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Name: Alex S. Date: September 12, 2002 I have often heard about continental drift. However, most books have show diagrams of lithospheric plates back only to the time of Pangaea, or around 250 million years ago, around the time of Cambrian explosion. my question is this: what were the configurations of the continental plates BEFORE 250 million years ago? Logic tells me that the configuration can be found, through measuring magnetic anomalies, and measuring the offset of magnetic poles in ancient rocks relative to the earth's poles. If this process can be used in rocks as old as 250 million years ago, why not even older? Perhaps we can even map continental plates as far back as the formation of the cratons? I cannot say it any better than the US Geological Survey's web site, which I have quoted below. "Plate-tectonic movements since the break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea are now fairly well understood. Most scientists believe that similar processes must also have occurred earlier. However, the pre-Pangaea history of plate tectonics is very difficult to decipher, because nearly all of the evidence has been obscured by later geologic and plate-tectonic processes, including the subduction of older oceanic crust, which carried with it the record of magnetic reversals and hotspot traces. The clues to past plate tectonics can only be found on the present-day continents-in rocks, fossils, and structures older than about 200 million years. This is because the average age of the present-day oceanic crust is about 55 million years; the oldest parts are about 180 million years old, indicating that oceanic crust is entirely recycled every 150 million years or so. By contrast, the average age of the present-day continental crust is about 2.3 billion years, with the oldest known rocks (other than meteorites) dating back 3.96 billion years; these oldest rocks in turn contain minerals (zircons) derived from older rocks, possibly as old as 4.3 billion years." To learn more, visit USGS's site at the following address: Click here to return to the Environmental and Earth Science Archives Update: June 2012

http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/env99/env197.htm

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are diagnosed on the basis of observation of behaviors and abilities. There is no specific medical test (like a blood test, CT scan or X-ray) that can diagnose autism. Under the current diagnostic system, listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV-R (DSM-IV-R), www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp.dsm.html. ASDs fall under the broad category of Pervasive Developmental Disorders or PDD. Under this category, there are five different diagnoses: Asperger’s Syndrome, Classic Autism, Pervasive Developmental Disorder – Not Otherwise Specified, Rett’s Disorder and Childhood Disintegrative Disorder. Generally speaking, only the first three (Asperger’s, Classic Autism and PDD-NOS) are considered Autism Spectrum Disorders. In order to receive a diagnosis, a person must exhibit deficiencies in each of three areas of functioning: social, communication and behavior. Differences in the level of deficiency in these three areas will result in different autism diagnoses. All three of these domains are broad categories. For example, issues in communication can range from people with no or limited verbal language or communication skills to persons who have lots of language with large vocabularies but have difficulty in communicating their needs and desires to others. It is often helpful to picture ASD as a spectrum disorder, remembering that each person is unique and each person’s autism is unique. While it is important to obtain a correct diagnosis, it is more important to understand how autism presents itself within a specific person.

http://asconn.org/what-is-autism-diagnoses.php

| Healthy Heart Beat ||Additional Activity #3 Students imitate a healthy heart beating with their bodies and voices. Students will gain an understanding that healthy foods are important for a healthy heart. - Gather the students into a circle. Tell them to make sure they have enough room to stretch their arms out at their sides without touching anyone. - Ask for a few examples of healthy foods. Tell them these foods are good for their bodies, minds, and hearts. - Ask the students if they have ever heard the expression: "You are what you eat." Ask them what they think it means (the healthier the food you eat, the better you feel). Tell them healthy foods make their hearts healthy, and healthy hearts make happy kids! - Tell them they are going to use their bodies and voices to imitate the sounds of a healthy heart. - Teach them the following five actions and have them move in sync. Have them continue until they have memorized the routine. Perform the action rhyme at a faster pace until students are moving very fast. Then slow the action rhyme down as their hearts get ready to rest. You may also wish to invite the students to create their own "healthy heart" movements. - Squat down, hit the floor twice, and say, "Pump, pump." - Hop up and down using both feet and say, "Jump, jump." - Clap your hands twice and say, "Clap, clap." - Slide side to side and say, "Tap, tap." - Hop on left foot, hop on right foot, and say, "Beat, beat." Healthy ("Go") Foods and Drinks: ||whole grain breads and crackers ||high fiber cereals ||low-fat or skim milk ||low-fat yogurt and cheese ||whole grain rice and pastas Related National Standards Further information about the National Standards can be found

http://nyrrf.org/ycr/eat/activity/gradek/ka3.asp

In Elementary Unit 1, you will learn to: - meet people - talk about your country with the verb to be - ask questions with the verb to be - talk about the people in your family - ask and tell the time - describe everyday activities with the present simple - ask questions with do - talk about things in your house with some, any and a - say where things are with in, on, under, next to, between... - describe jobs with the present simple - ask questions with does - use always, sometimes, usually, hardly ever and never - pronounce new sounds - improve intonation - Begin to study with Lesson 1. - Follow the lessons in the correct order to get the most benefits from your online English training. - The next lesson will activate automatically as soon as you have finished with the previous lesson. Choose the lesson you will study today: |Lesson 1||Lesson 7| |Lesson 2||Lesson 8| |Lesson 3||Lesson 9| |Lesson 4||Lesson 10| |Lesson 5||Review Lesson| |Lesson 6||Test Center*| * Test Center: will be available after you have completed all your lessons for this Unit of Study.

http://englishlink.com/en-us/courses/elementary-unit-1/elementary-unit-1.aspx

6th Grade Research and Inquiry Resources • Students will use the Internet to do research and inquiry on energy. • Students will learn more about energy. • Students will complete an online exercise by reading about different forms of energy. The students will compare and contrast renewable and non• renewable energy resources. This site is presented by the U.S. government through the Energy Information Administration. The site is called "Energy Kid's Page." The site explains types and forms of energy to kids. The site also has resources for teachers. • Have students talk about the different kinds of energy that we use everyday. • Have students discuss how the energy we use impacts our environment. • Have the students connect to http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/video/index.html. Then have the students type "windfall" into the space below Search All Video. Have students click on the video icon that appears and watch the video. Then have students: draw a picture of the energy supply for the school and label each part of the picture. write a summary of what supplies the school its energy. make a list of alternative energy resources that could be used by the school that are good for the environment.

http://treasures.macmillanmh.com/oregon/teachers/resources/grade6/research-and-inquiry-resources/resource/energy

From Math Images |Gradients and Directional Derivatives| |Change of Coordinate Systems| |Math for Computer Graphics and Computer Vision| Vectors are quantities that are specified by both a magnitude and direction. Perhaps the simplest vector is a Euclidean vector, represented by an arrow in Euclidean space. Refer to Image 1 below. This arrow has a length and points in some direction. The length of a vector is called the magnitude. The magnitude is denoted by . The magnitude of a vector is a scalar quantity, a numerical value. Image 1 is a vector. However, Image 1 is not very useful because it's unclear where it the vector is positioned. We need to introduce the Cartesian coordinate system (the x-y graph) to properly give the direction of a vector. Assigning x and y coordinates to a vector allows us to be more precise when we talk about the location of a vector. Refer to Modified Image 1 below. In this updated image, we now know the x and y coordinates. Our vector is 6 units in the x direction and 8 units in the y direction. Another way to locate a vector uses unit vectors. In the two-dimensional coordinate system, the vectors and are our unit vectors. It's clear that unit vectors have a length of one. In textbooks, unit vectors can be written in bold text or have a hat placed above the variables like so, . Any vector may be written in terms of our unit vectors and through scalar multiplication and addition (this is discussed in the graphical introduction below). For now, imagine the unit vector is a rubber substance that can stretch or shrink. With this property, we change change the magnitude of the unit vector such that it can express any vector in the coordinate system. For example, can be written as the following: We can write the vector in the Modified Image 1 as . In order to give a vector's position using unit vectors, we write it as a combination of unit vectors that are placed along the the coordinate axes. Unit vectors correspond to the x-y-z coordinate system this is in three-dimensions. points along the x-axis points along the y-axis and points along the z-axis. Unit vectors (sometimes called the standard basis vectors) are used in physics, engineering and linear algebra. The notation is used to emphasize the "vector" nature of a vector while the coordinate notation is use to emphasize the "point" nature of a vector. When we have a vector quantity we put an arrow on top of the labeling letter to remind us that it is a vector. It looks like so . One way of writing vectors is by components, like this: . For example, suppose we want to write a specific vector in components, and we know the vector goes 3 units in the x direction, 2 units in the y direction and 0 units in the z direction. Then we can simply write: . The components of the same vector can also be written as: . This vector has an x-component of 3, a y-component of 2 and a z-component of 0. This is shown in the image on the below. With as any numerical values we can also write any vector in terms of standard unit vectors: . If we are given we know that vector A is 3 units in the x and y direction and 2 units in the z direction. This vector could equivalently be written as or . It is shown in the image below. If a vector is still a bit abstract to you then think of a compass. The arrow has a certain length, this is our magnitude, and it points in any direction (north, south, east, and west). Click here for a graphical introduction to vectors: Click here for an algebraic introduction to vectors: Click here for an interactive demonstration:

http://mathforum.org/mathimages/index.php/Vector

La Niña: The Kid's Sister El Niño refers to the warm portion of ENSO, but it is an oscillation, and its temperature goes through natural reversals. The warm water surface will oscillate between the eastern and western portion of the Pacific. When the warm water shifts to the western Pacific, deeper, colder water reaches the surface in the eastern Pacific. This cold portion of ENSO is called La Niña—"the girl." La Niña is the cold phase of the El Niño oscillation. The waters of the Pacific near the equator and off the west coast of South America are much colder than normal during the La Niña. La Niña is the cold water sibling of El Niño. An earlier figure showed how El Niño formed and weakened. La Niña occurs as soon as the western Pacific high-pressure system diminishes. That reduction in atmospheric pressure is hastened by the colder water that surfaces off the coast of Asia during El Niño. The high-pressure system gets El Niño rolling, but once it forms, the cold waters that surface in the west lead to its demise. Then as the high weakens, the normal east-to-west flow in the atmosphere resumes. Warm surface water is forced westward and upwelling causes colder water to return to the eastern portion of the ocean. That is La Niña. A strong El Niño is frequently followed by a strong La Niña. It's nature's way of balancing the score, but there are no guarantees. Numerous factors contribute to global weather patterns. During the spring of 1998, the cold water of La Niña surfaced in a matter of days, and the weather patterns responded almost immediately. Fire and Ice Although record warm temperatures occurred across the northern states during the first four months of 1998, La Niña turned the pattern around very quickly. The polar air masses began pushing southward. Snow fell in northern New England during June, and storms occurred with great frequency across the Northeast. Rainfall amounts for June were three times above the normal. Through July, most of the Northeast failed to experience a single heat wave, which is defined as a spell of 90 degree or higher temperatures for three or more days. Through June and most of July, the only encounter Albany, New York, had with 90-degree heat occurred at the end of March when El Niño still raged. It is no coincidence that a cool jet stream dips into the northern United States as soon as the tropical jet stream weakens. The resistance to the cold air breaks down as El Niño melts away. The winter of 1995-1996 was the snowiest on record for many northern states. That occurred during a La Niña period. During the 1998 La Niña, record warmth did occur in early December from the Great Lakes to New England, but in California the cold was severe. A disastrous citrus freeze caused $600 million of damage. In late December, the arctic blast moved into the Midwest with record snowfalls. Since 1950, El Niños have been around 31 percent of the time and La Niñas 24 percent of the time. That means that for 55 percent of the time, there's an El Niño or a La Niña stirring. The fading of El Niño 1998 wasn't exactly followed by universal cooling. The weather did cool, but globally, June 1998 was still the warmest June on record—thanks to the blistering heat that was trapped across the southern portion of the United States and Mexico. Overall, thanks to El Niño of 1998, globally the year became the warmest on record, and although the winter began on the cold side, the 1998-1999 season turned out to be mild from The Great Lakes to New England. During 1998, hundreds of thousands of wooded acres burned in Florida. Scores of homes and buildings were destroyed. Crop losses reached more than $100 million. In Texas, temperatures reached 100 degrees or higher on a daily basis, with no rain in sight. Texas is famous for heat, but the unrelenting string of 100 degrees was of record proportions. During La Niña, there is a trend toward warmer weather than normal in the southern states, but other global factors might have contributed to the extreme nature of the 1998 heat wave. Some of those factors include changes in the global circulation patterns and even some astronomical changes, such as possible changes on the sun. Generally El Niño appears off the coast of South America every few years. The extreme 1982-1983 El Niño claimed more than 2,000 lives and resulted in losses of $13 billion. Several additional El Niño patterns developed during the next 15 years, but these were much weaker. After the string of weak to moderate ENSO occurrences, a record El Niño developed in 1997. Overall, El Niño patterns will continue to appear, but only occasionally should they have the amplitude of the types that surfaced in 1982 and 1997. Weather relationships are more difficult to determine during weak or moderate El Niño years. The pattern is far less clear-cut when water temperatures are two or three degrees above normal, rather than when those temperatures are five to ten degrees above. Meteorologists confidently predicted the impact of the 1997-1998 event months in advance. It was hard to miss that one. But the basic lack of understanding of all the interactions between the atmosphere and oceans will make future predictions far less reliable when those less-than-dramatic ENSO patterns come along. During late 1999, conditions became close to neutral in the eastern Pacific. The pattern remained weak through 2001. During those weak oscillations, old-fashioned winter weather returned to the northern United States. Excerpted from The Complete Idiot's Guide to Weather © 2002 by Mel Goldstein, Ph.D.. All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. Used by arrangement with Alpha Books, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc.

http://www.infoplease.com/cig/weather/la-nina-kids-sister.html

This article originally appeared in the Spring 2002 issue of Historic Nantucket Relations on Nantucket by Robert Johnson Prior to the Civil War, no issue more sharply divided Americans than the issue of race. Yet on Nantucket, blacks and a substantial number of whites nurtured a working relationship that recognized both racial differences and shared human characteristics. While the vast majority of American blacks in 1773 languished under the pains and deprivations of slavery, many in Nantucket could pursue a livelihood and plan their futures as free people. Nantucket, of course, was not spared the experience of slavery. The earliest evidence of it on the island appeared in the records of the monthly meeting of the Society of Friends on June 26, 1716. By 1733 Elihu Coleman’s tract against slavery had been published. In it he wrote, “Now I can truly say that this practice of making slaves of men appears to be so great an evil to me, that for all the riches and glory of this world, I would not be guilty of so great a sin as this seems to be.” Even during racial crises such as that involving school integration, when polarization between blacks and whites increased, this opposition to slavery continued on Nantucket. Primarily as a result of Quaker influence, race relations on the island during and after the American Revolution were more harmonious than elsewhere in the nation. Even though racial antipathy continued to undermine black–white relations, the Quaker presence and the long tradition of abolitionist activities had an ameliorating effect. Blacks had been a part of Nantucket’s population since the early eighteenth century. The first Nantucket census in which blacks were officially counted occurred in 1764. Out of a population of 3,570 individuals, fifty “Negroes” and one hundred forty-eight “Indians” were counted. By the 1820 census the number of “coloreds” had increased to 274. Ten years later the names of Arthur Cooper, Samuel Harris, Absalom Boston, and Stephen Pompey appeared as heads of households in the census. These men and their families played leading roles in the development of cooperative race relations on the island and established an African Meeting House, one of the first black institutions in the nation. Prince Boston, the uncle of Absalom, was born into slavery on Nantucket in 1750, son of Boston and Maria, who were slaves of William Swain, a prominent Nantucket merchant. In 1773 Prince Boston made history by obtaining his freedom from the Swain family through a lengthy court battle. William Swain had freed Prince’s parents in 1760, with the stipulation that each of their children serve the Swain family until age twenty-eight, which for Prince would have been 1778. Through litigation, Prince was able to obtain his freedom five years earlier. This result was consistent with a developing legal principle in Massachusetts and England that allowed blacks access to courts to litigate issues of freedom. Free blacks on Nantucket engaged in business. Prince Boston’s nephew Absalom, a freeborn native of Nantucket, became a whaling captain. Grandson of Boston and Maria, Absalom was born to their son Seneca Boston and his Native American wife Thankful (Micah) Boston. Like his younger brother Prince, Seneca had been born into slavery, but he had obtained his freedom upon reaching the age of twenty-eight in 1772. Absalom Boston continued his family’s tradition of agitation and hard work. In 1820, two years before becoming captain of his own ship, he obtained a license to operate a “public inn.” But his voyage to the Atlantic whaling grounds as captain of the ship Industry with its allblack crew was significant, not because of the modest amount of oil brought back, but because he represented a continuing historical tradition of black seamanship in the whaling industry. Black seamen were subject to being kidnaped and murdered on the high seas. Although the Atlantic slave trade had become unlawful in 1808, an illegal trade continued, which placed all black seamen in jeopardy. After retiring from the sea, Absalom Boston became a leader in the community known as “Newtown” and “New Guinea.” In the mid 1820s he was a founding trustee of the African Baptist Society, which assembled in the newly constructed Meeting House on the corner of Pleasant and York Streets. By 1830 he had also opened a store. In 1845 he brought suit against the town to get his daughter Phebe Ann Boston admitted to the Nantucket public high school. Absalom Boston was widowed twice. His first wife was Mary Spywood; his second was Phebe G. Spriggins; and his last wife was Hannah Cook, who outlived him, as did children of his second and third marriages. No confrontation over black freedom on Nantucket raised more important issues than that involving Arthur Cooper, who had been born a slave in Alexandria, Virginia in 1789. He managed to leave the farm of his owner, marry a free black woman named Mary, and eventually make his way with his young family to Nantucket in 1820. In 1822 the Quaker community came to the assistance of the Cooper family when Camillus Griffith, a bounty hunter, arrived to take Cooper, his wife, and his children into slavery. While Griffith may have had a valid legal claim against Arthur Cooper, it is unlikely that he had the right to apprehend Mary and the Cooper children. A crowd of blacks and Quakers pledged that they would not let the family be removed. William Mitchell, father of Maria Mitchell, organized a citizens’ response. While he explained to Griffith that he had no authority to apprehend the Coopers, another townsperson slipped the family out the back door. When the matter was brought before him, Magistrate Alfred Folger ruled that the family could not be removed from Nantucket, and Griffith left the island empty-handed. Griffith continued trying to gain possession of the Coopers through litigation on the mainland, but he was unsuccessful. The Coopers continued to live in peace on Nantucket. After the death of Arthur Cooper’s first wife, he married Lucinda Gordon, who had also escaped from slavery. The Cooper children continued to reside on the island. Another black person who lived in Nantucket, interacted with its Quaker residents, and went on to an extraordinary career was Mary Ellen Pleasant. Born into slavery in Georgia, she was brought to Nantucket where she lived and worked for the Hussey- Gardner family. The Gardners taught her to read, and she learned to keep accounts and deal with the public in their store. Eventually members of the Gardner family assisted her in moving to San Francisco in 1852. There her business acumen made her a millionaire, and she used her riches to assist fugitive slaves and to support antislavery causes. Between 1773 and 1840 there was no unanimity of white opinion on the race question. While strong opposition to slavery existed among Quakers, there was less agreement on issues of social equality. This abolitionist fervor emanated from both the black and Quaker communities. In 1839 a group of Quakers formed the Nantucket County Anti- Slavery Society as an auxiliary to the Massachusetts State Anti-Slavery Society. However, disagreement centered around two issues: whether white churches should be more active in opposition to slavery and whether black and white children should go to school together. This vacillation in commitment to black freedom was epitomized in the local antislavery conventions and the Eunice Ross controversy. Through the efforts of twenty-five-year-old Anna Gardner, a series of antislavery conventions was held on the island. Frederick Douglass, who later became the country’s leading black abolitionist, spoke at one that met in the Nantucket Atheneum in 1841. This speech before a primarily white audience marked the beginning of his career as an abolitionist speaker. Those who supported and encouraged him to speak in Nantucket were mostly Quakers and included the Gardner family who had hidden Arthur Cooper and his family in 1822 and the Barney family, leaders in the Nantucket abolitionist movement. A year after Douglass’s initial speech, another convention was held in the Atheneum. Among those present were William Lloyd Garrison and Stephen Symonds Foster. The second antislavery convention was met with mob violence; cobblestones and eggs were thrown after Foster’s speech, in which he attacked Christian churches for complicity with slavery. His speech was later published under the title “Brotherhood of Thieves.” Foster’s position was that northern churches, including those in Nantucket, that did not actively oppose slavery were guilty by association. While Nantucketers might deplore the violent opposition to Foster’s speech, they were resistant to mounting pressure to integrate the island’s public schools. To many it seemed self-evident that blacks should attend separate schools just as they lived in the separate community of New Guinea. A controversy arose, therefore, over whether black children should be integrated into the white schools. Despite deep division of opinion, several prominent whites supported integrated education. Ironically, the question of whether Eunice Ross, a black pupil of Anna Gardner, should be admitted to the high school raged during the height of the antislavery movement on the island. In 1789 Massachusetts had required all towns to establish public schools. Nantucket eventually complied with the law in 1827, establishing new schools and providing a subsidy to New Guinea’s already existing African School. The Eunice Ross controversy began in 1840 and was not resolved until 1847, when the island’s schools were integrated. This result did not come without a struggle led by both blacks and whites. When school committee member Edward Gardner moved in 1840 that “coloured children” be allowed to attend any of the public schools, his motion failed to pass. The ensuing controversy stirred both communities and divided the white community. Blacks assumed leadership in this struggle by issuing resolutions, boycotting classes, and petitioning the state legislature. Edward J. Pompey prepared their initial petition, which was signed by over a hundred and four blacks. By this time Pompey was already actively engaged in antislavery activities, having been the Nantucket agent for William Lloyd Garrison’s newspaper The Liberator since 1831. In 1834 Pompey had become secretary of the Nantucket Anti-Slavery Society. The petition from the New Guinea community and additional petitions from the white community led to the passage of House Bill 45, guaranteeing all Massachusetts children access to education. A year later the schools were integrated, and the school in the African Meeting House passed out of existence. The Meeting House had, however, played an important role in the early nineteenth century. Built by the black community to serve as a church and a school, it served a multiplicity of purposes. Although the land was acquired for a school, the building was consecrated as a place of worship before it was completed in 1825. From its inception white teachers, including Quaker Anna Gardner, taught there, carrying forward a Nantucket legacy of cooperation between blacks and whites. Eunice Ross, who died in the same year as Frederick Douglass, not only changed Nantucket’s school system but helped to create substantive rights for all children in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. After the closing of the African school, the building on the corner of York and Pleasant Streets continued to play a role in the life of Nantucket’s black community. In 1848 James Crawford became pastor of the Pleasant Street Baptist Church, which met in the building. Born into slavery in Virginia, the Rev. Crawford had escaped by going to sea and leaving his ship in Providence, Rhode Island. In Nantucket, where he worked as a hairdresser — he operated in both the black and white communities — preaching regularly in the Summer Street Baptist Church as well as at the town asylum for the indigent. From the beginning, Rev. Crawford’s black church received support from white denominations. The white pastor of the Summer Street Church called on Crawford’s black congregation to become affiliated with the national Baptist denomination at an ecclesiastical council convened in 1848. In April of that year, Crawford baptized thirty original members of his church. Ten years later the Summer Street Church was filled to capacity to hear Rev. Crawford preach and raise money to purchase the freedom of his sister-in-law Diana and his niece Cordelia from slavery in North Carolina. Rev. Crawford married three times. His first wife was the sister of the famous abolitionist Henry Highland Garnet. His second wife, Diana, was his first wife’s sister, whom he had purchased from slavery. Diana died an untimely death in 1860. Eight years later he married Rebecca Elaw, daughter of the black Methodist woman preacher Zilpha Elaw, who spent the last years of her life conducting missionary work in London. Born to a slave mother and her white master, Rev. Crawford was described by white Nantucketer Arthur C. Brock as having “wonderful brown hair, and the merriest blue eyes and dimples, and that large, humorous, lovely mouth that spoke evil of no man.” He served as pastor to the colored people of the island for forty years until his death in 1888. Eighteen hundred and sixty was another crisis year in island race relations. A black woman, Patience Cooper, was arrested for the murder of Phebe Fuller, an elderly white woman. The brutality of the crime shocked the island. Patience was convicted of manslaughter solely upon a declaration Mrs. Fuller allegedly made to Captain Nathaniel Fitzgerald before she lapsed into a coma and died. Immediately after the assault Mrs. Fuller had told authorities that her assailant was an unknown white man. Due to efforts of local attorneys, the initial murder indictment against Patience Cooper was dismissed. Subsequently she was reindicted for manslaughter and went to trial in 1863. The most incriminating evidence against her was the testimony of Captain Fitzgerald, who told the jury what he said Mrs. Fuller had told him. Despite efforts to exclude this testimony as hearsay, the judge allowed it to be heard by the jury. It is interesting to note that seventeen years earlier Captain Fitzgerald had actively opposed efforts to integrate Nantucket public schools, thus raising questions about his potential bias in the Fuller case. Did he have a motive to lie about his alleged conversation with the victim? Why was his testimony given more weight than the victim’s initial statement that a white man had assaulted her? Convicted of manslaughter, Patience Cooper was sentenced to ten years in the Nantucket House of Correction. In 1873 she was transferred to the Bristol County House of Correction. Upon release, she returned to Nantucket and lived out the rest of her life as a resident of the town asylum for the indigent. As in the case of Arthur Cooper, it was the intervention of white Nantucketers — in this case Attorney Edward M. Gardner — that shielded Patience Cooper. Otherwise she might have faced a capital conviction of murder and a possible death penalty. The question of whether she was unjustly convicted of manslaughter remains an open question. The issues concerning integration that Nantucketers grappled with between 1773 and 1863 were precursors to similar national issues that raged from Reconstruction to the mid-twentieth century. After blacks acquired political freedom, would whites allow them to interact on social levels? Would blacks be encouraged to pursue their livelihoods free of overt discrimination? Would whites, who controlled the legal process, vigorously defend blacks before the courts? In Nantucket between 1773 and 1863 there existed a model of black/white cooperation premised upon a fundamental belief that slavery was morally wrong. While a majority of whites were willing to accede political equality to blacks, a considerable number of individuals could not accept social equality as an acceptable public policy. Yet by 1863, the year that Patience Cooper began her prison term, Nantucket had faced and resolved these important public policy issues, in large measure because of black political activism and Quaker morality. The nation might have been spared tremendous financial and human losses if it had embraced this racial paradigm, which grew out of the struggles of Nantucketers between 1773 and 1863. Robert Johnson Jr. is chair and associate professor of Africana Studies at the University of Massachusetts Boston. He has coordinated the James Bradford Ames Fellowship program since its inception. The program, established by Adele Ames in memory of her husband, funds research into the history of blacks and Cape Verdeans on Nantucket Island. © Nantucket Historical Association. All rights reserved.

http://www.nha.org/history/hn/HNracerelations.html

Chinese Philosophies & Religions --- Confucianism The age of Confucius is often described as the period of the "hundred schools" of thought in ancient China. Of course, the designation of a "hundred schools" did not come about on the basis of an exact count of competing schools but rather reflects a general recognition that the period was one of great ferment in the world of ideas, a time when many different points of view on politics and ethics were being brought to the forefront and actively debated. CONFUCIUS is a latinized form of the honorific title Kong Fuzi (Master Kong) given to a wandering scholar from the state of Lu in Shandong Province in northeastern China (history link here). Although little known in his lifetime, Confucius was revered as the greatest of sages throughout most of China's history. His teaching, Confucianism, was the state teaching from the beginning of the Han Dynasty in 202 BC to the end of the imperial period in 1911. Disturbed by constant warfare among the states, Confucius taught that most of the ills of society happened because people forgot their stations in life and rulers lost virtue. He advocated a return to the golden antiquity of emperors Yao and Shun, when rulers were virtuous and people knew their places. Therefore, Confucius' primary concern lay in social relations, proper conduct and social harmony. Confucius defined five cardinal relationships: between ruler and ruled, between husband and wife, between parents and children, between older and younger brothers and between friends. Except for the last case, all of the defined relationships are between superiors and inferiors. He emphasized the complete obedience and loyalty of the inferior to the superior but also mentioned the benevolence of the superior to the inferior. The ideal Confucian family was an extended one of three or four generations in which authority rested with the elderly male members. Filial piety (obedience to parents) was one of the most important virtues emphasized by later Confucians. Confucius reportedly spent his last years editing and completing some of the books that came to be known as Five Classics. These include the `Classic of Poetry', `Classic of History', `Spring and Autumn Annals', `Record of Rites', and `Classic of Changes', or `I Ching'. Memorized by scholars for generations in China, these books and four other works, including the `Analects', a compilation of Confucian teachings, were the subjects of civil service examinations for over 2,000 years. Confucianism commanded a greater following some 200 years later, during the time of Mencius, or Mengzi (371-289 BC). He was second only to Confucius himself in shaping Confucianism. His three main tenets were the basic good nature of human beings, the notion of society with a distinct distribution of functions and the ruler's obligation to the people. On the last point, Mencius elaborated on the concept of the mandate of heaven, which allows that rulers lose support of heaven when they cease to be virtuous. The concept served as the basis of revolts in China and the succession of new rulers. Chinese Philosophies & Religions --- Menicius Mengzi The `Mengzi', meaning "Master Meng," was written by the philosopher Mencius (a Latinized form of the name Mengzi) in 4th century BC. The work earned for its author the title of "second sage" in China. The book deals with government and asserts that the welfare of the people comes before all else. When a king no longer is good to the people, he should be removed--by revolution if necessary. Mencius, like Confucius, declared that filial piety was the foundation of society. One unusual doctrine that Mencius supported was that of the natural goodness of mankind, for which he found proof in the natural love children have for their parents. Two other philosophies that have had an enduring influence on Chinese thought are Taoism and Legalism. Taoism gave the Chinese an alternative to Confucianism--passivity and escape to nature--while Legalism provided the Chinese state with one of its basic doctrines. Confucianism, based on the teachings and writings of the philosopher Confucius, is an ethical system that sought to teach the proper way for all people to behave in society. Each relationship: husband-wife, parents-children, ruler-subjects - involved a set of obligations which if upheld, would lead to a just and harmonious society. Following his teachings would also promote a stable, lasting government. Chinese Philosophies & Religions --- Laozi(604?-531 BC) Some people believe that only one man, Lao-tzu, wrote the most translated work in all the literature of China, the `Laozi' (also called `Dao De Jing'). The book is the earliest document in the history of Taoism ("the Way"), one of the major philosophical-religious traditions that, along with Confucianism, has shaped Chinese life and thought for more than 2,000 years. It is a viewpoint that emphasizes individuality, freedom, simplicity, mysticism and naturalness. Knowledge of Laozi is so scarce that only legends remain. His earliest biographer, who wrote in about 100 BC, relates that Lao-tzu lived in the district of Hu Province (in present-day Henan) during the Zhou Dynasty (1122-221 BC). Presumably, he worked in astrology and divination at the court of the emperor. The biographer tells of a meeting of Lao-tzu with the younger Confucius, which would mean Lao-tzu lived in about 500 BC. Another story says that he left China during the decline of the Zhou Dynasty and on his way west wrote the `Dao De Jing', after which he disappeared. He was worshipped as an Imperial ancestor during the T'ang Dynasty (618-907). Scholars today believe that the book cannot have been written by one man. Some of the sayings in it may date from the time of Confucius while others are from a later period. It is possible that the name Laozi represents a type of scholar and wise man, rather than one individual. "dao de jing"The `Dao De', meaning "Classic of the Way of Power" is one of the great works of ancient China not included among the Confucian Classics. The presumed author, Laozi, is considered to be the founder of Taoism. He may have been alive at the same time as Confucius but older. The book is not only significant philosophically, but is also one of the most sacred scriptures of the Taoist religion. Communal religious Taoism is quite distinct from its philosophical counterpart. It emphasizes moral teachings and collective ceremonies. Good moral conduct is rewarded with health and long life while bad conduct results in disease, death and suffering in the afterlife. There is an array of gods who are administrators of the universe of which they are a part. From these gods come revelations of sacred texts. There is an order of married priests who live in the communities they serve and perform exorcisms and complex rituals. Folk religion Taoism is part of the everyday lives of the people. The gods are intimately connected with each individual's life as bringers of calamities or givers of bountiful gifts. Each object of daily life has its presiding spirit that must be consulted and appeased. All types of Taoism have in common the quest for a harmonious, well-ordered universe. They emphasize the individual's and the group's need for unity through mysticism, magicand ceremony.

http://www.china-window.com/china_briefing/china_summary/china-philosophy-religion.shtml

From MicrobeWiki, the student-edited microbiology resource Surface water moves downward through unsaturated zones –typically tiny pores and cracks in the soil, sand, or rock, and then reaches a stable water saturated layer named the water table. Groundwater is beneath the water table. Groundwater provide about 0.6 percent of the world’s total water and 20 percent of the available fresh water resources. Microbial organisms play important role in groundwater ecosystem and affect drinking water quality significantly. Microbial contamination of groundwater is a health concern. Physical and chemical environment Substrate and sediment In the shallow aquifers where generally groundwater is located, typically, there is soil, sand, plant roots, hardpan and low permeability bedrock. The temperature of groundwater is quite steady because the specific heat capacity of water is high and also because the soil, rock and up layer water protect groundwater from heat changing with the climate . Groundwater is relatively stable compared to surface water. In the aquifer and other porous media, groundwater not only follows gravity, but also follows pressure gradients. The movement of groundwater also depends on the porosity, water content and hydraulic conductivity of aquifer. The mineral content in the groundwater is usually constant, and could be higher than in the surface water from the same area. Fe2+, Mn2+, H2S, NH4+ CO2 and chlorinated solvents are often presented, concentrations of nitrate and silica could be quite high, but usually no dissolved O2 in the groundwater . Pollutants, such as gasoline, oil, road salts and chemicals seep into groundwater can hurt animals, plants, or humans. Two major contaminate sources are hazardous waste site leaking and landfills. Since groundwater is part of the hydrologic cycle, contaminants released to the groundwater could create a contaminant plume within an aquifer and also can be transferred to the other parts of the cycle . Gram-negative bacteria (such as Pseudomonas, Azotobacter, Neisseria, Maraxella and Acinetobacter) are found extensively in groundwater system. Balkwill (1989) studied the aerobic, chemoheterotrophic bacteria in deep aquifers and other subsurface sediments at a site in South Carolina. They found that 95% of the platable colonies contained nonstreptomycete bacteria, more than 80% of which were gram-negative rods. Gram-positive bacteria are not abundant in groundwater systems; however, the gram-positive bacteria include many important human pathogens such as Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus . It is estimated that 65% of the water borne disease are caused by enteric viruses. For example, norovirus (also known as Norwalk agent) causes approximately 90% of epidemic non-bacterial outbreaks of gastroenteritis around the world. Infectious hepatitis is the most intensively studied disease that is caused by water borne virus. Virus adsorption to soils and other solids could prolong survival of viruses in the groundwater. Research showed that Viruses originating from wastewater infiltration units are able to migrate horizontally in groundwater for hundreds of meters and vertically as much as 67 meters . Groundwater eukaryotes are comprised of many species, range from single-celled heterotrophic nanoflagellates and fungi to amphipod crustaceans. The location of groundwater eukaryotes might be close to the vadose (unsaturated) zone, the soil or the bottom sediments of surface water [8,9]. Both bacteria and archaea are able to carry out ammonia oxidation in the groundwater. The ammonia oxidation rate is limited by the available oxygen. Ammonia is oxided into nitrite and nitrate, and then ultimately be removed from the system by reduction to dinitrogen by denitrification. Denitrification reduce nitrate in the groundwater. Denitrifying bacteria Burkholderia, Bacillus, and Pseudomonas play an important role in groundwater.The process removes nitrate which is a major groundwater pollutant, particularly in agricultural regions where nitrate is leached from soils that have been amended with fertilizer or manure. In the groundwater, organic matter is the most common electron donor, but inorganic compounds, such as pyrite (FeS2) and Fe[II]-silicates, may also be used by denitrifying organisms. Manganese, Iron and sulfate Reduction Anaerobic conditions are dominant in groundwater. In anaerobic zone, microbial communities could carry out decomposition coupled with Manganese, Iron and sulfate reduction. These processes determined by the redox condition and could affect carbon, Fe and S cycle in the groundwater. Synthetic halogenated organic compounds in the groundwater could persist for very long time and are recognized as a serious health concern. Dehalogenation removes halogens from organic compounds. Anaerobic dehalogenation reactions can effectively degrade a wide variety of halogenated contaminants in ground water. 1. W.W.J.M de Vet et al characterized the microbial populations in groundwater sources and sand filters for drinking water production. They found that both bacteria and archaea, especially Nitrospira, are important in ammonia nitrification. No nitrifying organisms were detected in subsurface aerated groundwater; therefore, the nitrifying capacity is low. Iron-oxidizing bacteria Gallionella ferruginea was detected in subsurface aerated groundwater. It indicted the iron oxidation could be existed and thereby could improve nitrification in groundwater. 2. Sven Jechalke et al developed a novel aerated treatment pond for enhanced biodegradation of groundwater contaminants. They use coconut fibre and polypropylene textiles to grow contaminant-degrading biofilms. The results showed that the efficiencies for benzene, MTBE and COD were 99.9%, 38% and 61% respectively. Ammonium degradation rates were low. 3. Amitabha Mukhopadhay et al drilled 29 monitoring well across urban Kuwait City and analyzed inorganic and organic constituents including isotopic composition. They found that one well is highly contaminated in terms of total coliform bacteria, fecal coliform bacteria and boron concentration. Another well is significantly contaminated. Three wells might be contaminated, and seven well were not contaminated. Detection of groundwater contamination using microbial community profiles 4. Paula J. Mouser proposed a novel groundwater contamination detection method. They characterized bacteria, archaea and family Geobacteraceae in the contaminated groundwater by using T-RFLP. By knowing the information of microbial communities in the groundwater, they stated that this method is able to detect groundwater contamination. 4. Balkwill DL. Numbers, diversity, and morphological characteristics of aerobic, chemoheterotrophic bacteria in deep subsurface sediments from a site in South Carolina. Geomicrobiology Journal. 1989. Volume 7. Pages: 33-52. 9. Y.Shi, M.D.Zwolinski, M.E.Schreiber, J.M.Bahr, G.W.Sewell, and W.J.Hickey. Molecular Analysis of Microbial Community Structures in Pristine and Contaminated Aquifers: Field and Laboratory Microcosm Experiments. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1999. Volume 65. p. 2143–2150. 10. Paul W. J. J. van der Wielen, Stefan Voost, and Dick van der Kooij. Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria and Archaea in Groundwater Treatment and Drinking Water Distribution Systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2009. Volume75. p.4687–4695. 12. W.W.J.M. de Vet, I.J.T. Dinkla, G. Muyzer, L.C. Rietveld, and M.C.M. van Loosdrecht. Molecular characterization of microbial populations in groundwater sources and sand filters for drinking water production. Water Research. 2009. Volume 43. P. 182–194. 13. Sven Jechalke, Carsten Vogt, Nils Reiche, Alessandro G. Franchini, Helko Borsdorf, Thomas R. Neu, Hans H. Richnow. Aerated treatment pond technology with biofilm promoting mats for the bioremediation of benzene,MTBE and ammonium contaminated groundwater. Water Research. 2010. Volume 44.P.1785-1796. 15. Paula J. Mouser, Donna M. Rizzo, Gregory K. Druschel, Sergio E. Morales, Nancy Hayden, Patrick O’Grady, and Lori Stevens. Enhanced detection of groundwater contamination from a leaking waste disposal site by microbial community profiles. Water Resources Research. 2010. Volume 46. W12506. Edited by Liangcheng Yang, a student of Angela Kent at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Groundwater

