time in a year. Most of the respondents (95%) indicated that the occurrence of village chicken disease was highly related with high market turnover, especially during holyday celebration. And the rest 5% of the respondents indicated disease occurrence was not related with market turnover, shown in Table 4. "}]},{"head":"Monthly average number of chicken ownership dynamics","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Male chickens suffered from population reduction in different months than the female counterparts, because, male chicken were slaughtered for home consumption during holyday and other purpose, given as a gift, sold for household income ahead of diseases outbreak occurrence."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Female population reduced in only December within 5 months of follow up. Similarly, chicken population reduced in November, December and January within 5 month follow up. Female and chick population reduction was more related with diseases outbreak occurrence. NCD Disease outbreak was occurred in November, December and January during follow up period (Table 5). "}]},{"head":"Survival Analysis of ND in Village Chicken","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"A Longitudinal study was conducted to determine the Incidence rate, survival rate and predictors of ND in village chicken death during the nine months of follow-up period. Weekly and urgent telephone call visits were made during follow up period. All of the studied sick chickens reported were new cases. Of the1358 registered chicken, 202 (14.9%) survived the entire follow-up period. During the study period 843 chickens, which belonged to different age and sex categories, were found dead as a result of ND occurrence based on clinical signs. The general mortality was 62.1%. Of the 843 chicken died during the nine months interval, 85.5% (680/843) died within the third (November) and fourth (December) months of the start of follow up. The highest death 40.5% and 40.2% occurred in the December and November, respectively. The probabilities of chicken to die in these months were 44% and 29%, respectively. The 1358 chickens were followed for a total of 7448 chicken-months. The nine months (September 2014 to May 2015) incidence rate of NCD was 113.2 cases per 1000 chicken months. An overview of the duration of active surveillance and total chicken entered and lost to the follow up each month was presented in Table 6. "}]},{"head":"Area wise incidence of Newcastle Disease","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"In the case of different PAs the highest incidence of NCD was found at Biyo Bisike, which is a midland PA, (141.3 cases per 1000 chicken month) while the lowest incidence was recorded at Tulu Rea, which is the highland PA, (53.4 cases per 1000 chicken month), shown in Table 7. shown in Table 9. The prevalence of NCD was found high (33.3%) in flock size level greater than or equal to ten and lower (25.8%) in flock size less than or equal to four. In the case of IBD also, higher prevalence (26.6%) in flock size greater than or equal to 10 and lower prevalence (11.3%) in the flock size less than or equal to four. The differences in the seroprevalence of NCD and IBD in relation to different flock size were statistically significant (p<0.05)."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Different sampling months were compared to see the variation of prevalence of NCD and IBD."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Accordingly, the highest prevalence (50.8%) and the lowest prevalence (0%) of NCD were recorded in April and February, respectively while the highest prevalence (69.2%) and the lowest prevalence (10.8%) of IBD were recorded in January and March, respectively. These differences in the prevalence of NCD and IBD in relation to different sample collection months were statistically significant (p<0.05)."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"The seroprevalence of chicken kept in lowland agro-ecology was higher (35.5%) than that of kept in highland (12.5%) in the case of NCD. The difference in the prevalence of NCD in different agro-ecology was statistically significant (p< 0.05). "}]},{"head":"Association of risk factors with occurrence of NCD by multivariate logistic regression","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Overall age category was associated with the occurrence of NCD when univariate analysis was carried out (chi square = 13.9). But up on multivariable logistic regression analysis there was no"}]},{"head":"Association of risk factors with occurrence of IBD by multivariate logistic regression","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Age category was significantly associated with the occurrence of IBD when multivariable logistic regression analysis was carried out (Table 12). Household flock size had significant effect on the seroprevalence of IBD in the study area. Flocks of chicken with size of 5 -9 animals per flock had an odd of having IBD higher seropositivity than flocks with size less than or equal to 4 animals per flock. This difference was statistically significant. Flocks of chicken with size greater than or equal to 10 animals per flock had an odd of having IBD higher than that of those with flock size less than 4 but this difference was not significant."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Months of sampling had also significant effect on the prevalence of IBD in the study area."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Sampling during the months of December, February and March gave significantly higher odds of being positive to IBD than sampling during the months of January and April. There was no significant different in the occurrence of IBD among different agro-ecology. Chicken kept in all agro-ecology had similar odds of having IBD. "}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"A questionnaire survey on the occurrence of NCD disease was assessed via farmers' interview."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"From the interview, none of the chicken owner had ever vaccinated their chicken. An average household chicken flock size was found decreased in December and January during the study period. Except male chicken which suffered from population reduction in different months, the female chicken population reduced in December during the follow up period. Similarly, high population reduction of chick was also seen in December and January. The chicken population reduction during December and January was due to NCD outbreak occurred during this time."},{"index":3,"size":277,"text":"This result is in agreement with the finding of Chaka et al. (2013) who reported households was found their flock size reduced mainly due to diseases during dry season. On the other hand, 75%, 20% and 5% of the respondents indicated that the decreased flock size was due to diseases, predation and unknown case, respectively. This finding is in agreement with Chaka (2012) and Nega (2012) who reported 71.7% and 77.5 of the respondents indicated their flock size decreased due to diseases. These indicated that households had lost their chickens, possibly due to incidence of diseases in their flocks, among other factors. Chicken off take due to sell following occurrence of diseases outbreak, slaughter and gift also contributed to reduce flock size. The majority of the respondents (78.3%) indicated ND locally known as \"Fengel\" was the leading disease to cause mortality of chicken in the village. This was corroborated, in many cases, by the farmer's report of frequent diseases symptom in their flocks, and sero-positive during the sampling period. Different authors also confirmed this result; Nega (2012)  and 38.33% from Debreberhan, Sebeta and Nazaret, respectively. This study showed NCD is one of the major infectious diseases that reduces the number and productivity of traditionally of IBD in young chicken was reported by Shiferaw et al. (2013) and Hailu et al. (2010), respectively. Singh and Dhawedkar (1992) reported that the prevalence was highest (61.82 %) in chickens between 7 and11 weeks old and lowest (3.92 %) in those above 22 weeks of age. The susceptibility of chickens to IBDV is influenced by their age. The maximum susceptibility was observed between 2 and 7 weeks of age (Hitchner 1978)."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"A statistical significant difference prevalence of NCD and IBD was observed in different chicken flock size. The highest seroprevalence of NCD and IBD (33.3% and 26.6%, respectively) were found in chicken flock size ≥10 and the lowest prevalence of NCD and IBD (25.8% and 11.3%, respectively) were found in chicken flock size ≤4. This difference might be due to the fact that increased chicken population number is a factor for the transmission and widely occurring of the diseases."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Different sampling months were compared to see the variation in prevalence of NCD and IBD."},{"index":6,"size":96,"text":"Statistical significant difference prevalence was found; the highest (50.8%) and the lowest (0%) seroprevalence of NCD were recorded in April and February, respectively while, the highest (69.2%) and the lowest (10.8%) prevalence of IBD were recorded in January and March, respectively. This was substantiated with the farmer's report of high diseases occurrence in the months when Ethiopian holydays celebrated (Easter in April and X-mass at the end of December). Because, during this period diseased chickens were brought from different areas and sold by traders, that could facilitated transmission and widely occurrence of diseases during this months."},{"index":7,"size":96,"text":"The seropositivity of chicken kept in lowland agro-ecology was higher (35.5%) than that of kept in highland (12.5%) in the case of NCD. This difference in the prevalence of NCD in different agro-ecology was statistically significant (p< 0.05) but no statistical significant was seen in different agro-ecology in the case of IBD. This records was agree with findings of Zeleke et al. indicated, although there was no statistically significant difference between different agricultural-climatic zones in NCD virus seroprevalence rates, a relatively higher seroprevalence was observed in Lowland (38.33%) followed by midland (29.69%) than in Highland (28.57%)."},{"index":8,"size":76,"text":"According to Zeleke et al. (2005) and Serkalem et al. (2005), the possible reason for this could be there are few chickens in the highland area of the country and chicken population number is a factor for the transmission of the disease. Another explanation may also be because of ecological variations in NCD activity and may perhaps be a reflection of the impact of environment on the speed of transmission and viability of NDV and epidemiology."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"A prospective study coupled with seroepidemiology could be a useful tool to assess the status of major village chicken diseases in an area and provide insight for further investigations. This study results showed that the village chicken population is endemically infected with NDV and IBD, with a high proportion of household flocks experiencing new cases. The data clearly indicated that, local chickens kept under free-range traditional management systems in which chickens literally scavenge their own feed and water in the six PAs were exposed to NCD and IBD. Massive mortality in November and December during the follow up and higher infection rate in February and April from serology indicated that there is a tendency towards higher incidence and periodic outbreaks of the disease in different seasons. NDV in household chickens pose a significant threat to the development of traditional poultry production sector in Ethiopia and IBD is also appearing as a significant threat. Based on the above conclusion, the following recommendations were forwarded;"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":" Improvement of village chicken production and management which is at least partly has a role on successful control of these diseases."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":" Programmed vaccination at the household level could be considered to reduce the seasonal incidence and mortality of both diseases,  Further study is warranted to better understand to characterize virus strains circulating in the study area in order to properly aid control of ND and IBD."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":" Further study is necessary to understand the interactions of these infectious poultry diseases and to estimate their impact on the backyard poultry production system."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 :Figure 3 :Figure 4 : Figure 1: Yearly increasing of ND prevalence in Ethiopia….........................................................7 Figure 2: Yearly slightly increasing of IBD prevalenc in Ethiopia……………….......................10 Figure 3: Prevalence of Infectious Bursal Disease in different age category…............................13 Figure 4: Survival function of ND in village chicken flock size……….………………...….…....26 "},{"text":"Objective To investigate incidence of morbidity and mortality of NCD and IBD in Village chicken and associated risk factors Specific objectives  To determine incidence rate of NCD and IBD in village chicken.  To determine survival rate of village chicken  To assess indigenous knowledge of farmers on the major causes of chicken morbidity and mortality in backyard production system 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Major Causes of Village Chicken Diseases in Ethiopia Chicken diseases of various etiologies that have more economical importance in backyard and commercial production system have been diagnosed in Ethiopia. Newcastle Disease (NCD), Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD), Marek's Disease (MD), Mycoplasmosis, Salmonellosis, Colibasillosis, Coccidiosis, Toxoplasmosis and Helminthosis are identified as the major cause of poultry diseases in Ethiopia. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Prevalence of IBD in Different age category (Source: synthesized by the author) "},{"text":" were inserted into Microsoft® Excel for Windows 2007. Analyzes were performed using SPSS statistics 20 software(2011). Survival curve over the follow up time was calculated using the Kaplan Meier and Cox Proportional Hazard Analysis method. Descriptive statistical methods were used to summarize prevalence of IBD and NCD during outbreaks, and to summarize the population characteristics of the study animals. Chi-square was used to test the presence of significant variation among the different risk factors. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression was conducted to examine the association of the risk factors with occurrence of NCD and IBD. A 95 % confidence intervals were calculated and alpha value of <0.05 was used as cutoff or for significance. "},{"text":"( 2005), Tadesse et al. (2005) and Belayheh et al. (2014) who reported a higher prevalence of NCD in the lowland than highland. Serkalem et al. (2005) reported a comparable results "},{"text":"TABLE 1 : Prevalence of Newcastle Diseases by Area …………………………………………11  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 : Prevalence of Infectious Bursal Disease by Area………………………………..….12  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 : Prevalence of ND in relation to Season..…………………………………………....14  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 : Answers of 120 respondents on chicken flock size and causes of chicken mortality, major diseases and seasonality of the disea………....................................................22  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 : Monthly Average household chicken flock size dynamic.…………..……………....23  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 : Kaplan Meier survival analysis of ND in village chicken……..…………………....24  "},{"text":"TABLE 7 : Incidence of ND in different PAs of the district….....………………………………24  "},{"text":"TABLE 8 : Cox proportional hazards regression analysis of ND in village chicken....................25  "},{"text":"TABLE 9 : Seroprevalence of ND and IBD in different PAs of the district…..……………..….27  "},{"text":"TABLE 10 : Prevalence of ND and IBD in relation to different determinants.....…...…………..28  "},{"text":"TABLE 11 : Association of risk factors with ND by logistic regression…..….………………....29  "},{"text":"TABLE 12 : Association of risk factors with IBD by logistic regression..……………………....30 v v  "},{"text":" and Zeleke et al. (2005)  reported 49.9% and 93.3% from debrezeit, respectively; Woldemariam and Wossene (2007) recorded 72% at Andasa poultry farm; Hailu et al. (2010) reported 17.4% and 38.4% from Farta and Bahir Dar, respectively; Mazengia et al. (2009 and 2010) reported 21.7% and 29.4% from Farta and Bahir Dar, respectively; Hailu et al. (2009 and 2010) reported 21.7% and 29.4% from Farta and Bahir Dar, respectively; Hailu et al. (2010) reported 40.8%, 70.7% and 89.8% from Welmera, Ambo and Waliso, respectively; (2010) reported 40.8%, 70.7% and 89.8% from Welmera, Ambo and Waliso, respectively; Shiferaw et al. (2012) recorded 69.8%, 70.5%, 82.9%, 83%, 85.4%, 85.5%, 86% and 90.3% at Shiferaw et al. (2012) recorded 69.8%, 70.5%, 82.9%, 83%, 85.4%, 85.5%, 86% and 90.3% at Gonder, Bahir Dar, Hawassa, Adama, Addis Ababa, Kombolch, Adea and Mekele, respectively; Gonder, Bahir Dar, Hawassa, Adama, Addis Ababa, Kombolch, Adea and Mekele, respectively; Kassaa and Molla (2012) reported 70%, 72%, 72.7%, 76% from Dembya, Mecha, Gonder and Kassaa and Molla (2012) reported 70%, 72%, 72.7%, 76% from Dembya, Mecha, Gonder and Bahir Dar, respectively; Tesfaheywet and Getnet (2012) reported 82.2% from Debreziet; Chaka Bahir Dar, respectively; Tesfaheywet and Getnet (2012) reported 82.2% from Debreziet; Chaka et al. (2012) recorded 91.9% and 95.7% from Adea and Adami Tull Gido Kombolcha (ATGK), et al. (2012) recorded 91.9% and 95.7% from Adea and Adami Tull Gido Kombolcha (ATGK), respectively. respectively.  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Prevalence of Newcastle Diseases by Area  Newcastle Disease    Newcastle Disease    Prevalence  Prevalence Areas No. Sampled No. Positive (%) References AreasNo. Sampled No. Positive(%)References Hawassa 31 4 12.9 Zeleke et al.(2005) Hawassa31412.9Zeleke et al.(2005) Alagae 64 23 35.9 Zeleke et al.(2005) Alagae642335.9Zeleke et al.(2005) Adami Tulu 96 16 16.7 Zeleke et al.(2005) Adami Tulu961616.7Zeleke et al.(2005) ATGK 502 84 16.7 Chaka et al.(2012) ATGK5028416.7Chaka et al.(2012) Hossana 21 10 47.6 Zeleke et al.(2005) Hossana211047.6Zeleke et al.(2005) Butajira 18 3 16.7 Zeleke et al.(2005) Butajira18316.7Zeleke et al.(2005) Arbegona 43 0 0 Zeleke et al.(2005) Arbegona4300Zeleke et al.(2005) Shebedino 10 0 0 Zeleke et al.(2005) Shebedino1000Zeleke et al.(2005) Debreberhan 56 16 28.6 Serkalem et al.(2005) Debreberhan561628.6Serkalem et al.(2005) Sebeta 64 19 29.7 Serkalem et al.(2005) Sebeta641929.7Serkalem et al.(2005) Adama 60 23 38.3 Serkalem et al.(2005) Adama602338.3Serkalem et al.(2005) Tillili 55 50 90.9 Nega et al.(2012) Tillili555090.9Nega et al.(2012) Mecha 74 62 83.8 Nega et al.(2012) Mecha746283.8Nega et al.(2012) Farta 72 66 91.7 Nega et al.(2012) Farta726691.7Nega et al.(2012) Melohamusit 81 77 95.1 Nega et al.(2012) Melohamusit817795.1Nega et al.(2012) Adea 367 118 32.2 Chaka et al.(2013) Adea36711832.2Chaka et al.(2013) Kersana-Kondalaity 355 20 5.6 Belayheh et al.(2014) Kersana-Kondalaity355205.6Belayheh et al.(2014)  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Prevalence of IBD by Area   Infectious Bursal Diseases  Infectious Bursal Diseases Areas No. Sampled No. Positive Prevalence (%) References AreasNo. Sampled No. Positive Prevalence (%) References Farta 1316 229 17.4 Mezengia et al.(2009) Farta131622917.4Mezengia et al.(2009) Bahir Dar 2593 995 38.39 Mezengia et al.(2009) Bahir Dar259399538.39Mezengia et al.(2009) Waliso 186 167 89.78 Hailu et al.(2010) Waliso18616789.78Hailu et al.(2010) Ambo 116 82 70.69 Hailu et al.(2010) Ambo1168270.69Hailu et al.(2010) Welmera 49 20 40.81 Hailu et al.(2010) Welmera492040.81Hailu et al.(2010) Hawassa 304 252 82.9 Shiferawet al.(2012) Hawassa30425282.9Shiferawet al.(2012) ATGK 253 242 95.7 Chaka et al.(2012) ATGK25324295.7Chaka et al.(2012) Adea 350 301 86 Shiferaw et al.(2012) Adea35030186Shiferaw et al.(2012) Mecha 50 36 72 Kassaa & Molla (2012) Mecha503672Kassaa & Molla (2012) Adama 430 357 83 Shiferaw et al.(2012) Adama43035783Shiferaw et al.(2012) Bahir Dar 200 141 70.5 Shiferaw et al.(2012) Bahir Dar20014170.5Shiferaw et al.(2012) Bahir Dar 150 114 76 Kassaa & Molla (2012) Bahir Dar15011476Kassaa & Molla (2012) Kombolcha 387 331 85.5 Shiferaw et al.(2012) Kombolcha38733185.5Shiferaw et al.(2012) Addis Ababa 377 322 85.4 Shiferaw et al.(2012) Addis Ababa37732285.4Shiferaw et al.(2012) Mekele 350 316 90.3 Shiferawet al.(2012) Mekele35031690.3Shiferawet al.(2012) Gonder 199 139 69.8 Shiferaw et al.(2012) Gonder19913969.8Shiferaw et al.(2012) Gonder 150 109 72.7 Kassaa & Molla (2012) Gonder15010972.7Kassaa & Molla (2012) Dembya 50 35 70 Kassaa & Molla (2012) Dembya503570Kassaa & Molla (2012) Debrezeit 276 227 82.2 Tesfaheywet & Getnet (2012) Debrezeit27622782.2Tesfaheywet & Getnet (2012)  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Prevalence of ND in relation to Season (2005) reported 22.51% and 14.13% prevalence at low altitude and High altitude, respectively. Serkalem et al. (2005) reported 38.33%and 28.57% prevalence at low altitude and High altitude, respectively. Similarly, 7.8%and 0.9% NCD prevalence was recorded at low altitude and high altitude, respectively by   Newcastle Disease    Newcastle Disease Area Seaso No. Sampled No. Positive Prevalence (%) References AreaSeasoNo. Sampled No. Positive Prevalence (%) References n Hawassa Dry 31 4 12.9 Zeleke et al.(2005) n Hawassa Dry31412.9Zeleke et al.(2005) Alagae Dry 64 23 35.93 Zeleke et al.(2005) AlagaeDry642335.93Zeleke et al.(2005) A.Tulu Dry 95 16 16.66 Zeleke et al.(2005) A.TuluDry951616.66Zeleke et al.(2005) Hossana Wet 21 10 47.61 Zeleke et al.(2005) Hossana Wet211047.61Zeleke et al.(2005) Butajira Wet 18 3 16.66 Zeleke et al.(2005) ButajiraWet18316.66Zeleke et al.(2005) Arbegona Wet 43] 0 0 Zeleke et al.(2005) Arbegona Wet43]00Zeleke et al.(2005) Shebedin Wet 10 0 0 Zeleke et al.(2005) ShebedinWet1000Zeleke et al.(2005) o Adea Dry 100 6 6 Chaka et al.(2012) o AdeaDry10066Chaka et al.(2012) Adea Wet 97 7 8 Chaka et al.(2012) AdeaWet9778Chaka et al.(2012) ATGK Dry 127 27 21.5 Chaka et al.(2013) ATGKDry1272721.5Chaka et al.(2013) ATGK Wet 130 20 15.2 Chaka et al.(2013) ATGKWet1302015.2Chaka et al.(2013) Adea Dry 122 42 34.5 Chaka et al.(2013) AdeaDry1224234.5Chaka et al.(2013)  "},{"text":" regional state from September 2014 to May 2015. East Showa zone is located at about 98 km east of Addis Ababa that covers the total area of approximately 10241 Km 2 and Adama town is the capital of the zone. The Zone extends between 70'33'50\"N -90'08'56\"N and from 380'24'10\"E -400' 05' 34\"E. The temperature of the area ranges from 10 0 c in uplands to over 30 0 c in rift valley depressions with the mean temperature of 20 o C. Since the large portion of the zone is located along the rift valley system, rainfall varies from 600mm to 1000mm with mean annual rainfall of 816 mm. The livestock rainfall varies from 600mm to 1000mm with mean annual rainfall of 816 mm. The livestock population of East Showa zone is estimated to be 1,090,091cattle, 319,598 sheep, 568,761 goat, population of East Showa zone is estimated to be 1,090,091cattle, 319,598 sheep, 568,761 goat, 10644 horse, 7039 mule, 284, 583 donkey, 6818 camels, 14627 beehives and 1,250, 059 poultry 10644 horse, 7039 mule, 284, 583 donkey, 6818 camels, 14627 beehives and 1,250, 059 poultry  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Answers of 120 respondents on chicken flock size and causes of chicken mortality, major diseases and seasonality of the diseases Variables Level No. of respondents Percent (%) VariablesLevelNo. of respondentsPercent (%) Chicken flock size change Decreased 115 95.8 Chicken flock size changeDecreased11595.8  Increased 3 2.5 Increased32.5  Constant 2 1.7 Constant21.7 Causes of mortality Diseases 90 75 Causes of mortalityDiseases9075  Predation 24 20 Predation2420  Unknown 6 5 Unknown65 Major diseases ND(Fangle) 94 78.3 Major diseasesND(Fangle)9478.3  Fowl Pox(Fentata) 19 15.8 Fowl Pox(Fentata)1915.8  MD 7 5.8 MD75.8 Seasonal Loss Dry Season 97 80.8 Seasonal LossDry Season9780.8  Wet Season 12 10 Wet Season1210  Both Season 11 9.2 Both Season119.2 Chicken offtake High 114 95 Chicken offtakeHigh11495  Low 6 5 Low65 History of Vaccination Not vaccinated 119 99.17 History of VaccinationNot vaccinated11999.17  Vaccinated 1 0.83 Vaccinated10.83  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Monthly Average household chicken flock size dynamic Chicken category September October November December January Chicken categorySeptember October NovemberDecemberJanuary Male 2.46 2.21 2.33 1.83 1.21 Male2.462.212.331.831.21 Female 4.62 4.73 4.87 3.84 4.74 Female4.624.734.873.844.74 Chick 6.71 6.93 6.13 2.98 2.90 Chick6.716.936.132.982.90 Pullet 2.05 2.08 2.13 1.70 5.19 Pullet2.052.082.131.705.19 Layer 2.57 2.66 2.76 2.17 1.60 Layer2.572.662.762.171.60 Cockerel 1.99 1.76 1.90 1.49 0.26 Cockerel1.991.761.901.490.26 Cock 0.38 .43 .43 .36 .35 Cock0.38.43.43.36.35 Total 13.70 13.85 13.33 8.65 4.53 Total13.7013.8513.338.654.53  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Kaplan Meier survival analysis of ND in village chicken  No. No. No. Death Probability Probability of Cumulative No.No.No.DeathProbabilityProbability ofCumulative Month Entering withdrawn Exposed due to of death in Survival in the Survival MonthEnteringwithdrawnExposeddue toof death inSurvival in theSurvival  Interval * to Risk ND the month month probability Interval*to RiskNDthe monthmonthprobability 0 1358 0 1358 0 0.00 1.00 1.00 013580135800.001.001.00 1 1358 88 1314 9 0.01 0.99 0.99 1135888131490.010.990.99 2 1261 23 1249.5 32 0.03 0.97 0.97 21261231249.5320.030.970.97 3 1206 42 1185 339 0.29 0.71 0.69 312064211853390.290.710.69 4 825 106 772 341 0.44 0.56 0.39 48251067723410.440.560.39 5 378 0 378 0 0.00 1.00 0.39 5378037800.001.000.39 6 378 10 373 10 0.03 0.97 0.38 637810373100.030.970.38 7 358 25 345.5 36 0.10 0.90 0.34 735825345.5360.100.900.34 8 297 19 287.5 59 0.21 0.79 0.27 829719287.5590.210.790.27 9 219 12 118 17 0.14 0.86 0.23 921912118170.140.860.23  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Incidence of NCD in different PAs of the district  "},{"text":"Diseases Study PA Total chicken month Number of Cases Incidence rate per 1000  ND T/Rea 1310 70 chicken month 53.4 NDT/Rea131070chicken month 53.4  Biyo 1401 198 141.3 Biyo1401198141.3  Dibandiba 1169 140 119.8 Dibandiba 1169140119.8  Tade 1400 158 112.9 Tade1400158112.9  K/Fatole 1065 130 122.1 K/Fatole1065130122.1  Bika 1103 147 133.3 Bika1103147133.3 Total  7448 843 113.2 Total7448843113.2  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Seroprevalence of NCD and IBD in different PAs of the district Study PAs n Newcastle Disease +ve 95 % CI P-V n Infectious Bursal Disease +ve 95 % CI P-V Study PAsnNewcastle Disease +ve 95 % CIP-VnInfectious Bursal Disease +ve 95 % CIP-V T/Rea 88 11(12.5%) 26.4-46.0 0.007 88 21(23.9%) 12.9 -29.61 0.892 T/Rea8811(12.5%)26.4-46.00.007 8821(23.9%)12.9 -29.61 0.892 Biyo 94 34(36.2%) 5.5-19.45  94 20(23.3%) 14.89-32.84 Biyo9434(36.2%)5.5-19.459420(23.3%)14.89-32.84 Dibandiba 93 28(30.1%) 20.7-39.5  93 18(19.4%) 11.26-27.45 Dibandiba9328(30.1%)20.7-39.59318(19.4%)11.26-27.45 Tade 104 33(31.7%) 22.7-40.7  104 19(18.3%) 10.70-25.75 Tade10433(31.7%)22.7-40.7104 19(18.3%)10.70-25.75 K/Fatole 80 21(26.2%) 16.5-36.0  80 15(18.8%) 10.12-27.38 K/Fatole8021(26.2%)16.5-36.08015(18.8%)10.12-27.38 Bika 62 22(35.5%) 23.5-47.5  62 15(24.2%) 13.42-34.97 Bika6222(35.5%)23.5-47.56215(24.2%)13.42-34.97 Total 521 149(28.6%) 24.7-32.49  521 108(20.7%) 17.24-24.22 Total521149(28.6%) 24.7-32.49521 108(20.7%) 17.24-24.22 n= number sampled, +ve= Number positive, CI= confident interval, P-V= P-value n= number sampled, +ve= Number positive, CI= confident interval, P-V= P-value  "},{"text":"Association of ND and IBD prevalence with Age, Sex, flock size, calendar month and agro- ecology during disease outbreak  The highest (29.6%) and the lowest (22.4%) prevalence of NCD was found in age groups of The highest (29.6%) and the lowest (22.4%) prevalence of NCD was found in age groups of greater than or equal to 10 months and less than or equal to 4 months, respectively while, the greater than or equal to 10 months and less than or equal to 4 months, respectively while, the highest (77.6%) and the lowest (8.4%) prevalence of IBD was found in age groups of less than or highest (77.6%) and the lowest (8.4%) prevalence of IBD was found in age groups of less than or equal to 4 months and greater than or equal to 10 months, respectively. The differences in the equal to 4 months and greater than or equal to 10 months, respectively. The differences in the prevalence of NCD among different age group were not statistically significant (p˃0.05). But prevalence of NCD among different age group were not statistically significant (p˃0.05). But statistically significant (p<0.05) seroprevalence of IBD was found in different age groups as statistically significant (p<0.05) seroprevalence of IBD was found in different age groups as  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Prevalence of ND and IBD in relation to different determinants Variables n +ve Newcastle Disease 95 % CI P-V n Infectious Bursal Disease +ve 95 % CI P-V Variablesn+veNewcastle Disease 95 % CI P-VnInfectious Bursal Disease +ve 95 % CIP-V Sex       Sex Female 378 108(28.6%) 24.0-33.1 0.818 378 67(17.7%) 13.86-21.59 0.652 Female378 108(28.6%) 24.0-33.1 0.818 378 67(17.7%) 13.86-21.59 0.652 Male 143 41(28.7%) 21.2-36.1  143 41(28.7%) 21.22-36.13 Male143 41(28.7%)21.2-36.1143 41(28.7%) 21.22-36.13 Age category       Age category ≤ 4 month 49 11(22.4%) 10.6-4.2 0.588 49 38(77.6%) 65.72-89.38 0.000 ≤ 4 month4911(22.4%)10.6-4.20.588 4938(77.6%) 65.72-89.38 0.000 ≥ 5 to ≤9month 175 50(28.6%) 21.8-35.3  175 45(25.7%) 19.21-32.22 ≥ 5 to ≤9month 175 50(28.6%)21.8-35.3175 45(25.7%) 19.21-32.22 ≥ 10month 297 88(29%) 24.4-34.8  297 25(8.4%) 5.25-11.59 ≥ 10month297 88(29%)24.4-34.8297 25(8.4%)5.25-11.59 Flock size       Flock size ≤ 4 186 48(25.8%) 19.5-32.1 0.048 186 21(113%) 6.72-15.86 0.000 ≤ 4186 48(25.8%)19.5-32.1 0.048 186 21(113%)6.72-15.860.000 ≥ 5 to ≤ 9 278 82(29.5%) 24.1-34.9  278 73(26.3%) 21.06-31.45 ≥ 5 to ≤ 9278 82(29.5%)24.1-34.9278 73(26.3%) 21.06-31.45 ≥ 10 57 19(33.3%) 21.0-457  57 14(24.6%) 13.26-35.86 ≥ 105719(33.3%)21.0-4575714(24.6%) 13.26-35.86 Months       Months December 77 37(48.1%) 36.8-59.3 0.000 77 14(18.2%) 9.49 -26.87 0.000 December7737(48.1%)36.8-59.3 0.0007714(18.2%)9.49 -26.87 0.000 January 13 3(23.1%) 0.82-47.0  13 9(69.2%) 43.06-95.41 January133(23.1%)0.82-47.0139(69.2%)43.06-95.41 March 120 45(37.5%) 28.8-46.2  120 13(10.8%) 5.24-16.43 March120 45(37.5%)28.8-46.2120 13(10.8%)5.24-16.43 April 118 60(50.8%) 41.8-59.9  118 28(23.7%) 16.00-31.46 April118 60(50.8%)41.8-59.9118 28(23.7%) 16.00-31.46 May 110 4(3.6%) 0.11-07.2  110 14(12.7%) 6.46-19.00 May110 4(3.6%)0.11-07.2110 14(12.7%)6.46-19.00 Agro-ecology       Agro-ecology Highland 88 11(12.5%) 5.53-19.5 0.001 88 21(23.9%) 14.89-32.84 0.892 Highland88 11(12.5%)5.53-19.5 0.001 8821(23.9%) 14.89-32.84 0.892 Midland 371 116(31.3%) 26.5-36.0  371 72(19.4%) 15.37-23.45 Midland371 116(31.3%) 26.5-36.0371 72(19.4%) 15.37-23.45 Lowland 62 22(35.5%) 23.5-47.5  62 15(24.2%) 13.42-34.97 Lowland6222(35.5%)23.5-47.56215(24.2%)13.42-34.97 n= number sampled, +ve= Number positive, CI= confident interval, P-V= P-value n= number sampled, +ve= Number positive, CI= confident interval, P-V= P-value  "},{"text":"Table 12 : Association of risk factors with IBD by multivariate logistic regression Determinants B S.E. Wald df Sig. OR DeterminantsBS.E.WalddfSig.OR Age category ≤ 4 months   65.602 2 .000  Age category ≤ 4 months65.6022.000 ≥ 5 to≤9 month 3.653 .452 65.359 1 .000 38.596 ≥ 5 to≤9 month3.653.45265.3591.00038.596 ≥ 10 month 1.029 .298 11.929 1 .001 2.799 ≥ 10 month1.029.29811.9291.0012.799 Flock size ≤ 4   7.855 2 .020  Flock size ≤ 47.8552.020 ≥ 5 to ≤ 9 -1.375 .508 7.345 1 .007 .253 ≥ 5 to ≤ 9-1.375.5087.3451.007.253 ≥ 10 -.539 .425 1.611 1 .204 .583 ≥ 10-.539.4251.6111.204.583 Sex(male) -.358 .287 1.553 1 .213 .699 Sex(male)-.358.2871.5531.213.699 Cal. Month-December   25.579 5 .000  Cal. Month-December25.5795.000 January -.578 .535 1.165 1 .280 .561 January-.578.5351.1651.280.561 February 2.188 .812 7.257 1 .007 8.916 February2.188.8127.2571.0078.916 March 1.130 .466 5.872 1 .015 3.097 March1.130.4665.8721.0153.097 April -.608 .497 1.499 1 .221 .544 April-.608.4971.4991.221.544 May .658 .418 2.477 1 .115 1.932 May.658.4182.4771.1151.932 Agro-ecology Highland   1.745 2 .418  Agro-ecology Highland1.7452.418 Midland -.685 .570 1.441 1 .230 .504 Midland-.685.5701.4411.230.504 Lowland -.614 .485 1.600 1 .206 .541 Lowland-.614.4851.6001.206.541 Constant -1.049 .774 1.835 1 .176 .350 Constant-1.049.7741.8351.176.350  "},{"text":" and Selam and Kelay (2013) andChaka (2012) reported 93%, 86% and 60.5% of the respondents, respectively indicated diseases, mostly ND, were the important causes for chicken mortality in village. But, in contrary with the current study,Selam and Kelay (2013) andNega et al. (2012) reported 91.9% and 80.6% of the respondents, respectively indicated predator was the major cause for chicken loss in the village. In this study low percent of respondent (20%) indicated predation was a major cause of village chicken loss. This difference could be due to increased awareness of farmers to use different techniques that reduced exposure of chicken to predation. This result agrees with the findings ofTadelle and Ogle (2001) who reported disease as the most important factor in the death of chicks. On the other hand, 80.8% of the respondents indicated, disease occurrence, specifically NCD, was higher at dry season. This result disagrees with the findings of Selam (2013) who reported 77.8% of the respondents indicated disease occurrence was higher at short and long rainy season. But it is supported byChaka et al. (2012 and 2013);Nega et al. (2012) andZeleke et al. (2005) who identified human activity and increased in the chicken market turnover during dry season could leads to outbreaks of chicken diseases particularly NCD have been attributed to high prevalence during dry season. In the current study area, the villagers recognize the season when diseases will occur and they dispose of their chickens by sale, thus initiating or sustaining outbreaks.Longitudinal study was conducted to determine the incidence rate and predictors of NCD in village chicken death during the nine months of follow-up period. Out of 1358 chickens were registered, only 14.9% (202/1358) chicken survived the entire follow-up period. During the study period 843 birds, which belonged to different age and sex categories, were found dead as a result of NCD occurrence. Out of which, 680 chicken died within the third (November) and the Serological study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of NCD and IBD in active clinical case and apparently health chicken during disease outbreak. Overall, 28.6% seroprevalence of NCD was recorded over the duration of the study. This is in concurrence with Zeleke et al.(2005) and Tadesse et al. (2005) who reported seroprevalence of 19.78% and 32.2%, from Southern and Rift valley districts of Ethiopia and central Ethiopia, respectively. Similarly, Chakaet al. (2013)  reported prevalence of 21.5% and 34.5% from Adami Tulu Gido Kombolch and Ade'a wereda, respectively.Serkalem et al. (2005) also reported prevalence of 28.57%, 29.69%  "}],"sieverID":"cee44c56-1137-43e4-a846-943f681e3940","abstract":"TABLE OF CONTENT CONT… 4. RESULTS……………………………………………………………………….. 4.1.Questionnaire Survey………………………………………………………… 4.1.1. Flock size change and major causes of chicken mortality………………... 4.1.2. Monthly average number of chicken ownership dynamics…………….…. 4.2. Survival Analysis of ND in Village Chicken………………………………... 4.3. Laboratory (serology)………………………………………………………..."}