The Difference Between Where, Were & We’re Learning English can often be a daunting task, given the large number of complex rules. Just when you think you are beginning to understand the grammar, you discover a new exception to the rule! The English language contains many different words that sound exactly the same, but have very different meanings. There are many of these similar sounding words that are called “homonyms.” In fact, the English language contains so many of them that native English speakers often get the terms confused. We’re going to explain the difference between the common English words where, were and we’re. The term “where” is an adverb used to describe the location or place or specially “at, in or to what place.” “The library is a place where people can borrow books on every subject.” The term “were” is the plural past tense of the verb “are.” The singular past tense of this verb is spelled “was.” The word is used to describe something that has already happened or is in the past. You should use the word “was” for the first and third person (I was late or she was late), and “were” for the singular and plural of the second person (You were late). “The terms of the business contract were clearly explained in the legal document.” The term “we’re” is a contraction or abbreviation of the words “we” and “are.” The letter a is replaced by an apostrophe. This word is used to describe something that is either happening now or will be happening in the future. If you have difficulty remembering when to use this particular word, check if you can replace the word you have chosen with the words “we are.” If the sentence doesn’t make sense, you need to use the word “were” instead. “We’re going to visit our friend who is recovering in the hospital.”

http://www.supaproofread.com/article_info.php?articles_id=62

These games teach valuable skills and have a high fun and educational rating. Your child improves life skills by learning the proper ways to wash his/her hands. Your child develops knowledge of singular and plural word forms by deciding which word fits into the correct column. Your child learns print basics knowledge by identifying words that are found within larger words. Your child develops investigation skills by exploring how information about the snacks we eat (the data) can be organized on a chart. Your child develops addition skills by adding numbers to find an animal friend. Your child develops science investigation and measuring skills with this video showing kids learning how to measure using standard and non-standard units of measurement. Your child develops acting and literacy skills by reading or listening to this script and acting out the little play. Your child develops knowledge about natural resources and helping the environment by watching this video. Your child develops memory and matching skills by finding a word and its matching picture. Your child develops knowledge of singular and plural word forms by dragging the words into their respective columns.

http://www.zoodles.com/en/free-online-kids-games/kindergarten/7

Summary and Introduction to Equilibrium So far, we've looked at supply, we've looked at demand, and the main question that now arises is, "How do these two opposing forces of supply and demand shape the market?" Buyers want to buy as many goods as possible, as cheaply as possible. Sellers want to sell as many goods as possible, at the highest price possible. Obviously, they can't both have their way. How can we figure out what the price will be, and how many goods will be sold? In most cases, supply and demand reach some sort of compromise on the price and quantity of goods sold: the market price is the price at which buyers are willing to buy the same number of goods that sellers are willing to sell. This point is called market equilibrium. Because supply and demand can shift and change, equilibrium in a standard market is also fluid, responding to changes in either market force. There are, however, some cases in which the normal fluidity of equilibrium does not exist, whether due to the structure of the market or inefficiencies within the market. We will examine some of these cases, such as monopolies or markets with government intervention, which are not "traditional" market economies. In this unit, we will learn how to find market equilibrium to determine the prices and quantities of goods sold, we will calculate firms' profit margins, and we will study ways in which a market can deviate from this traditional market model.

http://www.sparknotes.com/economics/micro/supplydemand/equilibrium/summary.html

Students who know most if not all of their letters and sounds but are unable to even begin sounding out simple consonant-vowel-consonant (cvc) words are lacking blending ability. The good news is that they are usually ripe for learning to read. Often they have been taught to read words by sight, and simply have no idea how letters actually work together to make words. Sometimes they are simply new to the reading process and have picked up letters and sounds from their parents or some sort of early learning program. Regardless, they need to be shown how to blend sounds together to make words as soon as possible if they are to move quickly forward. Getting your students to actually blend sounds into words may be challenging at first. They have to develop a "listening" for it before they will be able to blend consistently and effectively. Once they begin to "hear" how the letter sounds blend together to make words, they will be ready to take off! The quickest way to get them "hearing" the word is to introduce them to a good blending technique. We recommend "punching" the first sound, dragging out the middle/vowel sound, and quickly (and a bit more softly) adding on the final sound. Point to the letters as you do so. When reading the word "cat," you would point to the appropriate letters and say "/c/ /aaaaaa/t/." We recommend helping your kids sound out the word three times in a row before even attempting to blend it together. You should practically be saying the word each time you sound it out. Make sure you do not keep the sounds further apart than they need to be, as this makes blending harder than it needs to be. Continue having your students sound out each word three times before blending it together until they are able to "hear" the word accurately the first time through. (See video clip on reading short words for an audible example.) To create beginning word cards for your students who already know a lot of letter sounds to read, put a list of cvc words that utilizes all of the letters of the alphabet onto individual index cards. Each card should contain only one neatly printed word. You'll want a word that has an a in it, a word that has a b in it, a word that has a c in it, etc. (See sample list below.) Use any letters a student has trouble with multiple times. This helps give them an often needed review of letters and sounds while also teaching one of the main components of reading -- how to blend sounds together to make words. After you have created the cards, point to the letters and instruct your kids to make the sound of the letter you point to. Help get them blending the sounds together through the blending technique mentioned above. In minutes you should see students start to "hear" the words being called out. Some will take longer than others to "hear" it, but all should hear it before long. As soon as a word is put together/read, ask your student or students to use the word in a sentence. This will ensure your kids learn to think about what they are saying as they "read" the words rather than simply becoming "word callers." It's also a great way to reinforce new vocabulary. Once they are reading and understanding individual words, add sentences made up of cvc words for them to read and tell you about. Immediately after your kids can blend cvc words and sentences, show them how to blend words that contain beginning and ending blends. Work these words into your sentences, along with scattered sight words you want them to recognize. When you run across the sight words that don't follow regular phonetic patterns, sound them out anyway! Let your kids hear how funny they sound before telling them what they actually say. Do this until your kids begin to recognize them naturally. You'll need to begin introducing "tricks" (sh, ch, th, er, ou, oo, gh, etc.) as well. They are in almost every word, and need to be taught as soon as possible if you want your kids to really become expert readers and writers. (Yes, even kindergartners should be taught the tricks!) Incorporating literacy chart instruction into your daily schedule (utilizing our literacy chart instruction techniques when doing so) is a great way to wrap all of these lessons in one as you read the "slow and fast way," and run across all types of tricks and sight words that your kids need to have repeated experiences with to become independent readers and writers. Before you know it, your students will be able to read (and write) all sorts of words, sentences, and stories without any help from you! Sample Beginning CVC Word List (utilizing all of the letters of the alphabet): *Don't get stuck on cvc words! As soon as your kids can read them, introduce words with blends and tricks!

http://www.jkhteach.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=52:what-can-i-do-to-help-kids-who-know-letters-and-sounds-but-cant-sound-out-any-words&catid=34:faqs&Itemid=59

The inverse of the sine function is known as arc sine, most math libraries shorten this to asin The inverse of the cosine function is known as arc cosine, most math libraries shorten this to acos The inverse of the tangent function is known as arc tangent, most math libraries shorten this to atan or atan2 The trig functions are many to one, therefore the inverse trig functions have many possible results. We usually assume that: acos returns the angle between 0 and pi asin returns the angle between -pi/2 and pi/2 atan returns the angle between -pi/2 and pi/2 atan2 returns the angle between -pi and pi Which value to use? As we can see from the above graphs, trig functions are many to one. That is, for a given value, it could be produced by many angles. In fact since the graph repeats every 2 pi (360 degrees) there are an infinite number of angles. The values returned by the inverse trig functions are shown above. Usually we want the smallest angle that will represent the required rotation. Rectangular To Polar using atan function For information about polar coordinates see here. If we want to convert the rectangular coordinates x,y to the polar coordinates θ,r then we can do so as follows: We can calculate r from: r2 = x2 + y2 and θ from: tan(θ) = y / x θ = atan(y / x) There are some potential problems with the above approach: - It does not work for a full range of angles from 0° to 360°, only angles between -90° and +90° will be returned, other angles will be 180° out of phase. For example: the point x=-1,y=-1 will produce the same angle as x=1,y=1 but the above diagram shows that these are in different quadrants. - points on the vertical axis have x=0, so when we calculate the intermediate result y/x we will get infinity which will generate an exception when calculated on the computer. Most maths libraries have a atan2(y,x) function which takes both x and y as operands, which allows it to get round the above problems. In the first quadrant atan2(y,x) is equivalent to atan(y/x) since: = sin(a)/cos(a) = opposite/adjacent = y/x atan2(y,x) = atan2(opposite,adjacent) Most maths libraries, for example java, define the order of operands as: atan2(y,x) but some, for example Excel spreadsheet reverse the order of the operands as follows: X_num is the x-coordinate of the point. Y_num is the y-coordinate of the point. Therefore you should always check the order of the order of operands for the maths library you are using.

http://www.euclideanspace.com/maths/geometry/trig/inverse/index.htm

In this section we need to take a look at the velocity and acceleration of a moving object. From Calculus I we know that given the position function of an object that the velocity of the object is the first derivative of the position function and the acceleration of the object is the second derivative of the position function. So, given this it shouldn’t be too surprising that if the position function of an object is given by the vector function then the velocity and acceleration of the object is given by, Notice that the velocity and acceleration are also going to be vectors as well. In the study of the motion of objects the acceleration is often broken up into a tangential component, aT, and a normal component, aN. The tangential component is the part of the acceleration that is tangential to the curve and the normal component is the part of the acceleration that is normal (or orthogonal) to the curve. If we do this we can write the acceleration as, where and are the unit tangent and unit normal for the If we define then the tangential and normal components of the acceleration are given by, where is the curvature for the position function. There are two formulas to use here for each component of the acceleration and while the second formula may seem overly complicated it is often the easier of the two. In the tangential component, v, may be messy and computing the derivative may be unpleasant. In the normal component we will already be computing both of these quantities in order to get the curvature and so the second formula in this case is definitely the easier of the two. Let’s take a quick look at a couple of examples. Example 1 If the acceleration of an object is given by find the object's velocity and position functions given that the initial velocity is and the initial position is . We’ll first get the velocity. To do this all (well almost all) we need to do is integrate the acceleration. To completely get the velocity we will need to determine the “constant” of integration. We can use the initial velocity to get this. The velocity of the object is then, We will find the position function by integrating the Using the initial position gives us, So, the position function is, Example 2 For the object in the previous example determine the tangential and normal components of the acceleration. There really isn’t much to do here other than plug into the formulas. To do this we’ll need to Let’s first compute the dot product and cross product that we’ll need for the formulas. Next, we also need a couple of magnitudes. The tangential component of the acceleration is then, The normal component of the acceleration is,

http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/Velocity_Acceleration.aspx

-- Follow with a finger. Encourage your child to read with a "guide finger"—his index finger that underlines words as he reads them. This can be a helpful reading strategy if he regularly loses his place, skips lines, and omits or repeats words. -- Stick 'em up. Have your child mark important passages with sticky notes, so she can find them later. Use a symbol for each topic, for example, a smiley face for information about a character, a house for setting, a star for important ideas, etc. -- Pace read-alouds. Suggest that your child take a short breath at each comma and a regular breath at the end of each sentence. This will improve his reading pace—and comprehension. -- Find the five W's. Focus on who, what, when, where, why, and how when reading. Help your child track them with a chart. -- See it. Help your child visualize a story by seeing it as a movie in her mind. As she reads, the movie should change. This will help her remember characters, facts, and concepts.

http://www.additudemag.com/adhd/article/5959-2.html

The mouth is an orifice in the head. It contains teeth, the tongue and the palate. A mucus membrane lines the interior, which transitions into the lips. The back of the mouth features the tonsils and uvula. The mouth serves multiple functions. Food enters the body via this entrance, where the teeth assist in the chewing process. Saliva begins the digestion process, before the food travels down the esophagus and into the stomach. The orifice can also work as an air passage every time the body inhales and delivers oxygen to the lungs. In breathing, only the nose presents an alternative route. Also, the mouth is critically important to human communication. The voice box produces sound, but mouth shapes sounds into consonants and vowels. This occurs in how the tongue is positioned and whether or not it touches the teeth or the palate. The mouth also plays an active role in non-verbal communication. The mouth conveys emotional states through by moving the lips into different positions.

http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/mouth

Copyright © University of Cambridge. All rights reserved. 'Multiplication Squares' printed from http://nrich.maths.org/ Why do this problem? requires learners to find common factors and offers a context in which they can explain their reasoning. You could begin by having a partially completed multiplication square (or squares) on the board, with just a few gaps, for example: Ask the class to describe what they see. Can they fill in the spaces? Invite some children to explain how they know what goes in each empty cell and encourage use of appropriate vocabulary. Then show them the multiplication square in the problem and give them some time to begin to work on it. It would be a good idea to have a mini-plenary after a few minutes to share insights so far - where did they start? Not all learners will necessarily have begun in the same way so it would be valuable to talk about the possibilities, focusing on good explanations of the reasoning Pupils could then work in pairs to complete the square. Is there only one solution? How do they know? In a final plenary, you could specifically introduce the language of common factors if it has not come up already. Which products are odd? How will this help? What are the factors of this number? would be a good challenge for some children once they have tried this problem. Calculators might be useful.

http://nrich.maths.org/1134/note?nomenu=1

Civil War Reconstruction The Civil War was one of the most intense and heart rending periods of the History of the United States. It was a period where at times people in the same family would take up arms on opposing sides, brother against brother, North against South. For many people, the Civil War represented an effort by the Southern States to cleave off and become their own country. There were rich Slave owners that did not want to stop owning and managing slaves. However, there were a lot of other issues, such as representation in Congress of the interests and goals of people in the South. The time period after the Civil War was very chaotic, and it was one where many people swarmed into the defeated South. Some were official representatives of the U.S. Federal Government, and there were some of these people who were honorable, and good people. It was the job of some of these men (because at this time Women were not normally business or political representatives) to help regain services and restart different elements of infrastructure in the South, some of which had been destroyed. Reconstruction dealt with how different areas, and different Southern States would regain their status as part of the United States. Such things as how former slaves, now free, would be treated, how states would resume their seats in both houses of Congress, and other issues. The time period of Reconstruction was not an easy one, and there erupted violent conflict as a result, and controversy spread across the south on these different issues. In addition, besides the positive and moral agents of the U.S. Federal government, there were many different people who were dishonest and criminal that tried to take advantage of the defeat of the south. These people were called “Carpetbaggers,” which was as term of derision and disrespect used by Southern people for those that tried to come in and take advantage. Constitutional Amendments, negotiation and state and local elections worked to reestablish the South as part of the United States, but it was a time of turmoil, controversy and at times violence. Passage of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution were part of the legacy of the period of Reconstruction, from the end of the civil war in 1865 until about 1877. In 1877 Republican Rutherford B. Hayes was elected President of the United States, and he withdrew Federal troops from the South, in the Compromise of 1877. Most historians believe this event signaled the effective end of the period known as Reconstruction. Sign up for free e-mail notification of rare coin market news AND receive a free catalogue “Gold Rush Treasure.” Here's a page you'll want to bookmark and visit again and again—regularly updated special values available only on our web site!See Today's Offers

http://www.monacorarecoins.com/rare-coin-articles/civil-war-reconstruction/

The taiga's climate is quite unlike any other biome. In the winter season, the taiga's temperatures can drop below -76°F (-60°C). However, in the summer season temperatures can jump above 104°F (40°C). Because of this extreme difference in seasonal temperature, plants and animals need to be able to adapt to such variations. The sun also influences the way plants and animals live in the taiga. During the summer, because the taiga is located in the Northern Hemisphere and because the northern part of Earth is tilted towards the sun, the taiga sometimes receives twenty hours of sunlight a day. However, during the winter, because the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun, the taiga sometimes remains dark for twenty hours a day. This lack of sunlight causes the biome to become a dark, cold, and bleak place. During the winter, because of the extreme cold temperatures, the taiga does not receive much snow. However, the snow that does fall and reaches the ground remains there for several months. This layer can be seven feet thick in some places. Snow layers are used by animals andplants to insulate and keep them warm when outside air temperatures drop below freezing. The air trapped in snow crystals remain at a constant 32°F (O°C), sometimes significantly warmer than the frigid outside air.

http://library.thinkquest.org/C0113340/text/biomes/biomes.taiga.climate.html

Since that day in 1541 when Hernando Desoto and his men first saw the Mississippi, western civilization has been interested in mapping the mighty river. More than 450 years later, those who deal with the Mississippi River on a daily basis—river pilots, engineers, scientists, and others—are intimately familiar with the surface of the Mississippi and the land that surrounds it; however, little is known about what lies beneath the surface. This summer, with the help of the U. S. Corps of Engineers, a group of researchers from the University of Memphis and the University of Texas at Austin plan to lift the veil of mystery that lies underneath the stretch of the Mississippi River between Helena, Arkansas and Caruthersville, Missouri. The researchers hope to begin answering the following questions: - Do as-yet undiscovered, active fault lines run under the Mississippi River? - Water seeks the lowest point. Does the Mississippi river flow the way that it does because fault lines running the length of the river have shaped where those lowest - How do the Mississippi River and the aquifer interact with each other? Follow the researchers on their journey as they post photos and journal entries on

http://www.memphis.edu/riverproject/phase1.php

The Military Frontier: Overview The United States Army moved westward across the continent with the expansion of the nation. White settlers and traders who moved west demanded protection from the Indians. The military presence in the West largely took the shape of small installations—mostly log palisades with blockhouses at the corners. More permanent posts, such as Fort Totten and Fort Abraham Lincoln in Dakota, were imposing garrisons of brick and lath-and-plaster clapboard structures. The forts were not often attacked. Their significance lay in the presence of soldiers who represented American authority. The forts were bases of operations in campaigns against the Indians when that became necessary. Fort Snelling, strategically located on high ground near the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers, was established in 1820 as the only fort between present-day Minneapolis and the Pacific Coast. Referred to as “the anchor post of the Northwest,” Snelling kept the uneasy peace the Chippewa (Ojibwa) and the Dakota (Sioux). The fort was the only evidence of United States sovereignty in the vast hinterland that included what would become Dakota Territory. It was not until 1857 that the army established Fort Abercrombie, just north of present-day Wahpeton, as the white frontier moved west. The military frontier crept slowly up the Missouri River Valley as traders and trappers followed that course. Not long after the War of 1812, President James Madison urged the construction of a Missouri Valley fort to see to it that the English stayed off American soil. In 1821 Fort Atkinson began operations just north of present-day Omaha. The only action that its soldiers saw came in 1823 in a campaign against the Arikara who had been interfering with American fur companies. In the 1850s the army moved upstream to Fort Randall and Fort Sully in present-day South Dakota with instructions to keep safe traffic on the river, to make peace among the Indian tribes, and to protect what white people might settle in their areas. In 1864 the chain of forts came to northern Dakota with the establishment of Fort Rice, not far from the present South Dakota–North Dakota border. From this post General Alfred Sully waged his war against what he believed to be Dakota Indians who had rebelled against the government and white Minnesota settlers in 1862. Fort Abercrombie and Fort Rice were the first of the several forts established in North Dakota between 1864 and 1870. Colonel Henry Leavenworth has just returned from the Upper Missouri country where he and his 275 men were sent to punish the Arikara. On June 2 the Arikara, who usually have dealt in friendly terms with the fur traders, had attacked William Ashley’s party of about 80 or 90 men. Fourteen of Ashley’s men were killed in the skirmish. The Arikara were seeking revenge for the death of their chief, Ankedoucharo, who had died in Washington, D.C. He was one of several chiefs who went east to confer with government officials. President Thomas Jefferson explained: “Everything we could do to help him was done, but it pleased the Great Spirit to take him from us. We buried him among our deceased friends and relations. We shed many tears over his grave.” The explanation was not enough; the Arikara were angry. Ashley and Joshua Pilcher, who had had some difficulty with the Arikara the previous spring, demanded that the army protect fur company interests and punish the Arikara. En route to the Arikara village, Colonel Leavenworth was joined by as many as 750 mounted Lakota who seemed eager to join in an attack on their old Arikara enemies. Several Lakota-Arikara battles left people dead on both sides. On August 9 the army reached the Arikara village. When the Lakota lost interest in the attack on the fortified and palisaded village, Colonel Leavenworth launched a half-hearted offensive, lobbing shells in the general direction of the village. Most did no damage, but Chief Gray Eyes was killed. The Arikara made overtures of peace, and Colonel Leavenworth eagerly entered into talks with the village leaders. When the negotiations got nowhere, Colonel Leavenworth decided to attack the village once more on the morning of August 12. The army’s shells, however, fell on an empty village. According to Arikara accounts, during the night a sacred dog had led the people under the river to safety. Thus ended the army’s campaign to punish the Arikara. Fur traders are angry that Leavenworth and his troops did not punish the Arikara. Pilcher wrote a letter to Leavenworth in which he calls the military leader’s action “imbecility” and charges that the refusal to press an attack “created and left impassable barriers.” Pilcher plans to give up trade in the area. Fur traders had hoped that Fort Atkinson would make the Missouri River Valley a safe place for hunters and trappers. They were disappointed that the army did not use its powder power against the Arikara as an example to other native people. After all, they ask, had not Secretary of War, John C. Calhoun placed the army in the west to protect American business and citizens? Calhoun had convinced a reluctant Congress to establish three western forts to keep an eye on native people, open the way for the fur trade, and restrain British interests. Fort Smith on the Arkansas Rivers, Fort Snelling where the Minnesota flows into the Mississippi and Fort Atkinson on the Missouri near the Platte River were built between 1817 and 1819. Calhoun recommended a fort near the Mandan and Hidatsa villages, but Congress forced the abandonment of that idea. However, the government remains committed to military action if necessary to secure trade and United States policy in the area. By Dr. D. Jerome Tweton Originally published as The North Star Dakotan student newspaper, written by Dr. D. Jerome Tweton and supported by the North Dakota Humanities Council

http://www.ndstudies.org/articles/the_military_frontier_overview

In his 1941 book Man on His Nature, the Nobel Prize-winning physiologist Sir Charles Sherrington described the brain as “an enchanted loom where millions of flashing shuttles weave a dissolving pattern.” Little could he have known that within 50 years neuroscientists would have at their disposal techniques for visualizing this pattern. These techniques are collectively known as calcium imaging. Developed in the 1980s, they use synthetic chemical dyes or genetic constructs whose spectral properties change when they bind calcium ions, leading to a change in fluoresence which can be detected under the microscope. These calcium sensors enable researchers to detect the tiny and transient increases in calcium ion concentration which are characteristic of neuronal activity. Calcium imaging techniques are now used routinely but, although powerful, they have limitations. Now an international team of researchers have developed a genetically encoded calcium sensor which can be used to detect the transient calcium currents associated with a single nervous impulse, in live behaving animals and in real time. The experiments are reported in the September issue of the journal Nature Methods. Calcium signalling is ubiquitous in nerve cells and mediates a large number of processes. An influx of calcium ions occurs in response to the arrival of a nervous impulse at the nerve terminal. This triggers the fusion of synaptic vesicles to the presynaptic membrane, so that they can release their cargo of neurotransmitter molecules. Within nerve cells, dozens of neuronal proteins are sensitive to discrete and highly localized “microdomains” of calcium, which either enters the cell from the chemical milieu outide, or is released from a number of intracellular calcium stores. Traditionally, neuronal activity was recorded by impaling neurons with microelectrodes which detect the movements of ions across the membrane. This method was used in the 1950s by Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley for their classical experiments which determined the ionic fluxes underlying the action potential, and is still widely used today. It is limited by the small number of cells from which recordings can be taken, and its highly invasive nature, which invariably damages the delicate nervous tissue being investigated. Calcium indicators have their advantages over electrophysiology, but they too have their limitations. The first dyes to be developed were small synthetic molecules which were loaded into individual cells one at a time, a laborious and time-consuming process. These dyes could detect the calcium currents triggered by single action potentials, but could not be targeted to specific cells, and could only be used to monitor neuronal activity for periods of about a day. The first generation of genetically encoded dyes overcame some of these problems, as they could be delivered to target cells using cell-type specific genetic elements and could be expressed within those cells for longer periods of time. However, they were less sensitive than the synthetic dyes – they emit less fluoresscence and could not detect single action potentials. The new calcium sensor exhibits the properties of both types, and so enables researchers to monitor the activity of specific cells for periods of weeks or months. It is based on a genetically encoded fluorescent calcium indicator protein developed recently by Amy Palmer and her colleagues at the University of Colorado, in collaboration with Roger Tsien‘s laboratory at the University of California in San Diego. The sensor, called D3cpv, consists of a calcium binding protein called calmodulin fused to yellow and cyan fluorescent proteins (YFP and CFP, respectively). Binding of calcium to calmodulin causes a conformational change which brings the two fluorescent proteins closer together, so that they are able to transfer small amounts of energy between each other. As a result of this energy transfer, the fluorescence emitted by YFP increases, wherease that emitted by CFP decreases. D3cpv was generated by slight modifications to existing genetically encoded calcium indicators. The main advance in the new method is the way in which the D3cpv DNA construct was delivered into cells. Mazahir Hasan of the Max Planck Institute for Medical Reseach in Heidelberg, Germany inserted the construct into an engineered form of the adeno-associated virus, then injected it directly into the brains of live mice through a hole in the skull. The viral vector allowed for stable, long-term expression of the calcium sensor in infected cells. Hazan’s group targeted the somatosensory cortex his experimental animals. In rodents, a large proportion of the somatosensory cortex is devoted to processing tactile information detected by the whiskers. The cells are organized into structures called barrels, each of which receives inputs from a single whisker and is activated by mechanical stimulation of that whisker. Hasan’s method allowed for simultaneous electrophysiological and optical detection of the increases in calcium ion concentration triggered by a single action potential. Individual whiskers in immobilzed were mechanically stimulated with brief puffs of air, leading to activity in somatosensory cortical cells in the corresponding whisker. The colour changes were observed using a type of two-photon laser scanning microscopy called fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). This detects the coincidence of the two fluorescence changes at a very high spatial and temporal resolution, and was performed through the hole in the skull. At the same time, electrophysiological recordings from somatosensory cortical cells showed that the colour changes corresponded to individual action potentials in somatosensorycortical cells evoked by whisker deflection (above right). Importantly, the viral vector led to calcium sensor expression that remained stable for months, and could potentially remain stable for the remainder of the animals’ lives. The method should therefore prove to be very useful for researchers investigating development of the nervous system and the changes that occur in neurodegenerative diseases. However, the sensor could only be used to detect activity at or below a frequency of 1 Hz (or 1 action potential per second). This is much lower than the brain’s “clock speed”: an individual neuron can fire up to 1,000 times per second. Furthermore, neuronal calcium signalling is highly promiscuous; at any moment in time, there are likely to be many transient calcium microdomains at different locations in the cell, each mediating a different molecular mechanism. Current calcium imaging techniques, including this one, do not differentiate between these microdomains, but instead monitor global changes in calcium ion concentration. Future work is likely to lead to indicators which are sensitive to higher frequencies of neuronal activity, and possibly to indicators which are sensitive to small ranges of calcium concentration. Combinations of such ultra-sensitive indicators may one day be used to differentiate between multiple parallel microdomains. This would enable researchers to visualize more fully the dissolving pattern of neuronal activity and to make real progress in deciphering the calcium code. Update: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has just announced that Roger Tsien is to receive the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, for his contribution to “the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP.” Tsien will share the Prize with Osamu Shimomura of the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, who first isolated GFP from the bioluminescent jellyfish Aequorea victoria in 1962, and Martin Chalfie of Columbia University, who was the first to demonstrate that GFP can be used as a genetic tag in biological systems. I’ve written about numerous studies which use GFP in various ways. See, for example, yesterday’s post about how the prion protein enters cells, and this post from last year about the ingenious Brainbow technique, which uses a combination of four differently coloured fluorescent proteins to generate a palette of more than 100 colours to label cells and illuminate entire neuronal circuits. Tsien’s work on the properties of GFP was instrumental for the development of this and similar techniques. For more information, see this comprehensive document about the scientific background to the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, produced by the Nobel Foundation. Wallace, D. J. et al (2008). Single-spike detection in vitro and in vivo with a genetic Ca2+ sensor. Nat. Meth. 5: 797-804. DOI: 10.1038/NMETH.1242

http://scienceblogs.com/neurophilosophy/2008/10/08/the-flashing-fluorescent-shuttles-of-the-enchanted-loom/

Student Reasoning about Average Average is a term which has common meanings such as "That's average" (meaning not very good), as well as mathematical meanings such as mean, mode and median. The news often reports average ambiguously where the use of mean, mode or median is not clear. Learning Sequence on Average with teacher comments Mean, mode and median are different ways to express the central tendency of a data set. Each has particular usefulness depending on the type of data and its variation. For example: - Mode (most frequent) is often used when reporting categorical data. "The average man drinks beer." - Median describes the middle position of a data set that has been ordered from smallest to largest. It is useful in giving a sense of a central value when data sets have a few high numbers which could skew results, for example in providing average house prices. - Mean is a formulaic approach to analysing a data set of numbers. It uses procedures of addition and division. "The average family has 2.3 kids." Research has found that students' concept of average usually starts with a notion of mode which is a more intuitive concept - what has the most? It then progresses to median - what is the middle value? The concept of mean requires an understanding of formal maths and calculation and is developed quite a bit later. Younger students might have difficulty in understanding what an average of 2.3 kids actually means - "Um, does it mean there are two older children and then one under ten or something?" Development of thinking Looking at the central tendencies of a data set can be problematic without also considering the variation. Students can get an intuitive sense of variation through graphing and comparison of different data sets within the same context. Over the primary and middle school years it is likely that student understanding of average will develop in the following sequence, encompassing the three conventional definitions of mean, median, and mode. |Average Student - Grade 7 class| Once students have the procedure for finding the mean, they develop the ability to solve problems using it. - Working a mean value backward knowing the number of data values, can produce the total of all values and sometimes missing data values. - Working with weighted means can combine means for different sized sets. - Means can be used to compare sets of different sample sizes. Eventually students will have an intuition for when it is appropriate to use the mean to answer questions about data sets and will consider the variation present as well as the single mean value.

http://www.simerr.educ.utas.edu.au/numeracy/student_reasoning/average.htm

Science Objects are two hour on-line interactive inquiry-based content modules that help teachers better understand the science content they teach. This Science Object is the first of three Science Objects in the Cell Division and Differentiation SciPack. It discusses the basics of cell division, the cell cycle, and how cells continue from one generation to the next. Cells carry on the many functions needed to sustain life, including cell growth and development. The genetic information encoded in DNA molecules provides instructions for assembling protein molecules, which are both necessary for producing more cells and performing other cellular functions. Before a cell divides, the instructions are duplicated so that each of the two new cells gets all the necessary information for carrying on. Complex interactions among the different kinds of molecules in the cell cause distinct cycles of activities, including cell growth and division. Cell activity can also be affected by molecules from other parts of the organism, or even other organisms. Cells in multi–cellular organisms repeatedly divide to make more cells for growth and repair. Without cell division the surface area to volume ratio that constrains the size of single cells would limit an organism’s growth. Cell division in single–cell organisms makes asexual reproduction possible. Changes in DNA (mutations) occur spontaneously at low rates. Some of these changes make no difference to the organism, whereas others can change cells and organisms. In multi–cellular organisms, uncontrolled cell division, called cancer, can be caused by gene mutation. Exposure of cells to certain chemicals or radiation increases mutations and thus increases the chance of cancer. [hide full abstract] Describe the cellular events related to genetic material that must occur for cell division leading to growth or repair in multicellular organisms. - Interpret the results of experimental variables, both internal and external to the cell, affecting cellular growth and division displayed within an experiment’s graphs or data charts. - Compare and contrast normal, healthy cell division and cancer. - Explain at the cellular level how recommendations for cancer prevention (i.e. smoking cessation) might influence and affect incidents of cancer.

http://www.nsta.org/store/search.aspx?action=browse&product=object

The astronomical telescope is similar in design to the compound microscope discussed in the previous topic. However, unlike the microscope, which is designed to view objects that are small and nearby, the telescope is designed to view objects that may be large, but are very far away. As with the previous instruments, the magnification of the astronomical telescope is with respect to the performance of the unaided eye. If the distance between the eye lens and the retina is d, and if the object to be viewed is at a much greater distance D away, then the magnification of the eye lens itself is simply d/D, which is a very small number. The magnification of the telescope will be relative to this value. The astronomical telescope consists of two lenses as shown in the following figure. The first lens, called the objective, has a focal length that is as long as possible. The focal distance of this lens is shown as “f” in the figure. Since the object is a very great distance away, the first lens forms a real, inverted image just beyond its focal point. (The distance beyond the focal point of the objective lens is exaggerated in the figure above.) The magnification of the first lens is approximately f/D. Since D is a very large distance, this magnification is generally a very small number too. Nevertheless , although f/D may be a small number, it is already larger than the magnification of the eye lens by itself, which is only d/D, where d is the distance between the eye lens and the retina. The reason for this improvement is that the objective lens can have a focal length that is much greater than the focal length of the eye lens, which is roughly the diameter of the eye itself. The real image formed by the objective lens acts as the object for the second lens, which is the usual simple magnifier. The second lens is positioned so that the image formed by the first objective lens is essentially at the focal distance of the second lens, which is shown as “F” in the figure. (The distances are exaggerated in the figure above.) Since the eye is positioned just behind the eye-lens of the telescope, the combination of the eye lens in the telescope and the lenses in the eye take an object that is essentially a distance F in front of the lens combination and produce an image on the retina a distance d behind the combination. The magnification of this combination is therefore d/F. The eye-lens in the telescope often has a small adjustment range to compensate for the different strengths of the eye lens and cornea in different people. The magnification of the combination is the product of the two, or The magnification is thus the product of two terms which can be re-arranged as shown. The first is the ratio of the focal lengths of the two lenses in the telescope and the second is the magnification of the eye lens acting by itself. The telescope therefore improves on the eye itself by the factor f/F. To maximize this value, the focal length of the first lens must be as long as possible and the focal length of the second lens must be as short as possible. The second criterion is the usual result for a simple magnifier. From the figure, the separation between the lenses is the sum of the two focal lengths, so that increasing the focal length of the first lens increases the length of the instrument by the same factor. Thus a high-magnification version of this design tends to be a very long device – while decreasing the second focal distance can compensate to some extent, the second focal distance is usually so short already that its value does not make a significant contribution to the total length of the device. The length is sometimes made somewhat smaller by folding the length using prisms or mirrors. This is usually done in binoculars. There is the usual trade-off between magnification, which increases as the focal length of the first lens is made longer and light-gathering power, which depends on the inverse of the f/number of the first lens and therefore decreases as the focal length is made longer so that the f/number is made greater. As with the microscope, many designs increase the diameter of the lens to keep the f/number at a reasonable value, but here the tendency is in the opposite direction from the microscope – that is, towards increasing the focal the length of the first lens (to increase the magnification) and simultaneously increasing its diameter (to keep the f/number and therefore the light-gathering ability at a reasonable value). The design criteria in the microscope tended to push both values in the opposite direction – towards smaller focal lengths and smaller diameters. Note that the image produced by this telescope is inverted. This is usually not serious for astronomical observations, but a telescope designed for terrestrial use (binoculars, for example) usually have a second positive lens in the optical path that inverts the image again so that the observer sees an erect image of the distant object. This inversion can also be done with other optical elements (prisms, for example).