data/part_5/0b529c40434f9918b075ce72479fadb9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b529c40434f9918b075ce72479fadb9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28cbaa96-e2d6-4632-ad84-fd95b4ed7352/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Boosting the adoption of sustainable land-use systems for climate-change mitigation and peacebuilding","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Background of the study https://www.las2orillas.co/las-farc-son-un-monstruo-que-compraconciencias-por-doquier-en-caqueta/ Source:https://especiales.semana.com/deforestacion/caqueta.ht ml https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/a-side-effectof-peace-in-colombia-a-cocaine-boom-in-theus/2017/05/07/6fb5d468-294a-11e7-9081-f5405f56d3e4_story.html "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"c34b228b-fe84-4a47-9f4b-62bc5b8ebcc9","abstract":"What are the factors which boost SLUS adoption? 2. Are these aligned with the policies promoting cocoa production systems in Colombia?General Objective: To determine how policies to promote SLUS in Colombia can target real barriers and increase its adoption to promote climate-change mitigation and peacebuilding."}

data/part_5/0bd0e199d20d9251efce0dfb8e27a4e6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bd0e199d20d9251efce0dfb8e27a4e6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/037deae7-2add-41d8-980c-00d75c44f400/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Project \"Generating evidence on gender sensitive Climate-Smart Agriculture to inform policy in Central America\"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The launching event of the project \"Generating evidence on gender sensitive Climate-Smart Agriculture to inform policy in Central America\" funded by IDRC and led by CCAFS and CIAT was carried out as part of a broader knowledge exchange event between Central American countries and Colombia. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) was the main topic of the knowledge exchange which also included discussions on gender implications in implementing and scaling CSA options across the region. The program of the complete knowledge exchange is available in Annex I of this document."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"During the first day of the exchange, the aim was to present the key stakeholders of Central America the portfolio of projects that are being implemented by CCAFS in the region including those bilateral projects funded by key strategic partners such as \"Generating evidence on gender sensitive Climate-Smart Agriculture to inform policy in Central America\" funded by IDRC and \"A common journey: Capacity-building in Central America to strengthen policies and decision-making for climate change adaptation and mitigation\" funded by IFAD."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"The discussion of the whole portfolio of projects towards achieving the CSA Regional Strategy goals was the main purpose of the session. The group specifically discussed how the strategic activities related to gender and social inclusion could use the research results of the IDRC funded project."}]},{"head":"Content and description of the session","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The generalities of the project were already socialized with most of the participants gathered in the knowledge exchange through a regional event on CSA in Trifinio area in February and later in March on a videoconference with the Technical Group on Climate Change and Risk Management of the Central American Agricultural Council (CAC)."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"During May 21 st the project leader, Osana Bonilla, presented the opportunity behind the \"Generating evidence on gender sensitive Climate-Smart Agriculture to inform policy in Central America\" project as a way to implement the gender goals of the CSA Strategy while analyzing the adoption of CSA practices and technologies, which in the long term aim to contribute to achieving global targets in adaptation and mitigation through the National Determined Contributions implementation."},{"index":3,"size":189,"text":"The geographic scope of the project was also explained, which will cover both local, subnational, national and regional scales. The across scales approach guarantees in some extent the articulation of the research results to the needs of key stakeholders at different scales. CSA practices are implemented and evaluated at local level with climate-smart villages communities and with the monitoring and evaluation system the effective adoption of CSA options is assessed. The analysis of such results are discussed and feedback by subnational stakeholders involved in the territory, which enables the use of the data for decision making processes at such scale. National institutions, such as Ministries of Agriculture, are aware of the results of those processes and uses that information, as well as other tools in other to inform current and future programs. Finally, CAC and Regional Council of Ministries of Women (COMMCA) use the information in order to inform other countries of the advances and Guatemala and Nicaragua to support them in the CSA Strategy implementation. Then, both the objectives and the program as well as the activities that were going to take place within the project were explained."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"The tools to be used were also presented, several participants were very interested in the monitoring and evaluation tool for CSA options adoption. Following that request, one webinar was schedule for each country (Guatemala and Nicaragua) in order to deep into the use of the tool within the project, and potential use in other processes in those countries. One of the main needs mentioned by all participants was the inclusion of a robust gender perspective in climate change and agriculture projects, in order to be able to addressed key challenges in that regard, as well as measuring the effects the best way possible. The latter might guarantee a better chance to get the projects funded for national and subnational key institutions."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"In addition, during the knowledge exchange a visit to the climate smart village in Cauca, Colombia, was carried out, which highly motivated the participants to support and being more involved in the climate smart villages located in their country. "}]},{"head":"Agenda of the launch","index":4,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Opportunities and needs addressed with the project  Geographical scope  Objectives and research questions  Methodological tools  Advances and following activities Q&A and wrap up 4. List of participants Monday, May 21 st , 2018 "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"56f1a57c-7515-4d7a-91ba-94cb9fcc94d0","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c5064d327eb10c04a72087b640e55e6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a520d5ff-1786-47f0-9cde-d15b74752547/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Genome-wide diversity and structure variation among lablab [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet] accessions and their implication in a Forage breeding program","keywords":["genetic resources","Genetic differentiation","Genetic diversity","SNP","SilicoDart"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"Dolichos lablab [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet] is an essential legume used as food and feed. It is assumed to have originated in Africa (Maass et al. 2005;Maass and Usongo 2007;Verdcourt 1970) and India (Ayyangar and Nambiar 1935;Shivashankar et al. 1993). It belongs to the family Fabaceae characterised as a busy semi-erect perennial herb. It is primarily a selfpollinated crop with doubled chromosome number 2n = 2x = 22 (Goldblatt 1981;She and Jiang 2015). It is one of the diverse annual legume crop in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide (Smy ´kal et al. 2015). Lablab is a multipurpose crop used mainly for animal feeding as forage meal, fresh forage, straw, hay, grain, grazing, or browsing. Humans consume it's fresh leaves, immature grains, mature grains, green pods, as pharmaceutical or nutraceutical foods (Adebisi and Bosch 2004;Morris 2009;Subagio and Morita 2008). The crop is also used for soil improvement, protection and weed control (Ewansiha and Singh 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":232,"text":"In Uganda, lablab is predominantly utilised as feed for ruminants, notably cattle, served as fresh foliage. The use of lablab grain in monogastric and ruminant diets is limited due to high levels of antinutritional compounds in locally available cultivars. Furthermore, the utilisation of lablab for silage production is constrained by the incompatibility of available local cultivars with silage production equipment and difficulties in wilting the crop due to its thick moist stems. The crop's intolerance to trampling and grazing also constrains the integration of lablab into grass-dominated pasture swards under grazing systems. Regardless of its wide adaptability, diversity and aptness to tropical agricultural production systems, lablab remains underutilised (Ebert 2014;Engle and Altoveros 1999). In the effort to harness the multiple benefits of lablab and to stimulate its increased utilisation in diverse livestock production and feeding systems, the National Livestock Resources Research Institute of the National Agricultural Research Organisation of Uganda acquired lablab germplasm from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), local country collections, and assembled a group of elite accessions. This collection of elite accessions is well-thought-out as the most reliable and efficient source for the primary search of trait-specific accessions. These can be utilised for quantitative trait loci discovery, allele mining, and association mapping panel development to explore forward breeding while enhancing the genetic gains in lablab breeding for yield and its component traits."},{"index":3,"size":178,"text":"With recent genomic technological advancement, it's now possible to examine the whole species' genome than selected regions within the genome to capture markers that contribute to complex traits (Maulana et al. 2019). Thus, it's imperative to understand the genetic relationship of new and uncharacterised accessions to effectively be utilised in the breeding pipeline (Sserumaga et al. 2019(Sserumaga et al. , 2014)). This is possible with the help of molecular markers since their cost per data point is low, highly abundant within the genome, they are locus-specific, co-dominant, and low genotyping error rates (Rafalski 2002). Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) are one of the robust marker types used in diversity studies and genome-related association studies (Azmach et al. 2013;Farfan et al. 2015;Suwarno et al. 2015). However, some orphan crops like lablab have not been sequenced to the fullest. This study aimed to determine (i) the level of molecular diversity and structure among 65 gene-bank accessions using 9320 DArTseq-based SNP markers and 15,719 DArTseqbased SilicoDArT markers, (ii) the relationship among the set of accessions for better utilisation in a breeding program."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant materials, DNA extraction and Genotyping using DArTseq platform","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"A total of 65 lablab gene-bank accessions acquired from ILRI and CIAT gene banks and local collections were used in the study (Table 1). Leaf tissue was collected, packaged and shipped for genotyping at Integrated Genotyping Sequence Support (IGSS) platform hosted at Bioscience for East and Central Africa (BecA)-Hub, at ILRI, Nairobi. The leaf samples were lyophilised and total DNA extracted using the DNeasy plant mini kit (250) (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, CA) as per the manufacturer's guidelines. DNA concentration and purity were determined using a Nanodrop (DeNovix DS-11 FX spectrophotometer). Extra quality check was carried out on 0.8% agarose gel electrophoresis with lambda DNA of 50 ng as a marker. DNA for each sample was diluted to a required concentration range of 50-100 ng/ll for the DArTseq genotyping platform. After standardisation, 25 ll was aliquoted into 96 well semi-skirted plates for sequencing."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Using DArTseq platform, lablab genotyping was carried out using Diversity Array Technology (http:// www.diversityarrays.com/) (Kilian et al. 2012). Digestion of 50 ng of DNA was done using a recipe of PstI/HpaII restriction endonucleases. Products later ligated to a PstI overhang compatible with oligonucleotide adapter and sequenced using PstI site-specific primers on an Illumina HiSeq 2500 (Illumina). Referencing the DArTseq protocol, Short sequence fragments, SNP and SilicoDArT, markers were generated. Since there is no available full sequence of lablab bean, the sequence fragments were aligned with the Mung bean (Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek) reference sequence on Ensembl (https://plants.ensembl.org/ Vigna_radiata/Info/Index). The genome-wide SNPdensity plot distribution of the markers was envisaged using the R-package CMplot (https://github.com/ YinLiLin/R-CMplot)."}]},{"head":"Marker data analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Genotyping by Sequence data for SNP and SilicoDArt markers distributed across the lablab genome was received from IGSS at BecA Hub. Percentage of missing data per marker, per accession, Call rates, polymorphic information content (P.I.C.) and Expected heterozygosity (He) were calculated in DartView (http://software.kddart.com/kdxplore/ dartview/). Using TASSEL v.5.2.43 software (Bradbury et al. 2007), genotypic data was filtered with 0.05 for minor allele frequency and a minimum count of 80% for sample size. Genetic distance was computed between pair of lablab accession using identity by state similarity (I.B.S.) method in TASSELv.5.2.43. A marker based kinship matrix was then calculated between pair of lablab in dataset using TASSELv.5.2.43."}]},{"head":"Genetic relationship and population structure","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"The Diversity of the lablab accessions were assessed using the model-based STRUCTURE, minimum spanning network and different diversity indices Stoddart and Taylor's G (Stoddart and Taylor 1988) and Shannon-Wiener's H' (Shannon and Weaver 1949). A multivariate model-based clustering approach, implemented in the STRUCTURE software package version 2.3.4 (Pritchard et al. 2000), was used to analyse population structure. In the model-based clustering approach, a 100,000 burn-in period was utilised, followed by 100,000 iterations. A model taking into consideration admixture and correlated allele frequencies with no information about location or population was used to deduce the right number of groups in the population of 65 accessions using posterior probabilities (qK). Ten independent runs of STRUCTURE were executed with the number of clusters set from 1 to 10, through 10 replicates for each K. Delta K was computed for each value of K using online software, the Structure Harvester (Evanno et al. 2005). Each accession was allocated to a given group when the extent of its genome in the cluster (qK) was higher than an edge estimation of 50%."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Phylogenetic analysis using unweighted pair-group mean arithmetic was performed to envisage the relationships between accessions using the R package Analyses of Phylogenetics and Evolution (ape) (Paradis et al. 2004). Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) was performed to determine the variance among populations and among accessions within populations using the R package poppr version 2.8.5. (Kamvar et al. 2015). Genetic differentiation among  2006). An independent analysis called the minimum spanning network was used to visualise the population structure using igraph R package version 1.2.5. (Csardi and Nepusz 2006)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Genotyping lablab accessions using Genotyping by Sequencing."},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"Maker Density, genetic distance and relationships A total of 9,320 polymorphic SNPs makers were called on 65 lablab accessions with an average of two alleles detected per loci and with a mean call rate of 73%. Average minor allele frequency calculated ranged from 0 to 0.09 with a mean of 0.09. Heterozygosity per marker ranged from 0 to 0.61, with a mean of 0.03. Polymorphic Information Content ranged from 0.02 to 0.5, with an average of 0.14. Genetic distance between lablab accession pairs ranged from 0.08 to 0.49, with an average of 0.26. The majority of lablab pairs (46.5%) had genetic distances between 0.20 and 0.25 (Fig. 1a). Relative kinship relationship coefficients between sets of accessions ranged from 0 A total of 15,719 SilicoDArT markers were called on the 65 lablab accessions, with a mean call rate of 97%. Polymorphic Information Content ranged from 0.03 to 0.50, with an average of 0.13. Genetic distance between pairs of accessions ranged from 0.03 to 0.32, with a mean of 0.16. The majority of pairs of accessions (40.3%) had genetic distances between 0.10 and 0.15 (Fig. 1b). The relative kinship relationship coefficient between sets of accessions ranged from 0 to 3.25, with a mean of 3.42."}]},{"head":"Genome-wide SNP-density distribution plot of the markers","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The SNP and SilicoDArT markers were mapped to the genome of Mungbean, because it's the specie with a sequenced genome closely related to lablab. The markers aligned per chromosome ranged from 49 to 162 for SilicoDArT, and 54 to 167 for SNPs. In both sets of markers, the largest and least number of markers mapped onto chromosome seven and three respectively. Generally, only 7% (1025 out of 15,719) of the SilicoDArT markers and 13% (1226 out of 9320) of the SNP markers mapped on the eleven chromosomes of the Mung bean genome (Fig. 2a, b)."}]},{"head":"Phylogenetic analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The lablab accessions clustered into three groups at 40-50 distances (Fig. 3a, b). Phylogenetic trees clustered the accessions into three subgroups (Fig. 3a, b). Results from SNP clustering revealed that Group III (46%) consisted of more accessions than Group I (25%) and Group II (29%). SilicoDArT markers clustering revealed that there were more accessions in Group II (75.4%) than in either Group 1 (12.3%) or III (12.3%). Group 1 consisted more of ILRI and CIAT accessions under SNP clustering and only, Ugandan accessions were clustered in Group III. However, using SilicoDArT markers, the Uganda accessions were evenly distributed in all the 3 groups."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"SNP clustering established that one ILRI accession was closely related to 15 CIAT accessions in group 1. In group 2, 6 CIAT and 5 ILRI accessions sub grouped with one Ugandan accession. At the same time, the second sub-group comprised only CIAT accessions. In Group 3, 14 CIAT accessions sub grouped with 9 ILRI and 6 Ugandan accessions. Silico Dart marker grouping is more less like SNP clustering. The dendograms (Fig. 3a, b) indicate 3 lineages in the lablab population and similar pattern is observed in clusters generated by STRUCTURE."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Using SNPs for minimum spanning network clustering, the number of clusters detected was also 3, but not based on their origin of the accessions (Fig. 4). The Ugandan accessions was found in two groups. Also, the network (Fig. 4) indicates the presence of 3 lineages in the lablab population, and a similar pattern is observed in clusters generated by STRUCTURE and Neighbor-Joining."}]},{"head":"Diversity in the lablab populations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The model-based STRUCTURE, minimum spanning network methods showed the presence of the three divergent groups. The subpopulations within the 65 Lablab accessions were analysed, with the 9,320 polymorphic SNP markers in the STRUCTURE software. The highest peak of delta K was at K = 3 "}]},{"head":"123","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"(Fig. 5a), was indicative of three major groups and admixed accessions. However, a second major peak at K = 6 signifies six probable subgroups (Fig. 5b). At a 0.50 membership probability threshold when K = 6, 15 accessions were assigned to Group I, two accessions to Group II, seven accessions to Group III, 14 accessions to Group IV, 12 accessions to Group V, and 15 accessions to Group VI (Fig. 5c). For DK = 3, most of the accessions from CIAT, showed the greater probability of ancestral membership for cluster I and III (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Analysis of molecular variance","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"AMOVA method was employed to analyse lablab populations to deduce the population differentiation using SNP markers. The AMOVA results showed that among diversity explained by 0.57%, and withincluster diversity explained by 99.43% of the total variation (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Allelic Diversity in the Regional Populations"},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"The allelic diversity in three populations of lablab accessions is presented in Table 2. The number of expected M.L.G. at the smallest sample size C ten based on rarefaction ranged from 7 (UGA) to 10 (CIAT). We detected the highest mean genetic diversity in CIAT population (H = 3.66, G = 39), while the UGA population had the least mean genetic diversity (H = 1.95, G = 7). The evenness index was equal to 1 for all accession; hence all occurred at the same frequency. The Nei's unbiased gene diversity was detected highest in UGA population (Hexp = 0.363) and lowest in ILRI population (Hexp = 0.304). Diversity indices increased with increasing genotypic richness and samples size (Table 2). H and G increased linearly as the number of lablab accession (N) increased (Table 2), and this was true for the k and H."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The analysis of a lablab population's genetic structure is paramount to broaden the knowledge on the genetic base of germplasm for the breeding programs by identifying genetic pools. It enhances the utilisation and conservation of genetic resources. Although many phylogenetic studies have conducted using different markers (Mba and Tohme 2005;Venkatesha et al. 2007), has relied mainly on using low-density molecular markers (Humphry et al. 2002;Konduri et al. 2000;Patil et al. 2009;Sujithra et al. 2009;Wang et al. 2004Wang et al. , 2005)). The discovery of genome-wide molecular markers in an organism with restricted genomic data like lablab is possible with genotyping by sequencing approaches, a cost-effective method (Hu et al. 2018;Kilian et al. 2012). This study presents results of the first kind of lablab diversity with advanced molecular marker technologies. We assessed the diversity and population structure in the lablab collection using genome-wide density SNP and SiliconDArT markers (Jaccoud et al. 2001;Kilian et al. 2012). Both SNP and SilcoDart markers used in this analysis resulted in broad agreement albeit varying genomic regions were studied."},{"index":2,"size":206,"text":"Since the Lablab reference genome sequence is in the pipeline of generation, the mungbean genome sequence, was used to map genomic position and distribution of the SNP and SilicoDArT markers. Mungbean (2n = 2x = 22 chromosomes) (Kang et al. 2014) is closely related to lablab (Humphry et al. 2002). indeed, the linkage mapping comparison results showed that mungbean was highly homologous with lablab (Humphry et al. 2002), suggesting that the two species may contrast by an inversion at a particular genomic region. However, both are believed to be all the more phylogenetically far off with the different number of chromosome (11 and 12, respectively) (Humphry et al. 2002). However, a large number of mutations have apparently accumulated after divergence despite their very similar marker orders (Humphry et al. 2002). It was this significant level of homology observed by Humphry et al. (2002) between mungbean and lablab that allowed us to use the mungbean genome as reference. The genomewide mapping presented the marker distribution and density with most markers located at the peripheral chromosome arms ends, as Kang et al. (2014) reported in mungbean. However, only 7% of the SilicoDArT and 33% of the SNP markers were able to map to the mungbean genome's seven chromosomes."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"Observed clustering implied a wide range of genetic diversity within the L. purpureus accessions. Using selected SilicoDart and SNP markers which were distributed across the genome and highly polymorphic makes this study the first of its kind and more robust than earlier reports with low density marker sets like amplified fragment length polymorphism. This study's results are consistent with previous reports on genetic diversity of collections using agro-  (Basavarajappa and Gowda 2000;Keerthi et al. 2014;Maass 2006;Parmar et al. 2013). This means that the high level of variation among the 65 lablab accessions is attributed to African origin and South America's collection related to the rich gene pool of the African landraces. In particular, Tefera (2006), showed distinction of the East African landraces from core collection selected to epitomise agro-morphological variation and a wide scope of geographic origins while studying molecular diversity assessment with Amplified fragment length polymorphisms markers. Also, the impact of gene flow and genetic drift on the variation is anticipated to be low as lablab is predominantly self-pollinated."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"However, the results are contrary to Venkatesha et al. (2007) who used AFLP markers to study the diversity of 78 Lablab purpureus accessions and reported very little genetic diversity within Lablab purpureus accessions. In addition, Sultana et al. (2000) reported that 20 landraces studied by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA markers were similar and related to a large portion of the 60 accessions received from Australia than to those of diverse African origins. It seems that labalab in southern Asia is less diverse than that from Africa even though there is impressive agro-morphological variation (Maass et al. 2010)."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"The clustering of the UGA materials from Uganda, ILRI and CIAT appeared to be based on geographical origin. This is consistent with Venkatesha et al. (2007)'s findings, who reported difference in clustering between southern Indian germplasm collections compared to a set accession from other worldwide germplasm collections that included African accessions. Group 1 consisted more of ILRI and CIAT accessions under SNP clustering but using SilicoDArT markers, the Uganda accessions were evenly distributed in all the 3 groups. This might be due to the type of markers used that is, either dominant markers (SilicoDArT) and co-dominant markers (SNP) (Jaccoud et al. 2001;Kilian et al. 2012)."},{"index":6,"size":230,"text":"Analysis of molecular variance showed a high contribution of within-population difference to the total variation implying a high genetic diversity among accessions. This result is substantiated by a low level of genetic variation among the populations, a high pair-wise genetic distance of most accession pairs, and fair representation of accession from all sources in structure analysis clusters (particularly in DK = 3). Such difference among the accessions is anticipated due to the self-pollinated reproduction mode in favor of maternal accession regardless of heterozygosity level (Kukade and Tidke 2014;Shrikrishna and Ramesh 2020;Vaijayanthi et al. 2019). The partitioning of molecular variations for the accession population was similar to those reported in previous studies (Humphry et al. 2002;Konduri et al. 2000;Maass et al. 2005;Sujithra et al. 2009;Tefera 2006;Wang et al. 2004). In agreement with the STRUC-TURE analysis, NJ tree and minimum spanning analysis showed accession in three distinct groups, but the membership coefficient differed between two analyses. Accessions in group 1, 2 and 3 that clustered exclusive of improved cultivars may require further study to know where they belong, because they could be possessing unique traits of agricultural importance. These observations signify high level of genetic diversity of accessions due to high gene diversity. This is because many Lablab species occur naturally in Africa, a region that represents a center of diversity of the genus (Maass et al. 2005;Maass and Usongo, 2007;Verdcourt 1970)."},{"index":7,"size":128,"text":"Our study revealed a high genetic diversity in lablab accessions and their high utility in improvement programs for economic importance traits such as high biomass production, drought tolerance, and pest and diseases resistance. Crosses of distantly related ecotypes could be an excellent strategy to broaden the genetic base. The Lablab genome's complexity, limited understanding of functional genomics of different genes, and morphological agility within and between the species has limited the pace of Lablab breeding. Therefore, there is a need to enrich the current understanding of Lablab biology and promote the integrated use of conventional and molecular breeding to exploit genetic resources from this collection and those available elsewhere. In addition, characterisation of selected accessions for morphological traits in multiple location may yield superior cultivars for commercial cultivation."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The genetic diversity and structure of lablab accessions deduced in this study serve as key findings that can be utilised to guide effective management, exploitation, and improvement of accessions to design genetic and marker-trait association studies. The SNP and SilicoDArT markers used in our study, with unification with S.S.R. and SNP markers developed by Konduri et al. (2000), Humphry et al. (2002), Maass et al. (2005), Wang et al. (2004), Tefera (2006) and Sujithra et al. (2009), can serve to heighten the data resources available for lablab improvement using marker assisted selection."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 2 aFig. 3 a Fig. 2 a SNP density levels within 1 Mb window size with different colors. ''Chr'' refers to common mung bean chromosomes with unmapped markers. b SilicoDArT Marker density "},{"text":"Fig. 4 Fig. 4 Minimum spanning networks (MSN) of 65 accessions based on origin "},{"text":"Fig. 5 a Fig. 5 a Changes in Delta K with number of subpopulations. b Population structure among individuals with K = 3. c Population structure among individuals with K = 6 "},{"text":"Table 1  Proportion of membership of each Population Number of Individual Estimated membership coefficient Proportion of membership of eachPopulationNumber of IndividualEstimated membership coefficient predefined population from   CI CII CIII predefined population fromCICIICIII structure analysis (DK = 3)     structure analysis (DK = 3)  CIAT gene banks (CIAT) 39 0.363 (14) 0.106 (4) 0.531 (21) CIAT gene banks (CIAT)390.363 (14)0.106 (4)0.531 (21)  ILRI gene banks (ILRI) 19 0.313 (6) 0.492 (9) 0.196 (4) ILRI gene banks (ILRI)190.313 (6)0.492 (9)0.196 (4)  Local Collection (UG) 7 0.035 (0) 0.208 (2) 0.757 (5) Local Collection (UG)70.035 (0)0.208 (2)0.757 (5)  "},{"text":"Table 2 Genotypic richness, diversity, and evenness Pop Population name, N number of individuals observed, MLG number of multilocus genotypes (MLG) observed, eMLG the number of expected MLG at the smallest sample size C 10 based on rarefaction, SE standard error based on eMLG, H Shannon-Wiener index of MLG diversity, G Stoddart and Taylor's index of MLG diversity, lambda Simpson's Index, E.5 evenness, Hexp Nei's unbiased gene diversity, Ia the index of association, rbarD the standardized index of association Pop N MLG eMLG SE H G lambda E.5 Hexp Ia rbarD PopNMLGeMLGSEHGlambdaE.5HexpIarbarD CIAT 39 39 10 0.00E?00 3.66 39 0.974 1 0.313 127.6 0.00922 CIAT3939100.00E?003.66390.97410.313127.60.00922 ILRI 19 19 10 2.51E-07 2.94 19 0.947 1 0.304 926.7 0.05827 ILRI1919102.51E-072.94190.94710.304926.70.05827 UGA 7 7 7 0.00E?00 1.95 7 0.857 1 0.363 90.3 0.00913 UGA7770.00E?001.9570.85710.36390.30.00913 Total 65 65 10 6.30E-06 4.17 65 0.985 1 0.255 362.6 0.02208 Total6565106.30E-064.17650.98510.255362.60.02208  "},{"text":"Table 3 Analysis of molecular variance for genetic differentiation among and with clusters of Lablab collection Source DF SS MS Est. var (%) SourceDFSSMSEst. var(%) Among populations 2 5205.06 2602.53 13.47 0.57 Among populations25205.062602.5313.470.57 Within populations 62 146,618.48 2364.81 2364.81 99.43 Within populations62146,618.482364.812364.8199.43 Total 64 151,823.54 2372.24 2378.29 100 Total64151,823.542372.242378.29100 Genetic differentiation among accession populations (PhiPT) = 0.0056; P = 0.142   Genetic differentiation among accession populations (PhiPT) = 0.0056; P = 0.142 DF Degree of freedom, SS sum of squares, MS squares, Est. var. estimate of variance, % percentage of total variation  DF Degree of freedom, SS sum of squares, MS squares, Est. var. estimate of variance, % percentage of total variation P-value is based on 9999 permutations     P-value is based on 9999 permutations  "}],"sieverID":"8ca48f9f-8ce3-4bee-bbcc-ff5c0042ad7c","abstract":"Most orphan crops have not been fully sequenced, hence we rely on genome sequences of related species to align markers to different chromosomes. This hinders their utilisation in plant population improvement programs. Utilising the advances in the science of sequencing technologies, the population structure, relatedness, and genetic diversity among accessions can be assessed quickly for better exploitation in forage breeding programs. Using DArTseq technology, we studied the genetic and structural variation in 65 Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet conserved gene-bank accessions using 9320 DArTseqbased SNPs and 15,719 SilicoDart markers. These markers had a low discriminating ability with mean polymorphic information content (P.I.C.) of 0.14 with DArTseq-based SNPs and 0.13 with SilicoDart markers. However, the markers had a high mean call rate of 73% with DArTseq-based SNPs and 97% with Sili-coDart markers. Analysis of molecular variance revealed a high within populations variance (99.4%), indicating a high gene exchange or low genetic differentiation (PhiPT = 0.0057) among the populations. Structure analysis showed three allelic pools in variable clusters of DK = 3 and 6. Phylogenetic tree of lablab accessions showed three main groups with variable membership coefficients. Most pairs of accessions (40.3%) had genetic distances between 0.10 and 0.15 for SilicoDart markers, while for DArTseq-based SNPs, (46.5%) had genetic distances between 0.20 and 0.25. Phylogenetic clustering and minimum spanning analysis divided the 65 accessions into three groups, irrespective of their origin. For the first time, this study produced high-density markers with good genom coverage. The utilisation of these accessions in a forage program will base on the information from molecular-based grouping. The outcomes uncovered the presence of noteworthy measure of variety in Uganda, CIAT and ILRI accessions, thus demonstrating an opportunity for further marker-trait-association studies."