http://www.colorado.edu/physics/phys1230/phys1230_fa01/topic40.html

Teacher introduces the alphabet; fairy tales, folk tales and nature study; form drawing; reading approached through writing; addition, subtraction, multiplication, division; beginning foreign language, knitting, singing, and recorder. Listening Skills. Given oral presentations of stories (primarily fairy tales and nature stories) of progressive duration up to 20 minutes, children will, after a 24-hour interval, recall and sequence the principal characters and details of the story. They will create drawings and plays will be created from previously told stories. The teacher will present rhythms, short plays, and poems orally, as well as games such as “Simon Says” and rhythmical activities requiring attention to verbal directions. Children will increase their retention of, and/or their response time to these activities. Children learn to play simple pentatonic songs on a recorder. Call and response methods of teaching enhance auditory recall. Speaking Skills. Through the introduction of poems, rhymes, tongue twisters and dramatic activities, children will be introduced to various sounds and sequences of sounds to develop diction and fluidity of speech. Letters of the alphabet and phonetic aspects of speech will also be introduced through verse. Plays, songs and verse will be performed before parents and/or assemblies in a choral format with particular attention to diction and expression. Writing/Spelling and Reading Skills. Through stories and pictures presented by the teacher, children will become familiar with writing and recognizing the upper case alphabet. Letters and letter sounds will be practiced through movement and action games with appropriate gestures, forms, or activities. Stories will be illustrated and short sentences will be written to form the first readers. These readers will be used in developing word recognition and the practice of intrinsic phonetic approaches to reading. Initial sounds and word families will be emphasized. After confidence in recognition of letters and letterform is displayed, lower case letters may be introduced and capitalization will be emphasized as children continue to copy stories and verse from the blackboard. Attention will increasingly be given to clarity of form, word recognition, phonetic value and word families. Initial capitalization and full stop sentence closure will be introduced and emphasized. Basic Sensory-Integrative Skills Visual-Motor. Through playing a pentatonic flute children will learn to isolate and control individual finger movements. Through wet-on-wet watercolor paintings, children will learn to control a medium through proper use of a paintbrush. Through drawing large symmetrical forms, the children will practice control of the hand and also be asked to create matching sides in a mirror form. Pencil grip and pressure will thereby be introduced. Balance and Movement. Through repeated circle games, children will gain control of bodily movement and balance. Through adaptive movement work children will gain control of sensory processes (such as impulse control and static balance) foundational to academic performance. Numbers 1—12. Through stories, games, picture symbols and arithmetic activities the qualities, quantities and writing of the numbers 1—12 will be explored. Through the use of story, nature objects, movement and rhythmical activities, the concept of the whole being divided into many parts will be demonstrated. Counting. Through games, song, movement, calendar work and stories, children will work with numbers to 144. Children will learn to count forward and backwards connecting gross motor movements to speech for memory enhancement. Through drawings, games and “hands on” activities with various classroom materials, children will be exposed to, and practice sequencing, grouping and writing of numbers with cognitive experience of values. By using games and rhythmical activities, students will experience number patterns of 1’s, 2’s, 3’s, 4’s, 5’s and 10’s. Values and relationships of these patterns will also be experienced through these exercises. Multiplication and division facts will later be drawn from the students’ use of these number patterns. The Four Mathematical Processes. Through story and picture, the uses and qualities of the four processes (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) will be introduced. The relationships between these processes will be explored through story, rhyme and picture. Through games involving manipulation of materials (e.g., stones, beads, beans, blocks) and various rhythmical games and activities, the various processes and math facts will be practiced, memorized and explored in concrete ways. through experience with concrete operations of the four processes, the students will practice mental problem solving. Time. Routines will be introduced to provide practical and meaningful situations for learning to tell duration of time. Through observations of the natural world as well as stories, songs, poems, games, and festivals relating to natural processes, children will learn the markers of seasonal change (see sciences). Through constructing a daily calendar of events, children will learn the names of the months, the days of the week, and sequences of events. Ways of Family and Neighborhood. Through stories and class discussions, the students will become conscious of the ways of family and neighborhood life among children in the class. Social Conventions. Through stories and modeling, students will become aware of social conventions that make life run smoothly: good manners, traffic patterns (e.g., how best to ride one’s bike on the road, how best to cross the street) keeping home, yard and street tidy. Social Conduct. Through practice of appropriate classroom and school ground behaviors, such as waiting to speak, helping others with materials, waiting turn, etc., children will learn skills of social conduct. Children will develop awareness of, and appreciation for, natural surroundings as well as an understanding of seasonal changes and their effects on nature through a combination of nature walks, nature stories, songs, and fingerplays. During the walks, observation and informal discussion will take place. The stories will explore natural laws in an accurate but imaginative way, e.g., the water cycle as the journey of a raindrop, the metamorphosis of a caterpillar to a butterfly, the development from seed to flower, and the effect of the seasons on animals.

http://pineforestschool.org/the_grades/grade1/

•Create/Improve existing World Languages programs When learning a new language, the earlier one begins the easier it is. These students are still in the process of learning English, and therefor pick new languages up very quickly. They are not so concerned with why or how, they just do it! We have created programs to teach through the use of pictures, songs, videos and games to help children learn vocabulary, phrases, and ultimately achieve a level a fluency. The trick to working with children is that classes must be extremely fun and engaging. Students attending these classes still learn through the use of pictures, songs, videos and games, but will also start to learn about grammatical structures of the new language. Also, there will be more of a focus on practical conversation so students can start to practically use the new language. The main focus will be on enabling students to converse in the present tense. This is a continuation off of the previous level. Student will review and reinforce previous lessons and continue to learn more advanced grammar and vocabulary. In this level, students will begin to explore the past tense. Our final level becomes very exciting for students. At this point, students will have developed a good level of fluency and should now be able to start conversing and thinking in the new language.

http://www.thelanguageschool.us/services-2/children-programs/

Any of several species (genus Mammuthus) of extinct elephants whose fossils have been found in Pleistocene deposits (beginning 1.8 million years ago) on every continent except Australia and South America. The woolly, Northern, or Siberian mammoth (M. primigenius) is the best-known species because the Siberian permafrost preserved numerous carcasses intact. Most species were about the size of modern elephants; some were much smaller. The North American imperial mammoth (M. imperator) grew to a shoulder height of 14 ft (4 m). Many species had a short, woolly undercoat and a long, coarse outer coat. Mammoths had a high, domelike skull and small ears. Their long, downward-pointing tusks sometimes curved over each other. Cave paintings show them traveling in herds. Mammoths survived until about 10,000 years ago; hunting by humans may have been a cause of their extinction. Seealso mastodon. Learn more about mammoth with a free trial on Britannica.com. National park, southwest-central Kentucky, U.S. The park, authorized in 1926 and established in 1941, occupies a surface area of 82 sq mi (212 sq km) that covers a system of limestone caverns. In 1972 a passage was discovered linking the Mammoth Cave and the Flint Ridge Cave System; the explored underground passages have a combined length of some 329 mi (530 km). The caves are inhabited by various animals that have undergone evolutionary adaptation to the dark, including cave crickets, blindfish, and blind crayfish. Mummified Indian bodies, possibly of pre-Columbian origin, have been found in the caves. Learn more about Mammoth Cave National Park with a free trial on Britannica.com. A mammoth is any species of the extinct genus Mammuthus. These proboscideans are members of the elephant family and close relatives of modern elephants. They were often equipped with long curved tusks and, in northern species, a covering of long hair. They lived from the Pliocene epoch from 4.8 million years ago to around 4,500 years ago. The word mammoth comes from the Russian мамонт mamont, probably in turn from the Vogul (Mansi) language. A definitive explanation for their mass extinction is yet to be agreed upon. About 12,000 years ago, warmer, wetter weather was beginning to take hold. Rising sea levels swamped the coastal regions. Forests replaced open woodlands and grasslands across the continent. The Ice Age was ebbing. As their habitats disappeared, so did the bison and the mammoth. Whether the general mammoth population died out for climatic reasons or due to overhunting by humans is controversial. Another theory suggests that mammoths may have fallen victim to an infectious disease. A combination of climate change and hunting by humans is the most likely explanation for their extinction. New data derived from studies done on living elephants (see Levy 2006) suggests that though human hunting may not have been the primary cause for the mammoth's final extinction, human hunting was likely a strong contributing factor. Homo erectus is known to have consumed mammoth meat as early as 1.8 million years ago (Levy 2006: 295). However, the American Institute of Biological Sciences also notes that bones of dead elephants, left on the ground and subsequently trampled by other elephants, tend to bear marks resembling butchery marks, which have previously been misinterpreted as such by archaeologists. The survival of the dwarf mammoths on Russia's Wrangel Island was because the island was very remote and uninhabited in the early Holocene period. The actual island was not discovered by modern civilization until the 1820s by American whalers. A similar dwarfing occurred with the Pygmy Mammoth on the outer Channel Islands of California, but at an earlier period. Those animals were very likely killed by early Paleo-Native Americans, and habitat loss caused by a rising sea level that split the Santa Rosae into the outer Channel Islands. Like their modern relative the elephant, mammoths were quite large; in English the noun "mammoth" has become an adjective meaning "huge" or "massive". The largest known species, the Imperial Mammoth of California, reached heights of at least 5 metres (16 feet) at the shoulder. Mammoths would probably normally weigh in the region of 6 to 8 tonnes, but exceptionally large males may have exceeded 12 tonnes. A long mammoth tusk was discovered north of Lincoln, Illinois in 2005. However, most species of mammoth were only about as large as a modern Asian Elephant. Fossils of species of dwarf mammoth have been found on the Californian Channel Islands (Mammuthus exilis) and the Mediterranean island of Sardinia (Mammuthus lamarmorae). There was also a race of dwarf woolly mammoths on Wrangel Island, north of Siberia, within the Arctic Circle. Based on studies of their close relatives the modern elephants, mammoths probably had a gestation period of 22 months, resulting in a single calf being born. Their social structure was probably the same as that of African and Asian elephants, with females living in herds headed by a matriarch, whilst bulls lived solitary lives or formed loose groups after sexual maturity.

http://www.reference.com/browse/mammoth

- Original Caption Released with Image: (Released 25 July 2002) The lineations seen in this THEMIS visible image occur in Acidalia Planitia, and create what is referred to as "patterned ground" or "polygonal terrain." The lineations are fissures, or cracks in the ground and are possibly evidence that there was once subsurface ice or water in the region. On Earth, similar features occur when ice or water is removed from the subsurface. The removal of material causes the ground to slump, and the surface expression of this slumping is the presence of these fissures, which tend to align themselves along common orientations, and in some cases, into polygonal shapes. There are other hypotheses, not all of which involve liquid or frozen water, regarding the formation of patterned ground. Desiccation of wet soils on Earth forms mud cracks, which are similar in appearance to the martian features, but occur on a much smaller scale. Alternatively, oriented cracks form when lava flows cool. The cracks formed by this process would be on about the same scale as those seen in this image. The best example of polygonal terrain occurs about halfway down the image. The largest fractures, as in other places in the image, run from the lower left to the upper right of the image. In some cases, though, smaller fractures occur in other orientations, creating the polygonal terrain. Scientists have been aware of these features on the surface of Mars since the Viking era, but the THEMIS visible camera will allow scientists to map these features at higher resolution with more coverage over the high latitude regions where they are most common, perhaps giving further insight into the mechanism(s) of their formation. - Image Credit: NASA/JPL/Arizona State University Image Addition Date:

http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA03906

A Brief History of Time In order to determine the sequence in which events occur on a planetary surface, scientists study the relationships between surface features. In this image, there are two major relationships that help us understand how this landscape formed. The crater to the right (interior is shadowed) is sitting on top of the larger, filled crater that takes up most of the scene. Because it sits on top, it must be younger. Scientists call this the Law of Superposition. If we look at the large, filled crater itself, we see that it has been altered by the formation of a scarp. Because the scarp altered the basin, the scarp must also be younger. This is called the Law of Cross-cutting Relationships. Date acquired: August 29, 2012 Image Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/multimedia/messenger_orbit_image20121023_1.html

As we grow up, we get better at knowing what we are feeling and why. This skill is called emotional awareness. Understanding our emotions can help us relate to other people, know what we want, and make choices. Even emotions we consider "negative" (like anger or sadness) can give us insight into ourselves and others. Emotional awareness comes more easily to some people than others. The good news is, it's a skill that anyone can practice. Here are a few ways to become more in touch with your emotions: Notice and name your emotions. Start by just noticing different emotions as you feel them. Name them to yourself. For example, you might say, "I feel proud" when a class presentation goes well, "I feel disappointed" at not doing well on a test, or "I feel friendly" when sitting with a group at lunch. Track one emotion. Pick a familiar emotion — like joy — and track it throughout the day. Notice how often you feel it and when. Whenever that emotion shows up, you can simply make a mental note to yourself or jot it down in a journal. Notice where you are, who you're with, and what you're doing when that emotion is present. Note whether the emotion is mild, medium, or strong and if it has different intensities at different times. Build your emotional vocabulary. How many emotions can you name? Try going through the alphabet and thinking of one emotion for each letter. Think of related emotions that vary in intensity. For example, you might be irritated, annoyed, mad, angry, irate, or fuming. See how many of these "emotion families" you can come up with. Keep a feelings journal. Take a few minutes each day to write about how you feel and why. Journaling about your experiences and feelings builds emotional awareness. You also can express an emotion creatively. Make art, write poetry, or compose music that captures a specific emotion you're feeling. There's lots more you can try, of course. For example, you can try identifying the emotions an artist is trying to convey as you read poetry or listen to music, then recognize how you feel in response. The more you're aware of your emotions, the more they'll help you to know yourself and understand the people around you.

http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn=American_Academy_of_Family_Physicians&lic=44&cat_id=20948&article_set=91727&ps=204

Aim: this exercise is to help you to remember the structure and content of the introduction to an academic essay, and to practise your grammar. When writing any kind of text, your conclusion is very important because it will leave your reader(s) with either a negative or positive overall impression of your work. An effective conclusion may consist of one or more paragraphs and the information will be sequenced in four or more basic steps. Generally speaking, an effective conclusion: - summarizes the main points presented in a text - evaluates the arguments presented - provides a statement of the writer’s view on the topic - provides reasons for the writer’s stance/suggests ways to improve a situation/recommends further investigation of some kind - Read the words in the following box. - When you have finished, click the 'Start Exercise' button. The words will disappear, and each letter will be replaced by an underline. - Fill in the box with a word that you think was in the text. Use your memory and your knowledge of grammar and sentence structure to help you. - Then either press 'Enter' or click the ? button beside the box to check if the word is correct. - Continue until you have re-built the complete text. - You can use the Tips buttons below the text if you need help, but this will reduce your score. Last updated on: Friday, March 23, 2012Hits: 10257 visited

http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CiLL/eap/essayconc.aspx

If you want to impress your friends over your weekend drinks or brunch, then listen up. A Yale University zoologist has figured out what exactly makes a hummingbird hum. The hummingbird is one of the smallest of all birds, with the smallest, the Bee Hummingbird, at just 5 cm. Though tiny, these birds can produce quite a hum, which is where their name is derived from. Yale student Christopher Clark studied the characteristics of the hummingbird and reported his findings in a paper published in the Sept. 9 issue of Science. Clark found that in addition to the mesmerizing mid-air hovering that hummingbirds are known for, the other trait they’re known for (the humming) comes from the males who make the sound with their tail feathers while courting lady hummingbirds. Clark found that the air flowing past the tail feathers makes the male’s feathers flutter and generate a humming sound. Apparently, the birds only make the sound during their elaborate mating rituals that typically see a male flying up to 40 meters into the air and then dive-bombing down right past the casually-perched female. When the he-bird reaches the lowest part of his dive, he quickly spreads and then closes his tail feathers which expose them to air. This in turn causes the flutter sound. Also, like a tuning fork, when one feather vibrates, it causes the one next to it to vibrate, and so on, creating a loud sound. Clark found that two feathers fluttering together can make a sound about 12 decibels louder than two that are fluttering independently. The birds can fly at speeds exceeding 15 m/s and, depending on the species, can flap their wings 12 to 90 times per second. So how is it that Clark was able to deduce that it’s the tail feathers that cause the sound if these little birds are moving so quickly? As you can see in the video below, Clark recreates some of the sounds by putting the feathers in a wind tunnel and turning the air speed up to a range similar to their dives. He took high-speed video of the wings’ flutters that were recorded at 23,000 frames per second and were slowed down by 1,000 times. He also analyzed the fluttering sounds by measuring the sound of hummingbird feathers with a Scanning Laser Doppler Vibrometer, which is an instrument used to measure a surface’s vibrations. Not only did Clark discover the reasoning behind the humming sound; he also found out that each species has a “signature sound.” The researcher said in a press release that the sounds the feathers can make are more varied than he expected. Each species has a different frequency, volume, and sound which come from factors like the size, shape, stiffness, and mass of the feathers. Though he’s still not sure why males have evolved to create sound with their tail feathers during courtship, Clark hypothesizes that female hummingbirds might prefer the mate who’s the best flyer. The volume of a male’s tail feathers would mean he’s very fit, and males dive fast to increase the volume of their fluttering to create a louder hum. Also, a fun little tidbit for you, hummingbirds are the only group of birds that are able to fly backwards.

http://www.geek.com/geek-cetera/how-hummingbirds-produce-fluttering-sound-during-elaborate-mating-rituals-1420103/

On May 4, 1961, a group of 13 African-American and white civil rights activists launched the Freedom Rides, a series of bus trips through the American South to protest segregation in interstate bus terminals. The Freedom Riders, who were recruited by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), a U.S. civil rights group, departed from Washington, D.C., and attempted to integrate facilities at bus terminals along the way into the Deep South. African-American Freedom Riders tried to use "whites-only" restrooms and lunch counters, and vice versa. The group encountered tremendous violence from white protestors along the route, but also drew international attention to their cause. Over the next few months, several hundred Freedom Riders engaged in similar actions. In September 1961, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in bus and train stations nationwide. More to Explore The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) played a pivotal role in the early years of the American Civil Rights Movement. Freedom Summer was a 1964 voter registration project in Mississippi, part of a larger effort by civil rights groups to expand black voting in the South. In 1962, a crisis erupted after a Supreme Court decision forced the state-funded University of Mississippi to admit a black man, James Meredith. In the 1950s and 1960s, civil rights activists in the United States used nonviolent protest, civil disobedience and legal action to end segregation and pursue equality for all Americans. Did You Know? John Lewis, one of the original group of 13 Freedom Riders, was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in November 1986. Lewis, a Democrat, has continued to represent Georgia's 5th Congressional District, which includes Atlanta, into the early part of the 21st century. Activists Test Supreme Court Decision The 1961 Freedom Rides, organized by CORE, were modeled after the organization's 1947 Journey of Reconciliation. During the 1947 action, African-American and white bus riders tested the 1946 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Morgan v. Virginia that segregated bus seating was unconstitutional. The 1961 Freedom Rides sought to test a 1960 decision by the Supreme Court in Boynton v. Virginia that segregation of interstate transportation facilities, including bus terminals, was unconstitutional as well. A big difference between the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation and the 1961 Freedom Rides was the inclusion of women in the later initiative. In both actions, black riders traveled to the American South--where segregation continued to occur--and attempted to use whites-only restrooms, lunch counters and waiting rooms. The original group of 13 Freedom Riders--seven African Americans and six whites-- left Washington, D.C., on a Greyhound bus on May 4, 1961. Their plan was to reach New Orleans, Louisiana, on May 17 to commemorate the seventh anniversary of the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education decision, which ruled that segregation of the nation's public schools was unconstitutional. The group traveled through Virginia and North Carolina, drawing little public notice. The first violent incident occurred on May 12 in Rock Hill, South Carolina, where John Lewis (1940-), an African-American seminary student and influential member of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), a civil rights organization; white Freedom Rider and World War II (1939-45) Navy veteran Albert Bigelow (1906-93); and another African-American rider were viciously attacked as they attempted to enter a whites-only waiting area. The next day, the group reached Atlanta, Georgia, where some of the riders split off onto a Trailways bus. Massive Violence in Alabama On May 14, 1961, the Greyhound bus was the first to arrive in Anniston, Alabama. There, an angry mob of about 200 white people surrounded the bus, causing the driver to continue past the bus station. The mob followed the bus in automobiles, and when the tires on the bus blew out, someone threw a bomb into the bus. The Freedom Riders escaped the bus as it burst into flames, only to be brutally beaten by members of the surrounding mob. The second bus, a Trailways vehicle, traveled to Birmingham, Alabama, that day, and those riders were also beaten by an angry white mob, many of whom brandished metal pipes. Birmingham Public Safety Commissioner Bull Connor (1897-1973) stated that, although he knew the Freedom Riders were arriving and violence awaited them, he posted no police protection at the station because it was Mother's Day. Photographs of the burning Greyhound bus and the bloodied riders appeared on the front pages of newspapers throughout the country and around the world the next day, drawing international attention to the Freedom Riders' cause and the state of race relations in the U.S. Following the widespread violence, CORE officials could not find a bus driver who would agree to transport the integrated group, and they decided to abandon the Freedom Rides. However, Diane Nash (1938-), an activist from the SNCC, organized a group of 10 students from Nashville, Tennessee, to continue the rides. U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (1925-68), brother of President John F. Kennedy (1917-63), began negotiating with Governor John Patterson (1921-) of Alabama and the bus companies to secure a driver and state protection for the new group of Freedom Riders. The rides finally resumed, on a Greyhound bus departing Birmingham under police escort, on May 20. Federal Marshals Called In The violence toward the Freedom Riders was not quelled; rather, the police abandoned the bus just before it arrived at the Montgomery, Alabama, terminal, where a white mob attacked the riders with baseball bats and clubs as they disembarked. Attorney General Kennedy sent 600 federal marshals to the city to stop the violence. The following night, civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-68) led a service at the First Baptist Church in Montgomery, which was attended by more than one thousand supporters of the Freedom Riders. A riot ensued outside the church, and King called Robert Kennedy to ask for protection. Kennedy summoned the federal marshals, who used teargas to disperse the white mob. Patterson declared martial law in the city and dispatched the National Guard to restore order. On May 24, 1961, a group of Freedom Riders departed Montgomery for Jackson, Mississippi. There, several hundred supporters greeted the riders. However, those who attempted to use the whites-only facilities were arrested for trespassing and taken to the maximum-security penitentiary in Parchman, Mississippi. During their hearings, the judge turned and looked at the wall rather than listen to the Freedom Riders' defense, just as had been the case when sit-in participants were arrested for protesting segregated lunch counters in Tennessee. He sentenced the riders to 30 days in jail. Attorneys from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), a civil rights organization, appealed the convictions all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, which reversed them. Relief at Last The violence and arrests continued to garner national and international attention, and drew hundreds of new Freedom Riders to the cause. The rides continued over the next several months, and that fall, under pressure from the Kennedy administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals. Fact Check We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! This Day in History Pope John Paul II born, 1920 On May 18, 1920, Karol Jozef Wojtyla is born in the Polish town of Wadowice, 35 miles southwest of Krakow. Wojtyla went on to become Pope John Paul… Relive the epic events of the times in this sweeping collection from HISTORY. Keep up with the latest History shows, online features, special offers and more.Sign up Classroom Study Guides Classroom companion for the new HISTORY series Vietnam in HD.

http://www.history.com/topics/freedom-rides

“The Standard Model answers many of the questions about the structure and stability of matter with its six types of quarks, six types of leptons, and four forces. But the Standard Model is not complete; there are still many unanswered questions. Why do we observe matter and almost no antimatter if we believe there is a symmetry between the two in the universe? What is this “dark matter” that we can’t see that has visible gravitational effects in the cosmos? Why can’t the Standard Model predict a particle’s mass? Are quarks and leptons actually fundamental, or made up of even more fundamental particles?” Source A force is the effect on a particle due to the presence of other particles. The interactions of a particle include all the forces that affect it, but also include decays and annihilations that the particle might go through. Sometimes the words are used interchangeably, though that is not very accurate. We have discussed electromagnetic carriers (photons) already a bit and the standard model does not handle gravity well, so let us look at strong and weak forces. To understand strong forces, we have to understand quarks. Quarks have a kind of charge called color charge that has nothing to do with color. This is in addition to their electromagnetic charge. While protons and electrons have electric charges of magnitude “1″. Quarks have electric charges of magnitude 2/3 and -1/3. Quarks always exist in composite particles with a net integer electric charge and a net zero colour charge. These composite particles are called Hadrons. A proton is such a composite particle. It is made of 2 quarks of 2/3 electric charge and one quark of charge -1/3. A neutron is made of 2 quarks of -1/3 electric charge and one quark of charge 2/3. Since protons (uud) and neutrons (udd) have three quarks each they are called the “baryon” type of hadrons. Gluons (a kind of bosons) are the Strong-Force carrier particles. “Three of the fundamental forces result from the exchange of force carrier particles, which belong to a broader group called ‘bosons’. Matter particles transfer discrete amounts of energy by exchanging bosons with each other. Each fundamental force has its own corresponding boson particle – the strong force is carried by the ‘gluon’, the electromagnetic force is carried by the ‘photon’, and the ‘W and Z bosons’ are responsible for the weak force. Although not yet found, the ‘graviton’ should be the corresponding force-carrying particle of gravity.” (Source) Quarks carry colour charge, anti-quarks carry anti colour charge and gluons carry colour as well as anti-colour charge. Colour Charge is conserved in interactions just as anti-colour charge. Colour charged particles cannot be found individually. “The quarks in a given hadron madly exchange gluons. This is what “keeps the quark together”. If you separate colour charged particles they tend to snap back together or the bond will break! The strong force between the quarks in one proton and the quarks in another proton is strong enough to overwhelm the repulsive electromagnetic force. This is called the residual strong interaction, and it is what “glues” the nucleus together.” (Source) The only matter around us that is stable is made up of the smallest quarks and leptons, which cannot decay any further. When a quark or lepton changes type (a muon changing to an electron, for instance) it is said to change flavor. All flavor changes are due to the weak interaction. The carrier particles of the weak interactions are the W+, W-, and the Z particles. The W’s are electrically charged and the Z is neutral.” (Source) - Time : Past, Present and Future : Bhuta Bhavya Bhavan Nathah Vishnuh - Time : Why study time ? : “Kaalah Aham – I am Time” – Krishna - Time : Kalakantha, kalamurthi, kalagni, kalanasana, Siva : Markandeya : Maghamahatmya - Time and Space : Are Time and Space “side-effect” of matter? Is Space empty? or full of some”thing” else? - Time, Matter, Energy and Consciousness : Kaala, Sat, Sakthi, Purusha/Devi - Life : Pranadah, Pranah, Jivanah, Vishnuh! : What is Life? In science and sanskrit texts : Eating. - Consciousness : Pragnya, Chitta, Purusha/Devi : in Science and Sanskrit Texts - Time : Movement : Motion: : Jagat : Charaachara : Understanding Devi and Purusha as Movement and Time. - Light : Lakshmi : Vishnu - Light : Bits of Light Energy (Photons) : suvarna rajata srajaa Lakshmi : mass energy equivalence, sat sakti equivalence, advaita, sat cit ananda - Particles : The Very Small (sukshma) and The Very Fast (vega) : Photons : Lakshmi, Devi, Sarva Chaitanya, Atman - Time : Dreams : Precognition : Cognition : Memory : A Rambling Post. - Fire : A chemical reaction : Agni : Electron Motion : Photon emission : Lakshmi : Sri Suktham - Light : Stereotypes : Wave, Particle Duality (Dvaita) : Lakshmi Devi and Me - Touch : ‘Untouchable’ Universe : Pushing : Colliding : Electromagnetic Force Carrier Particles : Photons : Lakshmi Devi holds the Universe together! - Light : ‘Look’ at an electron and it changes its state! - Particles : Accelerators : Measuring really small things - Particles : The Standard Model : Strong and Weak Forces : What holds the nucleus together? : Particles changing into other particles : Kamarupadhari particles. - Why should the speed of light be same in all non accelerating frames of reference?

http://ancientindians.wordpress.com/2011/08/02/particles-the-standard-model-strong-and-weak-forces-what-holds-the-nucleus-together-particles-changing-into-other-particles-kamarupadhari-particles/

Garden Themes for Preschool Children Garden themes for preschool children can be a lot of fun. After all, what preschooler doesn't love to get his or her hands dirty, see plants grow, and watch the dynamic environment of a garden. Garden Themes for Preschool Children When working with preschoolers, there are several ways in which you can divide up the study of gardens: - The life cycle of a garden (from planting to harvesting) - Environmental impact of gardening The possibilities are really endless, but the important thing to remember when teaching preschoolers is that the process has to be hands on and it has to be interesting. Who is a Pollinator Pollinators have a very important job in a garden. They spread pollen from one flower to another thus causing the flowers to grow. - Make a Pollinator Book--Every page of the book should have a picture for the child to color of a pollinator. Preferably, the pollinators are indigenous to the area, and so in theory, they could see something from their book as they're walking around outside. Underneath every picture, there should be the following simple sentence: 'The (Fill in the blank with a pollinator) helps spread pollen.' In class, make sure and discuss that pollen is the way that new flowers grow. - Study the lifecycle of a butterfly--Butterflies give way to all sorts of creative art projects. If you can get a butterfly observation house, this is the ideal way to observe a butterfly from the caterpillar stage all the way to the end result. - Read Eric Carle's A Very Hungry Caterpillar--Children love this book, and what a great way to introduce the concept of a caterpillar becoming a butterfly. The parts of a flower are an important scientific concept. Your classroom should have a poster that clearly labels the parts of a flower. At this level, it's important that preschoolers understand the function of petals, roots, and leaves. - How does the flower get the water?--One way to show that the roots of a flower suck water up through the stem is to color carnations. To do this you will need: - a white carnation for every child in your classroom - a tall cup for every child in your classroom - a few drops of food coloring What to do: Have the children decorate their cups. Using a pitcher pour some water into each child's cup and then add a drop or two of food coloring. This experiment is best done on a Friday afternoon. By Monday, when the children come back, the flowers will be colored. This helps "show" the kids that the water was sucked up through the stem to color the petals. The Life Cycle of a Garden This is the ideal thematic unit if your preschoolers have a garden to work in. Many schools are starting a "green thumb" program, and so if your school has land but no garden perhaps a simple proposal to the principal will do the trick. This is also a great activity to share with the kindergarten teacher since gardening works in seasons. Preschoolers who plant in the spring can harvest in the fall of kindergarten. However, if you don't have a garden and can't get one, there are still a few ways to exercise your kids' green thumbs. - Container gardening--Tomatoes will grow consistently well in a garden and are also fairly easy to grow with quick results making them the ideal vegetable for preschoolers! - Window boxes--Window boxes filled kitchen herbs also grow well and do not require a lot of upkeep. Start the kitchen herbs from plants to ensure that your little ones don't lose interest. Keep a chart on your wall that follows the life cycle of your garden from planting to harvesting. Make sure that when you harvest, your kids will be able to taste the fruit (or vegetables) of their labor! Environmental Impact of Gardening Gardening offers numerous benefits to the environment aside from just making it look prettier. Likewise, poor gardening practices can harm the environment. - Compost--Talk about the benefits of composting and what composting does to help your garden. Composting is easy to do on your own as well. - Locavores--Using a large map, try to trace the food that you eat to its original source. Have kids think about what they have eaten and then note how much could be eaten from local farms. If possible, have a local farmer visit the classroom. If that's not possible take a field trip to either a local farm or a farmer's market. More Resources to Explore Garden Themes for Preschoolers Garden themes for preschool children can be an excellent way to get kids interested in the environment. There are many, many excellent resources available to further study gardening: - Kids Gardening-An excellent website with tons of information, lesson plans and links. - Kids' Valley Garden--Very kid friendly website with easy to follow directions for gardening. - My First Garden--Short on space? This website has tons of ideas for "clever gardening." - Roots, Shoots, Buckets and Boots--An excellent book full of garden themes for preschool children. - Green Thumbs: A Kid's Activity Guide to Indoor and Outdoor Gardening--An excellent resource for year round projects. Written to be read by a child, this is a great guide for a parent who is new-to-gardening, and the projects are suitable to do with preschoolers.

http://kids.lovetoknow.com/wiki/Garden_Themes_for_Preschool_Children

Take action against genocide Type of activity: Groups will take concrete action that will affect people who are targets of genocide. Grade level: Middle school and high school Setting: Can be adapted for use in public schools, Christian schools, other private schools, homeschools, and other groups Overview: Before touring the REAL. LIFE. Exhibit with your group, give them the assignment below. As students and lifelong learners, it is imperative that we reflect on the fundamental values on which the United States was founded: freedom of speech, respect for human dignity, freedom of religion, equality, and justice for all. If individuals are not willing to stand for something, then they will fall for anything. This assignment requires us to step out of our comfort zones and take action by standing for what’s right and against what’s wrong. The United Nations defines genocide as “any...acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group.” While we are aware of the genocide in the Holocaust, we are not always aware of the existence of genocide in our world today. The Spanish philosopher George Santayana said, “Those who fail to learn the lessons of history are doomed to repeat them.” History is already repeating itself in the twenty-first century. As you tour the REAL. LIFE. Exhibit, look for examples of genocide and think about these questions: - Who are the groups committing the genocide? - Who suffers the results of the genocide? - What issues provoke the genocide? - What damage is done as a result? - What is being done to stop the genocide? After touring the exhibit, your group needs to come up with an action plan. Here are some idea starters: - Develop a newsletter about human rights and genocide, including information about current countries in a crisis of genocide. Distribute the newsletter to an audience of at least 300 people. - Create a video (newsclip, re-enactment, etc.) with information about taking action against genocide, and put it on the morning announcements; or write an article for the school newspaper. - Develop and post a website about human rights and genocide, including information about the impact of genocide on children and families. - Put up a display somewhere in the school to give students and staff information about genocide. - (Bonus!) Put together a walk-a-thon, with a minimum of 50 young people and march against genocide. - Create a petition about a specific action you would like taken in response to a genocide that you have identified. Go into the community and have at least 1500 people sign it. Send the signed petitions to the governor’s office and to the White House. - Hold a fundraiser and raise money to donate food and medical supplies for children suffering from genocide now. Help Medical Teams International do its work. - Create a temporary memorial on the grass in the front of the school. Get it broadcasted on the news! Local television stations love doing community pieces. Come up with your own idea not listed here. When this project is complete, write a reflection paper about your experience in taking action.

http://www.medicalteams.org/real_life_exhibit_resources/teachers_and_leaders/lesson_plans/rooms/rebel_fighting/genocide/action_against_genocide.aspx

Chapter 3 - DEMOCRACY, GOVERNMENT & PUBLIC PARTICIPATION Democracy is a way of governing a country. The most common definition of democracy is rule by the people. This means, the people consent to the government running the country. Citizens are given an opportunity to choose, through their right to vote and appoint public representatives to represent them in government. They do this in regular, free and fair elections. However, the democratic practice of citizens doesn’t end here. Democracy also means that the people who have been elected are accountable in various ways to the people who voted for them. They have to act and deliver on the promises they made during elections to ensure the participation of local communities in future plans and priorities. All public sector representatives and officials have to be open (transparent) and show good use of that they were entrusted with (accountable) in their actions and decisions. When we vote we give the government a mandate to pass and enforce laws on our behalf. In making laws the government has to follow what is written in the constitution and it uses the courts as well as the police and military to enforce the laws. If the government becomes unpopular or doesn't do what it promised to do then people can vote for another party in the next election and vote the present government out of power. This is essentially how democracy works and why it can be an effective system of government. The Constitution sets out the principles for how the public service should operate in section 195:: Public administration must be broadly representative of the South African people, with employment and personnel management practices based on ability, objectivity, fairness, and the need to redress the imbalances of the past to achieve broad representation. Democratic principles are ideas which most people believe are essential for a democracy. The most important principles of democracy are: People have a right and a duty to participate in government and in civil society. Public participation includes standing for elections, voting in elections, becoming informed, holding and attending community meetings, joining civil and/or political organisations, paying taxes, protesting and petitioning. All people should be treated equally and without discrimination and be given equal opportunities. While the majority of people rule in a democracy, the rights of minority groups are also protected. Everyone should be allowed to express their opinions and join the political, religious or civil groups of their choice. Government must be accountable to the people for its actions, including the laws that are passed and how these laws are implemented. Government must be open to the public about it's actions. It must allow the public to give input before laws are passed. Regular, free and fair elections Elections must happen in a free and fair way, without intimidation, corruption and threats to the public before or during the election. Elections should also be held regularly, every few years. For South Africa, these occur every five years. Accepting the results of elections When a political party loses an election, its supporters must accept this result. People in a democracy should be allowed to have some kind of private ownership of property and business and they should be allowed to choose their own type of work and join labour unions. The government should not totally control the economy. Controlling and preventing the abuse of power There should be ways to prevent government officials from abusing their powers. The courts should be independent and they should have the power to - The human rights of individuals and groups are enshrined and protected in the Bill of Rights. The Bill of rights includes a list of rights and freedoms that are guaranteed to all people in the country. All rights and freedoms need to be protected to prevent these from being violated. Section 7 of the Constitution defines what the Bill of Rights is:. Multi party system More than one political party must be allowed to participate in elections and play a role in government. At the local government level, independent ward candidates are also provided for. Rule of law The rule of law means that no one is above the law, including the President of the country. Everyone must obey the law and be held accountable if they break the law. The law must also be equally, fairly and consistently enforced. © This material may not be used for profit without permission from ETU ETU can not respond to requests for legal advice, contact the organisations listed under Resources.