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c8c27b82c96e40867e3e5a6c71947e1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a7689491-4ec8-49de-b5a6-60b2235547d2/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Identification of a Major QTL-Controlling Resistance to the Subtropical Race 4 of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense in Musa acuminata ssp. malaccensis","keywords":["banana","fusarium wilt","host resistance","quantitative trait locus","bulk segregant analysis","Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense","Subtropical Race 4","QTL-seq"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Banana, as a fruit or subsistence crop, provides sources of essential nutrients in daily dietary uptake for millions of people around the world [1]. The fungal vascular wilt disease of banana, often referred to as Panama disease, has put major constraints on global banana production. The causal agent underlying this disease is the ascomycete fungus F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc). Foc is a highly adaptive pathogen, that is composed of Pathogens 2023, 12, 289 2 of 13 different evolutionary lineages, currently represented by 24 vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) [2][3][4]; alternatively, it can be classified into a race structure based on the range of host cultivars that are affected [5]. Foc race 1 decimated banana production primarily based on the triploid cultivar 'Gros Michel' in the mid-20th Century. Its replacement, 'Cavendish', is resistant to race 1 and has since dominated the global market. Today, global banana production has succumbed to the tropical race 4 (TR4) of Foc, following its spread and detection in Asia and Pacific region in the 1980-1990s [6,7], that is virulent on all 'Cavendish' type banana. The pandemic that followed has once again put global banana production under siege."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"Foc is a soil borne pathogen that enters the host plant through roots where it travels through the plant's vasculature to colonize the entire plant [8,9]. Proliferation of the fungus leads to blockages in the water conducting vessels of the xylem, thereby stopping water and nutrient supplies to the plant [10]. This eventually leads to wilting and death of the plant. Once Foc establishes itself in the soil, it can remain in the soil for decades [10][11][12], surviving in the form of thick-walled survival spores (chlamydospores) on plant debris, or as an endophyte on alternative weed hosts like Chloris inflata (common grass), Amaranthus and Paspalum spp. [13][14][15]. Foc is dispersed through the movement of soil, water, infected plant material, and animals [5]. Despite best management practices and biosecurity measures being put in place to contain, control, eradicate, or exclude Foc from infected plantations, Foc-TR4 has continued to spread around the world, with potential to occupy 17% of banana cultivated lands over the next two decades, projecting losses up to 36 million tons of production worth over USD 10 billion [16]."},{"index":3,"size":206,"text":"Genetic resistance to Foc will lead to long-term solutions for the management of Fusarium wilt [17,18]. Research activities in developing Foc resistant cultivars through either conventional breeding or transgenic approaches are predicted to have significant impact in the reduction of potential losses caused by this disease [19]. Currently, no commercial cultivars are available that possess complete resistance against Foc-TR4 [5]. Wild diploid relatives of banana are known to harbor Foc-TR4 and subtropical race 4 (STR4) resistance [20,21]. In Australia, TR4 is a strictly quarantined matter, and due to logistic and experimental constraints, STR4 was used in this study instead of TR4. STR4 strains are only known to affect 'Cavendish' banana in the subtropics, whereas TR4 strains are known to cause serious impacts in both tropics and subtropics [22]. Here, we report the characterization of STR4 resistance in a wild banana relative, which we confirmed to be of Musa acuminata ssp. malaccensis origin. Genome sequencing and SNP resistance association analysis using an F 2 derived population were performed to detect quantitative trait loci (QTL) controlling resistance against Foc-STR4. Potential candidate genes were identified. This study paves the way for molecular assisted breeding tools to be developed in the selection of resistant genotypes to different forms of Foc."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Population","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":228,"text":"Banana tissue culture clones from three Foc-TR4 resistant (R) lines ('Ma850', 'Ma851', 'Ma852') and three Foc-TR4 susceptible (S) lines ('Ma845', 'Ma846', 'Ma848') were micropropagated and maintained in vitro as described in a previous study [23]. The R lines are self-derived progeny from a single wild progenitor. The S lines are self-derived progeny from another wild progenitor, not related to the R progenitor. Single gene resistance (3R:1S) to Foc-STR4 (VCGs 0120, 0129, 01211) and Foc-TR4 (VCG 01213/16) has been previously detected in the progeny of the R lines in pot trials conducted at the University of Queensland (QLD), and the Coastal Plains Research Facility (NT) [21]. An F 2 population carrying resistance was developed using three progeny crosses/selfs, comprising 'Ma851' × 'Ma851', 'Ma851' × 'Ma852', and 'Ma852' × 'Ma852'. An initial set of proliferative F 2 lines from these crosses were multiplied in vitro and then challenged with three combined distinct isolates of Foc-STR4 VCG0120 in a pot trial with plants grown under ambient (25-28 • C/day and 18-20 • C/night) conditions. A previously described millet (Echinochloa esculenta) inoculation technique was used where plants, 12 weeks post tissue culture, were challenged in glasshouse conditions with Foc inoculum and scored for internal symptoms after another 12 weeks [9]. Based on the resultant phenotype, 27 Foc-STR4 resistant and 25 susceptible progenies were selected for a whole genome-wide QTL sequencing (QTL-seq) analysis."}]},{"head":"Next Generation Sequencing","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"DNA extraction was performed using a phenol-chloroform method [24] on tissue from young banana leaves. DNA was cleaned up using Ampure XP beads (Beckman Coulter, Brea, CA, USA) according to manufacturer's instructions, and then pooled at equal molar ratios to form two bulks (R and S). The bulk DNA, along with the DNA of parental lines 'Ma851' and 'Ma848' were sent to AGRF (Australian Genome Research Facility, Brisbane, Australia) for Illumina library preparation (TrueSeq DNA Nano kit, Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA) and sequencing on a Hiseq4000 platform to generate 150 bp of paired-end reads. In total, 173 M, 197 M, 427 M, and 494 M reads were generated for 'Ma848', 'Ma851', R-bulk, and S-bulk, respectively."}]},{"head":"QTL-Seq Analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"QTL-seq analysis was performed by using a QTL-seq pipeline [25]-which includes adaptor trimming by 'Trimmomatic' [26]-alignment to the reference genome DH-Pahang v4.3 'https://banana-genome-hub.southgreen.fr/' (accessed on 8 February 2023) by using 'BWA-MEM' [27], and calculation of changes in SNP indices between the R-and S-bulks. SNP index was calculated as count of SNP base/count of reads aligned. SNPs were filtered using minimum read depth of 8 and SNP index < 0.3. ∆SNP index was calculated by subtracting the SNP index of the S-bulk from that of the R-bulk. Plots were visualized with a window size of 2 Mb and a fixed step size of 100 Kb. 'SnpEff' v5 was run using default settings and the reference genome DH-Pahang v4.3 to calculate the number of variants per chromosome and the type of effect associated with these variants [28]. SNP and insertion/deletion variants were annotated by running 'ANNOVAR' with default settings against DH-Pahang v4.3 [29]."}]},{"head":"GO Enrichment Analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Go enrichment analysis was performed using the online tool at 'https://bananagenome-hub.southgreen.fr/content/go-enrichment/' (accessed on 8 February 2023). The running settings included p and q value cutoffs of 0.05, and 0.1, respectively. The input of the candidate region was defined from 36,275,176 bp to 42,483,366 bp position on chromosome 3 of 'DH-Pahang' v4.3. It contained 861 gene models and 638 associated GO terms."}]},{"head":"Ancestry mosaic Analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The susceptible M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis 'Ma848' and a resistant progeny of 'Ma851' were sequenced using one lane of Illumina Hiseq4000 which produced 52.4 Gb and 59.6 Gb of data from the respective libraries sequenced. Variant calling, SNP clustering and ancestry analysis were performed using the methodology and the six banana ancestral groups described in a previous study [30]."}]},{"head":"Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) Genotyping","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"SSR genotyping was performed on the six M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis parents ('Ma845', 'Ma846', 'Ma848', 'Ma850', 'Ma851', 'Ma852') using an existing pipeline [31]. Nineteen SSR loci were amplified using a set of M13 tailed fluorescent labelled primers. Estimation of allele sizes on an ABI 3730xl DNA analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Waltham, MA, USA), and the analysis of the data using GeneMarker v1.75 (Softgenetics, PA, USA) were performed [32]. The marker data was then analyzed together with a set of Musa accessions that has been verified with SSR genotyping. The core set includes East African Highland Banana (EAHB), Musa acuminata ssp. (AA), M. balbisiana (BB), and hybrids containing AB, AAB and ABB genomes, as well as M. schizoparpa and AS hybrids, and representatives of other sections of Musa, namely Rhodochlamys, Australimusa, and Callimusa [31,32]. Calculation of genetic distances among individual accessions and hierarchical clustering of the distance matrix using unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) were performed using the settings, as described previously [32]."}]},{"head":"Nuclear Genome Size Estimation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Suspensions of intact cell nuclei of 'Ma848' and 'Ma851' were prepared from fresh leaf \"cigars\". Nuclear DNA was stained by DAPI (4 ,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) and relative fluorescence intensity of stained nuclei was analyzed using Partec PAS flow cytometer (Partec, Münster, Germany) equipped with a high-pressure mercury lamp as excitation light source as per a previous study [33]. Chicken red blood cell nuclei (CRBC) were included in the samples and served as an internal reference standard."}]},{"head":"Results","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Flow cytometric analyses produced histograms of relative nuclear DNA content (Figure 1A), comprising two dominant peaks representing G 1 nuclei of 'Ma848', 'Ma851', and chicken red blood cell nuclei (CRBC). A peak ratio ('Ma848' or 'Ma851': CRBC) in the range of 0.51 to 0.53 indicates that both 'Ma848' and 'Ma851' carry diploid genomes."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"Nineteen SSR loci were amplified in all six 'Ma' accessions used in this study to add to the published Musa UPGMA dendrogram [32]. Thirteen clusters were generated, representing the core collection of Musa sp. [32,33]. Wild A-genome progenitors were grouped together with related diploids and triploid accessions and are generally in agreement to the morphological traits-based classification of groups [33]. 'Ma845', 'Ma846', 'Ma848', 'Ma850', 'Ma851', 'Ma852' were grouped together with M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis accessions, and diploid AA cultivars from the 'Island South-East Asia' (ISEA) region in cluster VI (Figure 1B). Clustering of these lines within the M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis subgroup show that they are most closely related to M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis 'Pa Songkhla', 'Kluai Pal', and AA cv. 'Pisang Sintok' (Figures 1B and S1)."},{"index":3,"size":204,"text":"Six ancestries of diploid origin were previously identified [30]. Informative alleles representing the six ancestral groups were selected based on a correspondence analysis of 13 accessions and then used to assign contiguous regions of the same ancestral group to 'Ma848' and 'Ma851'. The clustered alleles represent six groups of origin, namely Musa balbisiana, M. acuminata ssp. burmannica/siamea, M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis, M. acuminata ssp. banksia/microcarpa, M. acuminata ssp. zebrina, and 'AA' cv. 'Pisang Madu'. Statistical assessment of the expected allele frequency showed that M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis (group 3) was the predominant ancestry assigned to chromosomes in 'Ma848' and 'Ma851' (Figure 1C). 'Ma851', which carries Foc-STR4 and TR4 resistance, showed a M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis constitution with apparently limited introgressions from another ancestry. 'Ma848' showed a similar composition, but with large regions of ancestry other than M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis, namely M. acuminata ssp. banksia/microcarpa (group 4) and 'AA' cv. 'Pisang Madu' (group 5), observed on chromosome groups 3, 5 and 9 (Figure 1C). Both accessions also showed a high level of heterozygosity as most regions on chromosome 3 only had a single haplotype called. Overall, the local ancestry predictions on both lines suggest that they are both of M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis origin."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"nuclei of 8Ma848′, 8Ma851′ chicken red blood cell nuclei (CRBC). A peak ratio (8Ma848′ or 8Ma851′ of 0.51 to 0.53 indicates that both 8Ma848′ and 8Ma851′"},{"index":5,"size":74,"text":") Estimation of ploidy level of 8Ma848′ and 8Ma851′ QTL-seq was applied to detect QTL involved in Foc-STR4 resistance in an F 2 population derived from self-crossed 'Ma851' and 'Ma852'. Both lines are resistant to Foc-STR4 and their F 2 progeny segregated for Foc-STR4 resistance at a resistant and susceptible ratio of approximately 3 to 1 (Chi-square goodness of fit with χ 2 = 0.056, p = 0.81, df = 1, α = 0.05)."},{"index":6,"size":377,"text":"Sequencing of the R-and S-bulks and mapping of these reads to the reference genome produced a total of 3.47 million variants, across all 11 chromosomes and the mitochondria (Table 1). The reference genome 'DH-Pahang' is derived from the M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis accession 'CIRAD930' (ITC1511) and is resistant to Foc-TR4 [34]. It is also closely related to our lines (Figure S1). The majority of the SNPs are positioned in the non-coding and intronic regions, with only 21,178 (0.3%) and 263,738 (3.7%) variants occurring in splicing sites and exons, respectively (Table S1). Sequencing data from the R-and S-bulks were used to calculate the SNP index, which is the proportion of short reads (k) harboring SNPs that are different from the reference, covering a particular genomic position [25]. An SNP index of 0.5 indicates that each bulk contributes equally to the variation. The ∆(SNP index) was calculated for a given genomic interval in a 2 Mb sliding window analysis, which detected a region of significant effect on chromosome 3, with statistical confidence intervals (CIs) of p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 under the null hypothesis of no QTL present in these regions (Figure 2). A 6.3 Mb region was significantly associated with the Foc-STR4 resistance in the 99% CI at the distal end of chromosome 3, from 36.2 to 42.5 Mb. A total of 861 genes are annotated in this region of DH-Pahang v4.3. Out of these, 75 annotated genes may have roles in disease resistance response, including 27 putative receptor-like kinases (RLK), 17 putative receptor-like protein (RLP), 28 putative nucleotide binding site and leucine rich repeat (NBS-LRR) proteins, and 1 homolog of the non-expressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 (NPR1) (Table S2). GO enrichment using the 861 candidate genes detected a single significant term, GO:0043531 (ADP binding), under molecular function, with p = 1.72 × 10 −23 and a gene ratio of 33/638. The enrichment is associated with the 28 putatively defined NBS-LRR genes in the candidate region (Table S2). No other enriched GO terms were detected under the other categories. The genomic position exhibiting the highest ∆(SNP index) is at 40.9 Mb position on chromosome 3 and has a mean ∆(SNP index) of 0.81. No regions of significant associations were detected on any other chromosomes (Figure 2).  "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"Fusarium wilt, also known as Panama disease, is a devastating disease that affects banana plants. Epidemics owing to Fusarium wilt have put major constraints on global banana production both historically and at the present time. So far, Foc-TR4 has significantly curtailed banana production in Australia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines [6,7] and has spread to locations as far as Mozambique in Africa [35] and Colombia and Peru in South America [36,37]. The disease is posing a major threat to banana production, limiting the selection of cultivars and the land suitable for commercial production, while at the same time, putting constraints on food security of smallholders. Genetic resistance to Foc provides a long-term solution to the management of the disease. The identification of resistance is a step forward towards the development of Foc-TR4 resistant cultivars, either by using marker assisted selection or a transgenic approach. The diploid subspecies of M. acuminata, including M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis, M. acuminata ssp. burmannica, M. acuminata ssp. microcarpa and M. acuminata ssp. siamea are known to harbour Foc resistance [9,20,38]."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"In this study, we used high throughput SSR genotyping and flow cytometry as germplasm discovery tools to confirm the phylogroup and ploidy levels of a set of wild banana relatives, namely M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis within the Musa collection. Molecular characterization of wild Musa accessions such as this was only possible with the availability of germplasm collections, as well as the accompanying genetic and morphological data. The Musa Germplasm Information system (MGIS, 'http://www.crop-diversity.org/banana/' (accessed on 8 February 2023)), maintained by Bioversity International, provides the framework for the Musa collection to be categorized and characterized. Furthermore, the current system of SSR genotyping provides a reliable phylogenetic classification of wild relatives and hybrids that can be integrated into the core Musa collection to facilitate banana research and breeding, and at the same time, improve the management and conservation of global Musa germplasm collections [33]."},{"index":3,"size":198,"text":"Genome resequencing can be employed to mine SNP data to characterize evolutionary origins of genome segments in Musa species [30,39]. This is especially relevant in banana, as the hybridization between Musa species and subspecies is associated with the origin of cultivated banana [40,41]. M. acuminata subspecies are distributed along Southeast Asia and western Melanesia [41][42][43][44]. Hybridizations between some of them and with other Musa sp. gave rise to diploids and triploids selected for fruit edibility, leading to the diversity we have now in banana cultivars. With the level of genome diversity observed in Musa, determination of ancestral origin becomes important as it reveals genome mosaics or components that might be underlying important traits [30]. 'Ma848' and 'Ma851' seem to be derived from generally pure M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis sources. The presence of some segments of different origin, as clearly seen in 'Ma848', may have resulted from gene flow from partially fertile cultivars or from other wild individuals. The genome mosaic analysis provided a comprehensive view of the genome composition of the wild relatives and will be used in dissecting the different ancestral genetic pools present in some of the intraspecific hybrids or cultivars arising from these wild lines."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"With genome sequencing becoming increasingly affordable, sizable reference genomes such as the M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis genome 'DH-Pahang' can be sequenced in high contiguity with long read technologies [45]. The latest version (v4) of this assembly contains entire chromosomes reconstructed in single contigs and serves as a valuable resource for dissecting genome regions of a high complexity, such as centromeres or clusters of paralogs. By using this reference, we performed a genome-wide QTL-seq analysis to detect a QTL region on chromosome 3 underpinning STR4 resistance. QTL for resistance against race 1 and TR4 has been previously detected on chromosome 10 [46]."},{"index":5,"size":220,"text":"Plant resistance to microbes is often mediated in a host-pathogen-specific manner, through the interactions between the products of a R resistance gene and corresponding Avr (avirulence) gene in the pathogen, more commonly now referred to as an effector [47]. R proteins have been differentiated on the basis of whether they are cytoplasmic or membrane-bound and can be further divided into classes on the presence of specific protein domains [48]. The STR4 resistance locus contains at least three groups of RLKs containing different ectodomains. These include a LRR ectodomain in kinases such as the GASSHO1 (GSO1, Macma4_03_g31320.1), a cysteine-rich galacturonan-binding ectodomain in the leaf rust 10 disease-resistance locus receptor-like protein kinase-like proteins (LRK10L); and two Gnk2 domains (the domains of unknown function 26, DUF) in the cysteine-rich protein kinases (CRKs). These RLKs belong to different classes within the RLK family, as determined by their structure [49,50]. Members of the RLK family play important roles in plant immunity, development, ABA signaling, and drought resistance [51][52][53][54][55]. The QTL region also harbors a cluster of extracellular LRR containing receptor-like proteins (LRR-LRPs) lacking a kinase domain, akin to receptors that have been shown to recognize xylanases from the Trichoderma species [56]; Ve1 and Ve2 receptors that provide race-specific resistance against Verticillium sp. [57]; and the Cf receptors providing resistance against Cladosporium fulvum in tomato [48]."},{"index":6,"size":171,"text":"Cytoplasmic R proteins are also predicted in this region, including NBS-LRRs that have an N-terminal coiled-coil (CC-NBS-LRR), akin to RPP13 that provides resistance to Peronospora parasitica in Arabidopsis [58]. Other NBS-LRRs belong to a group of R genes known as the resistance gene analogs (RGAs), isolated from M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis that lack the TIR motif but has either a CC or no obvious motif at the amino terminus [59,60]. RGA2, which is a CC-NBS-LRR protein, similar to I2 and Fom-2 [61,62], appears to be important in mediating Foc-R1 and Foc-TR4 resistance [63,64]. Furthermore, we have the non-expressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 (NPR1), which has significant roles in establishing systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and induced systemic resistance (ISR) [65]. Lastly, Macma4_03_g24790.1 is similar to the Arabidopsis adenylyl cyclase AtLRRAC1 (At3g14460). AtLRRAC1 catalyzes the formation of the second messenger cAMP from ATP. A T-DNA insertion knock-out mutant atlrrac1-1 has enhanced susceptibility against Golovinomyces orontii and Pseudomonas syringae, suggesting a role of cAMP-dependent pathways in the defense biotrophic and hemibiotrophic plant pathogens [66]."},{"index":7,"size":227,"text":"The fact that the QTL underlies a complex region with duplicated R paralogs reflects the paleopolyploid nature of the banana genome. Three whole genome duplication events have been inferred throughout the history of the banana haploid genome [34,67,68], leading to an estimated one-third of the genes in multiple copies. Evolution by gene duplication is believed to be important for the gain and divergence of functions that may provide an evolutionary advantage [69]. Members of RLK family often have undergone expansions. It was found that more than 33% of RLK members are located in tandem clusters in Arabidopsis [70]. These expansions occur because of tandem duplications and wholegenome duplications. In Arabidopsis, tandem and proximal duplicates showed divergent functional roles but shared enriched GO terms critical for plant self-defense and adaptation, particularly in programmed cell death, immune response, and signaling receptor activity [71]. Tandem duplicates were characteristically enriched in GO terms involved in cofactor binding and enzymatic activities [71]. In this study, GO enrichment analysis on the candidate region revealed a single significant GO term (GO:0043531, ADP binding) under the GO category of molecular function, and identified an enrichment in the NBS-LRR gene cluster, consisting of the CC-NBS-LRR, RPP13-like protein 1, and RGA1-4 type resistance genes (Table S2). This suggests that the NBS-LRR candidate genes are potential targets to investigate for the molecular dissection of resistance at this locus."},{"index":8,"size":199,"text":"Next generation sequencing, when combined with bulked segregant analysis, offers rapid trait mapping at a high resolution [72,73]. Traditional bulked segregant analysis is time consuming [74] and is further complicated by the long turnover time of banana growth and constraints associated with phenotyping traits [75]. Bulked sample analysis and sequencing-based trait mapping have been described in many crop species [76,77]. Future work is currently being undertaken to fine map the QTL. Cleaved and amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS) markers are being developed to saturate the candidate region. A linkage map is being developed. F 2 individuals carrying recombination events are being identified. Recombinants will be phenotyped with both Foc-STR4 and Foc-TR4 to validate and delimit the candidate region. Potential functional SNPs in R gene candidates will be converted into markers to test for cosegregation with the race 4 resistances controlled by this locus. Comparative analysis of gene content in the QTL region through synteny analysis in the other resistant and susceptible Musa genomes can also lead to the identification of candidate resistance genes. At the same time, SNPs associated with Foc race 4 resistances can accelerate the development of Foc resistant cultivars through marker assisted selections in banana breeding programs."}]},{"head":"Supplementary Materials:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https: //www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/pathogens12020289/s1, Figure S1: UPGMA analysis of 'Ma845', 'Ma846', 'Ma848', 'Ma850', 'Ma851', 'Ma852' using SSR genotyping and M. acuminata. ssp. malaccensis accessions from the Musa core collection; Table S1: Annotated effects in Sequence Ontology (SO) terms associated with the variants detected in the 'SnpEff' analysis; Table S2: A list of putatively defined candidate genes with potential roles in Foc STR4 resistance. This research was funded by Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, grant number (OPP1213871) and the APC was funded by (OPP1213871). This work was supported, in part, by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1213871) through a program with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Under the grant conditions of the foundation, a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Generic License has already been assigned to the author-accepted manuscript version that might arise from this submission. Research funding support was also provided in part by Hort Innovation Australia (BA 17006). Jiaman Sun is supported by Guangxi Science and Technology Planning Project (Guike AA21196005) and Guangxi Natural Science Foundation (2021GXNSFAA196014)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. (A) Estimation of ploidy level of 'Ma848' and 'Ma851'. Histograms of relative nuclear DNA content obtained through flow cytometric analysis. The internal reference was chicken red blood cell nuclei (CRBC) which was adjusted to appear at channel 100. Peaks at 200, 300, 400, 500 correspond to doublets, triplets and so on of the CRBC nuclei. G1 peak positions of Musa ('Ma848', 'Ma851'): CRBC are 0.51 and 0.54, respectively, corresponding to a diploid genome. (B) A UPGMA dendrogram constructed with SSR data of Musa accessions including the six diploid lines from this study. Group I, Rhodochlamys; II, Australimusa, Callimusa; III, AA group: burmannicoides, burmannica, siamea; IV, schizocarpa (SS) and AS hybrids; V, AA group, zebrina, truncata; VI, AA group, malaccensis; VII, BB, ABB, AAB groups, balbisiana, 'Pisang awak', 'Pelipita', 'Mysore', 'Kunan', 'Silk'; VIII, AA and AAA group, 'Lacatan', 'Sucrier', AA cv., 'Indonesia I'; IX, AAA group, 'Mutika', 'Lujugira'; X, AAA, AAB group, 'Red', 'Indonesia', AA cv., 'Ambon', 'Pome', 'Gros Michel'; XI, AA group, banksii, banksii 'sensu lato', banksii derivatives; XII, ABB, AAB group, 'Saba', 'Monthan', 'Maia Maoli', 'Popoulu'; XIII, AAB, 'Iholena', plantains. Group I served as an outgroup. Major clades and subclades are discriminated by color. The 'Ma845', 'Ma846', 'Ma848 , 'Ma850', 'Ma851', 'Ma852' lines are clustered together in group VI and their positions are indicated by red arrows. (C) Local ancestry estimation for 'Ma848' and 'Ma851', using allele clustering against six ancestral diploid groups previously identified (Martin et al., 2020). g = group. g1 (black): Musa balbisiana; g2 (orange): M. acuminata ssp. burmannica/siamea; g3 (blue): M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis, g4 (green): M. acuminata ssp. banksii/microcarpa; g5 (purple): 'AA' cv. 'Pisang Madu'. g6 (red): M. acuminata ssp. zebrina. Unknown (grey): unassigned. Homologous chromosomes are grouped together by a bracket and the number indicates the chromosome number. Chromosome length is indicated at a megabase (Mb) scale. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. QTL-seq analysis using bulked F 2 segregants. ∆SNP index between resistance (R) and susceptible (S) bulks were calculated and plotted on 11 M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis chromosomes and mitochondrion DNA. Mean ∆SNP indices are plotted (red). A window size of 2 Mb and a fixed step size of 100 Kb was used in plotting. Statistical confidence intervals under the null hypothesis of no QTLs detected are indicated at p < 0.05, green; p < 0.01, orange. Chromosome length and positions are indicated in Mb. The significant genomic region is at 36.2-42.4 Mb on chromosome 3. "},{"text":" Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.C. and E.A.B.A.; methodology, J.B., D.E., A.C., L.-A.G., G.M, N.Y., E.H., P.C. and S.R.; validation, A.C. and E.A.B.A.; formal analysis, A.C., G.M., L.-A.G., J.S. and E.H.; investigation, A.C., G.M., J.S., E.H. and L.-A.G.; resources, E.A.B.A., A.C., S.K.R., R.L., L.C., S.H. and N.C.; data curation, A.C.; writing-original draft preparation, A.C.; writing-review and editing, E.A.B.A., A.C., J.S., G.M., N.Y., A.D., L.-A.G., E.H, P.C., J.D., S.R., R.L., J.B., N.C., D.E., S.H., S.K.R., L.C., B.U. and R.S.; visualization, A.C., G.M., E.H. and L.-A.G.; supervision, J.D., S.R., J.B., D.E., L.C., B.U., R.S., N.Y., A.D., E.A.B.A. and A.C., project administration, E.A.B.A.; funding acquisition, E.A.B.A. and A.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Total number of variants including SNPs and InDels (Insertions and Deletions) detected on each chromosome in DH-Pahang v4.3. Chromosome Length (bp) Variants Variants Rate (Avg Length in bp/Variant) ChromosomeLength (bp)VariantsVariants Rate (Avg Length in bp/Variant) 1 41,765,374 291,420 143 141,765,374291,420143 2 34,826,099 286,153 121 234,826,099286,153121 3 43,931,233 315,282 139 343,931,233315,282139 4 45,086,258 347,648 129 445,086,258347,648129 5 46,513,039 360,938 128 546,513,039360,938128 6 43,117,521 341,605 126 643,117,521341,605126 7 39,373,400 296,922 132 739,373,400296,922132 8 51,314,288 362,193 141 851,314,288362,193141 9 47,719,527 366,392 130 947,719,527366,392130 10 40,511,255 227,914 177 1040,511,255227,914177 11 34,663,808 241,783 143 1134,663,808241,783143 Mitochondria 10,397,121 31,917 325 Mitochondria10,397,12131,917325 Total 479,218,923 3,470,167 138 Total479,218,9233,470,167138  "}],"sieverID":"f2777fb0-1651-4531-b413-6eab6b97d793","abstract":"Vascular wilt caused by the ascomycete fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) is a major constraint of banana production around the world. The virulent race, namely Tropical Race 4, can infect all Cavendish-type banana plants and is now widespread across the globe, causing devastating losses to global banana production. In this study, we characterized Foc Subtropical Race 4 (STR4) resistance in a wild banana relative which, through estimated genome size and ancestry analysis, was confirmed to be Musa acuminata ssp. malaccensis. Using a self-derived F 2 population segregating for STR4 resistance, quantitative trait loci sequencing (QTL-seq) was performed on bulks consisting of resistant and susceptible individuals. Changes in SNP index between the bulks revealed a major QTL located on the distal end of the long arm of chromosome 3. Multiple resistance genes are present in this region. Identification of chromosome regions conferring resistance to Foc can facilitate marker assisted selection in breeding programs and paves the way towards identifying genes underpinning resistance."}