http://www.paralegaladvice.org.za/docs/chap03/02.html

Web edition: January 24, 2013 Print edition: February 23, 2013; Vol.183 #4 (p. 15) Even a collector of animal waste can keep its eyes on the stars. By tracking the dung beetles skittering across a darkened planetarium, researchers have shown that like seals, birds and people, the feces-eating insects are capable of taking directional cues from the sky. “This is the first time we have shown that insects can use stars to guide them for orientation,” says neuroethologist Marie Dacke of Lund University in Sweden, “and it’s also the very first proof that animals can use the Milky Way for their orientation.” She and her colleagues report the results January 23 in Current Biology. Dung-rolling insects are excellent for studying orientation behavior because they collect their prized food source and single-mindedly roll it as directly as possible away from competitors and predators. Putting the beetles in weird get-ups during experiments doesn’t deter them. “They are so attached to their dung balls,” Dacke says, “that under all circumstances they just want to roll the ball in a straight line.” Earlier work showed that beetles can orient using the sun and moon as beacons or by the patterns of polarization in sunlight and moonlight. Beetles don’t use landmarks like rocks and trees — or, scientists thought, starlight. That conclusion came from a 2003 publication by Dacke herself, among other researchers. In that work, she and her colleagues had reported that beetles lost their sense of direction if they could see the stars but not the moon. So she was mystified years later, when she observed beetles under starlight in a different experiment and found that they weren’t lost at all. To figure out why, the researchers performed outdoor experiments blocking the insects’ view of the heavens with caps or using high-walled arenas that allowed them to see nothing but sky. The beetles could orient themselves when they could see the band of light made by the Milky Way but not when they could see terrestrial landmarks. Testing fully whether beetles orient by starlight would require turning the stars on and off, so Dacke and her colleagues borrowed the Johannesburg planetarium. With the planetarium dome darkened, the nocturnal dung beetle Scarabaeus satyrus fumbled and curlicued around. But showing just the Milky Way let the beetles kick along balls of dung in fairly direct paths. Knowing that the dung beetles actually can orient using the Milky Way, Dacke realized why her earlier experiment had gone wrong: She had tested the beetles in October in South Africa, when the Milky Way was so low in the sky that the animals couldn’t get a good view.The beetle doesn’t steer by the Milky Way with the same understanding that a person does, says Paul Graham of the University of Sussex in England. Rather, he says, the blur of stars is a stable feature for orientation. Since the beetles only need to move quickly away from the original dung deposit, any visual cues would work. Nocturnal dung beetles, he says, are a lovely example of an animal’s adapting to its environment — and to its universe. M. Dracke et al. Dung beetles use the Milky Way for orientation. Current Biology. Vol. 23, February 18, 2013. M. Dacke et al. Lunar orientation in a beetle. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. Vol. 271, February 22, 2004, p. 361. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2003.2594. [Go to] P. Graham. Navigation with a small brain. Video of talk at the workshop Navigation and Spatial Memory in Terrestrial Species. University College London. Nov. 27, 2012. [Go to] S. Milius. News in brief. Galloping dung beetles. Science News. Vol. 182, September 22, 2012, p. 11. Available online: [Go to] S. Milius. Moonlighting: Beetles navigate by lunar polarity. Science News. Vol. 164, July 5, 2003, p. 4. Available online: [Go to]

http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/347746/description/Dung_beetles_steer_by_the_Milky_Way

What is going on in the heavens? Why is the moon-changing phase? What causes the seasons? Why are calendars based on motions of objects in the heavens so complex? How did we come to make sense of the motions of our neighbours in the solar system? What is going on at each of these planets? How did they get formed? Our own sun is a star. What makes a star a star? How does our sun compare with other stars? What is the life cycle of a star? Why is that life cycle important to us? Why do most stars gather in clumps called galaxies? How do galaxies organize themselves to make up the whole universe? Are we alone? Humans have been asking these questions from the beginning of conscious awareness. But we live in exciting times with powerful insights and new technologies that provide answers to these questions with increased accuracy and clarity and at the same time pose new problems to be solved. This course will not be rote learning of the answers to these questions, but an exploration of the process of enquiry that leads to answers and an opportunity, without recourse to mathematical complexity, to gain an insight into the conceptual foundations of the science of astronomy.

http://www.humber.ca/course/scie-013

This chapter focus on the following topics: A context-free grammar is a set of recursive rewriting rules (or productions) used to generate patterns of strings. Context-free grammars are often used to define the syntax of programming languages. A parse tree displays the structure used by a grammar to generate an input string. Parse trees are typically used within a compiler to give structure to an input program in terms of the syntactic rules used to define valid programs. A parser is an algorithm that determines if a given input string is in a correct sentence in a given language (and, as a side-effect, usually produces a parse tree for the input). There is a procedure for generating a parser of a given context-free grammar. Last modified: 27/July/98 (12:14)

http://www.cs.rit.edu/~hpb/Lectures/98_221/all-10.html

Be A Nutritional Entrepreneur Type of activity: - Group/cooperative learning - Community outreach/ - Review and Reinforcement Students research and define nutrition. Students choose a definition of nutrition or a nutritional theme around which they design a restaurant. This activity helps students answer the question "What is a nutritionally balanced meal?" This project is cross-curricular involving not only science, but also art, drama, library research and home economics. It provides the "right brain thinkers" with an opportunity to succeed and shine in a science classroom! In this project, the students look at the concept of nutrition and apply one definition to a restaurant of their own design. This project can accompany a unit on biochemical nutrients, digestion and nutrition, or can be used in a health class when covering nutrition and health. This project requires only one day to properly introduce. I usually provide one additional class day for brainstorming within groups. Students finish the task on their own time. The students need about two weeks to work through their ideas and produce their products. For presentations, each group needs about 15-20 minutes. Depending on the class and group size, presentations could take a few days. This activity asks the students to define nutrition, not an easy task in a society plagued by a plethora of eating problems and "wacky" diets. Working in groups of three or four (variable, and your choice), student groups research proper ways to assess nutrition. Some sources that offer help include the American Heart Association, The Diabetes Foundation, general cook books and many health and cooking magazines. There are even computer programs available that look at food items and list their nutritional composition. Using this information, the students design a restaurant around a theme. As an introduction to their restaurant, they define their approach to nutrition. They design a menu of 10 items, listing the nutritional information relevant to each item. They market their restaurant in a commercial (audio, video, or live skit). Then, they treat their peers to a taste-tempting sample of an item from their menu which they have prepared from scratch, or very close to it. (I don't allow delivered pizza, or frozen food items directly from a store. I require that students work in their kitchens cooking or modifying purchased food. Believe it or not, the parents enjoy helping their children out!) Materials needed vary, but usually include the following for presentations: The project has 5 parts which I grade separately. They are: - VCR for playing recorded commercials - Tape player for playing audio commercials - Microwave or oven to warm foods, or coolers/refrigerators to store foods until presentation time, (usually the Home Ec. dept. helps) - Definition of nutrition. This is included in their menu where a history might really be included in a real menu. Something like, "Welcome to Mario's where nutrition is defined as...". Along with this definition, item by item consumer information must be included for each of the 10 menu items. - Development of a theme. This could be generic like "Italian" or "Greek" or it could be a specialty place like a "health food bar" in a gym. In this area, look for follow-through in naming menu items and in types of menu items. - Artistic menu design. Here is where we scientists give a nod to the artist in each of us. This grade is purely aesthetic but then isn't dining out mostly aesthetic? Make up any guidelines of your choosing. Allowing for individuality usually has its own rewards. - Marketing commercial. I always ask the question, "Does this commercial make me want to eat in this restaurant?" While visual tricks are often fun, watching Monte Python's scene of a fat man exploding in a restaurant doesn't really make me want to eat there! - Food sample. If the students work on a treat for the class they should be rewarded for this. Cost of food doesn't count. Finger Jell-o if presented properly - should count just as much as baked lasagna. And to preserve individual feelings, every student should at least taste each food brought in. And these do need to be only tastes, we are not supplying lunch. Evaluation is flexible. I count this project equal to a test, 100 points. They apply enough energy to this project to deserve it. Within each category, 20 points are possible. Most students receive grades near 100. The most often missed area is the nutrition definition. Please be clear to the students about what is expected here. I do not allow them to make up their own definition. There are plenty of available ways to assess diet. Let them find one that they like and use it. The operative thought here is BE CREATIVE AND HAVE FUN!

http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/AEF/1995/kilmer_nutrition.php

Information is not readily found at a bargain price. Gathering it is costly in terms of salaries, expenses and time. Taking samples of information can help ease these costs because it is often impractical to collect all the data. Sound conclusions can often be drawn from a relatively small amount of data; therefore, sampling is a more efficient way to collect data. Using a sample to draw conclusions is known as statistical inference. Making inferences is a fundamental aspect of statistical thinking. There are four primary sampling strategies: Before determining which strategy will work best, the analyst must determine what type of study is being conducted. There are normally two types of studies: population and process. With a population study, the analyst is interested in estimating or describing some characteristic of the population (inferential statistics). With a process study, the analyst is interested in predicting a process characteristic or change over time. It is important to make the distinction for proper selection of a sampling strategy. The “I Love Lucy” television show’s “Candy Factory” episode can be used to illustrate the difference. For example, a population study, using samples, would seek to determine the average weight of the entire daily run of candies. A process study would seek to know whether the weight was changing over the day. Random samples are used in population sampling situations when reviewing historical or batch data. The key to random sampling is that each unit in the population has an equal probability of being selected in the sample. Using random sampling protects against bias being introduced in the sampling process, and hence, it helps in obtaining a representative sample. In general, random samples are taken by assigning a number to each unit in the population and using a random number table or Minitab to generate the sample list. Absent knowledge about the factors for stratification for a population, a random sample is a useful first step in obtaining samples. For example, an improvement team in a human resources department wanted an accurate estimate of what proportion of employees had completed a personal development plan and reviewed it with their managers. The team used its database to obtain a list of all associates. Each associate on the list was assigned a number. Statistical software was used to generate a list of numbers to be sampled, and an estimate was made from the sample. Like random samples, stratified random samples are used in population sampling situations when reviewing historical or batch data. Stratified random sampling is used when the population has different groups (strata) and the analyst needs to ensure that those groups are fairly represented in the sample. In stratified random sampling, independent samples are drawn from each group. The size of each sample is proportional to the relative size of the group. For example, the manager of a lending business wanted to estimate the average cycle time for a loan application process. She knows there are three types (strata) of loans (large, medium and small). Therefore, she wanted the sample to have the same proportion of large, medium and small loans as the population. She first separated the loan population data into three groups and then pulled a random sample from each group. Systematic sampling is typically used in process sampling situations when data is collected in real time during process operation. Unlike population sampling, a frequency for sampling must be selected. It also can be used for a population study if care is taken that the frequency is not biased. Systematic sampling involves taking samples according to some systematic rule – e.g., every fourth unit, the first five units every hour, etc. One danger of using systematic sampling is that the systematic rule may match some underlying structure and bias the sample. For example, the manager of a billing center is using systematic sampling to monitor processing rates. At random times around each hour, five consecutive bills are selected and the processing time is measured. Rational subgrouping is the process of putting measurements into meaningful groups to better understand the important sources of variation. Rational subgrouping is typically used in process sampling situations when data is collected in real time during process operations. It involves grouping measurements produced under similar conditions, sometimes called short-term variation. This type of grouping assists in understanding the sources of variation between subgroups, sometimes called long-term variation. The goal should be to minimize the chance of special causes in variation in the subgroup and maximize the chance for special causes between subgroups. Subgrouping over time is the most common approach; subgrouping can be done by other suspected sources of variation (e.g., location, customer, supplier, etc.) For example, an equipment leasing business was trying to improve equipment turnaround time. They selected five samples per day from each of three processing centers. Each processing center was formed into a subgroup. When using subgrouping, form subgroups with items produced under similar conditions. To ensure items in a subgroup were produced under similar conditions, select items produced close together in time. This article focused on basic sampling strategies. An analyst must determine which strategy applies to a particular situation before determining how much data is required for the sample. Depending on the question the analyst wants to answer, the amount of sample data needed changes. The analyst should collect enough baseline data to capture an entire iteration (or cycle) of the process. An iteration should account for the different types of variation seen within the process, such as cycles, shifts, seasons, trends, product types, volume ranges, cycle time ranges, demographic mixes, etc. If historical data is not available, a data collection plan should be instituted to collect the appropriate data. Factors affecting sample size include: Sample size calculators are available to make the determination of sample size much easier; it is best, however, that an analyst consults with a Master Black Belt and/or Black Belt coach until he or she is comfortable with determining sample size.

http://www.isixsigma.com/tools-templates/sampling-data/basic-sampling-strategies-sample-vs-population-data/

A portion of the 855-foot stone wall at Fort Mountain, perhaps built by early Welsh explorers. One of the stone wall's circular 'pits' formed likely for defensive purposes. More evidence is pointing to the potential validity of expeditions by Welsh explorers in the southern portion of North America some 300 years before Columbus set sail. As the legend goes, the group arrived at Mobile Bay around 1170, made their way up the Alabama and Coosa rivers and built stone fortifications at several spots near present-day Chattanooga, Tenn. Dana Olson, an author who has spent decades trying to prove the legend, said circumstantial evidence on both sides of the Atlantic is too compelling to ignore. "I've traveled all over the country finding these forts. Some of them are pretty well known, but I'm still uncovering some of them," Olson, author of The Legend of Prince Madoc and the White Indians, told the Associated Press. Indians or Welshmen? The stone structures have long been a topic of debate. Many scientists have come to believe that the walls at Fort Mountain in Georgia and other Southeast sites were built by native Americans between 200 B.C. and A.D. 600. "We're not exactly sure what purposes these enclosures served," said Wood, the UGA archaeologist. "But they were likely well-known gathering places for social events. Seasonal meetings of friends and kin, trading of goods, astronomical observance, and religious or ceremonial activities may have occurred there." Yet supporters of the Madoc legend say the wall's tear-shaped designs are similar to ruins found in Wales or elsewhere in Great Britain. They cite an 1810 letter from John Sevier, the first governor of Tennessee, who said that in 1782 he was told by an Indian chief that the walls were built by white people called the Welsh who lived in the region before the Cherokee. Never to Return They were driven out with the promise that they would never return to Cherokee lands, Sevier said in the letter, and they supposedly traveled to the Ohio valley or downstream to the Mississippi. There is also evidence of a major battle between 1450 and 1660 at the Falls of the Ohio, which Olson said was the scene of the "big battle began between the red Indians and the white Indians" ~ the Welsh.

http://ancient-tides.blogspot.com/2008/12/did-welsh-explore-america-300-years.html

MOSQUITOES AND WEST NILE VIRUS West Nile Virus is a strain of encephalitis, a serious and sometimes deadly viral disease that can be carried by some mosquitoes. First found in the United States in 1999, West Nile Virus has been reported in 46 states. In 2007, West Nile Virus was responsible for 115 deaths in the United States, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. People over the age of 50, young children, and those with conditions that compromise the immune system may have more severe symptoms. West Nile symptoms usually appear between five and 15 days after a bite from an infected mosquito. In the early stages, these symptoms may include: - Severe headaches - Nausea and vomiting - Muscle aches, pain, stiffness, or all three If you experience any of these symptoms after being bitten by a mosquito, you should immediately seek medical attention. - When you are outdoors, use insect repellent containing an EPA-registered active ingredient. Follow the directions on the package. - Make sure to choose a product that is right for your activity, as this varies with time and relates to effectiveness. - Take cover! - Wear shoes, socks, long pants, and a long-sleeve shirt when outdoors. - Make sure all of your window screens fit tightly and are in good repair. - Empty buckets, cans, and other receptacles to prevent water from collecting. - Cover wading pools, but take care to drain water that may collect on pool covers. - Clean and chlorinate swimming pools, outdoor saunas, and hot tubs. When they are not in use, keep pools empty and covered. - Change water in bird baths every three or four days. - Keep roof gutters clear and draining properly. - Report standing water to your local health department. - Whenever you use an insecticide or insect repellent, be sure to read and follow the manufacturer's directions for use, as printed on the product. - Don't allow children to apply insect repellents themselves. - Monitor the news for information about current insect conditions and community efforts to control insects. - Be aware that increased sightings of dead birds in your area can be a sign that West Nile Virus might be present. (According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, you cannot contract West Nile Virus from an intact dead bird.) If you see multiple dead birds in your area, you should immediately contact your local health department. (A comprehensive list of local health departments is available on the CDC's Web site.) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Consumer Specialty Products Association United States Environmental Protection Agency U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources National Pesticide Telecommunications Network The University of Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory

http://stopgerms.org/documents/mosquitoes.html?gclid=CPmKl4D-1KsCFYlM4Aod706DPw

Lesson Plans and Worksheets Browse by Subject Analyzing Scripts Teacher Resources Find teacher approved Analyzing Scripts educational resource ideas and activities Second graders analyze a script for its story elements and study theatrical elements for the script. In this script analysis lesson, 2nd graders complete a pre-assessment for their knowledge base of script and story elements. Students then discuss the elements for the script and complete a post assessment of scripts. Second graders read and analyze a script to determine the characters, setting and main idea. After breaking up into smaller groups and reading a given section of the script, students use their analysis of the script to help determine possible production decisions such as costuming, set pieces and character development. Students demonstrate their directing skills by directing a one-act play of their choice. They demonstrate their understanding of production management by designing and discussing production elements. They demonstrate their knowledge of rehearsal management by creating a rehearsal schedule and basic blocking for their play Students demonstrate their creative abilities by developing a director's book. They create a directors book for a one-act previously chosen. After pitching their ideas, 4 or 5 one-acts are chosen for actual performance. These are student directed and acted in by other students in the class. High schoolers investigate poetry by incorporating images into the words of a poem. In this language arts lesson, students discuss poetry writing devices and self expression with their classmates. High schoolers create a film about the poem by giving each student a job such as storyboard artist, actor and set designer. Define nonverbal communication and view "The Shakespeare Sessions" for examples of nonverbal communication. Groups read through the dialogue of a scene and assign appropriate gestures, movements, and mannerisms to events and characters. Use this lesson plan to explore the purpose and effects of dialogue.

http://www.lessonplanet.com/lesson-plans/analyzing-scripts

An ozone hole five times the size of California opened over the Arctic this spring, matching ozone loss over Antarctica for the first time on record, scientists said on Sunday. Formed by a deep chill over the North Pole, the unprecedented hole at one point shifted over eastern Europe, Russia and Mongolia, exposing populations to higher, but unsustained, levels of ultra-violet light. Ozone, a molecule of oxygen, forms in the stratosphere, filtering out ultraviolet rays that damage vegetation and can cause skin cancer and cataracts. The shield comes under seasonal attack in both polar regions in the local winter-spring. Part of the source comes from man-made chlorine-based compounds, once widely used in refrigerants and consumer aerosols, that are being phased out under the UN’s Montreal Protocol. But the loss itself is driven by deep cold, which causes water vapour and molecules of nitric acid to condense into clouds in the lower stratosphere. These clouds in turn become a “bed” where atmospheric chlorine molecules convert into reactive compounds that gobble up ozone. Ozone loss over the Antarctic is traditionally much bigger than over the Arctic because of the far colder temperatures there. In the Arctic, records have — until now — suggested that the loss, while variable, is far more limited. Satellite measurements conducted in the 2010-2011 Arctic winter-spring found ozone badly depleted at a height of between 15 and 23 kilometres (9.3 and 14.3 miles). The biggest loss — of more than 80 percent — occurred between 18 and 20 kms (11.25 and 12.5 miles). “For the first time, sufficient loss occurred to be reasonably be described as an Arctic ozone hole,” says the study, appearing in the British science journal Nature. The trigger was the polar vortex, a large-scale cyclone that forms every winter in the Arctic stratosphere but which last winter was born in extremely cold conditions, Gloria Manney, of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, told AFP in email. “The ozone destruction began in January, then accelerated in late February and March, so that ozone values in the polar vortex region were much lower than usual from early March through late April, after which the polar vortex dissipated. “Especially low total column ozone values (below 250 Dobson Units) were observed for about 27 days in March and early April. “The maximum area with values below 250 Dobson Units was about two million square kilometres (772,000 square miles), roughly five times the area of Germany or California.” This was similar in size to ozone loss in Antarctica in the mid-1980s. In April, the vortex shifted over more densely populated parts of Russia, Mongolia and eastern Europe for about two weeks. Measurements on the ground showed “unusually high values” of ultra-violet, although human exposure was not constant as the vortex shifted location daily before eventually fading, said Manney. The study, published by the journal Nature, challenges conventional thinking about the Arctic’s susceptibility to ozone holes. This thinking is based on only a few decades of satellite observations. Stratospheric temperatures in the Arctic have been extraordinarily varied in the past decade, the paper notes. Four out of the last 10 years have been amongst the warmest in the past 32 years, and two are the coldest. In the stratosphere, ozone is protective. At ground level, where it is produced in a reaction between traffic exhaust and sunlight, it is a dangerous irritant for the airways.

http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2011/10/02/scientists-worried-as-arctic-has-record-ozone-loss/

stratosphere (strătˈəsfēr) [key], second lowest layer of the earth's atmosphere. The level from which it extends outward varies with latitude; it begins c.51/2 mi (9 km) above the poles, c.6 or 7 mi (c.10 or 11 km) in the middle latitudes, and c.10 mi (16 km) at the equator, and extends outward c.20 mi (32 km). It is a zone of dry, thin air, cold and clear, with a horizontal temperature gradient, that, in its lower level, is the reverse of that near the earth's surface. In polar regions the temperature is - 40°F to - 50°F ( - 40°C to - 46°C), but near the equator it ranges from - 80°F to below - 100°F ( - 62°C to below - 74°C); in the middle latitudes it remains steady at about - 67°F ( - 55°C). The stratified variations in temperature were deduced from the behavior of sound waves transmitted through the atmosphere, which travel faster in warm air than in cold air. Weather balloons carrying electronic equipment are launched to ascertain conditions in the stratosphere; information on this atmospheric layer is also acquired from earth-orbiting satellites. Within the stratosphere at altitudes of 12 to 30 mi (19–48 km) is the ozone layer. Its capacity to intercept most of the sun's ultraviolet rays is fundamental to the maintenance of life on the earth. Without this filtering effect, the sun's full radiation would destroy animal tissue, but sufficient ultraviolet radiation reaches the earth to support the activation of vitamin D in humans. Elevated temperatures found in the ozone layer result from its absorption of radiant energy. Measurements of Antarctica's ozone layer have registered a consistent seasonal "hole," or thinning, in the layer above the South Pole since 1985, and since then similar thinnings have been found over other areas of the world. There is evidence that the ozone is being broken down by chlorine atoms that are released when sunlight breaks up substances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Montreal Protocol and its amendments now ban these substances and have set time limits on the production of others that may also affect the ozone layer. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. More on stratosphere from Fact Monster: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Atmospheric and Space Sciences: Atmosphere

http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/science/stratosphere.html

History of the APWU Late in the 19th century, postal workers became inflamed with the same organizing spirit as other workers. They began to band together in order to fight for fair wages and improved working conditions. Conditions in the post offices at that time were extremely unhealthy, dangerous and dismal. Buildings were dank, poorly lit, crowded and unventilated. Many workers contracted typhoid and other diseases from the unsanitary environment. Railway Mail Service employees faced the added dangers of frequent rail accidents resulting in numerous deaths and serious injuries each year. Postal employees were required to work long hours of overtime without additional pay. They were expected to stay on the job until all work was completed—sometimes as long as 18 hours—and to work every other Sunday without extra compensation. The average salary for postal clerks at the turn of the century was $818 a year, with some workers earning as little as $100 a year. Since the Post Office had been established by Congress in 1794, postal workers were appointed to their positions through the spoils system by politicians in return for political favors. Even after the first civil service law was passed by Congress in 1883 requiring competitive exams for workers in the larger facilities, most appointments and promotions continued to depend on political influence, personal favoritism—and sometimes bribery. To discourage the organization of unions, the Post Office management tried to infuse workers with an image of themselves as different from other workers. They were professional civil servants, white-collar "government officials" who supposedly had little in common with blue-collar skilled craftsmen, industrial workers and unskilled laborers. Management fostered the view that it would be demeaning for them to join a union. But how else except by unionizing were postal workers to change their miserable working conditions and to improve their intolerably low wages? With their pay and working conditions set by Congress, organized postal workers' earliest efforts were aimed at securing more favorable legislation by sending representatives to plead their cause in Washington. These first efforts were scattered and not very successful. The Postmaster General in 1895 issued a "gag order" forbidding employees of the Post Office from coming to Washington to influence legislation. The penalty for disrerarding this order was removal! AFL Charters First Clerks' Local The American Federation of Labor (AFL), which was growing by leaps and bounds, stood ready to welcome into its fold federal employees, particularly postal workers, who would join the fight for the 8-hour day. In response to a request from a small group of clerks in Chicago, the AFL chartered Federal Union #8703 in 1900—the first union of federal employees to affiliate with the Federation. In 1902, in response to the vigorous lobbying undertaken by the fledgling postal worker unions, President Theodore Roosevelt issued an executive order denying basic constitutional rights to all postal and federal employees by forbidding them to solicit members of Congress for wage increases or to influence any other legislation. This "gag rule" was followed in 1909 with another under President Taft prohibiting postal workers from answering any questions concerning their working conditions that might be posed by Congressional representatives. Despite these obstacles, several organizations of postal workers representing post office clerks, letter carriers and railway mail clerks grew steadily in numbers and in influence. Along with the American Federation of Labor and other unions, they fought to increase wages, improve conditions and pass other favorable legislation. In 1912, the Lloyd-LaFollette Act was passed, rescinding the previous "gag rules" and establishing the right of federal and postal workers to organize unions. The year 1916 saw the adoption of the first Federal Employees Compensation Act for workers injured on the job. In 1920, Congress voted the first Civil Service Retirement Act providing retirement for clerks at age 65. A 10 percent nighttime differential was won in 1928. However, in spite of these legislative gains, little progress was made to improve overall wages. During the 1920's postal workers' salaries fell behind those of comparable workers in private industry. In the years of the Great Depression the job security of federal employees made their positions the envy of millions of unemployed workers. As part of an effort to curb government spending, postal workers were forced to accept a 15 percent pay cut and one month's furlough. Additionally, when the Wagner Act was passed in 1935 guaranteeing most workers the right to bargain collectively through representatives of their choosing, postal and federal employees were specifically excluded from its coverage. During the '20s and '30s motor vehicle employees, maintenance workers and special delivery messengers employed by the Post Office joined together to organize unions to protect and further their interests and concerns. During the 1940s, postal workers won some wage increases as a result of intensive campaigning, lobbying and letter-writing. But their experience during the Eisenhower Administration led to increasing dissatisfaction and frustration. In spite of promises to the contrary, wage increases voted by Congress were repeatedly vetoed by President Eisenhower. The limited power of the unions to effectively improve the lot of postal workers was apparent. The Post Office did not recognize the unions as the representatives of the workers; wage increases were blocked by Presidential veto and there was no grievance procedure through which disputes could be resolved. During this period, a number of postal clerks became increasingly dissatisfied with the established clerks union. In 1959, they organized a new and unique industrial union of postal workers which would recruit members from every post office craft. This was the first step toward the establishment of a progressive industrial union of postal employees. Unions Win Recognition In 1962, President Kennedy signed Executive Order 10988 which, for the first time, officially recognized the legitimate role of federal employee unions in the workplace. Representation elections in which 77 percent of the eligible employees participated resulted in the certification of six unions as the exclusive bargaining agents for each of the postal crafts. The unions now had the right to negotiate with management concerning working conditions, promotional standards, grievance procedures, safety and other matters. However, they could not negotiate over wages and fringe benefits. Another major flaw of the Executive Order was that nothing compelled the Post Office management to reach an agreement with the unions. In any dispute, management still had the last word. The 1960's brought unfulfilled promises of pay equity with private industry. While the unions were hammering out agreements with the Post Office, they still had to lobby for raises in postal salaries to offset the effects of inflation. In the government's effort to curb spending, federal workers' salaries—once again—became the scapegoat. Low pay and money-saving restrictions in overtime led to high employee turnover, a heavy mail backlog and a severe drop in morale. The workers' frustrations mounted and the postal unions appeared incapable of overcoming employee dissatisfaction and the increasing sense of powerlessness. On March 18, 1970, the situation erupted. Beginning in New York, thousands of postal workers walked off the job. The strike spread quickly across the country, finally involving more than 200,000 workers. Its impact was to fundamentally change labor-management relations in a major breakthrough for postal unions. The Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 was adopted establishing the U.S. Postal Service as an independent government agency. For the first time postal unions had the right to negotiate on all matters concerning wages, fringe benefits, cost-of-living adjustments and other financial gains. Salaries and benefits were to compare with private industry and the time to reach the top grade pay was to be reduced from 21 to 8 years. Additionally, postal nanagement was required to bargain in good faith and to make a genuine effort to reach an agreement. Unresolved matters were to be submitted to final and binding arbitration. Finally, postal workers had won most of the rights enjoyed by workers in private industry since the adoption of the National Labor Relations Act in 1935. The one glaring omission was the right to strike. The APWU Is Born On July 1, 1971, five postal unions joined together to found the American Postal Workers Union, forming the largest union of postal employees in the world. APWU represents 320,000 clerks, motor vehicle employees, maintenance workers, special delivery messengers, and other Postal Service employees. The merging unions which formed the American Postal Workers Union were the United Federation of Postal Clerks, the National Postal Union, the National Association of Post Office and General Service Maintenance Employees, the National Federation of Motor Vehicle Employees, and the National Association of Special Delivery Messengers. Strengthened by the unity and solidarity of the different crafts it represents, the APWU has negotiated several National Agreements since 1971, each winning improved vages and working conditions for all postal workers. Collective bargaining has now replaced "collective begging" as the union's primary weapon. Nevertheless, lobbying and political action remain a vital part of the union's program to ensure that those gains won at the bargaining able are not taken away through legislation. Return to West Chester APWU Home Page

http://www.angelfire.com/rant/wcapwu/history.html

As reported in Mass Moments -- In 1638, a ship returned toSalem from the West Indiesafter a seven-month voyage. Its cargo included cotton, tobacco and, as far as we know, the first African slaves to be imported into Massachusetts. When the Pequot Indians lost a war with the English in 1638, the fate of the vanquished was to be enslaved by the victors. The defiant Pequots made poor slaves, however, and many of them were shipped to Bermuda in exchange for African bondsmen. In 1641 the Massachusetts Bay Colony adopted a code of laws that made slavery legal. It would remain so for the next 140 years. Men in Puritan-era Massachusetts bought, sold, and held African slaves from the 1630s onward. In 1641 Massachusetts Bay Colony was the first of Britain's mainland colonies to make slavery legal. The first mention of a black person in the colony dates from 1633. An English visitor published "a true and lively" description of New England for readers back at home. It includes an account of Indians who ". . . were worse scared than hurt" when they came upon a black man in the woods. They sought help from a local farmer who "finding him to be a poor wandering blackamore [black man], conducted him to his master." It is possible that this man was not a slave but an indentured servant. In any case, it seems clear from the Indians' reaction that black men were a rare sight in Massachusetts during the first decade of English settlement. Within a few years, the situation changed markedly. In 1636-1637 the Pequots fought and lost a war with the English, who enslaved Indians they took captive. The Pequots resisted enslavement, however, and frustrated that the Indians would "not endure the yoke," the Puritans sent them to Bermuda in exchange for African slaves. On February 28, 1638, the governor of the Bay Colony noted in his journal that a ship arriving from Bermuda had African slaves aboard. "Mr. Pierce, in the Salem ship, the Desire, returned from the West Indies after seven months. He . . . brought some cotton, and tobacco, and Negroes." Earlier ships may well have carried enslaved Africans to Massachusetts, but this is the first documented case. The slaves traveling on the Desire represented a public investment by the colony's leaders. In March of 1639, the General Court voted to reimburse the man who had purchased the Africans for his expenses; he was to repay the colony from the proceeds when he sold the slaves. The legal status of slavery in the Bay Colony was codified two years later when Massachusetts adopted the "Body of Liberties." While this document guaranteed civil rights to British colonists, paradoxically it also specified that slavery was allowed in cases where slaves were "taken in just wars, [or] as willingly sell themselves or are sold to us." A 1670 law made it legal for the children of slaves to be sold into bondage; beginning in 1680, the colony had laws restricting the movement of blacks. Because the colony was not well suited to plantation agriculture, most Massachusetts masters rarely owned more than one or two slaves. Slave-owners tended to live in coastal towns; their bondsmen were frequently used to assist in the family business. As a result, Massachusetts masters generally preferred younger slaves, who were less expensive than older ones but who could be easily trained for specialized tasks. It was not unheard of for a Massachusetts man to send a quantity of rum aboard a ship bound for the Indies with instructions for the captain to bring home a slave child. The slaves who came to Massachusetts tended to be those "left over" after West Indian plantation owners had purchased the strongest or "likeliest" men and women for field work. The younger or weaker Africans were sent on to New England and sold individually or in small groups. In 1717 one New England trader advised his brother that, if he could not get a good price for all his slaves in the West Indies, to "bring some home; I believe they will sell well." Indeed, the institution of slavery played a central role in the economy of colonial New England. Ships left Boston, Salem, and Newburyport with fish to feed the enslaved Africans laboring on the sugar plantations of the West Indies and lumber to build barrels in which to ship sugar and molasses. Vessels returned from the Indies loaded with molasses and often carrying a number of enslaved men and women to be sold in the Bay Colony. The molasses were distilled into rum, some of which was sold locally; the rest was shipped to Africa and traded for captured black men and women. Since masters rarely owned enough slaves to justify building a separate residence, most slaves in colonial Massachusetts shared the living quarters and domestic routine of their master's family. Later apologists claimed this arrangement created bonds of affection and familiarity that eased the plight of the slaves, and it is true that in some cases conditions were less harsh in New England than on southern plantations. Still, the Puritan missionary John Elliot "lamented . . . with a bleeding and burning passion, that the English used their Negroes but as their Horses or the Oxen, and that so little care was taken about their immortal Souls." In 1700 there were approximately 90,000 people living in New England. The black population numbered about 1,000, roughly half of whom lived in Massachusetts. Within the colony, the blacks were clustered in Boston and other coastal towns. Slaves were a small enough minority that Massachusetts slave owners had little reason to fear an uprising. Even so, in 1723 Boston passed a law forbidding slaves to be on the streets at night or to be found "idling or lurking together." By the mid-1700s African slavery was well established in Massachusetts. Newspapers in coastal towns regularly carried advertisements for "likely" young Africans, just arrived or, better yet, "seasoned" for several months or a year in the West Indies. Tax collectors recorded the value of slaves owned, and wills show that slaves were distributed along with other property. In 1752, black people made up 10% of Boston's population. On the eve of the Revolution, Massachusetts had over 5,200 black residents, more than any other New England colony but still a small number compared to colonies in other regions. Massachusetts was the first state in the new nation to abolish the institution of slavery. As a result of lawsuits brought by African Americans, in 1783 Massachusetts courts declared that "the idea of slavery is inconsistent with our own conduct and [the Commonwealth's] Constitution." (source: Mass Moments)

http://usslave.blogspot.com/2012_11_01_archive.html

Tapping into Curiosity and Strengths Projects typically stem from the curriculum and student interests. Guided by the teacher, the students ask questions, find answers, solve problems, and build understanding. Students are encouraged to use their strengths and are challenged to grow in other areas. Students communicate what they've learned in a variety of ways, such as clay models, posters, self-published books, dramatizations, oral reports, descriptive artwork and multimedia presentations. Their "audience" varies depending on the project. Learning to Learn In the context of their work, students learn and practice basic skills in a natural and engaging way that integrates literacy, mathematics, science, arts, social skills and higher-level thinking. Students are learning how to learn, as much as they’re learning the curriculum. Wondering what project-based learning looks like in the classroom? Read about some recent CPSC projects.

http://cpscnc.org/ProjectBasedLearning

Geology & History Yellowstone's world-famous natural history is marked by such colossal volcanic events that their reflections in today's landscape are difficult to grasp and impossible to take in at just a glance, even for those familiar with the signs of past volcanism. The features of Yellowstone National Park result from great explosive eruptions and profound collapse of the ground, enormously thick lava flows, uplift and extensive faulting, and the erosive power of flowing water and ice. For more than a century, geologists have discovered and analyzed evidence of the dramatic events that have shaped the land here. When combined with growing knowledge about how volcanoes work and the never-ending motion of Earth's surface, the evidence tells a remarkable story of the Yellowstone landscape. The volcanism most directly identified with the Yellowstone region has, during about the past 2 million years, built an immense volcanic plateau that straddles a high mountain divide—the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field. This volcanic region has evolved through 3 cycles of voluminous outpourings of rhyolite lava and volcanic ash, each of them climaxing with one of Earth's greatest pyroclastic-flow eruptions and the resulting collapse of a central area to form a large caldera. Other eruptions have poured out basalt lava flows around the margins of the volcanic field. Large earthquakes occur just off the plateau along the nearby Teton and Hebgen Lake faults, the latter of which ruptured in 1959 (Ms = 7.5), causing considerable damage to the region. Yellowstone's volcanism is only the most recent in a 17 million-year history of volcanic activity that has occurred progressively from southwestern Idaho to Yellowstone National Park. At least six other large volcanic centers along this path generated caldera-forming eruptions; the calderas are no longer visible because they are buried beneath younger basaltic lava flows and sediments that blanket the Snake River Plain.