data/part_5/0e03733709ad98547457fe1d6597175f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0e03733709ad98547457fe1d6597175f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/92e0c62f-0704-4b56-893c-f1e6717f8879/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"En 1975 se despacharon juegos del lBRN a 10 colaboradores en 11 localidades de América Latina y los Estados Unidos. EIIBRN se había evaluado en dos localidades en 1974, y éstos datos se incluyen en los resultados de 1975. El vivero de 1976 se despachó a 14 colaboradores y se cultivó en 15 localidades en Australia, América Latina y Estados Unidos. Cinco de estas localidades fueron diferentes a las que incluyeron pruebas en 1975. Los datos de cuatro localidades en (e) Desarrollar un juego de CUltivares diferenciales América Latina se colectaron a comienzos de 1977, y se de roya para caracterizar la variación presentan en los resultados de 1976. En una de las patogénica expresada por el organi de la localidades no se hicieron pruebas en ninguno de los roya del fríjol; y Los procedimientos recomendados para los viveros de roya de 1975 y 1976 fueron muy similares a los del sistema utilizado en el CIA T para evaluar la resistencia a la roya en lineas de germoplasma. Las aplicaciones de fertilizantes se hicieron con base en las recomendaciones a nivel regional y se diseñaron para permitir el desarrollo normal de la planta sin problemas de deficiencia de nutrimentos."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"En la Figura 2 se ilustra el patrón de siembra recomendado. Mezclas de dos a cinco cultivares susceptibles se sembraron como surcos de diseminación alrededor de las parcelas 25 días antes de sembrar los juegos del vivero. Las introducciones del lBRN se sembraron en surcos perpendiculares a los surcos de los bordes, a una distancia entre surcos de 60 centímetros y 30 semillas por los dos metros de surco. Se sembró un cultivar local susceptible cada tercer surco, y un cultivar o selección local resistente cada diez introducciones de! IBRN . Se proporcionó suficiente semilla para sembrar dos replicaciones, en caso de que se quisiera. Se hicieron recomendaciones Clasificación de las Reacciones de la Enfermedad En la evaluación de las introducciones por resistencia a la roya a los 30 y 45 días después de la siembra, se consideraron dos criterios:"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"(al (bl La intensidad de la infección, expresada como el porcentaje del área foliar cubierta por manchas necróticas o pústulas esporulantes; y El tipo de pústula, con cinco clases de desarrollo:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"Inmune: sin evidencias de infección."}]},{"head":"2.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Resistente: manchas necróticas sin esporulación."}]},{"head":"3.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"M oderadamente resistente: con pústulas formadas, pero con un diámetro menor de 300 JI."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":",---' -' -' ---' -' -I i 1:"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"' -' -' -' -' -' -' -' -' -' -' -' ---1 g ¡ ! i : "}]},{"head":"5.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Moderadamente susceptible: pústulas formadas con un diámetro de 300-500 p."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Susceptible: pústulas formadas con un diámetr o mayor de 500 fJ y frecuente mente rodeadas por halos cloróticos."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"Los datos obtenidos de los colaboradores se procesaron con computadora mediante la combinación de la intensidad de la infección y el tipo de pústula con la época de lectura (véase el Cuadro 2). Se definieron cuatro categarias de reacción de la planta, de acuerdo con el esquema de la Figura 3. (En las localidades donde se sembraron dos replicaciones, se utilizaron los mayores puntajes finales de las reacciones para tabular los resultados). En el Cuadro 3 se presentan los datos pa ra cada localidad en 1975 y 1976. En el Cuadro 4 se resumen las reacciones de las plantas para cada introducción en 1975 y 1976. [nm\": II De las introducciones resistentes o intermedias mencionadas con anterioridad, Ecuador 299, PR-5, México 309 y Turrialba 1, se están utilizando como fuentes de resistencia a la roya en el programa de mejoramiento genético del CIA T. Estos cultivares fueron resistentes o inmunes en la mayoría de las localidades de prueba del IBRN (Cuadro 5)."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Entre las localidades de prueba (Cuadro 6), el CIAT en 1975y la República Dominicana, Costa Rica, CIAT y México en 1976, dieron la mayor proporción de introducciones susceptibles. En consecuencia. éstas localidades deberían proporcionar medios excelentes para someter a prueb~ materiales híbridos por resistencia a una variada población de razas de roya."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"En 1975 Y 1976 no se obtuvieron datos suficientes para evaluar en forma efectiva las poblaciones de roya o los diferenciales de roya utilizados en estas pruebas. El hongo de la roya obviamente presentó un variado potencial patogénico, como lo evidencian las especificidades por localidad y diferencias en la época de siembra."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"El cultivar Pinto 650, el cual se evaluó en 32 ensayos durante el período de dos años, fue susceptible en 28, intermedio en tres y resistente solamente en una; las reacciones de resistencia intermedia ocurrieron durante una epidemia muy leve. Aunque se requieren más pruebas. este cultivar podría ser útil como un cultivar susceptible universal, para adelantar estudios sobre la roya del fríjol."},{"index":7,"size":86,"text":"Los viveros de 1975 y 1976 demostraron que los investigadores de frijol pueden colaborar efectivamente en la evaluación del germoplasma del fríjol por su resistencia al hongo de la roya. Se debe evaluar más germoplasma para identificar materiales ampliamente resistentes y se deben diseñar estrategias de mejoramiento genético para utilizar más efectivamente las fuentes existentes de resistencia menos ampliamente adaptadas. Con base en las experiencias de 1975 y 1976, en un futuro cercano se discutirán con los colaboradores las modificaciones que se le deben hacer aIIBRN.  "}]},{"head":"5.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"6."}]},{"head":"7.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"8. 9."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"10."}]},{"head":"11.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"12."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"13.  3 4 3 2 3 3 4  3 2 4 4 3 3 2 4  1 0 4 3 3 3 3 4  1 4 4 4 3 3 4     '\" U. \""},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"... ... ..: '\" g ~ :> ..: ..:"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"..: ..: ..: ..: "},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"ce ::;: > UJ f-;;: « X '\" '\" « « « .... ' \" ....  3 2 3  3 3 3  1 O 3 4 4   4   2 3 3 3 4 O  3 2 3 2 2 3 4 3   4   3 3 4 3 3  2 4   4  4   3 3 3 2 3  2 4 3 4 2 4   4   3 3 3 3 3  "},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Cuadro 4 . Resumen de las clasificaciones de plantas para cada entrada a IBR N durante y 1976."}]},{"head":"IBRN","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introducción N o. Identificación","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"1."}]},{"head":"2.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"3. 4."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"5."}]},{"head":"6.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"7."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"8.      \"   Cuadro 6. Resumen de las clasificaciones en cada localidad dellBRN en las pruebas de 1975 y 1976."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"No. de introducciones se clasificaron como:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"Localidad\" "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figura 1. Localización de los ensayos del IBRN en el Hemisferio Occidental, ensayos bechos en 1975 y 1976. "},{"text":" ' -' -' Culti\\'arlocal susceptible sem brad o 25 días antes de la siembra del lBR N F igura 2. Patrón de siembra recomendado para los ensayos del IBRN. 4. "},{"text":"* ResultadosN inguno de los cultivares o materiales para hibridaciones fueron inmunes o resistentes en todas las 4 C uadro 2. Método para la clasificación final de las introducciones del IB RN. Valorcs de clasificacién obtenidos de la figura 3: 1= inmune; 2:resistente; 3 = intermedia; 4 = susceptible. "},{"text":"Cuadro 3 . Clasificación rmal de las introducciones del IBRN en las pruebas de 1975 y 1976. "},{"text":" > <Il <Il ' \" ' \" ...J « ce Ü U UJ UJ O ::;: o.. o.. o.. :> :> ce ce O UJ "},{"text":". Epicure 1975 IBRN Localidades y Reacciones >  Cuadro 3. Continuación  Cuadro 3. Continuación IBRN    IBRN Intro-    Intro- ducción No. Identificación  ducción No.Identificación 76. Costa Rica 1031  76.Costa Rica 1031 77. Guatemala 416  77.Guatemala 416 78. Honduras 46  78.Honduras 46 79. La Vega  79.La Vega 80. Manteigao Preto 20  80.Manteigao Preto 20 81. Mexico 142-N  81.Mexico 142-N 82. Mexico 235  82.Mexico 235 83. Miss Kelly  83.Miss Kelly 84. Mogul  84.Mogul 85. Mount\"' ;neer White Half Runner  85. Mount\"' ;neer White Half Runner 86. Negro d, Chincha  86.Negro d, Chincha 87. Ormiston  87. Ormiston 88 . Panamito Corriente  88 .Panamito Corriente 89. Pinto Serrano  89.Pinto Serrano 90. P.1. 165435  90.P.1. 165435 91. P.1. 207262  91.P.1. 207262 92. P.1. 310739  92.P.1. 310739 93. P.l. 310814  93.P.l. 310814 94. P.1. 310878  94.P.1. 310878 95. P.1. 313524  O 95.P.1. 313524O 96. Plomo 4 1 96.Plomo41 97. Portland Red 4 4 2 97.Portland Red4 4 2 98. Portugal 4 4 2 98.Portugal4 4 2 99. Preto 897 3 4 4 99.Preto 8973 4 4 100. PR 2  3 3 4 100. PR 23 3 4 101. PR 6   101. PR 6 102 PR 7   102 PR 7 103. PR 15   103. PR 15 104. PR 18   104. PR 18 105. Redlands Autumn Crop  105. Redlands Autumn Crop 106. Redlands Green Leaf C  106. Redlands Green Leaf C 107. Cuya 168-N  107. Cuya 168-N 108. Redlands Green Leaf S  108. Redlands Green Leaf S 109. Bountiful1 8 1  109. Bountiful1 8 1 110. B,own Seauty  110. B,own Seauty 111. Canario 10 I  111. Canario 10 I 112. California Small White 643  112. California Small White 643 113. C. C. G. S . 44  113. C. C. G. S . 44 114. Dade   114. Dade 115    115 10    10  "},{"text":"Villa Guerrero Negro Jalpatagua San Pedro Pinula Turrialba 4 Westralia   4691 -54-1 4691 -54-1  Redlands Pioneer Redlands Pioneer  11411 11411  California Small White 643 California Small White 643  27•R 27•R  Diacol Calima Diacol Calima  Compuesto Chimaltenango 3 Compuesto Chimaltenango 3  SB-3O-CI-PM-PI SB-3O-CI-PM-PI 9. C uilapa 72 9.C uilapa 72 10. PR 12 10.PR 12 11. PR 19 11.PR 19 12. VI 1013 12.VI 1013 Il Mellico 309 IlMellico 309 14. Turrialba 1 14.Turrialba 1 15. ICA-Guali 15.ICA-Guali 16.  16. 17.  17. 18.  18. 19.  19. 20.  20. 21. P.1. 319649 21.P.1. 319649 22. Porrillo 1 22.Porrillo 1 23. Rico Pardo 896 23.Rico Pardo 896 24. Wisc. Hyb. 72 24.Wisc. Hyb. 72 25.  25. 26.  26. 27.  27. 28.  28. 29.  29. 30.  30. 31.  31. 32.  32. 33.  33. 34.  34. 35.  35.  "},{"text":"Epicure Número de localidades en donde la introducción se clasificó como:  Luaaro 4. LontmuaClOn   Luaaro 4. LontmuaClOn IBRN     IBRN Inlro-du!;ción No. Identificación  1975 Inlro-du!;ción No.Identificación1975 76. Costa Rica 103 I o 3  o II 76.Costa Rica 103 Io 3o II 77. 78. Guatemala 4 I 6 Honduras 46 O 2 o 2 2 2 10 I 10 77. 78.Guatemala 4 I 6 Honduras 46O 2 o 22 210 I 10 79. La Vega 3  79.La Vega3 80. M anteigao Preto 20   80.M anteigao Preto 20 81. Mexico 142-N   81.Mexico 142-N 82. Mexico 235   82.Mexico 235 83. Miss KeIly   83.Miss KeIly 84. Mogul   84.Mogul 85. Mountaineer White Half Runner   85.Mountaineer White Half Runner 86. Negro de Chincha   86.Negro de Chincha 87. Ormiston   87.Ormiston 88. Panamito Corriente   88.Panamito Corriente 89. Pinto Serrano   89.Pinto Serrano 90. P.I. 165435   90.P.I. 165435 91. P .I. 207262   91.P .I. 207262 92. P.I. 310739   92.P.I. 310739 93. P .I. 310814   93.P .I. 310814 94. P.1. 310878   94.P.1. 310878 95. P.I. 313524   95.P.I. 313524 96. Plomo   96.Plomo 97. Portland Red   97.Portland Red 98. Portugal   98.Portugal 99. Preto 897   99.Preto 897 100. PR 2   100. PR 2 101. PR 6 102. PR 7 103. PR 15 104. PR 18 105. Redlands Autumn Crop   3 10 4 11 7 2 7 7 3 O O 2 101. PR 6 102. PR 7 103. PR 15 104. PR 18 105. Redlands Autumn Crop3 10 4 11 7 2 7 7 3O O 2 106. Redlands Green Leaf C 107. Cuva 168-N 108. Redlands Green Leaf B 109. Bountiful 181 I 10. Brown Beauty   4 1 3 2 4 O 16 8 O 13 12 106. Redlands Green Leaf C 107. Cuva 168-N 108. Redlands Green Leaf B 109. Bountiful 181 I 10. Brown Beauty4 1 3 24 O 16 8 O 13 12 II 1. Canario 10 I   7 5 2 II 1. Canario 10 I75 2      4 O 10 4O 10      6 3 63      O 14 O 14      4 9 49  "},{"text":" Cuadro 5. Reacción de las introducciones m's resistentes dellBRN en las pruebas de 1975 y 1976. Número de localidades en d onde la introducción se clasificó como: Intro-ducción No. Identificación   1975  ~ ' \" ii u ;¡; e ,g u '\" ti) .!! 1976 u e ,g u ' \" E Intro-ducción No.Identificación1975~' \" iiu ;¡;e ,g u '\"ti) .!! 1976ue ,g u ' \" E 116. Golden Gate Wax 2 3 7 2    2 I 6 7 116. Golden Gate Wax23722I67 117. Kentucky Wonder 765 4 7  2     5 7 3 I 117. Kentucky Wonder 765472573I 118. Kentucky Wonder 780 O 4 4 6     2 8 6 O 118. Kentucky Wonder 780O 4 4 6286O 119. Kentucky Wonder 814 2 6 4 2    2 2 6 7 O 119. Kentucky Wonder 81426422267O 120. MuJatinho  O 2  11   2 3 9 2 120. MuJatinhoO 2112392 121. Pinto No. 650 O I 3 12 O   O O O 16 121. Pinto No. 650O I 3 12 OO O O 16 122. U. S. No. 3 I I 3 8 2    O 2 13 122. U. S. No. 3II382O 2 13 123. Veracruz lA6 O 3 2 O 10   I O 9 6 123. Veracruz lA6O 3 2 O 10IO 9 6 124. Aguascalientes 13 O O O O 15   O O 2 4 124. Aguascalientes 13O O O O 15O O 2 4 125. Guerrero 6 O O O O 15   I 4 O 125. Guerrero 6O O O O 15I4O 126. Guerrero 9 O O O O 15   O O 2 4 126. Guerrero 9O O O O 15O O 2 4 127. Guanajuato IO-A-5 O O O O 15   O 2 3 127. Guanajuato IO-A-5O O O O 15O23 128. Jalisco 33 O O O O 15   O I 128. Jalisco 33O O O O 15OI 129. Mexico 6 O O O O 15   I 2 2 129. Mexico 6O O O O 15I22 130. Mexico 12 O O O O 15   O 2 3 130. Mexico 12O O O O 15O23 131. Negro 150 O O O O 15   I I 131. Negro 150O O O O 15II 132. Veracruz 10 O O O O 15   O 3 2 132. Veracruz 10O O O O 15O32  "},{"text":"Para localizaciones, ver codigos de computador en el Cuadro 1.   Inmune Resistente Intermedia Susceptible Sin información InmuneResistenteIntermediaSusceptibleSin información 1975      1975 BRAV 9 14 31 9  BRAV914319 C174 O 20 15 20  C174O201520 CI02 I3 32 44 4  CI02I332444 C104 32 19 26 16  C10432192616 ClIO S 21 37 §I\"\"  ClIOS2137§I\"\" CORI 19 8 32 3  CORI198323 ECUA 2 34 10 8  ECUA234108 GUAT 37 22 3 O  GUAT37223O PE74  4 O 10  PE744O10 PERU 41 2  12  PERU41212 PURI 8 14 21 19  PURI8142119 PURL 12 S 18 24  PURL12S1824 USAB 16 49 21 20  USAB16492120 USAF 34 S 13 O  USAF34S13O USAM 36 16 S O  USAM3616SO 1976      1976 AUST 63 O 48 10  AUST63O4810 BRAG  19 9 32  BRAG19932 BRAV 10 22 61 10  BRAV10226110 BR77 2 23 49 44  BR772234944 CIAT 18 25 21 /@ 6 CIAT182521/@6 CORI DORE ECUA 2 14 O 20 6 10 24 18 44 ~ ~ SI  CORI DORE ECUA2 14 O20 6 1024 18 44~ ~ SI ELSA 2 19 62 22  ELSA2196222 EL77 O 66 40 12  EL77O664012 GUAT MEXC PERU O 9 81 34 1 5 31 18 1 41 ~ 18  GUAT MEXC PERUO 9 8134 1 531 18 141 ~ 18 PURI 6 33 33 33  PURI6333333 PURL 4 12 36 51  PURL4123651 USAB 13 48 44 27 O USAB13484427O USAM 46 63 18 3 2 USAM46631832 •      •  "}],"sieverID":"0b184721-3ac6-4156-997e-f25690e35034","abstract":"rOlECClON HISTORICA Introducción Los participantes a una reunión de discusión realizada en octubre de 1974 en el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), discutieron el establecimiento de viveros internacionales para probar cultivares y lineas de Phaseo/us vu/garis L. promisorias por su resistencia a las poblaciones de razas del hongo que causa la roya del fríjol [Uromyces appendicu/tllUS (Pers.) Unger o U. phaseoli (Reben) Wint.]. En ésta reunión, los colaboradores potenciales acordaron las metodologías, los cultivares y los medios que se utilizarlan para evaluar la resistencia. Se le solicitó al CIAT coordinar el Primer Vivero Internacional de Roya de Frljol (IBRN)."}

data/part_5/0e0f1ae7dee14e7c01304d2273897227.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0e0f1ae7dee14e7c01304d2273897227","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fcc4015f-0c09-462b-8da4-27c1fa1e363c/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"A Guideline for the Formation of Sub-national Climate-Smart Agriculture Alliances in Tanzania History of CSA Alliances","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"TCSAA is a national, broad-based forum bringing together CSA stakeholders in both the Mainland and Zanzibar, to promote the adoption of CSA. This is by creating effective linkages amongst key CSA initiatives at country, regional, continental, and global levels. The platform was facilitated by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change and Food Security (CCAFS) and ACSAA, among others."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"(ww.tanzaniacsaalliance.or.tz)."}]},{"head":"Tanzania Climate Smart Agriculture Alliance (TCSAA)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Tanzania went a step further and initiated multistakeholder platforms to coordinate and promote CSA initiatives at the district/council level. Three initial district alliances were established in Kilolo, Kilosa and Lushoto districts with support from the PACCA project and TCSAA."}]},{"head":"District Climate Smart Agriculture Alliance (DCSAA)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"This is a multistakeholder platform for championing CSA in the continent led by NEPAD and five International NGO's. It was identified as key in pursuing the AU 25 × 25 target of assisting 25 million farmers in adopting CSA approaches by 2025. Thereafter, regional CSA Alliances for Eastern, Southern and Western Africa and national alliances including in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia, among others, have been formed."}]},{"head":"Africa Climate Smart Agriculture Alliance (ACSAA)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"GASCA brings together diverse partners including governments, international and regional institutions, research organizations, the private sector, civil society, and farmers' organizations to learn, share knowledge, partner and facilitate dialogue, and debate on issues around CSA. (www.fao.org/gacsa/en/)."}]},{"head":"Global Alliance for Climate","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Smart Agriculture (GACSA) "}]},{"head":"Background","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Recommendations on formation and operationalization of sustainable sub-national CSA alliances in Tanzania"},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Why form CSA alliances? CSA alliances accelerate the promotion of CSA practices. The alliances not only facilitate the exchange of information and experiences but also linkages and synergies with other actors such as the public and/or private sector to promote innovative solutions to challenges facing the community/smallholder farmers in the implementation of CSA."}]},{"head":"Steps to follow to establish and run robust and sustainable CSA alliances","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"This involves: Selection of office bearers and setting up physical office: If there was an interim team in place, it could now be confirmed. Also setting up a physical office from which to operate."}]},{"head":"Mobilize founding members","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Structure and formalize","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Step 1."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Step 2."}]},{"head":"Key points for consideration","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"▶ Members should be well aware of the alliance and its objectives and see the value that can be derived. ▶ Resources (in-kind or monetary) may be needed for initial support during establishment and formation. ▶ The formation of CSA alliances must be guided/comply with the existing government laws, regulations, and guidelines."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"▶ Registration of DCSAA is through the District Community Development Officers. ▶ Interim leadership should be clearly articulated (chairperson, secretary, treasurer, committees/departments, etc."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"The Management team should be able to allocate their time to the CSA alliance activities."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"▶ It is advisable to have a physical office for the DCSAA. One suitable location is within government buildings (District councils)."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"To achieve its goals and objectives, it's important for the district CSA alliance to put in place strategic and operational plans to guide and implement its activities logically and coherently."}]},{"head":"Operationalize","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Step 3. Annual work plan and activities -To remain dynamic and active, the CSA alliance needs a schedule of planned annual activities. These include:"}]},{"head":"•","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Regular meetings and information sharing: These will help ensure members of the alliance are involved, connected, and motivated. Information sharing platforms can include the use of mobile phones, WhatsApp, email, and the media, among others."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Regular field and exchange visits: This will facilitate learning and sharing of lessons and knowledge from members' initiatives."}]},{"head":"• Capacity building:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"This especially refers to strengthening the capacity of the alliance management and leadership. This can be done by utilizing the resources within the alliances including learning from each other."}]},{"head":"• Resource mobilization:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"A successful CSA alliance will need to have resources for its activities. These can be raised through the development of proposals to donors, payment of membership fees, and facilitation by members with funds for CSA activities and where possible funds from districts."}]},{"head":"• Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E):","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"A CSA alliance should have a well-prepared M&E plan in place to track implementation of its activities and milestones, lessons learned and challenges."}]},{"head":"Key points for consideration","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"▶ CSA alliances should be guided by a Vision and Mission. ▶ DCSAA activities should be designed to complement, not to conflict with the Government's or members' activities."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"▶ It is important for the DCSAA plans to be aligned with district plans and with existing stakeholders' plans. ▶ It is important to utilize existing opportunities in the districts and within members of the CSA alliance. ▶ Roles and responsibilities of confirmed office bearers should be clearly stipulated. ▶ Capacity building for office bearers is very important."}]},{"head":"Linkages: Key points for consideration","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"▶ Link with TCSAA and use existing platforms such as the TCSAA website to increase visibility for DCSAA and for knowledge and information sharing."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"▶ If a region has more than three alliances, there may be a need to establish a regional alliance (umbrella), which will be a member of the national alliance."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"▶ Identify and link with existing platforms and other relevant initiatives outside agriculture in the districts such as (HIV/AIDS, Youth and women forums etc.)"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"▶ Link with existing agencies such as research and academic institutions, the Tanzania Meteorological Authority (TMA), the district councils, and the private sector, e.g. financial institutions, and development partners."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"▶ Participate in annual events such as Nane-Nane and organize awareness creations events/Seasonal events (Farmer Field Days (FFDs)/Farmer Field Schools (FFS), Weather days/CSA days)."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"▶ Constantly keep reaching out to new members to grow the alliance. Other factors to ensure the sustainability of the alliance that should be addressed during establishment include:"}]},{"head":"Role of","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Innovative capacity -This is the ability of alliance members and their management to think outside the box and identify opportunities for fundraising and running their activities. "}]},{"head":"STRUCTURE AND FORMALIZE OPERATIONALIZE SUSTAINABILITY","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Step 2."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Step 3."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Step 4."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"In summary"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"About the guideline: This document summarizes recommendations on best practices on how to form and operationalize of sustainable sub-national Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) alliances for CSA actors in Tanzania. These are based on the experience and recommendations of existing District CSA Alliances and views from selected CSA actors in the country. It seeks to support ongoing efforts in the country to promote the adoption of CSA practices and technologies. Launched in 2014 Established in 2015 at the AU Summit. Established in December 2016. Launched in 2014Established in 2015 at the AU Summit.Established in December 2016.  "},{"text":"5 Diversity and inclusivity -Ensuring diverse of stakeholders will enrich knowledge sharing and bring diversity of activities and creativity in addressing challenges. For example, inclusion of private sector actors including financial institutions can address the challenge of lack of markets and financial resources.Link with other alliances -The alliance should not work in isolation. It should link with other alliances in place, including the national alliance, other district CSA alliances and other structures within and outside the respective jurisdiction/districts. Connecting and aligning with district objectives cannot be stressed enough. 6 6  "},{"text":"MOBILIZE FOUNDING MEMBERS Step 1.  STAKEHOLDER MAPPING CONSULTATIVE MEETINGS DEVELOP CONSTITUTION REGISTER STRATEGIC PLAN OPERATION PLAN • • GOOD LEADERSHIP SUCCESSION PLAN STAKEHOLDER MAPPINGCONSULTATIVE MEETINGSDEVELOP CONSTITUTIONREGISTERSTRATEGIC PLANOPERATION PLAN• •GOOD LEADERSHIP SUCCESSION PLAN       • POLITICAL WILL •POLITICAL WILL       • INNOVATIVE CAPACITY •INNOVATIVE CAPACITY   SELECT OFFICE ORGANIZATIONAL ANNUAL WORK • DIVERSITY AND INCLUSIVITY SELECT OFFICEORGANIZATIONALANNUAL WORK•DIVERSITY AND INCLUSIVITY   BEARERS/OFFICE STRUCTURE PLAN AND ACTIVITIES • LINK WITH OTHER ALLIANCES BEARERS/OFFICESTRUCTUREPLAN AND ACTIVITIES•LINK WITH OTHER ALLIANCES  "}],"sieverID":"941095eb-1f40-4cfc-8c0a-e40db3887a9b","abstract":"One way to advocate and accelerate the uptake of CSA practices and technologies has been the establishment of voluntary and action-oriented, multistakeholder platforms at various levels from international to the local levels. CSA platforms facilitate networking, generation and sharing of knowledge, and better coordination of both CSA initiatives and actors. Some examples of these platforms include:Tanzania aspires to be a middle-income country by 2025. However, and similar to other countries across the globe, climate change is currently one of the greatest threats to these efforts.In response, the United Republic of Tanzania (URT) has undertaken various initiatives, including enacting relevant policies at national and sub-national levels to combat climate change. These include the National Climate Change Strategy ( 2013), which directed every sector to put in place actions to address climate change.Accordingly, the Ministry of Agriculture developed the Agriculture Climate Resilient Plan (ACRP, 2014-2019) as a road map for stakeholders to address the most urgent challenges of climate change to the agriculture sector. The sector is not only critical in the delivery of the country's development agenda but is also particularly vulnerable to climate change. One of ACRP's priority actions is to accelerate the uptake of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA). CSA is also a key priority in the country's Agricultural Sector Development Program (ASDP-2) which outlines the policies, strategies and priority areas for achieving agricultural and rural development to meet Vision 2025 and Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS). ASDP-2 calls for action to build resilience in the agriculture sector, improve productivity and farmer incomes, and contribute to climate change mitigation, wherever and whenever possible. This is through implementation and scaling up of CSA practices and technologies.CSA is a widely accepted approach to guide the management of agriculture in the era of climate change. Tanzania defines CSA as \"agriculture that sustainably increases productivity and income, increases the ability to adapt and build resilience to climate change and enhances food and nutrition security while achieving mitigation co-benefits in line with Tanzania's development priorities\" (National Task Force Planning Workshop Report, 2016)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0e8c42eec1332378333265d26bb87a34","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/542d0f6f-3097-4271-be65-c5d3a5c2631a/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"CCAFS and IRI made considerable inputs to the background papers associated with the GCA report and Action Track on Food Secuirty & Rural Livelihoods","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• CIAT (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Regional Hub (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical)"}]},{"head":"Contributing CRPs/PTF:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 07:47 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" CCAFS involvement in the Global Commission on Adaptation puts 300 million small-scale farmers on the pathway towards enhanced resilience (https://tinyurl.com/ya4t2sab) Innovations: <Not Provided> Narrative of Evidence: <Not Provided> Milestones: <Not Provided> Sub-IDOs: • 35 -Enabled environment for climate resilience • 46 -Increased capacity for innovation in partner development organizations and in poor and vulnerable communities • 34 -Enhanced capacity to deal with climatic risks and extremes (Mitigation and adaptation achieved) Contributing Centers/PPA partners: "}],"sieverID":"3cce1cc0-cd4e-4aac-bbed-993b11681460","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0eed128599cb18a9665b29402f098eb5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dbbb9df4-03d9-4315-b87d-0a1cbafd11e4/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Articulando Nutrición en Investigación y Desarrollo Agrícola","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"través de las evidencias generadas se incidió en políticas públicas sobre seguridad alimentaria y nutrición a nivel local y nacional."}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"A partir de la experiencia de IssAndes, se sugieren algunas áreas claves de análisis para articular nutrición a la investigación y desarrollo agrícola. La inclusión de indicadores de efectos e impactos en nutrición en proyectos de seguridad alimentaria eleva la pertinencia y relevancia de la agenda de investigación y desarrollo. Promover la investigación para el desarrollo de tecnología nutricionalmente inteligente; a través de: a) la evaluación del valor nutricional de la biodiversidad de especies alimenticias vinculada a la agricultura familiar y desarrollo de estrategias de rescate, conservación y utilización con fines nutricionales; b) el fortalecimiento de los sistemas agroalimentarios desde una perspectiva que considere no solo cómo produce el agricultor familiar, sino también cómo se alimenta; y, c) el acompañamiento con estrategias de educación nutricional y de promoción del consumo de estas variedades en articulación con programas de salud y de alimen tación complementaria. Asumir una perspectiva multi sectorial en la innovación agrícola para enfrentar el desafío de reducir la vulnerabilidad alimentaria y nutricional de las familias de agricultura familiar. Introducir contenidos de nutrición en la curricula de capacitación, validación y difusión de tecnología. Y desarrollar modelos de articulación con el sector salud y educación para la capacitación y difusión de tecnologías. Investigar oportunidades de mercado para alimentos sanos y nutritivos: a) promoviendo la articulación de actores y la innovación en cadenas de valor de estos alimentos; y. b) fortaleciendo las capacidades de organización, negociación y articulación de los agricultores familiares."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Abordar estos campos, implica un cambio en la forma de concebir la innovación y el sistema de innovación agrícola. Esto quiere decir que la base de conocimiento para innovar no solo se encuentra en el dominio de la ciencia agrícola y en las organizaciones e individuos del sector, sino que se nutre del acervo de conocimiento en el sector salud y educación y que las demandas a las que responde la investigación y desarrollo de tecnologías son o deben ser multi sectoriales. Avanzar en un sistema de innovación de estas características tiene como base fundamental el desarrollo de capacidades y arreglos institucionales que incentiven la relación e interacción entre tomadores de decisión política, investigadores y agentes de desarrollo, públicos y privados, de los tres sectores, a nivel nacional y local. BIBLIOGRAFÍA FAO (2012). Panorama de la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional en América Latina y el Caribe 2012. FAO. Roma, Italia. FIDA (2014). La agricultura familiar en Latino América. Un nuevo enfoque comparativo. Informe síntesis. FIDA."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"bdfe38bb-5a15-4477-be1f-e32ec4e3a5e0","abstract":"Agricultura familiar, Papa, Desnutrición Crónica Área temática: Socio-economía Tipo de presentación: Oral INTRODUCCIÓN En la última década Latino América y el Caribe ha registrado un crecimiento sostenido de la economía, así como disminuciones en los índices de pobreza y pobreza extrema. Sin embargo, estos índices siguen siendo elevados, tienen correspondencia directa con la elevada prevalencia de desnutrición crónica y se concentran en las familias cuya seguridad alimentaria y nutrición dependen casi fundamentalmente de la agricultura. Desde la perspectiva agrícola, avanzar en la reducción de la inseguridad alimentaria y desnutrición requiere de enfoques y políticas multisectoriales. Este documento aborda la articulación entre agricultura y salud desde el punto de vista de la investigación y desarrollo y de la agricultura familiar, tomando como caso de estudio la experiencia del proyecto Innovación para la Seguridad y Soberanía Alimentaria en los Andes (IssAndes) en cual se articula nutrición a la investigación y desarrollo agrícola en sistemas de producción basados en papa."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ef53241335924bae689e10d3e05fc46","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/40bf45b3-4ec3-4edd-9c94-0a033b7a33e7/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"GAS-CIMMYT AWARENESS CREATION WORKSHOP REPORT","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"4ef5d5e0-59d2-448b-882d-8274303371f7","abstract":""}