http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/yellowstone/yellowstone_geo_hist_52.html

Matching Headings from Nazo This activity can be done at any level. As long as you have a text with more then 8 paragraphs A text with many paragraphs (maybe 16). The teacher should have prepared 8 headings that will be matched with some of the paragraphs in the course book. Before the activity: The teacher needs to elicit how students can do skimming in order to find the main ideas of the paragraphs. Teacher finds a text with clear topic sentences so that they can find the main ideas of the paragraphs. The teacher already has prepared 8 headings that will be matched up with some of the paragraphs. Teacher writes up the 8 headings randomly on slips of paper. E.g., a- the causes of childhood problems. Students are asked to sit in circles of 8 students. Each group of circle is given the 8 headings. Each student is given a slip of paper with a heading on it. Each student also has the reading passage in front of her/him. When the teacher says: ”Start”, all circles start the activity by reading the headings and skimming the paragraphs to match the headings. They write the answers on their texts. E.g., Paragraph 1-d Step 6: The answers are checked first in their circle groups and then with the whole class. Hope your students will enjoy the activity. World's Best Jobs! Dave's ESL Cafe Copyright © 2008 Dave Sperling. All Rights Reserved.

http://www.eslcafe.com/idea/index.cgi?display:1176376060-22051.txt

Source: The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians This video, adapted from material provided by the ECHO partners, illustrates some of the traditional activities that connect the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians to their past. Activities include traditional dances, the use of traditional instruments such as the Choctaw drum and dance sticks, and participation in games like stickball. People from all cultures and places have used storytelling to pass on traditions, values, and beliefs that communicate information about history, nature, and more. These stories are shared in a variety of ways, including oral retellings, written text, art, and music. The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians assemble for dances and songs with pride to pass on traditions and values from one generation to the next. The Choctaw trace their origins to the Nanih Waiya mound (Sloping Hill)—located in Winston County, Mississippi. In the early 1800s, a series of treaties gradually robbed the Choctaw people of their rich agricultural land, which became the property of the United States government. The last of these treaties, the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek in 1830, stripped the Choctaw of their remaining lands and forcibly removed them to Indian territories in Oklahoma (Choctaw for "Red Land"). Thousands of Choctaw people died on this long journey, which came to be known as the "Trail of Tears." A small remnant refused to leave, and eventually became the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. The dances of the Mississippi Choctaw reflect aspects of Choctaw life. Dancers typically follow the rise and fall of a chanter's voice and the rhythm set by striking together Choctaw dance sticks. The dances, which are intended for participation, not simply viewing, express the spirit of cooperation that is valued by the Choctaw people. This can be seen in the way everyone comes together during a dance. Although dance steps and chants may vary slightly among Choctaw communities, all dances fall into one of three categories: social dances, animal dances, and war dances. Social dances reflect the ties that weave Choctaw communities together. For example, the "Wedding Dance" celebrates marriages, and the "Friendship Dance" recognizes the close bonds within the Tribe. The Choctaw people have adapted elements of other cultures—such as European-style clothing—and this tradition of adaptation appears in the "House Dance." This dance integrates elements from various sources, including Anglo-American square dance, fiddle tunes, and dance steps from the French "quadrille," another type of square dance. Animal dances honor the creatures that the Choctaw respect for what they teach about survival, and for the resources they provide for the Tribe's daily existence. For example, the "Quail Dance" honors that bird's ability to blend into the surrounding landscape, a skill that Choctaw hunters and warriors learned to emulate. Finally, early Choctaw people used war dances to prepare for battle. Choctaw War Dances are unusual because they are one of the few tribal war dances in which women dance along with men. Dances are one of the many ways that Choctaw people are able to pass on their centuries-old traditions to each new generation. The Choctaw drum, their oldest traditional instrument, is still used today at stickball games and as a signal call to dance. Traditional dress, crafts, and sports—in addition to oral and written storytelling—are some of the other ways that the Choctaw people, and people from cultures around the world, carry on their traditions, values, and beliefs. Academic standards correlations on Teachers' Domain use the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) database of state and national standards, provided to NSDL projects courtesy of JES & Co. We assign reference terms to each statement within a standards document and to each media resource, and correlations are based upon matches of these terms for a given grade band. If a particular standards document of interest to you is not displayed yet, it most likely has not yet been processed by ASN or by Teachers' Domain. We will be adding social studies and arts correlations over the coming year, and also will be increasing the specificity of alignment.

http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/echo07.lan.stories.choctaw/

Lesson: Electrons on the MoveContributed by: Integrated Teaching and Learning Program, College of Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder Educational Standards : Pre-Req Knowledge (Return to Contents) atoms, electrons, electric charge Learning Objectives (Return to Contents) After this lesson, students should be able to: Introduction/Motivation (Return to Contents) Ask the students: Have you ever had to replace the batteries in a flashlight? (Many will answer yes.). Why did you have to replace the batteries? (Possible answers: The batteries were dead, the flashlight did not work or the light was dim.) Once you place new batteries in the flashlight, you complete an electric circuit and the flashlight operates and the light shines brightly. Remind students that atoms are made of smaller parts called protons, neutrons and electrons. The electrons can carry a negative electric charge and can move from atom to atom and create current electricity. Tell students that during this lesson, they will learn how the electrons' charge can help light a bulb in a flashlight and what is trying to stop charge from lighting the bulb! If you look closely at a battery, you will see a small number with the letter "V" next to it. Does anyone know what the letter represents? (Answer: Volts.) Let students know that during this lesson, they will find out what volts have to do with charge in a circuit. Ask the students: Does anyone know of any alternatives to generating current electricity at a power plant? (Possible answers: Photovoltaic cells/solar cells, wind farms.) Photovoltaic (PV) cells, commonly called solar cells, have been powering satellites in space for decades. Most people have seen solar cells on calculators, and on road signs and lights along highways. Photovoltaic cells use sunlight to make electricity. Using photovoltaic cells to produce electricity does not produce the polluting emissions that conventional power plants produce. Conventional fossil fuels require costly operations to extract, while sunlight is freely available everywhere. Unfortunately, photovoltaic cells are still expensive to manufacture (and require non-solar power to manufacture!). Engineers and scientists are working to make solar electricity affordable for everyone. Lesson Background & Concepts for Teachers (Return to Contents) Electrical Potential Energy and Voltage The force between any two charges depends on both the product of the charges and the distance between them. The force between two like-charged objects is repulsive, whereas the force between two oppositely-charged objects is attractive. Therefore, it takes energy to push two like-charged objects together or to pull two unlike-charged objects apart. For example, if we were to take two negatively-charged objects and compare the energy required to hold them at different distances from each other, we would find that the amount of energy we need to expend is increased as we bring the two negatively-charged objects closer together. This is analogous to the effect you experience when trying to push the like poles of two magnets together. The closer together the two like-charged objects are (or the farther apart two oppositely-charged objects are) the more electrical potential energy they have. The amount of electrical potential energy per charge is called the voltage. It may be helpful to present voltage as the "electrical pressure" that causes the electrons to move in a conductor. If electric current is analogous to water moving in a pipe, then electrical pressure (voltage) is analogous to water pressure in a pipe. A pump in a water line would be analogous to a voltage source. Batteries, generators, photovoltaic cells and other voltage sources all provide electrical energy that can be used to do work. The SI unit (SI is the abbreviation for the International System of measurement from the French Système Internationale) of electrical potential, or voltage, is the volt [V]. Small batteries have voltages ranging from 1.5 V to 9 V. This means that there is a potential difference of 1.5 V across the terminals of the battery. The electric outlets in homes provide electricity at 120 V or 220 V. Power lines are at 10,000 V, or higher, in order to reduce energy losses due to the resistance of the transmission cables. Charge Moves Due to a Voltage Difference There is a flow of electric charge, an electric current, if the ends of a conducting wire are held across a voltage source (potential difference). The "electrical pressure" due to the difference in voltage between the positive and negative terminals of a battery causes the charge (electrons) to move from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. The voltage difference, also known as a voltage drop, is produced by attaching, for example, a light bulb or radio to the battery. A voltage source, such as a battery, generator or photovoltaic cell, can provide the sustained "electrical pressure" required to maintain a current. Current is measured in amperes (or amps) [A], in the SI system. One amp is the flow of 6.25 x 1018 electrons per second. Any path through which charges can move is called an electric circuit. If there is a break in the path, there cannot be a current; such a circuit is called an open circuit. However, if the path for movement of charge is complete, then the circuit is closed. There can only be a current in a closed circuit. Electrons cannot pile up or disappear in a circuit. A circuit can be as simple as a wire connected to both terminals of a battery, or as complicated as an integrated circuit in a home computer. Resistance, Conductors and Insulators Different materials oppose the movement of charge to varying degrees. The resistance of an object is a measurement of the degree of opposition to charge movement within that object. Conductors (such as metals) have lower resistances while insulators (such as wood or plastic) have higher resistances. An object's resistance depends on the materials that make up the object, its length, cross-sectional area and temperature. If we continue with the water analogy for electric current, we can think of the resistance of a material like the boulders in a river, which slow the flow of water. Two objects made of the same material can have different resistances if their physical dimensions are different. Water in a wide riverbed (or a hose with a large diameter) has less resistance to flow than water in a narrow riverbed (or a hose with a small diameter). The resistance of a thick copper wire is less than the resistance of a thin copper wire. Longer pieces of a material have greater resistances than shorter pieces. Thus, we can see that the resistance to charge movement is cumulative in a material. Finally, lowering a material's temperature decreases its resistance. The SI unit of resistance is the ohm [Ω], which is equal to one volt per amp [V/A]. It is important to note that any material can conduct electricity if there is a high enough voltage across it. This is what happens both in lightning and electrocution. Air is normally an insulator, but during thunderstorms, a very high electrical potential difference between the clouds and the ground forces a current through the air briefly. In the body, the skin acts as an electrical insulator. When there is a high voltage across the body, there is a brief discharge through the body, damaging the tissues and possibly causing death. The likelihood of electrocution is increased if the skin is wet. This is because salts (from perspiration or soils) on the body dissolve in the water, producing a conducting solution. Current, Voltage and Resistance Relationships The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage across the circuit and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit. This relationship is called Ohm's law. For a given voltage, there is greater current in a circuit element with a lower relative resistance. Also, for a given resistance, there is greater current in a circuit element if there is a greater voltage across it. The following equations, Ohm's law, describe the relationship: I = V / R V = I * R Where I is current, V is voltage and R is resistance. For example, if a flashlight with a pair of alkaline batteries at a total of 2 V has a light bulb with a resistance of 10 ohms. What is the current? (Answer: I = V / R = 0.2 A.) How Do Batteries Work? In a battery, chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. Whenever a battery is connected in a closed circuit, a chemical reaction inside the battery produces electrons. The electrons produced in this reaction collect on the negative terminal of the battery. Next, electrons move from the negative terminal, through the circuit, and back to the positive battery terminal. Without a good conductor connecting the negative and positive terminals of the battery, the chemical reaction that produces electrons would not occur. There are many different types of batteries, each using different materials in the chemical reaction and each producing a different voltage. A battery is actually several galvanic cells (a device in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy) connected together. Every cell has two electrodes, the anode and cathode, and an electrolyte solution. Electrons are produced in the reaction at the anode, while electrons are used in the reaction at the cathode. The electrolyte solution allows ions to move between the cathode and the anode where they are involved in chemical reactions balancing the movement of electrons. Possibly the most familiar battery reaction takes place in a car battery. This reaction involves the disintegration of lead in sulfuric acid. In a lead-acid battery, each cell has two lead grids, one filled with spongy lead and one filled with lead oxide, immersed in sulfuric acid. The grid with spongy lead is the anode: electrons are produced as the lead reacts with sulfuric acid. These electrons collect on the negative terminal of the battery. The grid with lead oxide is the cathode in a lead-acid battery. Electrons that have gone through the circuit and returned to the cathode are used in a reaction that takes place at the cathode. Each cell produces 2 V. In a car battery, there are six of these lead-acid cells linked together in series to produce a total voltage of 12 V. The lead-acid cell is called a wet cell because the reaction takes place in a liquid electrolyte. Dry cells have a moist, pasty electrolyte. Most batteries used in consumer electronics are dry cells. Alkaline batteries are dry cells that use zinc and manganese-oxide electrodes with a basic (pH greater than 7) electrolyte. In inexpensive batteries, there is usually an acid electrolyte with zinc and carbon electrodes. Engineers, who design computers, cars, cell phones, satellites, spacecraft, portable electronic devices, etc., must understand batteries because they are integral to a device's functioning. Batteries are also used to store the energy generated from solar electric panels and wind turbines. Many engineers are working to develop batteries that last longer, are more efficient, weigh less, are less harmful to the environment, require less maintenance and/or are more powerful. Vocabulary/Definitions (Return to Contents) Associated Activities (Return to Contents) Lesson Closure (Return to Contents) Ask students to give examples of devices that use current electricity. Have the students categorize the devices by the source of electricity, whether from solar cells, typical chemical batteries, a wall outlet (ultimately from a power plant) or a portable generator. Ask students to list some advantages and disadvantages of using the different power sources. As a class, discuss the functions of various devices, paying attention to the role of current electricity and the transformations of energy in the device. For example, contrast the use of current electricity to power a lamp and a fan. (The electricity is converted to light in the lamp, and to the movement of the blades in the fan.) Assessment (Return to Contents) Brainstorming: In small groups, have students engage in open discussion. Remind students that in brainstorming, no idea or suggestion is "silly." All ideas should be respectfully heard. Encourage wild ideas and discourage criticism of ideas. Ask the students: Know / Want to Know / Learn (KWL) Chart: Before the lesson, ask students to write down in the top left corner of a piece of paper (or as a group on the board) under the title, Know, all the things they know about electricity. Next, in the top right corner under the title, Want to Know, ask students to write down anything they want to know about electricity. After the lesson, ask students to list in the bottom half of the page under the title, Learned, all of the things that they have learned about electricity. Discussion Question: Solicit, integrate, and summarize student responses. Lesson Summary Assessment Numbered Heads: Divide the class into teams of three to five. Have students on each team number off so each member has a different number. Ask the students one of the questions below (give them a time frame for solving it, if desired). The members of each team should work together to answer the question. Everyone on the team must know the answer. Call a number at random. Students with that number should raise their hands to give the answer. If not all the students with that number raise their hands, allow the teams to work a little longer. Ask the students: Know / Want to Know / Learn (KWL) Chart: Finish the remaining section of the KWL Chart as described in the Pre-Lesson Assessment section. After the lesson, ask students to list in the bottom half of the page under the title, Learned, all of the things that they have learned about electricity. Lesson Extension Activities (Return to Contents) Have students learn more about solar cells by conducting an Internet search. Photovoltaic cells can only be made of certain materials, called semiconductors, which are between conductors and insulators in their ability to conduct electricity. Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor in photovoltaic cells. Whenever light hits a PV cell, some of the energy is absorbed by the cell. This energy can knock electrons loose from the atoms that make up the semiconductor material. An electrical device on the PV cell forces these loose electrons to move in a particular direction, thus creating an electric current. Metal contacts at the top and bottom of a photovoltaic cell, like the terminals on a battery, connect the PV cell to an electric circuit. This "circuit" may be the electrical system of a building or a single device. PV cells produce direct current (DC), current in one direction only, just like a battery. Most household appliances use alternating current: alternating current (AC) changes direction 60 times per second and is used in the U.S. The direct current from a PV cell can be modified to produce alternating current so it can be used by any electrical appliance. PV cells can be linked together in different ways to make panels for various applications. The photovoltaic system for a home might require a dozen panels while a calculator may have only one PV cell. For more information on photovoltaic cells, see: http://www.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell.htm. Have students learn more about solar panels and systems by conducting an Internet search to find companies that make or sell photovoltaic (PV) panels. What are the typical costs of a solar panel? What are some applications? (Possible answers: Rural electrification, pumping water, electricity for homes and businesses.) Have students find out which parts of the world are the best for using photovoltaic systems to produce electricity. Where are the largest PV systems? What is Volta's Pile? (Answer: A famous experiment by Alessandro Volta in 1800 that produced electricity by chemical means and spurred intense research in the field of electricity.) Have students investigate and build a variation of Volta's Pile. See instructions at: http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/electro/electro.htm References (Return to Contents) Guyton M.D., Arthur, C. and Hall, John E., Textbook of Medical Physiology. 10th Edition. Philadelphia, PA: W B Saunders., 2000. Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics. 8th Edition. New York, NY: Addison Publishing Company, 1998. How Batteries Work, How Stuff Works, Inc., Media Network, accessed March 2004. http://www.howstuffworks.com/battery.htm How Solar Cells Work, How Stuff Works, Inc., Media Network, accessed March 2004. http://www.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell.htm ContributorsXochitl Zamora Thompson, Sabre Duren, Joe Friedrichsen, Daria Kotys-Schwartz, Malinda Schaefer Zarske, Denise Carlson Copyright© 2004 by Regents of the University of Colorado. The contents of this digital library curriculum were developed under a grant from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), U.S. Department of Education and National Science Foundation GK-12 grant no. 0226322. However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the Department of Education or National Science Foundation, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Supporting Program (Return to Contents)Integrated Teaching and Learning Program, College of Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder Last Modified: March 1, 2013

http://www.teachengineering.org/view_lesson.php?url=collection/cub_/lessons/cub_electricity/cub_electricity_lesson03.xml&std_open=true

In a recent breakthrough, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have made great strides into what could be the future of solar power. Their methods have replicated a process from the natural world that is so basic and universal as to almost beg the question why someone didn’t come up with it before. That process is photosynthesis. It is how all plants derive energy from sunlight. The scientists captured an essential element of the photosynthesis process, simply called PS-I, and combined it with other “designer” chemicals to construct a solar cell. However, it was not a “simple” matter of harnessing photosynthesis. The scientists also used sophisticated nanotechnology to improve the performance of their cells. By mounting the cells on an array of nanocrystals and nanowires, they increased the surface area and exposure of their cells to sunlight. To be fair, this is not the first attempt at so-called biophotovoltaics. However, with their innovative materials, geometry and design, the scientists claim to have solved problems with previous experiments that made them cumbersome and expensive. They assert their methods led to a simple device of “unprecedented performance.” More specifically, they calculate the output of their cells to be more than 10,000 times greater than that of any other plant-based cell previously constructed. Like most scientific breakthroughs, the promise of its usefulness far exceeds any practical use at this stage. In other words, it will be years before plant-based cells start popping up, or growing for that matter, on rooftops across American suburbia. But one of the great things about renewable power and science in general is to constantly challenge accepted notions of what and how things can be done. The scientists note that PS-I, which is the “central molecule” in photosynthesis, is an abundant raw material that promises “ultra-low-cost” solar cells. It could be a boon for the solar industry, which has always been challenged by its high upfront costs. The scientists noted that these cells could be constructed from abundant sources, such as discarded clippings from agriculture and timber operations. The results of this experiment were included in the February 2012 issue of Scientific Reports.

http://www.ecmag.com/section/green-building/nanoscience-heats-solar-cells-plants?qt-issues_block=0

More About Lycopsids Ancient and Formerly Glorious Plants Lycopsids are the oldest group of living vascular plants. Some of their extinct members were major players in the expansion of plants onto the land, and massive arborescent forms were the most important contributors to the great coal beds that fueled the Industrial Revolution. Today they are represented by only six genera belonging just three families: Lycopodiaceae (club mosses), Selaginellaceae (spike mosses) and Isoetaceae (quillworts). Theyre typically inconspicuous ground cover, epiphytic or aquatic components of modern floras. Lycopsids are related to several extinct groups, including Cooksonia (some, but not all species), Asteroxlon, Drepanophycus, zoosterophylls and barinophytes, through the possession of sporangia (spore-bearing organs) that are stalked and kidney-shaped (reniform). Collectively known as lycophytes, these plants comprise one of the two great clades of vascular plants that probably diverged from the earliest vascular plants sometime from the Silurian or Early Devonian; the other clade, euphyllophytes, include the trimerophytes, ferns, sphenopsids (e.g., horsetails), progymnosperms (e.g., Archaeopteris), and seed plants (e.g., conifers, cycads, and angiosperms). Lycopsids are distinguished from other lycophytes because they posses spirally arranged microphylls (narrow, spine-like leaves supplied with a single, unbranched vein) and adaxial sporangia. (Intermediate forms such as Asteroxylon and Drepanophycus are commonly referred to as pre-lycopsids.) The earliest known lycopsid, Baragwanathia, is known from the Middle or Late Silurian of Australia as well as the Early Devonian of Euramerica. Its a herbaceous plant that appears to be most closely related to the modern day club mosses (e.g., Lycopodium). Club mosses are homosporous (they produce uniformly-sized bisexual spores). This condition, which is believed to be primitive, was probably also present in the earliest lycopsids. The Protolepidodendrales (e.g., Archaeosigillaria, Leclercqia and Protolepidodendron) are a group of lycopsids that extended from the Early to Late Devonian. Many were short, herbaceous plants, but some reached heights of at least 50 cm. They had rhizomous rooting structures, dichotomous branching and were probably homosporous. At least one species, Leclercqia complexa, possessed ligules (tiny flaps of tissues attached just above the microphyllous leaves), a feature also found in spike mosses, arborescent (tree-like) lycopsids and quillworts. Spike mosses (Selaginellales) probably diverged from the Protolepidendrales sometime during the Middle or Late Devonian, but their fossils first appear in the Upper Carboniferous. They exhibit heterosporous reproduction (producing egg-like megaspores and sperm-like microspores) and endosporic develoment of the megaspore that approaches the seed habit of seed plants. They are represented today by a single genus, Selaginella. Arborescent (tree-like) lycopsids also probably diverged from Protolepidendrales during the late Middle Devonian (Givetian). Once the dominant plants of Carboniferous coal swamps and important components of Late Paleozoic and Triassic wetlands, theyre represented today by only a single genus, Isoeteles. In addition to their arborescent habit, the more derived forms (i.e., after the Early Carboniferous) are notable for their cambial growth (thickening axial growth), production of secondary tissues (e.g., wood and secondary cortex), bipolar growth (regular upward and downward growth), microphyllous leaf abscission, heterosporous reproduction and endosporic development. Several of the earlier arborescent lycopsids exhibit features that appear to be transitional between the Protolepidendrales and the more derived post-Devonian forms (Isoetales and Lepidodendrales). Some of the earliest taxa have been reported from China and Kazakhstan. Two Chinese genera, Chamaedendron and Longostachys, were probably 0.5-1.5 m high, and had dichotomous branching of rooting and branching structures. A lycopsid from Kazakhstan, Atasudendron, was estimated to be 2-3 m high and had a greater differentiation of stem tissues that did the Chinese species. Heterospory was found in Chamaedendron and the reproductive organ of a lycopsid from Kazakstan. Early arborescent lycopsids have also been reported from Euramerica. For example, Protolepidodendropsis (Givetian, Spitzbergen) may have been a small tree with a dichotomous crown. Lepidosigillaria (Frasnian, New York) had a swollen (cormose) base and a trunk at least 5 m tall. It also had leaf cushions (the distinctive bases of abscised leaves) that were arranged linearly near the base but spirally at about 1 m in height. Clevelandodendron (Famennian, Ohio) was an unbranched cormose lycopsid that was about 1.5 m tall. Cyclostigma, an abundant and widespread lycopsid from the Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous, reached a height of at least 8 m. It had a pattern of dichotomous branching and leaf cushions that were similar to those of the Carboniferous Lepidodendrales, but it had a rooting structure with short, blunt lobes. Lepidodendropsis, another common lycopsid from the Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous, also had dichotomous branching and a lobed and furrowed rooting structure. Heterospory has been recorded from several Late Devonian Euramerican taxa, including Bisporangiostrobus, Barsostrobus, Cyclostigma, and Clevandodendron. Arborescent lycopsids probably diverged into the Isoeteles and Lepidodendrales sometime during the Early Carboniferous. The Lepidodendrales (or scale trees) are distinguished from the Isoeteles (and the earlier arborescent lycopsids) primarily by the presence of certain anatomical details of the leaf cushion and the development of a stigmarian rhizomorph (an extensively branched root system similar in structure and growth to their aerial branches). They were a spectacular but relatively short-lived group. Some lepidodendralians became the tallest trees of the Paleozoic. The most famous scale tree, Lepidodendron, is estimated to have exceeded 50 m in height. Diaphorodendron, Lepidophiloios and Sigillaria are other important examples of the Lepidodendrales. These trees dominated the lowland swamps of the Upper Carboniferous and contributed most of the organic matter to the vast coal deposits that extend over much of North America and Eurasia. But the diversity and stature of these giants declined dramatically near the end of the Carboniferous (late Westphalian and Stephanian) and they became extinct early in the Lower Permian. The Isoetales are far less spectacular than the Lepidodendrales, but their evolutionary history is considerably longer. They can generally be distinguished from their lepidodendralian relatives by their cormose (or lobed) rooting structure and their more modest growth habit. Most, if not all, isoetaleans apparently grew as unbranched axes (stems). Examples include Chaloneria (Late Carboniferous), Pleuromeia (Triassic) and Nathorstiana (Lower Cretaceous). Isoetes, the last surviving genus of the Isoetales and of probably all arborescent lycopsids, doesn't share their arborescent habit. Instead, it's a short, semi-aquatic currently plant found in a variety of freshwater and brackish habitats. Convergent but Strange Arborescent lycopsids provide a striking example of convergent evolution. Although they diverged from the euphyllophytes (e.g., ferns, horsetails, progymnosperms and seed plants) sometime in the Silurian or Early Devonian, they independently evolved secondary tissues, deciduous leaves, and heterosporous reproduction. Some grew to be giants. Some evolved a reproductive system that approached the seed habit. However, they were strange when compared to the seed plants (conifers, cycads ginkoes and angiosperms) that populate our world. Secondary growth (thickening rather than upward growth) in arborescent lycopsids and seed plants is generated by a ring of tissue called the vascular cambium. This tissue is bifacial in seed plants. Tissue on the inside (i.e., the inside face) of the vascular cambium creates secondary xylem (wood) while that on the outside creates secondary phloem (a living tissue that conducts photosynthate to other tissues) and bark. As a seed tree grows, the axes increase in diameter by generating wood on the inside, while the living phloem remains near the surface where it can continue to receive oxygen. In contrast, lycopsids have a unifacial vascular cambium. The inside face produces wood, but the outside face doesnt produce secondary phloem. Arborescent lycopsids produced relatively little wood, which apparently functioned primarily to conduct water from the rooting organs to photosythetic tissues higher in the plant. Instead, structural support apparently depended on a massive cortex that extended from the outside face of the vascular cambium to the external layer of persistent leaf cushions. The outermost layer of this cortex developed into a dense bark-like tissue called the lycopod periderm, which was waterproof and decay resistant. We dont understand how cortical tissues developed, but we know that it didnt continue to grow outward as the tree grew upward. There are several consequences to the unifacial cambium. One is determinate growth. Another is that the tree had to establish its final trunk girth early in its development. In other words, it essentially started out as a "thick stump" that grew into similarly thick pole covered with leaves. It would continue growing as a thick pole until it reached a pre-determined height. If a branching lycopsid (e.g., Lepidodendron), it would then branch a pre-determined number of times, produce sporangia (spore producing organs), reproduce, and then die; non-branching forms would simply skip the branching stage. Another consequence of the unifacial cambium is the lack of phloem with which to transport the products of photosynthesis. This has led some authorities to suggest that the living tissues in rooting structures depended on photosynthetic rootlets, which were essentially modified leaves. Indeed, photosynthate distribution in the aerial branches appeared to be very limited. Lycopsid leaves, also known as microphylls, contain only a single bundle of vascular tissue with little if any phloem. (In contrast, the leaves of ferns and seed plants, also known as megaphylls, contain multiple vascular strands and considerable amounts of phloem.) One consequence of this localized distribution of photosynthate is the pattern of microphyllous leaf abscission. As the tree grew upward, the lower parts of the trunk would shed their deciduous leaves and essentially become dead tissue. Arborescent lycopsids adopted what could be considered a quick and cheap lifestyle. Due to the inherit characteristics of a unifacial cambium, they invested few metabolic resources in the transport of photosynthate and in wood production. One advantage of their developmental system is very rapid growth. The giants of the coal swamps apparently achieved maturity in only a few years. Once they reached their final height, they would develop and release their spores and then die. This resulted in remarkably short generation times and very rapid turnover. Its not surprising that they generated a tremendous amount of biomass, much of which ultimately became coal. Rapid growth apparently facilitated the re-establishment of dominance in favorable habitats following short-term disturbances (e.g., storms). On the other hand, relatively short life-spans may have inhibited their recovery following longer-term disturbances (e.g., climatic change). It may have contributed to their demise at the end of the Carboniferous; the return of favorable lowland habitats during the Stephanian of Euramerica was not accompanied by the return of the great lycopsid swamp forests. Instead, these habitats became dominated by tree ferns (e.g., Psaronius) and pteridosperms (seed ferns). A degree of convergence also occurred in the reproductive of seed plants and arborescent lycopsids. Heterospory, the production of specialized sperm-like microspores and egg-like megaspores is widely regarded as a precursor to the seed habit. It evolved in several lineages (i.e., barinophytes, zygopterid pre-ferns, stauropterid pre-ferns, sphenopterids, water ferns, Archaeopteris, spike mosses and arborescent lycopsids). However, there are two elaborations of heterospory that are widely seen as additional precursors to the seed habit. These are the reduction of the total number of functional megaspores in a sporangium to a single functional spore and endosporic development (the fertilization of the haploid megagametophyte and initial development of diploid sporophyte occurs within the spore wall). Both of these elaborations are found in spike mosses and (at least some) arborescent lycopsids. Moreover, some of the lepidodendrid lycopsids surrounded their megagametophyte with a protective integument analogous to the seed coat in seed plants (e.g., the form genus Lepidocarpon). However, even though reproduction in some arborescent lycopsids approached the seed habit, it still depended fertilization by free-swimming sperm entering the shed megasporangium via a horizontal slit in the protective integument. This is thought to have occurred in the standing waters that typically surrounded the base of these trees. - Francis Cardillo's web page on Isoetales (Quillworts): - Hans Kerp's web pages on Carboniferous forests and lycopsid images: - M. & H. Hieb's Plant Fossils of West Virginia: - Palaeos.com's web page on the Lepidodendrales: www.palaeos.com/Plants/Lycophytes/Lepidodendrales.html - Ralph Taggart's web pages on arborescent lycopsids and Carboniferous forests: - U.C. Museum of Paleontology's introduction to the Lycophyta: - U.C. Museum of Paleontology Virtual Lab web page on lycophytes: www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/IB181/VPL/Lyco/LycoTitle.html - Banks, H.P. 1970. Evolution and Plants of the Past. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publ. - Hirmer, M. 1927. Handbuch der Palaobotanik. Munich and Berlin: Oldenberg. - Niklas, K. 1997. The Evolutionary Biology of Plants. Chicago and London: Univ. Chicago Press. - Stewart, W.N and G.W. Rothwell. 1993. Paleobotany and the Evolution of Plants. Cambrige: Cambrige Univ. Press. - Taylor, T.N and E.L. Taylor. 1993. The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants. New York: Prentice Hall. - Scientific Papers: - Beerbower, J.R., J.A. Boy, W.A. DiMichele, R.A. Gastaldo, R. Hook, N. Hotton, III, T.L. Phillips, S.E. Scheckler, and W.A. Shear. 1992. "Paleozoic terrestrial ecosystems." pp. 205-235. In: A.K.Behrensmeyer, J.D. Damuth, W.A. DiMichele, R.Potts, H.-D. Sues and S.L. Wing (eds.) Terrestrial Ecosystems throught Time. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press. - Berry, C.M. and M. Fairon-Demaret. 2001. "The Middle Devonian Flora Revisited." pp 120-139. In: P.G. Gensel and D. Edwards (eds.). Plants Invade the Land: Evolutionary and Environmental Approaches. Columbia Univ. Press. New York. - Chitaley, S. and K.B. Pigg. 1996. "Clevlandodendron ohioensis, gen et. sp. nov., a slender upright lycopsid from the Late Devonian Cleveland Shale of Ohio." Amer. J. Botany 83(6): 781-789. - Jennings, J.R. 1972. "A new lycopsid genus from the Salem Limestone (Mississippian) of Illinois." Palaeontographica B 137: 72-84. - Hirmer, M. 1933. "Rekonstruktion von Pleuromeia sternbergi Corda, nebst bemer Kungen zur Morpholodie der Lycopodiales." Palaeontographica B. 78: 47-56 - Pigg, K.B. and G.W. Rothwell. 1983. "Chaloneria gen.nov.; heterosporous lycophytes from the Pennsylvanian of North America." Botanical Gazette 144: 132-147. - Image Credits:

http://www.devoniantimes.org/who/pages/lycopsid.html

Eardrum repair is a surgical procedure used to fix a hole or tear in the eardrum (tympanic membrane). It can also be used to repair or replace the three tiny bones behind the eardrum (ossicles). The eardrum is a thin membrane between your outer ear and your middle ear that vibrates when sound waves hit it. An ear infection, surgery, or trauma may cause damage to your eardrum or middle ear bones that must be corrected with surgery. Damage to these organs can result in hearing loss and an increased risk of ear infections. If the hole or tear in your eardrum is small, your doctor may first try to patch the hole with gel or a paper-like tissue. This procedure takes 10 to 30 minutes and can often be done in the doctor’s office with only local anesthesia. If the hole in your eardrum is large or if you have a chronic ear infection that cannot be cured with antibiotics, a surgeon may perform a tympanoplasty. You will be in the hospital for this surgery and will be placed under general anesthesia, so you will be unconscious. First, the surgeon will use a laser to carefully remove any excess tissue or scar tissue that has built up in your middle ear. Then, he or she will take a small piece of your own tissue from a vein or muscle sheath and graft it onto your eardrum to close the hole. The surgeon will either go through your ear canal to repair the eardrum, or make a small incision behind your ear and access your eardrum that way. The procedure takes two to three hours. If the three tiny bones of your middle ear have been damaged by ear infections or trauma, the surgeon will also repair them while you are under general anesthesia. The bones can be replaced by using either bones from a donor or prosthetic devices. There are risks involved in any type of surgery. These can include bleeding, infection at the surgery site, and allergic reactions to medications and anesthesia given during the procedure. Complications from this specific type of surgery are rare, but can include: - damage to your facial nerve or the nerve controlling your sense of taste - damage to the bones of your middle ear, causing hearing loss - incomplete healing of the hole in your eardrum - moderate or severe hearing loss - cholesteatoma (an abnormal skin growth behind your eardrum) Tell your doctor about any medication and supplements you are taking and about any allergies you may have to medications, latex, or anesthesia. Also, be sure to tell the doctor if you are feeling sick, because your surgery may need to be postponed. You will probably be asked not to eat or drink anything after midnight the night before your surgery. If you need to take medications, take them with only a small sip of water. Your doctor or nurse will tell you what time to arrive at the hospital on the day of your surgery. You can usually leave the hospital on the same day you have your surgery. The doctor will fill your ear with cotton packing. You should keep the packing in your ear for five to seven days after your surgery. Sometimes, the doctor will put a bandage over your entire ear to protect it. You may be given eardrops after the surgery. To apply them, gently remove the packing and put the drops in your ear. Replace the packing and do not put anything else in your ear. Until your doctor tells you it’s okay, do not allow any water to get into your ear. Avoid swimming and wear a shower cap to keep water out. Do not “pop” your ears or blow your nose. If you need to sneeze, do so with your mouth open so that pressure does not build up in your ears. Avoid crowded places and people who may be sick. If you catch a cold after surgery, it could increase your risk of contracting an ear infection. After surgery, you may feel shooting pain in your ear or feel as though your ear is filled with liquid. You may also hear popping, clicking, or other sounds in your ear. These symptoms are usually mild and get better after a few days. In most cases, eardrum repairs are very successful. According to the Columbia University Medical Center, more than 90 percent of patients recover from the surgery with no complications. Only two to four out of every 1,000 patients will experience long-term hearing loss after the procedure. (Columbia) The outcome of the surgery may not be as good if the bones of your middle ear need to be repaired in addition to your eardrum.

http://health.yahoo.net/health/angioplasty-and-stent-placement-peripheral-arteries

The gaseous chemical ethylene signals plants when it’s time for their flowers to fade, their fruits to ripen, or their leaves to fall. A new discovery of how ethylene triggers the changes in gene activity that enable those processes could lead to new ways to stop or slow the ripening of plants harvested for food. Plants make ethylene as they age, when they are damaged, and in response to changes in temperature, sunlight, and a variety of other factors. Because the hormone is a gas and can travel through the air, it acts not only within the plants that produce it, but also on other nearby plants. Ripe fruit, for example, hastens the ripening of other fruit nearby due to the ethylene it emits. “If you can manipulate these processes, you can potentially keep things from spoiling.” Joseph R. Ecker “If you can manipulate these processes, you can potentially keep things from spoiling,” says Joseph R. Ecker, a Howard Hughes Medical Institute-Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation investigator at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies who led the new study, published August 30, 2012, in the journal Science. That’s more than a matter of convenience, he says, pointing out that a third of the plants produced in the world are lost to spoilage. Scientists already knew that ethylene binds to its receptor in plant cells and de-represses the activity of a key regulator called EIN2. EIN2 is embedded in the cellular organelle where most protein production happens, the endoplasmic reticulum. And they knew that after exposed to ethylene gas, certain genes in the cell were turned on or off with downstream regulatory proteins called EIN3 family transcription factors. This change in gene expression leads to the end result of riper plants. But they didn’t know how EIN2 caused the activation of genes that were in the cell nucleus, far away from the endoplasmic reticulum. “The paper describes that the missing link between the key regulators in the ER, and the nuclear-located transcription factors is EIN2 itself,” says Ecker. “We now know how the ethylene signal is transduced from the endoplasmic reticulum to the nucleus.” The EIN2 protein has a large N-terminus (the end of the protein that is manufactured first) that attaches to the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, and a C-terminus (the opposite end) that extends from the ER membrane into the interior of the cell. In their new work, Ecker’s team followed the whole protein as well as the C-terminus of the molecule in biochemical and genetic experiments. They discovered that phosphorylation of EIN2 depends on an enzyme called CTR1. Their experiments also showed that ethylene treatment causes EIN2 to be dephosphorylated, after which a portion of EIN2’s carboxy-terminal domain is cleaved from the rest of the protein. Freed from its membrane anchor, that piece of the protein moves to the nucleus, where it is predicted to act on transcription factors. The scientists found that they could trigger an ethylene response simply by sending that portion of EIN2 to the cell nucleus —even in the absence of the gas. The explanation of how EIN2 turns on and off transcription factors could help scientists develop way to stifle a plant’s response to ethylene. In turn, this could have an influence on the aging of fruits, vegetables, and flowers. “What we’ve learned in our experiments using the reference plant Arabidopsis can be applied to many different crops,” Ecker says. Tweaking the ethylene pathways could have unintended side effects, however. Ethylene doesn’t only affect ripening, but also boosts a plant’s resistance to pathogens. “So you don’t necessarily want to eliminate the entire ethylene response,” says Ecker. Disease resistance, ripening and other ethylene responses are likely controlled by genetically distinct downstream branches of the same signaling pathway, Ecker says. So his lab’s next goal is to piece apart all the genes affected by the movement of EIN2 into the nucleus and determine which genes are responsible for which effects of ethylene. Then, rather than wipe out the response all together, scientists may have a better idea of how to selectively turn on and off some of the genes under ethylene’s control. Image: Hong Qiao

http://www.hhmi.com/news/ecker20120830.html

Blood that flows between different chambers of your heart must flow through a valve. This valve is called the mitral valve. It opens up enough so blood can flow from one chamber of your heart (left atria) to the next chamber (left ventricle). It then closes, keeping blood from flowing backwards. Most often patients with mitral regurgitation are asymptomatic, but symptoms gradually develop. Some of the symptoms are : - Shortness of breath - Breathing difficulty when lying down (called Orthopnea). During clinical examination, a physician will be able to identify signs of pulmonary edema and heart failure. On auscultation, a holosystolic murmur suggests mitral regurgitation.

http://jollyga.com/heart-disease-mitral-valve-regurgitation-and-mitral-valve-replacement-symptoms

How to Subtract Vectors You don’t come across vector subtraction very often in physics problems, but it does pop up. To subtract two vectors, you put their feet (or tails, the non-pointy parts) together; then draw the resultant vector, which is the difference of the two vectors, from the head of the vector you’re subtracting to the head of the vector you’re subtracting it from. To make heads or tails of this, check out the above figure, where you subtract A from C (in other words, C – A). As you can see, the result is B, because C = A + B. Another (and for some people, easier) way to do vector subtraction is to reverse the direction of the second vector (A in C – A) and use vector addition; that is, reverse the direction of A, making it –A, and add it to C. C – –A = C + A, which gives B as the resultant vector.

http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-to-subtract-vectors.html

LIKE babies, black holes are messy eaters: most of the material gravitating towards them doesn't make it into their mouths. This theory could explain why the massive black hole at the centre of our Galaxy does not blaze with radiation. Most astronomers have assumed that the strong gravitational pull exerted by black holes allows them to gobble up any gaseous cloud that they happen pull towards them. As gas plummets into a black hole, much of the material's gravitational energy is converted into heat, making the region surrounding the hole shine brightly with X-rays. But puzzlingly, some black holes, such as the one thought to be at the centre of the Milky Way, don't shine as brightly as they would if they were consuming all the available gas. The reason may be that some black holes are not as effective at devouring gas clouds as we thought, say astrophysicists Roger ... To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.

http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg15921532.500-messy-eaters.html

Title: The Earth Time: 1 class period KERA Goals: 2.3 Objective: The students will learn that everything we have and use comes from natural resources. Materials: Globe or map, map to color Everything we have and everything we use comes from our natural resources. The Earth is the source for all of it. The air we breathe, the food we eat, the clothes we wear, and the houses we live in all come from our natural resources. The energy we use to light our homes, provide running water-- EVERYTHING comes from our natural resources. We must use them wisely and treat them with respect. Using a globe or map, have the students identify which parts are solid, liquid, and gas. Have the students discuss where on Earth they are and where they have been on vacations. Color the map. Discuss what would life be like if we didn't use natural resources. Discuss why we need to treat the Earth with respect and use our natural resources wisely. Adapted from the Mineral Information Institute.

http://www.coaleducation.org/lessons/MII/doc4.htm

As we discussed in pre-algebra, percent is a ratio that compares a number to 100. Percent means per hundred. Percent is usually expressed with the percent symbol %. Percent problems are usually solved by using proportions. In a classroom 14 of the 21 students are female. How many percent does that correspond to? We know that the ratio of girls to all students is And we know that this ratio is a proportion to a ratio with the As we saw in the last section from here we can calculate x i.e. 67% of the students in the class are female. One of the ratios in these proportions is always a comparison of two numbers (above 14/21). This numbers are called the percentage (14) and the base (21). The other ratio is called the rate and always has the denominator 100. Another way of saying this is that Percent of change, or p%, indicates how much a quantity has increased or decreased in comparison with the original amount. It's Johnny is at the store where there is a big sign telling him that there is a $4.99 discount on a shirt that originally costs $39.99. But how big is the discount in percent? The prize of the shirt has decreased by 12%. Videolesson: A prize increases from $500 to $585. How big is the increase in percent?

http://www.mathplanet.com/education/algebra-1/how-to-solve-linear-equations/calculating-with-percents

It was today, April 12th, 150 years ago, that the first shots were fired on Fort Sumter. The territory known as Nebraska was a long ways from those shots, but yet the creation of the territories of Nebraska and Kansas led to the eventual Civil War. The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 created the territories for the expansion of the railroad across the continent. In so doing the settlers were allowed to decide whether slavery should be allowed. The struggle between factions in the Kansas Territory was not apparent in the Nebraska Territory. In 1861 slavery was officially prohibited in the Nebraska Territory. Nebraska men rallied to the cause and fought in the Union Army. Approximately 3,000 served with many giving their lives on the battleground or from disease. By the summer of 1861 the First Nebraska Volunteer Infantry mustered 1,000 men into service at Omaha. They joined General Grant's campaign in western Tennessee and many were involved in the Battle of Shiloh. The First Nebraska returned to the territory in 1864 and was stationed at Fort Kearny. They provided protection to road ranches and travelers along the Platte Valley. The Nebraska Battalion, comprised of four companies of Nebraska cavalrymen, joined troops from Missouri, Minnesota and Iowa to form what eventually became known as the 5th Iowa Volunteer Cavalry. Even though slavery was prohibited in the Nebraska Territory, there were southern sympathizers living there. The population was largely along the Missouri River and close to Kansas and Missouri. Political views were not always in favor of war or the freeing of slaves. Nebraska was the first to be granted statehood after the Civil War ... on 1 March 1867. There are many Civil War web sites and the following are recommended for Nebraska genealogical researchers:

http://nebraskarootsandramblings.blogspot.com/2011/04/nebraskas-part-in-civil-war.html

Volcanic Eruptions Caused Ancient Warming And Cooling Volcanic eruptions were responsible for a deadly ice age 450 million years ago, as well as — in an ironic twist — a period of global warming that preceded it, a new study finds. The finding underscores the importance of carbon in Earth's climate today, said study researcher Matthew Saltzman of Ohio State University. The ancient ice age featured glaciers that covered the South Pole on top of the supercontinent of Gondwana (which would eventually break apart to form the present-day continents of the southern hemisphere). Two-thirds of all species perished in the frigid climate. Previously, Saltzman and his team linked this same ice age, which took place in the Ordovician period, to the rise of the Appalachian Mountains. As the exposed rock weathered, chemical reactions pulled carbon from Earth's atmosphere, causing the deadly global cooling. With models, the researchers have now pieced together the other half of the story: Giant volcanoes that formed during the closing of the proto-Atlantic Ocean — known as the Iapetus Ocean — set the stage for the rise of the Appalachians and the ice age that followed. "Our model shows that these Atlantic volcanoes were spewing carbon into the atmosphere at the same time the Appalachians were removing it," Saltzman said. "For nearly 10 million years, the climate was at a stalemate. Then the eruptions abruptly stopped, and atmospheric carbon levels fell well below what they were in the time before volcanism. That kicked off the ice age." To figure out this geologic history, Saltzman and his colleagues used computer models to draw together measurements of isotopes of chemical elements from rocks in Nevada, Virginia and Pennsylvania with measurements of volcanic ash beds in the same locations. They also factored in temperature models developed by other scientists. The ash deposits demonstrated when the volcanoes stopped erupting, and the isotope measurements pinpointed the Appalachians as the source of the volcanic rock. The new findings mesh well with what scientists know about these ancient proto-Atlantic volcanoes, which are thought to have produced the largest eruptions in Earth's history. They issued enough lava to form the Appalachians, enough ash to cover the far ends of the earth, and enough carbon to heat the globe. Atmospheric carbon levels grew to levels 20 times higher than they are today. This study shows that when those volcanoes stopped erupting, carbon levels dropped, and the climate swung dramatically back to cold. The timing coincides with today's best estimates of temperature fluctuations in the Ordovician. The research, partly supported by the National Science Foundation, is detailed in an online edition of the journal Geology and will also appear in a future print edition. - Video – Goldilocks and the Greenhouse - What Causes Mass Extinctions? - 101 Amazing Earth Facts MORE FROM LiveScience.com

http://www.livescience.com/5827-volcanic-eruptions-caused-ancient-warming-cooling.html

Washington, D.C.—The Moon has much more water than previously thought, a team of scientists led by Carnegie's Erik Hauri has discovered. Their research, published May 26 in ScienceExpress, shows that inclusions of magma trapped within crystals collected during the Apollo 17 mission contain 100 times more water than earlier measurements. These results could markedly change the prevailing theory about the Moon's origin. The research team used a state-of-the-art NanoSIMS 50L ion microprobe to measure seven tiny samples of magma trapped within lunar crystals as so-called "melt inclusions." These samples came from volcanic glass beads—orange in appearance because of their high titanium content—which contained crystal-hosted melt inclusions. These inclusions were prevented from losing the water within when explosive volcanic eruptions brought them from depth and deposited them on the Moon's surface eons ago. "In contrast to most volcanic deposits, the melt inclusions are encased in crystals that prevent the escape of water and other volatiles during eruption. These samples provide the best window we have to the amount of water in the interior of the Moon," said James Van Orman of Case Western Reserve University, a member of the science team. The paper's authors are Hauri; Thomas Weinreich, Alberto Saal and Malcolm Rutherford from Brown University; and Van Orman. Compared with meteorites, Earth and the other inner planets of our solar system contain relatively low amounts of water and volatile elements, which were not abundant in the inner solar system during planet formation. The even lower quantites of these volatile elements found on the Moon has long been claimed as evidence that it must have formed following a high-temperature, catastrophic giant impact. But this new research shows that aspects of this theory must be reevaluated. The study also provides new momentum for returning similar samples from other planetary bodies in the solar system. "Water plays a critical role in determining the tectonic behavior of planetary surfaces, the melting point of planetary interiors, and the location and eruptive style of planetary volcanoes," said Hauri, a geochemist with Carnegie's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (DTM). "We can conceive of no sample type that would be more important to return to Earth than these volcanic glass samples ejected by explosive volcanism, which have been mapped not only on the Moon but throughout the inner solar system." Three years ago the same team, in a study led by Saal, reported the first evidence for the presence of water in lunar volcanic glasses and applied magma degassing models to estimate how much water was originally in the magmas before eruption. Building on that study, Weinreich, a Brown University undergraduate, found the melt inclusions, allowing the team to measure the pre-eruption concentration of water in the magma and estimate the amount of water in the Moon's interior. "The bottom line," said Saal, "is that in 2008, we said the primitive water content in the lunar magmas should be similar to the water content in lavas coming from the Earth's depleted upper mantle. Now, we have proven that is indeed the case." The study also puts a new twist on the origin of water ice detected in craters at the lunar poles by several recent NASA missions. The ice has been attributed to comet and meteoroid impacts, but it is possible that some of this ice could have come from the water released by past eruptions of lunar magmas. These findings should also be taken into account when analyzing samples from other planetary bodies in our solar system. The paper's authors say these results show that their method of analysis is the only way to accurately and directly determine the water content of a planet's interior. Video Press Release Washington, D.C.—The Moon has much more water than previously thought, a team of scientists led by Carnegie’s Erik Hauri has discovered. Their research, published May 26 in Science Express, shows that inclusions of magma trapped within crystals collected during the Apollo 17 mission contain 100 times more water than earlier measurements. These results could markedly change the prevailing theory about the Moon’s origin. Hauri and his team looked at bits of rock brought back to Earth in 1972 by astronauts on NASA's Apollo 17 mission. Specifically, the researchers analyzed pieces called melt inclusions, which are minuscule globules of lunar magma encased within solid crystals. [Infographic: Inside Earth's Moon] These crystals prevented the magma's water from gassing out during the eruption, thereby largely preserving the original water content of the underground rock. So melt inclusions are special. They're also rare, and finding the tiny structures in the small store of moon rocks available to researchers was by no means a given. But co-author Thomas Weinreich, at the time a freshman at Brown University, spotted some while poring over the Apollo 17 samples. "A kid a year out of high school found these for us," Hauri told SPACE.com "That was pretty amazing in and of itself." Other researchers had found melt inclusions in lunar samples before, but until now nobody had been able to measure their water content. Using a specialized ion microprobe, the team scrutinized seven melt inclusions, the largest just 30 microns across — smaller than the diameter of a human hair. Backscatter electron image of a lunar melt inclusion from Apollo 17 sample 74220, enclosed within an olivine crystal. The inclusion is 30 microns in diameter. CREDIT: John Armstrong, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington The general consensus is that the Moon formed and evolved through a single or series of catastrophic heating events in which most of the highly volatile elements, especially hydrogen, were evaporated away. That notion has changed with the new report showing evidences of indigenous water in lunar volcanic glasses Because these glasses are the most primitive melts erupted on the surface of the satellite, this result represents the best evidence for the presence of a deep source within the Moon relatively rich in volatile. Here we report new volatile data (C, H2O, F, S, Cl) for over 200 individual Apollo 15 lunar glasses with composition ranging from very-low to high Ti contents (sample 15427,41; 15426,138; 15426,32). Our new SIMS detection limits (~0.15 ppm C; ~0.4 ppm H2O, ~0.05 ppm F, ~0.21 ppm S, ~ 0.04 ppm Cl by weight determined by the repeated analysis of synthetic forsterite located on each sample mount), represent at least 2 orders of magnitude improvement over previous analytical techniques. After background correction the volatile contents have the following ranges: C 0-0.14± 0.13 ppm is within background; 0-70 ± 0.4 ppm for H2O; 1.6-60 ± 0.1 ppm for F; 58-885 ± 1.3 ppm for S; and 0-3 ± 0.02 ppm for Cl. Our new values represent an increase in the volatile concentrations by a factor of 2 from previously reported data [1.] Two outstanding features of the data are the significant correlation among H2O, Cl, F and S contents, and the clear relationship between the volatile and the major element contents of the glasses. The data support the hypothesis that there were significant differences in the initial volatile content, and/or the mechanism of degassing and eruption among these glasses was different. Most importantly, the data suggest that the measured H2O is indigenous to the Moon. Our results suggest that, contrary to the prevailing ideas, the bulk Moon is not uniformly depleted in highly volatile elements, and the presence of water, in particular, must be included to constrain models for the thermal and chemical evolution of the Moonís interior. Water on the Moon 100 X Higher Than Previously Measured: A Watershed Discovery A team of NASA-funded researchers has measured for the first time water from the moon in the form of tiny globules of molten rock, which have turned to glass-like material trapped within crystals. Data from these newly-discovered lunar melt inclusions indicate the water content of lunar magma is 100 times higher than previous studies suggested. The inclusions were found in lunar sample 74220, the famous high-titanium "orange glass soil" of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. The scientific team used a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument to measure the water content of the inclusions, which were formed during explosive eruptions on the moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago. The results published in the May 26 issue of Science Express raise questions about aspects of the "giant impact theory" of how the moon was created. That theory predicted very low water content of lunar rock due to catastrophic degassing during the collision of Earth with a Mars-sized body very early in its history. "Water plays a critical role in determining the tectonic behavior of planetary surfaces, the melting point of planetary interiors and the location and eruptive style of planetary volcanoes," said Erik Hauri, a geochemist with the Carnegie Institution of Washington and lead author of the study. "I can conceive of no sample type that would be more important to return to Earth than these volcanic glass samples ejected by explosive volcanism, which have been mapped not only on the moon but throughout the inner solar system." "First, I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish."—President John F. Kennedy, Joint Session of Congress, May 25, 1961 Was President Kennedy a dreamer, a visionary, or simply politically astute? We may never know, but he had the courage to make that bold proposal 50 years ago Wednesday. The Soviet Union's Yuri Gagarin had completed an orbit of the Earth the previous month and electrified the world. The United States had taken only one human, Alan Shepard, above 100 miles altitude and none into orbit. Americans, embarrassed by the successes of our Cold War adversary, were eager to demonstrate that we too were capable of great achievements in space. A half century has passed since Kennedy challenged our citizenry to do what most thought to be impossible. The subsequent American achievements in space were remarkable: Mercury, Gemini, Apollo and Skylab. Our efforts enhanced international cooperation with Apollo-Soyuz, the space shuttle and the International Space Station. The compelling fascination of our space achievements among young people spurred their interest in education. By 2005, in keeping with President Kennedy's intent and America's resolve, NASA was developing the Constellation program, focusing on a return to the moon while simultaneously developing the plans and techniques to venture beyond, and eventually to Mars. The response to Kennedy's bold challenge a half-century ago has led to America's unchallenged leadership in space. We take enormous pride in all that has been accomplished in the past 50 years. And we have the people, the skills and the wherewithal to continue to excel and reach challenging goals in space exploration. But today, America's leadership in space is slipping. NASA's human spaceflight program is in substantial disarray with no clear-cut mission in the offing. We will have no rockets to carry humans to low-Earth orbit and beyond for an indeterminate number of years. Congress has mandated the development of rocket launchers and spacecraft to explore the near-solar system beyond Earth orbit. But NASA has not yet announced a convincing strategy for their use. After a half-century of remarkable progress, a coherent plan for maintaining America's leadership in space exploration is no longer apparent. Former Senator Schmitt Proposes Dismantling of NASA and Creation of a New, National Space Exploration Administration (NSEA) On May 25, 1961, President John F. Kennedy announced to a special joint session of Congress the dramatic and ambitious goal of sending an American to the Moon and returning him safely to Earth by the end of that decade. President Kennedy’s confidence that this Cold War goal could be accomplished rested on the post-Sputnik decision by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to form the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and, in January 1960, to direct NASA to begin the development of what became the Saturn V rocket. This release of a collection of essays on Space Policy and the Constitution commemorates President Kennedy’s decisive challenge 50 years ago to a generation of young Americans and the remarkable success of those young Americans in meeting that challenge. How notions of leadership have changed since Eisenhower and Kennedy! Immense difficulties now have been imposed on the Nation and NASA by the budgetary actions and inactions of the Bush and Obama Administrations between 2004 and 2012. Space policy gains relevance today comparable to 50 years ago as the dangers created by the absence of a coherent national space policy have been exacerbated by subsequent adverse events. Foremost among these events have been the Obama Administration’s and the Congress’s spending and debt spree, the continued aggressive rise of China, and, with the exception of operations of the Space Shuttle and International Space Station, the loss of focus and leadership within NASA headquarters. By Dr. Harrison H. Schmitt. Preface: (“Is there a path forward for United States’ space policy? When a new President takes office in 2013, he or she should propose to Congress that we start space policy and its administration from scratch. A new agency, the National Space Exploration Administration (NSEA), should be charged with specifically enabling America’s and its partners’ exploration of deep space, inherently stimulating education, technology, and national focus. The existing component parts of NASA should be spread among other agencies with the only exception being activities related to U.S. obligations to its partners in the International Space Station (ISS).” — HHS). The Foreword was written by Michael D. Griffin, noted physicist, aerospace engineer and NASA Administrator (2005-2009): (“Jack makes the case for space as no one else can, and he shows how and why we are on the wrong path— leaving the rest of us with the question: what can we do to obtain the leadership we need instead of the leadership we have?”— MDG). WASHINGTON -- Fifty years ago, a young president struggling with deepening international issues set a fledgling space agency on a course that would change the history of human exploration. NASA commemorates President John F. Kennedy's historic speech that sent humans safely to the moon with a series of activities and a commitment to continue the journey of discovery and exploration that started with a desperate race into space. "We are moving into a bright new future that builds on a challenge presented to us 50 years ago," said NASA Administrator Charles Bolden. "It is important that we remember our history but we must always look forward toward a brighter future. Our advantage now is that we have five decades of accomplishment and world leadership in space on which to build. The dreams President Kennedy helped make real for our world, and the dreams we still hold, may appear to be just out of reach but they are not out of our grasp." On this date in 1961, Kennedy addressed a joint session of Congress, with a worldwide television audience, and announced, "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to Earth." This was seen as a bold mandate because America's experience up to this point was Alan Shepard's suborbital Freedom 7 mission, which launched just a few weeks earlier and lasted about 15 minutes. "Today, we have another young and vibrant president who has outlined an urgent national need to out-innovate, out-educate, and out-build our competitors and create new capabilities that will take us farther into the solar system, and help us learn even more about our place in the universe," Bolden added. "We stand at a moonshot moment once again, where we have a chance to make great leaps forward to new destinations, develop new vehicles and technologies, and new ways of exploring." To commemorate the address that launched NASA into history, the agency has scheduled several events and historic multimedia perspectives, including: -- A special concert at 7 p.m. EDT tonight at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. The one-hour concert will feature the Space Philharmonic, Administrator Bolden, astronauts, Kennedy family representatives and special guests. There are a limited number of tickets available for the public. For more information, visit: http://go.nasa.gov/jTOKZt -- Video and other multimedia material from President Kennedy's speech are available on NASA Television and on the agency's Internet homepage http://www.nasa.govalong with information about the agency's future exploration initiatives. -- A message from the administrator about NASA's next moonshot moment and moving beyond Earth orbit is available on his blog at: http://bit.ly/fNjTS2 -- An announcement later today that represents an important step in executing the president's exploration objectives and could pave the way for extending humanity's reach beyond low-Earth orbit and further -- NASA and the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum in Washington present "NASA | ART," from May 28 to Oct. 9. The exhibit features more than 70 paintings, drawings, photographs, sculptures, and other forms of art illustrating the agency's mission. Admission is free, and the exhibit is located at the Air and Space Museum's building at Sixth Street and Independence Ave. SW.

http://lunar-update.blogspot.com/2011_05_01_archive.html

Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Because bones come in a variety of shapes and have a complex internal and external structure, they are lightweight, yet strong and hard, in addition to fulfilling their many other functions. One of the types of tissues that makes up bone is the mineralized osseous tissue, also called bone tissue, that gives it rigidity and honeycomb-like three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include marrow, endosteum and periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage. There are 206 bones in the adult human body and about 270 in an infant. Bones have ten main functions: - Protection — Bones can serve to protect internal organs, such as the skull protecting the brain or the ribs protecting the heart and lungs. - Shape — Bones provide a frame to keep the body supported. - Blood production — The marrow, located within the medullary cavity of long bones and interstices of cancellous bone, produces blood cells in a process called haematopoiesis. - Mineral storage — Bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most notably calcium and phosphorus. - Fat Storage — The yellow bone marrow acts as a storage reserve of fatty acids - Movement — Bones, skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space. The interaction between bone and muscle is studied in biomechanics. - Acid-base balance — Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline salts. - Detoxification — Bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other foreign elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other tissues. These can later be gradually released for excretion. - Sound transduction — Bones are important in the mechanical aspect of hearing. The primary tissue of bone, osseous tissue , is a relatively hard and lightweight composite material , formed mostly of calcium phosphate in the chemical arrangement termed calcium hydroxylapatite (this is the osseous tissue that gives bones their rigidity). It has relatively high compressive strength but poor tensile strength , meaning it resists pushing forces well, but not pulling forces. While bone is essentially brittle, it does have a significant degree of elasticity , contributed chiefly by collagen . All bones consist of living cells embedded in the mineralized organic matrix that makes up the osseous tissue. Bone is not a uniformly solid material, but rather has some spaces between its hard elements. Compact bone or (Cortical bone) The hard outer layer of bones is composed of compact bone tissue, so-called due to its minimal gaps and spaces. This tissue gives bones their smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult skeleton. Compact bone may also be referred to as dense bone. Filling the interior of the organ is the trabecular bone tissue (an open cell porous network also called cancellous or spongy bone) which is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allowing room for blood vessels and marrow. Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass, but has nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone. There are several types of cells constituting the bone; - Osteoblasts are mononucleate bone-forming cells which descend from osteoprogenitor cells. They are located on the surface of osteoid seams and make a protein mixture known as osteoid, which mineralizes to become bone. Osteoid is primarily composed of Type I collagen. Osteoblasts also manufacture hormones, such as prostaglandins, to act on the bone itself. They robustly produce alkaline phosphatase, an enzyme that has a role in the mineralisation of bone, as well as many matrix proteins. Osteoblasts are the immature bone cells. - Bone lining cells are essentially inactive osteoblasts. They cover all of the available bone surface and function as a barrier for certain ions. - Osteocytes originate from osteoblasts which have migrated into and become trapped and surrounded by bone matrix which they themselves produce. The spaces which they occupy are known as lacunae. Osteocytes have many processes which reach out to meet osteoblasts and other osteocytes probably for the purposes of communication. Their functions include to varying degrees: formation of bone, matrix maintenance and calcium homeostasis. They have also been shown to act as mechano-sensory receptors—regulating the bone's response to stress and mechanical load. They are mature bone cells. - Osteoclasts are the cells responsible for bone resorption (remodeling of bone to reduce its volume). Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells located on bone surfaces in what are called Howship's lacunae or resorption pits. These lacunae, or resorption pits, are left behind after the breakdown of the bone surface. Because the osteoclasts are derived from a monocyte stem-cell lineage, they are equipped with phagocytic like mechanisms similar to circulating macrophages. Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon arrival, active enzymes, such as tartrate resistant acid phosphatase, are secreted against the mineral substrate. The matrix is the major constituent of bone, surrounding the cells. It has inorganic and organic parts. The inorganic is mainly crystalline mineral salts and calcium, which is present in the form of hydroxyapatite . The matrix is initially laid down as unmineralized osteoid (manufactured by osteoblasts). Mineralisation involves osteoblasts secreting vesicles containing alkaline phosphatase. This cleaves the phosphate groups and acts as the foci for calcium and phosphate deposition. The vesicles then rupture and act as a centre for crystals to grow on. The organic part of matrix is mainly composed of Type I collagen . This is synthesised intracellularly as tropocollagen and then exported, forming fibrils . The organic part is also composed of various growth factors, the functions of which are not fully known. These factors present include glycosaminoglycans , bone sialo protein and Cell Attachment Factor. One of the main things that distinguishes the matrix of a bone from that of another cell is that the matrix in bone is hard. Woven or lamellar Bone is first deposited as woven bone, in a disorganized structure with a high proportion of osteocytes in young and in healing injuries. Woven bone is weaker, with a small number of randomly oriented collagen fibers, but forms quickly. It is replaced by lamellar bone, which is highly organized in concentric sheets with a low proportion of osteocytes. Lamellar bone is stronger and filled with many collagen fibers parallel to other fibers in the same layer (these parallel columns are called osteons). The fibers run in opposite directions in alternating layers, much like plywood, assisting in the bone's ability to resist torsion forces. After a break, woven bone quickly forms and is gradually replaced by slow-growing lamellar bone on pre-existing calcified hyaline cartilage through a process known as "bony substitution." Five types of bones There are five types of bones in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. - Long bones are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much greater in length than width. They are comprised mostly of compact bone and lesser amounts of marrow, which is located within the medullary cavity, and spongy bone. Most bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The exceptions are those of the wrist, ankle and kneecap. - Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones, as are the sesamoid bones. - Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the sternum. - Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated. The bones of the spine and hips are irregular bones. - Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the force of the muscle is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and the pisiform The formation of bone during the fetal stage of development occurs by two processes: intramembranous and endochondral ossification Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the skull; the bone is formed from mesenchyme tissue. The steps in intramembranous ossification are: - Development of ossification center - Formation of trabeculae - Development of periosteum Endochondral ossification, on the other hand, occurs in long bones, such as limbs; the bone is formed from cartilage. The steps in endochondral ossification are: - Development of cartilage model - Growth of cartilage model - Development of the primary ossification center - Development of the secondary ossification center - Formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). When the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure). Bone marrow can be found in almost any bone that holds cancellous tissue. In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow , but as the child ages it is mostly replaced by yellow, or fatty marrow. In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the flat bones of the skull, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones. or bone turnover is the process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape and occurs throughout a person's life. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts, coupled together via paracrine cell signalling , are referred to as bone remodeling units. The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis , repair micro-damaged bones (from everyday stress) but also to shape and sculpture the skeleton during growth. The process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. As bone formation actively fixes circulating calcium in its mineral form, removing it from the bloodstream, resorption actively unfixes it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations. Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing exercise or bone healing, results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress (Wolff's law ). It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's piezoelectric properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress. Paracrine cell signalling The action of osteoblasts are controlled by a number of chemical factors which either promote or inhibit the activity of the bone remodelling cells, controlling the rate at which bone is made, destroyed or changed in shape. The cells also use paracrine signalling to control the activity of each other. Osteoblasts can be stimulated to increase bone mass through increased secretion of osteoid and by inhibiting the ability of osteoclasts to break down osseous tissue Bone building through increased secretion of osteoid is stimulated by the secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary, thyroid hormone and the sex hormones (estrogens and androgens). These hormones also promote increased secretion of osteoprotegerin. Osteoblasts can also be induced to secrete a number of cytokines that promote reabsorbtion of bone by stimulating osteoclast activity and differentiation from progenitor cells. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and stimulation from osteocytes induce osteoblasts to increase secretion of RANK-ligand and interleukin 6, which cytokines then stimulate increased reabsorbtion of bone by osteoclasts. These same compounds also increase secretion of macrophage colony-stimulating factor by osteoblasts, which promotes the differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts, and decrease secretion of osteoprotegerin. The rate at which osteoclasts resorb bone is inhibited by calcitonin and osteoprotegerin. Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland , and can bind to receptors on osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast activity. Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts and is able to bind RANK-L, inhibiting osteoclast stimulation. There are many disorders of the skeleton. One of the more prominent is osteoporosis Osteoporosis is a disease of bone - leading to an increased risk of fracture . In osteoporosis, the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass (20-year-old sex-matched healthy person average) as measured by DXA ; the term "established osteoporosis" includes the presence of a fragility fracture . Osteoporosis is most common in women after the menopause , when it is called postmenopausal osteoporosis , but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking , specifically glucocorticoids , when the disease is called steroid- or glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP or GIOP). Osteoporosis can be prevented with lifestyle advice and medication, and preventing falls in people with known or suspected osteoporosis is an established way to prevent fractures. Osteoporosis can be treated with bisphosphonates and various other medical treatments. Other disorders of bone include: The study of bones and teeth is referred to as osteology . It is frequently used in anthropology and forensic science for a variety of tasks. This can include determining the nutritional, health, age or injury status of the individual the bones were taken from. Preparing fleshed bones for these types of studies can involve maceration - boiling fleshed bones to remove large particles, then hand-cleaning. Typically anthropologists and archeologists study bone tools made by Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis. Bones can serve a number of uses such as projectile points or artistic pigments, and can be made from endoskeletal or external bones such as antler or tusk. Alternatives to bony endoskeletons There are several evolutionary alternatives to mammilary bone; though they have some similar functions, they are not completely functionally analogous to bone. Bone penetrating the skin and being exposed to the outside can be both a natural process in some animals, and due to injury: - A deer's antlers are composed of bone. - Instead of teeth, The extinct predatory fish Dunkleosteus had sharp edges of hard exposed bone along its jaws. - A compound fracture occurs when the edges of a broken bone puncture the skin. - Though not strictly speaking exposed, a bird's beak is primarily bone covered in a layer of keratin. Several terms are used to refer to features and components of bones throughout the body: || Definition | | articular process || A projection that contacts an adjacent bone. | || The region where adjacent bones contact each other—a joint. | || A long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for notable nerves or blood vessels. | || A large, rounded articular process. | || A prominent ridge. | || A relatively small projection or bump. | || A projection near to a condyle but not part of the joint. | || A small, flattened articular surface. | || An opening through a bone. | || A broad, shallow depressed area. | || A small pit on the head of a bone. | || A cavity within a bone. | || A long, thin projection, often with a rough surface. Also known as a ridge. | || One of two specific protuberances of bones in the ankle. | || A short canal. | || A relatively large projection or prominent bump.(gen.) | || An arm-like branch off the body of a bone. | || A cavity within a cranial bone. | || A relatively long, thin projection or bump. | || Articulation between cranial bones. | || One of two specific tuberosities located on the femur. | || A projection or bump with a roughened surface, generally smaller than a tuberosity. | || A projection or bump with a roughened surface. | Several terms are used to refer to specific features of long bones: | Bone feature || Definition | || The long, relatively straight main body of a long bone; region of primary ossification. Also known as the shaft. | || The end regions of a long bone; regions of secondary ossification. | | epiphyseal plate || Also known as the growth plate or physis. In a long bone it is a thin disc of hyaline cartilage that is positioned transversely between the epiphysis and metaphysis. In the long bones of humans, the epiphyseal plate disappears by twenty years of age. | || The proximal articular end of the bone. | || The region of a long bone lying between the epiphysis and diaphysis. | || The region of bone between the head and the shaft. |

http://www.reference.com/browse/resorb

Skip over navigation Guide and features Guide and features Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Featured Early Years Foundation Stage; US Kindergarten Featured UK Key Stage 1&2; US Grades 1-4 Featured UK Key Stage 3-5; US Grades 5-12 Featured UK Key Stage 1, US Grade 1 & 2 Featured UK Key Stage 2; US Grade 3 & 4 Featured UK Key Stages 3 & 4; US Grade 5-10 Featured UK Key Stage 4 & 5; US Grade 11 & 12 Using Questioning to Stimulate Mathematical Thinking: Addendum Stage: 1, 2 and 3 Article by Jenni Way In the process of working with some groups of teachers on this topic, discussed in an earlier article , the following table was developed. It provides examples of generic questions that can be used to guide children through a mathematical investigation, and at the same time prompt higher levels of thinking. Adults and experienced investigators naturally ask these questions of themselves, but children, being inexperienced (formal) investigators do not. Thus, the interaction with the teacher becomes a crucial factor in promoting mathematical achievement. LEVELS OF THINKING recalls or memorises information What have we been working on that might help with this problem? changes information into another form How could you write/draw what you are doing? Is there a way to record what you've found that might help us see more patterns? What's the same? What's different? Can you group these in some way? Can you see a pattern? solves a problem - use of appropriate generalisations and skills How can this pattern help you find an answer? What do think comes next? Why? solves a problem - conscious knowledge of the thinking What have you discovered? How did you find that out? Why do you think that? What made you decide to do it that way? solves a problem that requires original, creative thinking Who has a different solution? Are everybody's results the same? Why/why not? What would happen if....? makes a value judgement Have we found all the possibilities? How do we know? Have you thought of another way this could be done? Do you think we have found the best solution? Selecting and using information Mathematical reasoning & proof Meet the team The NRICH Project aims to enrich the mathematical experiences of all learners. To support this aim, members of the NRICH team work in a wide range of capacities, including providing professional development for teachers wishing to embed rich mathematical tasks into everyday classroom practice. More information on many of our other activities can be found here. Register for our mailing list Copyright © 1997 - 2012. University of Cambridge. All rights reserved. NRICH is part of the family of activities in the Millennium Mathematics Project

http://nrich.maths.org/2475

There's no doubt that the burning of fossil fuels over the past 2 centuries has caused a huge spike in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. But CO2 levels increased gradually over the preceding millennia, too, and scientists did not know how much of that rise was caused by human activity. Now, an isotopic analysis of ancient air trapped in Antarctic ice shows that humans caused little if any of the preindustrial buildup of CO2. The findings negate previous thinking about the role of early humans in the process, experts say, and the research should help scientists develop better baseline models to forecast future climate. After the last ice age ended about 11,000 years ago, the amount of atmospheric CO2 dropped for about 4 millennia, reaching a low of about 260 parts per million (ppm)--or 0.026% by volume--around 7000 years ago. Scientists know this from ice-core samples taken from Greenland and Antarctica, as well as other sources. The cores contain tiny bubbles of trapped air, so by analyzing samples from deep within the ice, scientists can trace the composition of the atmosphere back to 800,000 years ago. About 7000 years ago, CO2 levels started rising. Over the next 6800 years, CO2 levels rose by about 20 ppm, to a level of 280 ppm--versus 387 ppm now. For more than a decade, scientists have been trying to isolate the factors that contributed to that buildup. Among the major players in producing CO2 were biological processes on land, such as animal respiration; soil chemistry; the death and decay of vegetation; the release of CO2 from the oceans, triggered in part by the growth of coral reefs; and the burning of forests and plains, either by wildfires or by people clearing land for agriculture. Early humans also burned fuels such as wood, peat, and, eventually, coal. Scientists have wondered whether natural forces played the dominant role in boosting CO2 or whether humans had a hand in the phenomenon even that far back. To find out, a European team analyzed nearly 200 samples of ancient air extracted from Antarctic ice cores that span the time period between the end of the ice age and the beginning of industrialization. Then they measured the ratio of the heavier carbon-13 and the lighter carbon-12 isotopes in the CO2. That ratio can be used to identify the specific sources of the gas, because biological processes have a penchant for the lighter, more mobile carbon-12 isotope. Thus, the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 is lower in plant matter and other carbon from land-based sources than it is in the carbon compounds found in seawater. So what caused the preindustrial bump? As the researchers report tomorrow in Nature, it was predominantly natural, a combination of vegetation buildup after the ice age and, more prominently, the slow reaction to this change by ocean chemistry. But humans, the team concluded, played a small part. The findings confirm the workings of the carbon cycle in the climate system, says climate physicist and co-author Thomas Stocker of the University of Bern in Switzerland. The study shows that neither vegetation alone nor human-generated CO2 was primarily responsible for the preindustrial buildup, he says. "It's a much better picture than we previously had," says geochemist Edward Brook of Oregon State University, Corvallis. Many mechanisms have been proposed to explain the post-ice-age CO2 buildup, he says, "including the controversial idea that human land use caused CO2 to rise." Although "it's still hard to resolve all of the competing processes," Brook says, "the conclusion that the land biosphere played a relatively minor role seems fairly robust."

http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2009/09/23-04.html?ref=hp

As methane is a very stable molecule, its degradation without oxygen or sulfate is impossible, or so it was thought until 2006 when a team of researchers discovered Methylomirabilis oxyfera, an anaerobic bacterium, i.e., that can live without oxygen and can oxidize methane without using oxygen. To do so, the microorganism uses nitrites in freshwater sediments in farming areas. Now, the same research team, the outcome of a joint international undertaking involving CEA, CNRS and Evry-Val-d'Essonne University, has just proven that the same bacterium uses an entirely new enzymatic process to produce oxygen from nitrites and uses it to oxidize methane. The research that led to the discovery of the new oxygen producing pathway, which may precede the development of photosynthesis that enables the existence of an aerobic metabolism in an oxygen deprived atmosphere, has just been published in the March 25 issue of Nature. As Methylomirabilis oxyfera grows very slowly in an anaerobic environment and within a complex microbial community, understanding the new oxygen producing pathway was not easy. The Genoscope researchers at the CEA Life Sciences Department used a global approach by sequencing the entire DNA of the community. Based on the sequencing data, they were able to reconstruct the entire genome of the bacterium. Based on their results, the researchers then demonstrated that the genes usually involved in nitrite reduction are lacking in the genome. So, they hypothesized that there was another nitrite reduction pathway in the bacterium and that it was able to produce its own oxygen and use it to oxidize methane. The researchers have now proven their hypothesis by capturing the endogenous oxygen.

http://www.bulletins-electroniques.com/actualites/62959.htm

The world's smallest test tube has been created by UK scientists. And the tiny structures could be used to produce materials with unique properties. A team with members from the University of Oxford and the University of Nottingham created minuscule test tubes which are in fact carbon nanotubes. They then filled each tube with fullerene oxide molecules which were coerced into polymerising in an ordered way as a result of the tube's shape. "The important thing is that we have a controlled reaction," says David Britz, of the University of Oxford who led the research. He adds that the tubes do not interfere chemically with the polymerisation process. "As far as we can tell it's just an inert container," Britz says. The researchers believe this process could be used the create materials with novel molecular characteristics or even components for quantum computers. Each nanotube has an inner diameter of 1.2 nanometres and is roughly 2000 nanometres long. A nanometre is one billionth of a metre, or one hundred thousandth the width of a human hair. The researchers modified fullerenes, also known as buckyballs - soccer-ball-shaped carbon nanostructures - by adding a single oxygen atom to each buckyball in a chemical reaction in a conventional test tube. The addition of oxygen enables the buckyballs to bind, or polymerise, at higher temperatures, although normally they do so in a disordered, random fashion. The molecules were then inserted into the carbon nano test tubes using highly pressured carbon dioxide. Pressurised carbon dioxide turns supercritical and exists in a state between that of a gas and a liquid. It effectively repels the buckyballs, causing them to bind to the inside the carbon nanotubes. "Apparently supercritical liquids are good for transporting buckyballs," says Andrei Khlobystov, another member of the team, from the University of Nottingham. Raising the temperature causes the molecules inside the tubes to polymerise in a long line just one molecule thick. However, there is currently no way to extract the polymerised material from the tubes. Providing this can be done, the researchers believe they could create materials with useful new structural, electronic and magnetic properties. "The inside of a nanotube is a new place to study chemical reactivity and may offer routes to the synthesis of novel materials inaccessible by other means," Britz says. Khlobystov adds that using the test tubes to align individual molecules could be useful in quantum computing, with the spin state of each molecule acting as a quantum bit, or "qubit". Cees Dekker, a nanotube researcher at the Delft Institute of Technology in the Netherlands, is not quite convinced that materials created in this way will ultimately prove useful. But he notes that it does provide a unique way to study fundamental chemical processes. "You can really study two chemicals and how they come together," he told New Scientist. "It gives you a great control mechanism." But the research has already made a mark, gaining an entry in the Guinness Book of World Records. The nano test tube, which has a volume of just 10-24 litres, has been officially named the smallest in the world. Journal reference: Chemical Communications (DOI: 10.1039/b414247k) If you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. Have your say Only subscribers may leave comments on this article. Please log in. Only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article

http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6710

Loudspeaker placement and the room's dimensions will cause certain frequencies within a room to resonate. Resonance is when an object vibrates at a particular frequency. An object's size and what it is made of determines the frequency. The puddle of water, in the movie Jurassic Park, vibrating when the T-Rex comes near , is a good example of a resonance taking place. When we play music in our listening room, the air in the room will resonate at certain frequencies. The resonate frequencies determined by the room's dimensions and the materials of build. These resonances are called modes. They can affect our systems' sound by increasing or decreasing certain frequencies. I'm not going to get into how to control theses modes in this article. That will appear in a future HI-Fi Highlights article. Instead I'm going to show you how to calculate these modes. This will be useful for determining what actions to take to help the problem or to help you with selecting/building a listening room. The distance between the room's walls will determine the resonant frequencies.

http://www.tubeaudio.com/news.php5?display_article=12

Science Fair Project Encyclopedia 1755 Lisbon earthquake The 1755 Lisbon earthquake took place on November 1, 1755, at 9:20 in the morning. It was one of the most destructive and deadly earthquakes in history, killing well over 100,000 people. The quake was followed by a tsunami and fire, resulting in the near total destruction of Lisbon. The earthquake accelerated political tensions in Portugal and profoundly disrupted the country's 18th century colonial ambitions. The event was widely discussed by European Enlightenment philosophers, and inspired major developments in theodicy and in the philosophy of the sublime. The first to be studied scientifically for its effects over a large area, the quake signalled the birth of modern seismology. Geologists today estimate the Lisbon earthquake approached magnitude 9 on the Richter scale, with an epicenter in the Atlantic Ocean about 200 km west-southwest of Cape St. Vincent. The earthquake struck on the morning of November 1, the All Saints Day Catholic holiday. Contemporary reports state that the earthquake lasted between three-and-a-half and six minutes, causing gigantic fissures five meters wide to rip apart the city center. The survivors rushed to the open space of the docks for safety and watched as the water receded, revealing a sea floor littered by lost cargo and old shipwrecks. Several tens of minutes after the earthquake, an enormous tsunami engulfed the harbor and downtown, rushing up the Tagus river. It was followed by two more waves. In the areas unaffected by the tsunami, fire quickly broke out, and flames raged for five days. Lisbon was not the only Portuguese city affected by the catastrophe. Throughout the south of the country, in particular the Algarve, destruction was generalized. The shockwaves of the earthquake were felt throughout Europe as far as Finland and North Africa. Tsunamis up to twenty meters in height swept the coast of North Africa, and struck Martinique and Barbados across the Atlantic. A three meter tsunami hit the Southern English coast. Of a Lisbon population of 275,000, up to 90,000 were killed. Another 10,000 were killed across the Mediterranean in Morocco. Eighty-five percent of Lisbon's buildings were destroyed, including its famous palaces and libraries, as well as most examples of Portugal's distinctive 16th century Manueline architecture. Several buildings which had suffered little damage due to the earthquake were destroyed by the fire. The brand new Opera House, opened only six months before (under the ill-fated name Phoenix Opera), was burned to the ground. The Royal Palace, which stood just beside the Tagus river in the modern square of Terreiro do Paço, was destroyed by the earthquake and tsunami. Inside, the 70,000-volume royal library as well as hundreds of works of art, including paintings by Titian, Rubens, and Correggio, were lost. The precious royal archives disappeared together with detailed historical records of explorations by Vasco da Gama and other early navigators. The earthquake also destroyed major churches in Lisbon, namely the Cathedral of Santa Maria, the Basilicas of São Paulo, Santa Catarina, São Vicente de Fora, and the Misericordia Church. The Royal Hospital of All-Saints (the biggest public hospital at the time) was consumed by fire and hundreds of patients burned to death. The tomb of national hero Nuno Alvares Pereira was also lost. Visitors to Lisbon may still walk the ruins of the Carmo convent, which were preserved to remind Lisboners of the destruction. Many animals sensed danger and fled to higher ground before the water arrived. The Lisbon quake is the first documented case of such a phenomenon in Europe. The day after Due to a stroke of luck, the royal family escaped unharmed from the catastrophe. King Joseph I of Portugal and the court had left the city, after attending mass at sunrise, fulfilling the wish of one of the King's daughters to spend the holiday away from Lisbon. After the catastrophe, Joseph I developed a fear of living within walls, and the court was accommodated in a huge complex of tents and pavilions in the hills of Ajuda, then on the outskirts of Lisbon. The King's claustrophobia never waned, and it was only after Joseph's death that his daughter Maria I of Portugal began building the royal Palace of Ajuda , which still stands on the site of the old tented camp. Like the King, the Prime Minister Sebastião de Melo (the Marquis of Pombal) survived the earthquake. Now? Bury the dead and feed the living, he is reported to have said, and with the pragmatism that characterized his coming rule, the Prime Minister immediately began organizing the recovery and reconstruction. He sent firefighters into the city to extinguish the flames, and ordered teams to remove the thousands of corpses. Time was short to dispose of the corpses before disease spread. Contrary to custom and against the wishes of representatives of the Church, many corpses were loaded onto barges and buried at sea beyond the mouth of the Tagus. To prevent disorder in the ruined city, and, in particular, as a deterrant against looting, gallows were constructed as high points around the city and at least 34 were executed. The Portuguese Army was mobilised to surround the city to prevent the able-bodied from fleeing, so that they could be pressed into clearing the ruins. Not long after the initial crisis, the prime minister and the King quickly hired architects and engineers, and less than a year later, Lisbon was already free from debris and undergoing reconstruction. The King was keen to have a new, perfectly ordained city. Big squares and rectilinear, large avenues were the mottos of the new Lisbon. At the time, somebody asked the Marquis of Pombal the need of such wide streets. The Marquis answered: one day they will be small. Indeed, the chaotic traffic of Lisbon reflects the wisdom of the reply. Pombaline buildings are among the first seismically-protected constructions in the world. Small wooden models were built for testing, and earthquakes were simulated by marching troops around them. Lisbon's "new" downtown, known today as the Pombaline Downtown (Baixa Pombalina), is one of the city's famed attractions. Sections of other Portuguese cities, like the Vila Real de Santo António in Algarve, were also rebuilt along Pombaline principles. Social and philosophical implications18th century theology and philosophy, this manifestation of the anger of God was difficult to explain. The earthquake strongly influenced many thinkers of the European Enlightenment. Many contemporary philosophers mentioned or alluded to the earthquake in their writings, notably Voltaire in Candide and in his Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne (Poem on the Lisbon disaster). The arbitrariness of survival motivated Voltaire's Candide and its satire of the idea that this was "the best of all possible worlds"; as Theodor Adorno wrote, "[t]he earthquake of Lisbon sufficed to cure Voltaire of the theodicy of Leibniz" (Negative Dialectics 361). In the later twentieth century, following Adorno, the 1755 earthquake has sometimes been analogized to the Holocaust as a catastrophe so tremendous as to have a transformative impact on European culture and philosophy.sublime, though it existed before 1755, was developed in philosophy and elevated to greater importance by Immanuel Kant, in part as a result of his attempts to comprehend the enormity of the Lisbon quake and tsunami. Kant published three separate texts on the Lisbon earthquake. (Through the broad later influence of theories of the sublime, the Lisbon earthquake was one factor in a sea change in European aesthetic thought, with an effect which would not be fully appreciated until the late 19th century.) The young Kant, fascinated with the earthquake, collected all the information available to him in news pamphlets, and used it to formulate a theory of the causes of quakes. Kant's theory, which involved the shifting of huge subterranean caverns filled with hot gases, was (though ultimately shown to be false) one of the first systematic modern attempts to explain earthquakes by positing natural, rather than supernatural, causes. According to Walter Benjamin, Kant's slim early book on the earthquake "probably represents the beginnings of scientific geography in Germany. And certainly the beginnings of seismology." Werner Hamacher has claimed that the earthquake's consequences extended into the vocabulary of philosophy, making the common metaphor of firm "grounding" for philosophers' arguments shaky and uncertain: "Under the impression exerted by the Lisbon earthquake, which touched the European mind in one [of] its more sensitive epochs, the metaphorics of ground and tremor completely lost their apparent innocence; they were no longer merely figures of speech" (263). Hamacher claims that the foundational certainty of Descartes' philosophy began to shake following the Lisbon earthquake. In Portuguese internal politics, the earthquake was devastating. The Prime Minister was the favorite of the King, but the aristocracy despised him as an upstart son of a country squire. (Although the Prime Minister Sebastião de Melo is known today as Marquis of Pombal, the title was only granted in 1770). The Prime Minister in turn disliked the old nobles, whom he considered corrupt and incable of practical action. Before November 1, 1755 there was a constant struggle for power and royal favour, but afterwards, the competent response of the Marquis of Pombal effectively severed the power of the old aristocratic factions. Silent opposition and resentment of King Joseph I began to rise. This would culminate in an attempted assassination of the King, and the elimination of the powerful Duke of Aveiro and the Távora family. The birth of seismology The Prime Minister's response was not limited to the practicalities of reconstruction. The Marquis ordered a query sent to all parishes of the country regarding the earthquake and its effects. Questions included: - how long did the earthquake last? - how many aftershocks were felt? - what kind of damage was caused? - did animals behave strangely? (this question anticipated studies by Chinese seismologists in the 1960s) - what happened in wells and water holes? The answers to these and other questions are still archived in the Tower of Tombo , the national historical archive. Studying and cross-referencing the priests' accounts, modern scientists were able to reconstruct the event from a scientific perspective. Without the query designed by the Marquis of Pombal, this would have been impossible. Because the Marquis was the first to attempt an objective scientific description of the broad causes and consequences of an earthquake, he is regarded as a forerunner of modern seismological scientists. The geological causes of this earthquake and the seismic activity in the region continue to be discussed and debated by contemporary scientists. Since Lisbon is located in a centre of a tectonic plate, there are no obvious reasons for the event, since almost all tectonic events occur at plate borders. Some geologists have suggested that the earthquake may indicate the early development of an Atlantic subduction zone, and the beginning of the closure of the Atlantic ocean. See also: List of earthquakes - Benjamin, Walter. "The Lisbon Earthquake." In Selected Writings vol. 2. Belknap, 1999. ISBN 0674945867. The often abstruse critic Benjamin gave a series of radio broadcasts for children in the early 1930s; this one, from 1931, discusses the Lisbon earthquake and summarizes some of its impact on European thought. - Brooks, Charles B.. Disaster at Lisbon: The Great Earthquake of 1755. 1994. - Chase, J. "The Great Earthquake At Lisbon (1755)". Colliers Magazine, 1920. - Dynes, Russell Rowe . "The dialogue between Voltaire and Rousseau on the Lisbon earthquake: The emergence of a social science view." University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center, 1999. - Hamacher, Werner. "The Quaking of Presentation." In Premises: Essays on Philosophy and Literature from Kant to Celan, pp. 261-293. Stanford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0804736200. - Kendrick, T.D.. The Lisbon Earthquake. Philadelphia and New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1957. - Neiman, Susan. Evil in Modern Thought: An Alternative History of Modern Philosophy. Princeton University Press, 2002. This book centers on philosophical reaction to the earthquake, arguing that the earthquake was responsible for modern conceptions of evil. - Ray, Gene. "Reading the Lisbon Earthquake: Adorno, Lyotard, and the Contemporary Sublime." Yale Journal of Criticism 17.1 (2004): pp. 1-18. - Seco e Pinto, P.S. (Editor). Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering: Proceedings of the Second International Conference, Lisbon, Portugal, 21-25 June, 1999. ISBN 9058091163 - Weinrich, Harald. "Literaturgeschichte eines Weltereignisses: Das Erdbeben von Lissabon." In Literatur für Leser, pp. 64-76. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1971. ISBN 3170872257. In German. Cited by Hamacher as a broad survey of philosophical and literary reactions to the Lisbon earthquake. - Images and historical depictions of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake - More images of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami - Voltaire letter extract on the Lisbon earthquake The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/1755_Lisbon_earthquake

The artifacts, structures and environments that tell the story of human communities on the land are irreplaceable cultural resources. Preserving them enables archaeologists, ethnographers, historians and other investigators to reconstruct and interpret the lives of earlier inhabitants. The picture they construct may be hazy and full of gaps but it provides a context that deepens the experience of current residents. Santa Clara Valley has been the home territory of different societies for dozens of centuries. Though evidence of human occupation reaches back 10,000 years, little is known about these first people. The Ohlone, who were living in the area when the Spanish arrived, are thought to have come to the region about 1,500 years ago. Hunter gatherers, these Native Americans lived in small groups and established semi permanent villages and hunting camps. Because these settlements were often located along streams, several Open Space Authority lands comprise the type of habitat that supported early Ohlone home sites. Preserving these landscapes, protecting cultural resources and interpreting Native American culture are OSA priorities. The protection of Native American culture got a big boost in 1976 when California established the Native American Heritage Commission to identify and catalog Native American cultural resources. In 2001 the state passed a Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. The law created a means for returning artifacts and human remains and required museums to inventory their collections. Artifacts from other periods and cultures are also recognized and protected by state regulations. The California Environmental Quality Act requires that impacts to unique archaeological resources be evaluated so they can be preserved or the impacts mitigated. A unique resource is one that has particular scientific value, is the oldest or best of its kind, or is associated with an important event or person. Many of the lands owned and managed by the Authority have a long ranching history. Cattle chutes, fencing, houses, barns and other structures are evaluated for their historic and cultural significance when a property is purchased. Many of the remnants of the valley’s past, though not unique by definition, are maintained for their interpretive value. One event of recognized historic significance and associated with the very important Don Juan Bautista de Anza involves OSA lands. In April 1776 the Anza Expedition was headed back to Monterey and trying to find a way through the Diablo Range. It was a difficult crossing in rough terrain. The party picked up Coyote Creek and followed it south through a steep and rocky canyon. Where the creek opened into a wide valley dotted with sycamore trees the troop gratefully made camp. This site was purchased and preserved by the Authority in 2001.

http://www.openspaceauthority.org/preservation/cultural.html

During his 27 years in prison, Nelson Mandela became a symbol of apartheid oppression. He emerged to become the leader of post-apartheid South Africa. In this activity students will read about his life, his writings, and the views of biographers, colleagues, and friends on his life and legacy. Students will go to the Long Walk of Nelson Mandela Web site to read about Nelson Mandela's emergence and growth as the leader of the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa, and his eventual emergence as leader of South Africa. Students will answer a series of questions and then write three entries in an imaginary diary of Mandela, covering different stages of his life. - Students will be able to summarize Mandela's origins and his life. - Students will be able to apply what they have learned to write three entries in an imaginary diary of Mandela, covering different stages of his life. Student Web Activity Answers - Mandela's great-grandfather was a king of the Thembu people. After his father's death, he was raised in the royal household. - Mandela was originally a lawyer. He first worked in an established firm, and later in a firm he started with Oliver Tambo to represent blacks persecuted by the South African government. - Mandela led Umkhonto we Sizwe (The Spear of the Nation), known as MK. - Mandela spent most of his 27 years in prison on Robben Island. During this time, he became a leader among the prison inmates and a national symbol of the anti-apartheid movement, and evolved from a revolutionary firebrand into a mature political figure. - Students' diary entries will vary but should include detailed descriptions of events based on their readings. Go To Student Web Activity

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/gwhmt2005/content.php4/915/5

Paraphrasing Webster more clearly, a fricative is a speech sound where your mouth is constricted at some point, enough to cause audible friction , but not enough to stop the breath completely. The fricatives are classified mainly by place of articulation -- where in the mouth the constriction occurs -- and by whether they are voiced or not. For most languages this is enough to specify them. Moving from front to back of the mouth, they are: - bilabial f and v are relatively rare: Japanese f is bilabial, as is Spanish b or v between vowels, though the friction there is very weak. - labiodental f and v as in English. - dental th as in thin and th as in then. These sounds also occurs in for example Icelandic, Greek, (Castilian) Spanish, Arabic, and Burmese, but are not very common worldwide. - alveolar s and z. - postalveolar (palato-alveolar) sh as in English, and the zh sound in vision, sabotage: the sh sound occurs commonly enough in the world's languages but the latter is a bit rarer; French, Portuguese, and all the Slavonic languages have it. - alveolo-palatal sh and zh are rarer, but occur in Chinese and Polish: in Polish they are written with acute-accented ś and ź, and contrast with the palato-alveolar sz and rz. In (standard) Chinese the pinyin x is alveolo-palatal. They are "softer" or thinner sounds than the English. - retroflex sh and zh are quite rare, but are the Chinese sounds written sh and r in pinyin; and in Swedish and Norwegian the letters rs represent a retroflex sibilant. - palatal ch as in German ich 'I', Reich; or the Greek okhí 'no'. It is a thin sh-like sound. The voiced equivalent is rare, a strong y sound, but it's the Icelandic g before i, as in the names Gísli, Egill. - velar ch as in Achtung, loch, chutzpah, same as the kh of Arabic or Greek. This doesn't occur in standard English (except Scots) but is fairly common worldwide. The voiced sound gh is much rarer but occurs in Arabic. - uvular kh and gh are rarer: Inuktitut and North Caucasian languages have them. However, the French r is uvular, normally voiced, but voiceless at the end of words like maître. Dutch g and ch are uvular. - pharyngal h and ` are extremely rare, occurring in Arabic, and some related languages like Somali (where they are written x and c) and some accents of Hebrew, and also in North Caucasian languages. See Arabic pronunciation for my fairly futile attempts to explain them more closely. - glottal h is normal voiceless, but between vowels as in behind it is voiced in English. In some languages, such as Arabic and Czech, it always has this voiced sound. I've not come across a language that has both sounds in contrast. Whereas almost every language in the world has at least some of the normal fricatives described above (Australian Aboriginal languages haven't any), mechanisms other than normal constriction are quite rare in the world. First up are the lateral fricatives, where the tongue constricts to cause friction on only one side. Welsh has a voiceless palatal lateral fricative ll. Southern African languages such as Xhosa and Zulu have dental lateral fricatives hl and dhl. North Caucasian languages typically have huge numbers of consonants, and some of them have lateral fricatives too. Fricatives are not usually subject to different kinds of phonation, unlike stops, but both Korean and Burmese have an aspirated s: that is a hissing sound something like the s+h in mishap. In languages that have coarticulation such as labialization or palatalization, fricatives are subject to these: for example Irish and Russian have f and fy sounds, and likewise palatalized forms of most of their other fricatives. North Caucasian languages typically have both kh and labialized khw and other such pairs.

http://everything2.com/title/fricative

6th Grade Oral Language Resources Students will:• Learn about the concept of smart thinking. • Access prior knowledge and build background about thinking, decision• making and imagination. • Explore and apply the concepts of how to build knowledge and how to make decisions. Students will:• Demonstrate a mastery of basic terminology associated with thought processes. • Orally use words that name the different traits and actions of the mind. • Extend oral vocabulary by speaking about how they are going to improve their own thinking. • Use key concept words [idea, decision, inquisitive, innovative, knowledge, apply, dilemma, solution, efficient, predict, imagination, technique, reason, logic]. Explain• Use the slideshow to review the key concept words. • Explain that students are going to learn about smart thinking: • How to be conscious of thought and how to control it. • The relationship between thinking and asking questions. • The factors of the decision• making process. • How to combine different things you have learned to create new things or ideas with your mind. Model• After the host introduces the slideshow, point to the photo on screen. Ask students: What is a decision? (Any situation in which you have to use your think about two or more choices, in order to pick just one) • Ask students: What are some traits of someone who is a smart thinker? (inquisitive, innovative, problem• solver, etc.) • Say: We use thought for very basic actions, such as getting dressed or eating, but we also use thought to solve difficult problems, or to come up with complicated ideas. How can you build your knowledge ? (by asking questions, reading, researching your own ideas, etc.). Guided Practice• Using pairs of illustrations, guide students through the next three slides showing them decisions between two different items or situations. Always have the students explain the reasons for their choices in each decision. Apply• Play the games that follow. Have them discuss with their partner the different topics that appear during the Talk About It feature. • After the first game, ask students what they think about on a daily basis. After the second game, encourage the students to share some of their own new ideas with the rest of the class. Close• Ask students: Can you think up a great idea for a new invention? • Summarize for students that we make all kinds of decisions every day. For some decisions we have to think carefully. Encourage them to draw a diagram of their invention and present it to the class, explaining what each part of the invention does and why it would be useful.

http://treasures.macmillanmh.com/idaho/teachers/resources/grade6/oral-language-resources/resource/smart-thinking

Movement advocating the immediate end of slavery. The abolitionist movement began in earnest in the United States in the 1820s and expanded under the influence of the Second Great Awakening, a Christian religious movement that emphasized the equality of all men and women in the eyes of God. Most leading abolitionists lived in New England, which had a long history of anti-slavery activity, but the movement also thrived in Philadelphia and parts of Ohio and Indiana. Paint made with pigment (color) suspended in acrylic polymer (a synthetic medium), rather than in natural oils, such as linseed, used in oil paints. It is a modern medium that came into use in the 1950s. Unlike oil paint, it is fast drying and water soluble. Three-dimensional art made by building up material (such as clay) to produce forms, instead of carving it away. Type of photograph that is printed on paper coated with silver salts (the substance that turns dark when it is exposed to light in a camera) suspended in egg whites (albumen). Albumen prints were more popular than daguerreotypes, which they replaced, because multiple copies could be printed and they were less expensive. Albumen prints were often toned with a gold wash, which gives them a yellowish color. Symbolic representation of an idea, concept, or truth. In art, allegories are often expressed through symbolic fictional figures, such as “Columbia,” a woman who represents America; or Father Time, an old man with an hourglass and scythe. Type of photograph made between 1850 and 1860 in which a negative was attached to a piece of glass with black paper or cloth behind it. Against the black background, the tones of the resulting photograph are reversed, so that it reads as a positive image. The ambrotype went out of use when less expensive methods of photography were invented, like the albumen print. Latin for “before the war.” It refers to the period between 1820 and 1860 in American history. Term encompassing a range of ideas opposing slavery. It included abolitionism, or the idea that slavery should be ended immediately. But it also included other positions, including colonization and gradual emancipation. Some anti-slavery figures (like Abraham Lincoln) opposed slavery as a moral wrong, but did not seek to end it where it already existed, mostly because they believed that slavery was protected by the Constitution. Others had no moral concerns about slavery, but opposed the expansion of the institution because they believed that wage laborers could not compete in a slave-based economy. Antrobus, John (1837–1907): Sculptor and painter of portraits, landscapes, and genre scenes (showing everyday life). Antrobus was born in England but came to Philadelphia in 1850. During his travels through the American West and Mexico, he worked as a portraitist before opening a studio in New Orleans. He served briefly with the Confederate Army during the Civil War before moving to Chicago. Antrobus sculpted both Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas and was the first artist to paint a portrait of Ulysses S. Grant (in 1863). Army of the Potomac: Largest and most important Union army in the Eastern Theater of the Civil War, led at various times by Generals Irvin McDowell, George McClellan, Ambrose Burnside, Joseph Hooker, and George Meade. From 1864–1865, General Ulysses S. Grant, then Commander-in-Chief of all Union forces, made his headquarters with this Army, though General Meade remained the official commander. The army’s size and significance to the war meant that it received a great deal of attention in newspapers and magazines of the day. Artist Winslow Homer lived and traveled with the army at various times when he worked for Harper’s Weekly as an illustrator. Army of Northern Virginia: Primary army of the Confederacy and often the adversary of the Union Army of the Potomac. Generals P. G. T. Beauregard and Joseph E. Johnston were its first leaders; after 1862 and to the end of the war, the popular General Robert E. Lee commanded it. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered his army to Union General-in-Chief Ulysses S. Grant in the small town of Appomattox Courthouse, effectively ending the Civil War. Collection of weapons or military equipment. The term arsenal also refers to the location where weapons or equipment for military use is stored. Discipline that seeks to understand how artworks were made, what history they reflect, and how they have been understood. Surprise murder of a person. The term is typically used when individuals in the public eye, such as political leaders, are murdered. Atkinson, Edward (1827–1905): American political leader and economist who began his political career as a Republican supporter of the Free Soil movement. Atkinson fought slavery before the Civil War by helping escaped slaves and raising money for John Brown. After the Civil War, in 1886, Atkinson campaigned for future President Grover Cleveland and worked against imperialism (the movement to expand a nation’s territorial rule by annexing territory outside of the main country) after the Spanish-American War. Ball, Thomas (1819–1911): American sculptor who gained recognition for his small busts before creating more monumental sculptures. Notable works include one of the first statues portraying Abraham Lincoln as the Great Emancipator (1876), paid for by donations from freed slaves and African American Union veterans, which stands in Washington D.C.’s Lincoln Park. Ball also created a heroic equestrian statue of George Washington for the Boston Public Garden (1860–1864). He joined an expatriate community in Italy, where he received many commissions for portrait busts, cemetery memorials, and heroic bronze statues. Barnard, George N. (1819–1902): Photographer known for his work in daguerreotypes, portraiture, and stereographs. Barnard devoted much of his time to portraiture after joining the studio of acclaimed photographer Mathew Brady. He produced many group portraits of soldiers in the early years of the Civil War. Barnard was employed by the Department of the Army and traveled with General William T. Sherman, an assignment that would yield the 61 albumen prints that compose Barnard’s Photographic Views of Sherman’s Campaign. In the post-war years, he operated studios in South Carolina and Chicago, the latter of which was destroyed in the 1871 Chicago Fire. Battle of Gettysburg: Fought July 1–3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, this battle was a turning point in the Civil War. Union forces stopped Confederate General Robert E. Lee's second (and last) attempt to invade the North. The Union emerged victorious, but the battle was the war's bloodiest, with fifty-one thousand casualties (twenty-three thousand Union and twenty-eight thousand Confederate). President Abraham Lincoln delivered his famous "Gettysburg Address" in November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery at Gettysburg. Bell, John (1797–1869): Politician who served as United States Congressman from Tennessee and Secretary of War under President Harrison. On the eve of the Civil War in 1860, Bell and other people from Border States formed the Constitutional Union Party. Under its moderate, vague platform, the Constitutional Unionists stood for supporting the Constitution but preserving the Union through being pro-slavery but anti-secession. Bell lost the election, receiving the lowest percentage of the popular vote and only winning the states of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. During the Civil War, Bell gave his support to the Confederacy. Bellew, Frank Henry Temple (1828–1888): American illustrator who specialized in political cartoons and comic illustrations. Before, during, and after the Civil War, Bellew’s illustrations appeared in newspapers and illustrated magazines such as Vanity Fair and Harper’s Weekly. He is perhaps most famous for his humorous cartoon “Long Abraham Lincoln a Little Longer” and his image depicting “Uncle Sam” from the March 13, 1852, issue of the New York Lantern. His Uncle Sam illustration is the first depiction of that character. Bierstadt, Albert (1839–1902): German-American painter and member of the Hudson River School of landscape painting. Bierstadt spent time in New England and the American West and is well known for his large landscapes that highlight the scale and drama of their setting. A member of the National Academy of Design, he worked in New York City and had a successful career until near the end of his life when his paintings temporarily fell out of style. Billings, Hammatt (1819–1874): American artist, designer, and architect. Billings lived in Boston for the majority of his life, and designed several public buildings and monuments in the New England region. He became famous for his work as an illustrator. He illustrated over 100 books, including works by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Charles Dickens, and Harriet Beecher Stowe. His illustrations of Stowe’s 1852 novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, were particularly well-regarded, and helped launch his successful career. Bishop, T. B. (active, 19th century): American photographer whose image of an escaped slave was turned into an illustration for the popular illustrated magazine Harper's Weekly. Blythe, David Gilmour (1815–1865): Sculptor, illustrator, poet, and painter best known for his satirical genre painting (showing everyday life). His work focused mainly on the American court system and the condition of poor young street urchins. Blythe also produced many politically-charged canvases supporting his Unionist views in the years leading up to and during the Civil War. Booth, John Wilkes (1838–1865): American stage actor who assassinated President Lincoln. Booth was active in the anti-immigrant Know-Nothing Party during the 1850s. He supported slavery and acted as a Confederate spy during the Civil War. In 1864, Booth planned to kidnap Lincoln and bring him to the Confederate government in Richmond, Virginia. But after the fall of Richmond to Union forces, Booth changed his mind, deciding instead to assassinate Lincoln, Vice President Andrew Johnson, and Secretary of State William Seward. On April 14, 1865, Booth shot Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre and then fled. Union soldiers found and killed Booth on April 26, 1865. Slaveholding states that did not secede from the Union during the Civil War. Geographically, these states formed a border between the Union and the Confederacy, and included Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and later, West Virginia (which had seceded from Virginia in 1861). Of these, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri were particularly important to Union war policy as each of these states had geographic features like rivers that the Union needed to control the movement of people and supplies. Most of the Border States had substantial numbers of pro-secession citizens who joined the Confederate army. Borglum, John Guzton de la Mothe (1867–1941): American sculptor and engineer best known for his Mount Rushmore National Memorial comprising monumental portraits of presidents Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, and Roosevelt carved out of the mountain. Borglum began his career as painter but was dissatisfied with medium. He later studied at Académie Julian in Paris, where he was influenced by the bold sculptor Auguste Rodin. Borglum believed that American art should be grand in scale, like the nation itself. He received commissions for several monumental sculptures during his career, including a six-ton head of Lincoln and the 190-foot wide Confederate Memorial in Stone Mountain, Georgia. Brady, Mathew (1823–1896): American photographer, perhaps best known for his photographs of the Civil War. Brady studied under many teachers, including Samuel F. B. Morse, the artist and inventor who introduced photography to America. Brady opened a photography studio in New York City in 1844 and in Washington, D.C. in 1856. During the Civil War, he supervised a group of traveling photographers who documented the war. These images depicted the bloody reality of the battlefield. They convinced Americans that photography could be used for more than portraiture. Congress purchased his photographic negatives in 1875. Breckinridge, John (1821–1875): Democratic politician from Kentucky who served as a Congressman from Kentucky. He was Vice President of the United States under James Buchanan before running for president in 1860 as a Southern Rights Democrat. Breckinridge lost the election, winning only Deep South states. During the war, Breckinridge held the rank of Major General in the Confederate army and briefly served as the Confederate Secretary of War. Bricher, Alfred Thompson (1837–1908): American specialist in landscape, focusing on marine and costal paintings. Largely self-taught, Bricher studied the works of artists he met while sketching New England. Bricher had a relationship with L. Prang and Company, to which he supplied paintings that were turned into popular, inexpensive chromolithographs. During his career, Bricher worked in watercolor and oil paint and traveled through New England, the Mississippi River Valley, and Canada. His style moved from the precise detailed realism of his early career to a looser brush style that evokes romantic themes of loss and the power of nature. Briggs, Newton (active, 19th century): Photographer who created portraits of Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin used as campaign ephemera. A large printed poster used for advertising or for political campaigns. Broadsides were often inexpensively and quickly made, and intended to send a message rather than be a work of art. Brown, John (1800–1859): Radical abolitionist leader who participated in the Underground Railroad and other anti-slavery causes. As early as 1847, Brown began to plan a war to free slaves. In 1855 he moved to the Kansas territory with his sons, where he fought and killed proslavery settlers. In 1859, he led a raid on a federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia, hoping to start a slave rebellion. After the raid failed, Brown was captured, put on trial, and executed for his actions. Brown was praised as a martyr by abolitionists, although the majority of people thought he was an extremist. Metal sculpture made by pouring a molten alloy (metallic mixture) of copper and tin into a mold. The mold is removed when the metal has cooled, leaving the bronze sculpture. Bronzes are designed by artists but made at foundries. Sculpture portraying only the top half of a person’s body: their head, shoulders, and typically their upper torso. Buttre, John Chester (1821–1893): New York City-based engraver who was responsible for publishing The American Portrait Gallery, a collection of biographies and images of notable American public figures. Buttre was partner in the firm of Rice & Buttre. He created sentimental images of Civil War which sold well. Cade, John J. (active, 19th century): Canadian-born engraver of portraits who worked for New York publishers. In 1890 he was living in Brooklyn, New York. Cade worked with illustrator Felix Octavius Carr Darley. Representation in which a person’s traits are exaggerated or distorted. These are usually made for comic or satirical effect. French term for “visiting card.” These small (usually 2 1/2 x 4 inches) photographs mounted on cardboard were so named because they resembled visiting or business cards. Exchanged among family members and friends, these first appeared in the 1850s and replaced the daguerreotype in popularity because they were less expensive, could be made in multiples, and could be mailed or inserted into albums. Carter, Dennis Malone (1818–1881): Irish-American painter of historical scenes and portraits. Carter worked in New Orleans before moving to New York City. He exhibited his paintings in art centers like New York and Philadelphia, and mainly became known for his paintings of historical scenes. Carter, William Sylvester (1909–1996): African American painter. Carter was born in Chicago and studied at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. During the 1930s, he was involved with the Works Progress Administration, a jobs program that helped artists and other workers weather the Great Depression. Copy of three-dimensional form, made by pouring or pressing substances such as molten metal, plaster, or clay into a mold created from that form. The term is also used to describe the act of making a cast. Elaborate, temporary decorative structure under which a coffin is placed during a visitation period or funeral ceremony. Type of curved sword with a single edge, commonly carried by cavalry units, or those trained to fight on horseback. The cavalry saber was a standard-issue weapon for Union cavalry troops during the Civil War, but used less often by Confederates. The usefulness of cavalry sabers had decreased as new innovations in modern rifles developed, however, and cavalrymen carried them more for decorative or intimidation purposes than for actual fighting. Chappel, Alonzo (1828–1887): American illustrator and painter of portraits, landscapes, and historical scenes. Chappel briefly studied at the National Academy of Design in New York. Focusing on portrait painting early in his career, Chappel became famous for providing illustrations for books about American and European history. Many of his illustrations included important events and people in American History through the Civil War. During and after the Civil War, Chappel painted Civil War battle scenes and leaders, like President Lincoln. Church, Frederic Edwin (1826-1900): American landscape painter who studied under Thomas Cole, the founder of the Hudson River School of painting. Elected to the National Academy of design at age twenty-two, Church began his career by painting large, romantic landscapes featuring New England and the Hudson River. Influenced by scientific writings and art theory, Church became an explorer who used his drawings and sketches as a basis for studio paintings. Church traveled to South America, the Arctic Circle, Europe, Jamaica, and the Middle East. Church had an international reputation as America’s foremost landscape painter. A person who is a citizen and not a member of a branch of the military. Civil Rights Movement: Civil rights are literally “the rights citizens enjoy by law.” The modern United States Civil Rights Movement occurred between 1954 and 1968 and sought to achieve the equal rights African Americans had been denied after the Civil War. Organized efforts like voter drives and the use of non-violent techniques to desegregate public space helped to draw national attention to the injustice of segregation, which was particularly widespread in the South. These efforts led to new laws that ensured equal voting rights for African Americans and banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin. Ideas, objects, or forms that are often associated with ancient Greece and Rome; but the term can be applied to the achievements of other cultures as well. The term also refers to established models considered to have lasting significance and value or that conform to established standards. Colman, Samuel Jr. (1832-1920): American landscape painter influenced by the Hudson River school, America’s first native landscape painting movement. In his early career, Colman studied at the National Academy of Design and painted scenes of New England. Colman became a master of the newly popular technique of watercolor painting. After the Civil War, Colman had a diverse career: painting the American West, Europe, and North Africa, learning to create etchings, and working in design. In addition to watercolor, Colman worked increasingly in drawing and pastel. Later in life, Colman wrote and published essays on art and worked to place his collections in various museums. Movement led by the American Colonization Society (A.C.S.), which was founded in 1816. In the antebellum period, the movement sought to gradually end slavery and relocate freed African Americans outside of the United States. Members were mainly white people who were opposed to slavery but doubted that the races could live peacefully together. Some African Americans joined the colonizationists, mostly because they feared being ill-treated in the United States. In 1822, the A.C.S. created the West African colony of Liberia to receive freed slaves. Abolitionists opposed colonization as immoral, insisting that the government should end slavery immediately and acknowledge equal rights for African Americans. Act of placing an order for something, such as a work of art. An individual or group can commission a work of art, often with a portion of the payment made to the artist in advance of its completion (for the purchase of supplies, etc.). Public monuments and painted portraits are usually commissioned, for example. The term also refers to the act of placing an order for (commissioning) a work of art. Member of the military who holds a commission, or rank. In the Union army, the commissioned ranks included first and second lieutenant, captain, major, lieutenant colonel, colonel, brigadier general, major general, and lieutenant general. In the Confederate army, the ranks were the same except that there was only one form of general. The officer received this commission and authority directly from the government. A non-commissioned officer refers to an enlisted member of the military who has been delegated authority by a commissioned officer. Non-commissioned officers in both armies included sergeant, corporal, and the lowest rank: private. Way in which the elements (such as lines, colors, and shapes) in a work of art are arranged. Compromise of 1850: Series of five bills passed by Congress in 1850 intended to solve a national crisis over whether slavery should expand into the West. It brought California into the Union as a free state, organized the New Mexico and Utah territories under popular sovereignty, banned the slave trade (but not slavery) in Washington, D.C., created a stronger fugitive slave law, and settled the boundaries of Texas. While this compromise was thought to be a final solution to the dispute over slavery in the American territories, it lasted only a short time as the same issues arose again with the organization of the Kansas and Nebraska Territories in 1854. Confederate States of America (C.S.A.): Government of eleven slave states that seceded from the United States of America. The first six member states (South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana) founded the Confederacy on February 4, 1861. Texas joined very shortly thereafter. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was its president. When Confederate forces fired upon Union troops stationed at Fort Sumter on April 12–13, 1861, President Abraham Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand militia men to put down what he referred to as an “insurrection.” At that point, four additional states—North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas—also seceded in protest of the Union’s coercive measures. Political party organized during the presidential campaign of 1860 in response to the Democratic Party’s split into Southern and Northern factions. Members mostly came from the border slave states; they were hostile to free soil ideas, but equally uncomfortable with the secessionist ideas of the radical Southern wing of the Democratic Party. They adopted a moderate, vague platform that emphasized the need to preserve the Union and the Constitution. They nominated John Bell of Kentucky to run for president in the 1860 election, but only gained electoral votes in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The party dissolved shortly afterward. An edge or outline in a work of art. Term used by the Union army to describe runaway slaves who came under the army’s protection. It was coined by General Benjamin Butler, who in 1861 refused the request of Confederate slaveholders to return slaves who had run away to Union military lines. Before the war, law dictated that runaways had to be surrendered to their owners upon claim, but Butler argued that slaves were like any other enemy property and could be confiscated as “contraband” according to the laws of war. Butler was no abolitionist, but his policy was the first official attempt to weaken slavery in the South. Temporary shelters run by the Union army throughout the occupied South and free states where refugee slaves (including the families of black soldiers) sought protection, food, and work. Cope, George (1855–1929): American landscape and trompe l’oeil painter. Cope was trained as a landscape painter, but later transitioned to trompe l’oeil painting, producing highly realistic still-lifes inspired by his passion for the outdoors and hunting. Cope spent most of his life and career in the Brandywine River Valley of Pennsylvania, though traveled as far as the Pacific Northwest. Copley, John M. (active, 19th century): American author of the 1893 book A Sketch of the Battle of Franklin, Tenn.; with Reminiscences of Camp Douglas. Copley was a Confederate member of the 49th Tennessee Infantry. Cash crop of the antebellum South that was produced almost entirely by slave labor. Before 1800, the South’s large farmers (planters) grew long-staple cotton, which was relatively cheap to clean by hand before sale. But long-staple cotton would only grow in coastal regions. With the invention of the cotton gin in 1796, planters throughout the South began planting short staple cotton. The gin cleaned seeds from short staple cotton—which was expensive to clean by hand but grew in virtually any climate in the South. The gin thus prompted the spread of cotton and slavery westward, making the planter class enormously wealthy and influential. War fought from 1853 to 1856 between Russia and the combined forces of the Ottoman Empire, England, France, and Sardinia. The war ended Russia’s dominance in Southeastern Europe. It was incredibly bloody, resulting in some five-hundred thousand deaths due to battle, disease, and exposure. Many aspects of this conflict anticipated the American Civil War, including the use of the telegraph and railroad to facilitate military movements, the use of rifled muskets, the advent of iron-clad ships, the daily reporting of newspaper correspondents from the scenes of battle, and (though to a smaller degree), the use of photography to document warfare. Crowe, Eyre (1824–1910): British painter and writer, known for genre scenes (paintings of everyday life) and historical subjects. Crowe studied in Paris. While working for British author William Makepeace Thackeray, Crowe visited the United States in 1852–1853. His visits to Richmond, Virginia in 1853 and 1856 inspired his paintings showing the brutal reality of slavery in America. Currier and Ives (1857-1907): New York firm started by Nathaniel Currier and James Ives, later carried on by their sons. Specializing in affordable, hand-colored prints called lithographs, Currier and Ives employed numerous artists over the firm’s fifty-year history. Its prints covered thousands of different subjects, including famous people, famous events, landscapes, humor, and sports. These images appealed to the interests and feelings of middle-class Americans and were purchased by people all over the country. During the Civil War, Currier and Ives produced images about recent events, bringing images of the war into Americans’ homes. Curry, John Steuart (1897-1946): American artist who created paintings, prints, drawings, and murals, that portrayed the American rural heartland as a wellspring of national identity. A Kansas native, Curry studied at the Art Institute of Chicago before focusing on several decorative mural commissions and Kansas scenes, including a large mural depicting John Brown at the Kansas statehouse. Curry's designs proved controversial because they included what many Kansans regarded as unflattering depictions of their state. Although honored in his later years, the furor over the murals is said to have hastened Curry's death from a heart attack, at the age of forty-eight. Early type of photograph invented by the Frenchman Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre (1787–1851). Each image is one-of-a-kind and made on a polished silver-coated metal plate. Daguerreotypes were often called “the mirror with a memory” because their surface is so reflective. For protection, daguerreotypes were packaged behind glass inside a decorative case. Shortly after daguerreotypes were made public by the French government in 1836, they were introduced in America. They were wildly popular in the 1840s and 1850s since they were more affordable than having a portrait painted. Darley, Felix Octavius Carr (1822–1888): American illustrator of magazines and books. Darley began his career in 1842 in Philadelphia. He also worked in New York City and Delaware. Darley became one of the most popular book illustrators in America after 1848, when he created illustrations that became engravings used in books by Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Edgar Allen Poe. Darley’s images of American icons like pilgrims, pioneers, and soldiers were in high demand before, during, and after the Civil War. Darling, Aaron E. (active, 19th century): Artist who painted the Chicago abolitionist couple John and Mary Jones in c.1865. Davis, Jefferson F. (1808–1889): Democratic politician and Mexican War veteran who served as U.S. Senator and Secretary of War before becoming President of the Confederacy in 1861. Davis was born in Kentucky and educated at West Point; he served briefly in the U.S. Army before becoming a cotton planter in Mississippi. Though a strong supporter of slavery and slaveholders’ rights, he opposed secession. Nonetheless, when Mississippi seceded, he left the Senate to serve in the Confederate army. To his dismay, he was elected president of the Confederate constitutional convention. After the war, he was indicted for treason and imprisoned, but never put on trial. Embellishment or ornament meant to make something pleasing. The term also refers to an honor or commemoration. Individual features, or a small portion of a larger whole. Geographic region of the Southern United States including South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, and Texas, also known as the Lower South or Deep South. These states had the highest slave populations in the South and their economies were heavily reliant on cotton cultivation (as well as sugar and rice). During the Civil War, each of the states seceded from the Union prior to the bombardment of Fort Sumter (April 12–13, 1861). System of government through which citizens elect their rulers, based on ancient Greek philosophy and practice. The United States is a representative (or indirect) democracy, meaning that eligible adult citizens elect politicians to make decisions on their behalf. Democratic principles are based on the idea that political power lies with the people, but many democratic systems have historically limited the right to vote. In the United States during the Civil War, for instance, only white men could vote. Party of opposition during the Civil War. Democrats believed in states’ rights, a strict interpretation of the United States Constitution, and a small federal government. Before the war, the party supported popular sovereignty in the Western territories. Southern Democrats abandoned the national party during the election season of 1860. During the secession crisis, Northern Democrats sought to restore the Union through compromise rather than military force, but the Confederacy rejected these attempts. After the attack at Fort Sumter (April 12–13, 1861), many Northern Democrats supported war on the Confederacy, but others opposed it, the draft, and emancipation. Douglas, Stephen A. (1813–1861): Democratic lawyer and politician from Illinois who served in the state legislature before his election to the U.S. Senate in 1847. As a Democratic leader, Douglas championed the policy of popular sovereignty (in which territories decided their slaveholding or free status). He is well known for his debates with Abraham Lincoln, his Republican challenger for the Senate in 1858. Though he won that election, Douglas lost to his rival in the presidential election of 1860. After the war began, he supported Lincoln and urged his party to follow suit. Two months later, he died from typhoid fever in Chicago. Douglass, Frederick (1818–1895): Former slave, author, and publisher who campaigned for the abolition of slavery. Douglass published his autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written By Himself, in 1845. Mentored by anti-slavery leader William Lloyd Garrison, Douglass developed his own philosophy of abolition, arguing that the Constitution could "be wielded in behalf of emancipation.” His newspapers, The North Star and Frederick Douglass’s Paper, led abolitionist thought in the antebellum period. He met with Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War and recruited Northern blacks for the Union Army. After the war, he continued fighting for African American civil rights. Dred Scott v. Sanford: Supreme Court decision of 1857 that declared that Dred Scott (and all African Americans) were not citizens of the United States and did not have rights as such. Dred Scott was the slave of an army surgeon named Dr. Emerson who had traveled with Scott to free states and territories. After Emerson’s death in 1846, Scott sued Emerson’s heirs claiming that his time in free areas made him a free man. The case was appealed to the United States Supreme Court, which ruled that neither federal nor territorial governments could outlaw slavery in the territories, therefore making free soil and popular sovereignty unconstitutional. Election of 1860: Historic presidential election. Four men ran in the race: Abraham Lincoln of Illinois for the Republican Party, Stephen Douglas of Illinois for the Democratic Party, John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for the Southern Rights Democratic Party, and John Bell of Kentucky for the Constitutional Unionists party. Abraham Lincoln won the election by a majority of the Electoral College, but without a majority of the overall popular vote. All of his support came from free states. Breckenridge dominated the Deep South states, Bell gained limited support in the border slave states, and Douglas was overwhelmingly defeated throughout the country. Procedure established by the Constitutional Convention of 1787 whereby the states elect the President of the United States. It was a compromise between those who advocated election of the president by Congress and those who wanted election by popular vote. In the Electoral College, every state gets one vote for each of their senators (always two) and representatives in Congress (a minimum of one, with additional representatives determined by the size of a state’s population). In the Election of 1860, Abraham Lincoln won the presidency with 180 electoral votes, but did not receive a majority of the popular vote. Ellsbury, George H. (1840–1900): American artist and lithographer. Ellsbury worked for Harper’s Weekly as a sketch artist during the Civil War. He also created city views of the American Midwest between 1866 and 1874, before moving to Minnesota and the western territories. Freeing a person from the controlling influence of another person, or from legal, social, or political restrictions. In the United States, it is often used to refer specifically to the abolition of slavery. Executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on September 22, 1862, stating that as of January 1, 1863, "all persons held as slaves" within the rebellious southern states (those that had seceded) "are, and henceforward shall be free." The Emancipation Proclamation applied only to the rebelling Confederacy, leaving slavery legal in the Border States and parts of the Confederacy under Union control. Nonetheless, slaves who were able to flee Confederate territory were guaranteed freedom under Union protection. While the order did not end slavery, it added moral force to the Union cause and allowed African American men to join the Union armies. Printmaking technique where the artist uses a tool called a burin to create lines in a wood or metal surface. After the design is drawn, the plate is inked and the image is transferred under pressure from the woodblock or metal plate to paper. Visual and documentary materials—pamphlets, ribbons, buttons, printed matter—that are generally not intended to last. Items produced for political campaigns—including Abraham Lincoln’s—are often considered to be ephemera. As historical material, ephemera are very valuable because they help us understand what audiences in the past saw and used. Relating to horses. Equestrian portraits of Civil War officers show seated, uniformed figures sitting on active or athletic-looking horses. This kind of image is often seen in art history; kings and emperors were often shown this way to suggest their power as leaders. Printmaking technique where the artist coats a metal plate in wax, and then removes wax from parts of the plate to create the design. Acid is then applied to the plate. This acid acts on the metal to create a permanent design. The plate is inked and the design is transferred under pressure from the plate to paper. In photography, the amount of time that the shutter of the camera is open, determining how much light enters into the camera and falls on the light-sensitive surface (like a metal or glass plate or film in pre-digital photography). The surface is then processed to create a photograph. During the Civil War, photography was still new and exposure times needed to be longer to get a visible image. This made it difficult to take pictures of action, such as battle, because the subjects had to be still for the entire time the shutter was open. Fassett, Cornelia Adele (1831–1898): Portraitist who worked in Chicago and Washington, D.C., Fassett worked with her husband, photographer Samuel M. Fassett, and painted portraits of prominent Illinois men, including Abraham Lincoln in 1860. She moved to Washington, D.C. in 1875 where she received many political commissions, including portraits of Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, and James Garfield. Fassett is known for these portraits as well as her painting The Florida Case before the Electoral Commission of 1879 in the United States Senate art collection and features roughly 260 Washington politicians. Fassett, Samuel (active, 1855–1875): American photographer active before, during, and after the Civil War. Fassett worked in Chicago and Washington, D.C. In Washington, he was a photographer to the Supervising Architect of the Treasury. Fassett is best known for taking one of the earliest photographs of Abraham Lincoln before he became president. He was married to American painter Cornelia Adele Fassett, who painted a portrait of Lincoln after her husband’s image. Firestone, Shirley (active, 20th century): Painter who depicted Harriet Tubman in 1964. Forbes, Edwin (1839–1895): Illustrator and artist. Forbes produced images for Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper from 1861–1865 and traveled as a sketch artist with the Army of the Potomac, covering events of the war. He depicted scenes of everyday life as well as battle scenes, such as the Second Battle of Bull Run and Hooker’s Charge on Antietam. Forbes went on to produce many etchings and paintings from his Brooklyn studio, inspired by his war-time images. In artworks that portray scenes or spaces, the foreground is the area, usually at the bottom of the picture, which appears closest to the viewer. The background is the area that appears farthest away and is higher up on the picture plane. Infantry soldier with a military rank during the Civil War who fought on foot. Foot soldiers carried different types of swords and weapons than did cavalry soldiers (who fought on horseback) during the war, since they were trained to fight in different situations. Fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina that was the site of the first military action in the Civil War. The fort was bombarded by the newly formed Confederacy between April 12 and 13, 1861. On April 14, Major Robert Anderson lowered the American flag and surrendered the fort. This event led to widespread support for war in both the North and the South. Following the battle, Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand men to enlist in the armed services to help suppress the rebellion, which led four more states to join the Confederacy. Factory that produces cast goods by pouring molten metal (such as iron, aluminum, or bronze) into a mold. A foundry is needed to produce goods like bronze sculptures or artillery, such as cannons. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper: Popular publication during the Civil War that featured fiction, news, and illustrations of battlefield life. Frank Leslie is the pseudonym (fake name) adopted by English illustrator and newspaper editor Henry Carter. Carter worked for the Illustrated London News and circus man P. T. Barnum before moving to America and founding his first publication using the name Frank Leslie. After the war, Leslie married Miriam Follin, a writer who worked for his paper. Following Leslie’s death, Miriam changed her name to “Frank Leslie” and took over as editor. A paper with the name Frank Leslie on its masthead was in publication from 1852–1922. Philosophy that stressed economic opportunity and a man’s ability to move across social class and geographic boundaries. Those who believed in free labor thought that man should be free to earn the fruit of his own labor, gain independence, and prosper within a democratic society. Most free labor thinkers opposed slavery to some extent, and the idea itself was central to both the Free Soil movement and the Republican Party. Type of anti-slavery political philosophy that declared that western territories of the United States should be free of slavery. Unlike abolitionists, many white “free soilers” were unconcerned with Southern slaves. Instead, they feared slavery’s impact on white workers, believing that the system of slavery made it harder for free workers to compete. Some free soilers were also racist and opposed living near African Americans. Others, like Abraham Lincoln, opposed slavery on moral grounds, but believed that Congress could not end slavery where it already existed and could only limit it in states where it had not yet been established. French, Daniel Chester (1850–1931): Leading American monumental sculptor. French studied for two years in Italy before returning to the United States to open studios in Boston and Washington, D.C. He earned commissions for portraiture and public monuments, where he combined classical symbolism with realism in his sculptures. French is perhaps best known for the massive seated Lincoln at the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. (1911–1922). Fugitive Slave Act: Part of the Compromise of 1850 that enhanced the Constitution’s 1787 fugitive slave clause by creating a system of federal enforcement to manage slaveholder claims on runaway slaves. Before the war, such claims were handled by state officials, and many free states passed personal liberty laws to protect free blacks from being falsely claimed as runaways; these laws, however, also helped abolitionists hide actual fugitive slaves. The new act put federal marshals in charge of runaway slave claims in an attempt to override state laws. Nonetheless, many free states refused to help implement the Act, making it difficult to enforce. Furan, R. (active, 20th century): Painter who depicted Harriet Tubman in 1963. Gardner, Alexander (1821–1882): Scottish-American scientist and photographer who worked with photographer Mathew Brady. Gardner served as the manager of Brady’s Washington, D.C. gallery until the outbreak of the Civil War. Gardner produced published more than 3000 images from the war, taken by himself and others he hired to help him. One hundred of these appear in the landmark publication Gardner’s Photographic Sketch Book of the War. The collection, however, was a commercial failure. After the war Gardner traveled to the West and continued photographing. Garrison, William Lloyd (1805–1879): Abolitionist and publisher who founded the anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator in 1831. Garrison rejected colonization and believed that African Americans were equals of white citizens and should granted political rights in American society. He co-founded the Anti-Slavery Society and in 1854 publicly burned copies of the U.S. Constitution and the Fugitive Slave Act because they protected slavery. During the Civil War he supported the Union, but criticized President Lincoln for not making abolition the main objective of the war. After the Civil War and the passage of the 13th Amendment banning slavery, Garrison fought for temperance and women’s suffrage. Refers to the type of subject matter being depicted. Landscapes, still lifes, and portraits are different genres in art. “Genre” can also specifically refer to art that depicts scenes of everyday life. Gifford, Sanford Robinson (1823-1880): American landscape painter and native of Hudson, New York. Influenced by Thomas Cole, founder of the Hudson River School of painting, Gifford studied at the National Academy of Design, but taught himself to paint landscapes by studying Cole’s paintings and by sketching mountain scenes. He developed an individual style by making natural light the main subject of his paintings. Gifford traveled widely throughout his career, painting scenes from Europe, the Near East, the American West, the Canadian Pacific region, and Alaska. Gifford also served in the Union army, although his art makes few references to his experience of the war. Opaque paint similar to watercolor. Gouache is made by grinding pigments in water and then adding a gum or resin to bind it together. The paint has a matte finish. Graff, J. (active, 19th century): Painter who depicted the Chicago Zouaves, a famous Civil War drill team, during their visit to Utica, New York. Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.): An organization for honorably discharged veterans of the Union army founded in Illinois in 1866. Its hundreds of thousands of members helped needy and disabled veterans, lobbied for the passage of pension laws and government benefits for veterans, encouraged friendship between veterans, and promoted public allegiance to the United States Government; it also served as a grass roots organizing arm of the Republican Party. The G.A.R. helped make Decoration Day (Memorial Day) a national holiday and was responsible for making the pledge of allegiance a part of the school day. Grant, Ulysses S. (1822–1885): Union military leader during the Civil War. Grant attended West Point and fought in the Mexican-American War prior to his Civil War service. After fighting in the Mississippi Valley and winning victories at Shiloh and Vicksburg, Grant moved to the East to act as General in Chief of the United States Army in March 1864. His relentless campaign ground down Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia for the next year, culminating in Lee’s surrender to Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, 1865. He was later elected eighteenth President of the United States from 1869 to 1877. Picture that features more than one person and communicates something about them. Because it was important to include certain people in a group portrait, artists and publishers sometimes added individuals who hadn’t actually posed for the artist, or left out some of those who did. Great Seal of the United States (also called the Seal of the United States): National coat of arms for the United States. The design, created on June 20, 1782, portrays a bald eagle holding a shield representing the original thirteen states. The blue band above represents Congress and the stars represent the U.S. on the world stage. The Latin language motto E Pluribus Unum means “out of many, one.” The olive branch symbolizes peace; thirteen arrows symbolize war. On the reverse, a pyramid symbolizes strength and duration. Over it is an eye, symbolizing God. There are two other mottoes: Annuit Coeptis, meaning “He [God] has favored our undertakings,” and Novus Ordo Seclorum, meaning “a new order of the ages.” Site of radical abolitionist John Brown’s October 17, 1859, raid, where he and twenty-two men (white and black) captured a federal armory and arsenal as well as a rifle works. Brown hoped to inspire a slave uprising in the surrounding area, but instead he and most of his men were captured by a local militia led by Robert E. Lee, future General of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia. Many of the raiders died, and Brown was put on trial and then hanged for his actions. Brown’s fiery statements during his trial were inspirational to Northern abolitionists and outraged Southerners. Harper’s Weekly (A Journal of Civilization): Popular Northern, New York-based, illustrated magazine (1857–1916) and important news source about the Civil War. It consisted of news, popular interest stories, illustrations, and war-related features. Harper’s employed illustrators and artists such as Edwin Forbes and Winslow Homer to make images, sometimes while traveling with the Northern armies. Healy, George P. A. (1813–1894): American painter of portraits and historic scenes. Healy studied in France and created works for European royalty before he returned to America. Healy was one of the most well-known and popular portrait painters of his time. Between 1855 and 1867, Healy lived in Chicago and painted important political figures like Abraham Lincoln as well as famous authors and musicians. After the Civil War, Healy traveled throughout Europe painting commissions before returning to Chicago in 1892. Herline, Edward (1825–1902): German-American lithographer and engraver. Herline was active in Philadelphia starting in the 1850s, working with several print publishers, including Loux & Co. He was known for his artistic skill in creating microscopic details in his views. Herline produced a wide range of lithographs including city views, book illustrations, maps, and images for advertisements. Hill, A. (active, 19th century): Lithographer who created images for Ballou’s Magazine, a nineteenth-century periodical published in Boston, Massachusetts. Hollyer, Samuel (1826–1919): British-American printmaker who worked in lithography, etching, and engraving. Hollyer studied in London before immigrating to America in 1851. Hollyer worked for book publishers in New York City and was known for portraits, landscapes, and other illustrations before, during, and after the Civil War. Term used to describe the area of a nation or region at war that is removed from battlegrounds and occupied by civilians. During the Civil War, there were Northern and Southern homefronts. Homer, Winslow (1836-1910): American painter and artist of the Civil War period. Homer used his art to document contemporary American outdoor life and to explore humankind’s spiritual and physical relationship to nature. He had been trained in commercial illustration in Boston before the war. During the conflict he was attached to the Union’s Army of the Potomac and made drawings of what he saw. Many of these were published in the popular magazine Harper’s Weekly. After the war, Homer became more interested in painting, using both watercolors and oils. He painted children, farm life, sports, and the sea. Horton, Berry (1917–1987): African American artist who worked in Chicago. Horton made figure drawings and painted. Hudson River School: Group of American landscape painters in the nineteenth century (about 1825 to the 1870s) who worked to capture the beauty and wonder of the American wilderness and nature as it was disappearing. Many of the painters worked in or around New York’s Hudson River Valley, frequently in the Catskill and Adirondack Mountains, though later generations painted locations outside of America as well. This group is seen as the first uniquely American art movement since their outlook and approach to making art differed from the dominant European artistic traditions. State of being or conception that is grander or more perfect than in real life. In art, this may mean making a sitter look more beautiful or a leader more powerful. Much art and literature, especially before 1900, tended to idealize its subjects. Combination of newspaper and illustrated magazine (such as Harper’s Weekly, Leslie’s Illustrated News, etc.) that appeared in the United States in the 1850s. In an era before television and the internet, these offered a very visual experience of current events. The technology did not exist to publish photographs in such publications at the time. Instead, a drawing was made from a photograph, and then a print was made from the drawing. This was how images based on photographs appeared. Publications also hired sketch artists to go out into the field; their drawings were also turned into illustrations. Immke, H. W. (1839–1928): Illinois-based photographer. Immke emigrated from Germany to Peru, Illinois, in 1855 where he studied farming before moving to Chicago in 1866. There, he worked with Samuel M. Fassett, who had one of the best equipped photography studios of the Civil War era. Immke established his own studio in Princeton, Illinois, later that year and operated a very successful business through 1923. He specialized in portraits, with over four hundred images of early Bureau County Illinois settlers in his collection; he also produced landscapes and genre scenes (portrayals of daily life). Movement towards an economy dominated by manufacturing rather than agriculture. An industrial economy relies on a factory system, large-scale machine-based production of goods, and greater specialization of labor. Industrialization changed the American landscape, leading to artistic and cultural responses like the Hudson River School of painting and the development of parks in urban areas—an interest in nature that was seen as disappearing. By the mid-nineteenth century, the northern United States had undergone much more industrialization than had the South, a factor that contributed to the Union victory over the Confederacy during the Civil War. Military unit of soldiers who are armed and trained to fight on foot. Jewett, William S. (1821-1873): American painter who focused on portraits, landscapes, and genre paintings (scenes of everyday life). He studied at New York City’s prestigious National Academy of Design before being drawn to California by the promise of wealth during the Gold Rush. Although his mining career failed, Jewett discovered that his artistic talents were in high demand among California’s newly rich, who prized his status as an established New York painter. Jewett became one of California’s leading artists. Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854: Law that declared that popular sovereignty, rather than the Missouri Compromise line of 36° 30´ latitude, would determine whether Kansas and Nebraska would be free or slave states. (Popular sovereignty meant that residents of each territory should decide whether slavery would be permitted, rather than the federal government.) After the bill passed, pro-slavery settlers in Kansas fought anti-slavery settlers in a series of violent clashes where approximately fifty people died. This era in Kansas history is sometimes referred to as “Bleeding Kansas” or the “Border War.” Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state in 1861. Keck, Charles (1875–1951): American sculptor known for his realistic style. Born in New York City, and a student of the American Academy of Design, Keck apprenticed under celebrated sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens before becoming his assistant. Keck’s gift for realistic depiction is seen in his 1945 bronze sculpture The Young Lincoln. Traditional wool cap worn by Civil War foot soldiers. It had a short visor and a low, flat crown. Both the Union and Confederate armies wore kepis, but Union soldiers wore blue and Confederates wore grey. Kurz, Louis (1835–1921) and Kurz & Allison (1878–1921): Austrian-born lithographer and mural painter who primarily worked in Chicago after immigrating to America in 1848. Kurz was known for his book Chicago Illustrated, a series of lithographs featuring views of the city and its buildings. After 1878 Kurz became a partner in an art publishing firm with Alexander Allison. Their company, Kurz & Allison, created chromolithographs (color-printed lithographs) on a variety of subjects, including Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War. The firm continued until Kurz’s death in 1921. An outdoor space, or view of an outdoor space. Landscapes in art are often more than just neutral portrayals of the land. They can reflect ideas, attitudes, and beliefs, and may even refer to well known stories from the past. Landscapes are also the settings for myths, biblical stories, and historical events. At the time of the Civil War, landscape paintings were often used to communicate ideas about American expansion, patriotism, and other ideas relevant to the time. Law, William Thomas (active, 19th century): Painter who depicted the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago. Lawrence, Martin M. (1808–1859): American photographer who had a studio in New York. Lawrence trained as a jeweler, but began to make daguerreotypes (an early type of photograph) in the early 1840s. He was well-regarded amongst his peers for his commitment to experimenting with new techniques in early photography. He was profiled in the new publication The Photographic Art Journal in 1851 as a leader in his field. Lee, Robert E. (1807–1870): Confederate military leader during the Civil War. Lee graduated second in his class from West Point in 1829 and served in the U.S. Army until the secession of his home state of Virginia in 1861. Lee then resigned from the U.S. Army to join the Confederate cause. In May 1862, Lee took command of the Confederacy’s Army of Northern Virginia. He won victories at Manassas and Chancellorsville, and eventually became General in Chief of all Confederate armies on February 6, 1865. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, effectively ending the Civil War. Cast or model of a person’s face and/or hands made directly from that person’s body. A life mask is made from a living subject and a “death mask” from the face of a deceased person. Typically grease is applied to the face or hands, which are then covered with plaster that hardens to form a mold. Abraham Lincoln was the subject of two life masks. Sculptors often made or used these to aid them in creating portraits. Sometimes the masks were used to make metal or plaster casts. Lincoln, Abraham (1809–1865): Sixteenth President of the United States. Lincoln was an Illinois lawyer and politician before serving as a U.S. Representative from 1848 to 1850. He lost the 1858 election for U.S. Senate to Democrat Stephen Douglas, but their debates gave Lincoln a national reputation. In 1860, Lincoln won the Presidency, a victory that Southern radicals used as justification for secession. Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation went into effect on January 1, 1863, which led to the eventual abolition of slavery. Re-elected in 1864, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth shortly after the war’s end. Type of print made using a process of “drawing upon stone,” where a lithographer creates an image on a polished stone with a greasy crayon or pencil. The image is prepared by a chemical process so that the grease contained in it becomes permanently fixed to the stone. The stone is sponged with water, and printer’s ink, containing oils, is rolled over the surface. Because oil and water repel each other, the ink remains in areas with grease. The image is then transferred to paper using a special press. Chromolithography, a multicolored printing process, uses a different stone for each color of ink. Loux & Co.: Philadelphia lithography firm, active in the nineteenth century, specialized in maps and views of cities. Loux & Co. worked with artists like Edward Herline. Lussier, Louis O. (1832–1884): Canadian-American portrait painter. Lussier Studied in San Francisco and worked in California with partner Andrew P. Hill before relocating to Illinois after the Civil War. March to the Sea: Military campaign (also known as the Savannah Campaign) led by Union General William Tecumseh Sherman between November 15 and December 21, 1864. Sherman marched with 62,000 Union soldiers between Atlanta and Savannah, Georgia, confiscating or destroying much of the Southern civilian property in their path. This march is an early example of modern “total war,” as it strove to destroy both the Confederacy’s civilian morale and its ability to re-supply itself. Martyl (Suzanne Schweig Langsdorf) (1918-2013): American painter, print maker, muralist, and lithographer who trained in art history and archaeology. Langsdorf studied at Washington University in St. Louis. She was given her art signature name, “Martyl,” by her mother, who was also an artist. Martyl painted landscapes and still lifes in both the abstract and realist tradition. She taught art at the University of Chicago from 1965 to 1970. Person who suffers, makes great sacrifices, or is killed while standing for his or her beliefs. Mayer, Constant (1832–1911): French-born genre (everyday scenes) and portrait painter. Mayer studied at the prestigious École des Beaux-Arts in Paris before immigrating to America. Mayer’s works were popular in the States and abroad. Generals Ulysses S. Grant and Philip Sheridan are among the noteworthy individuals who had their portraits painted by Mayer. The material or materials an artwork is made of, such as oil paint on canvas or bronze for sculpture. During the Civil War more and more media were becoming available and affordable, including photography and various kinds of prints. Merritt, Susan Torrey (1826–1879): Amateur artist from Weymouth, Massachusetts who is noted for her collage painting Antislavery Picnic at Weymouth Landing, Massachusetts. Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States (M.O.L.L.U.S.): Patriotic organization founded by Philadelphia Union military officers immediately after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. M.O.L.L.U.S. was established to defend the Union after the war, as there were rumors following Lincoln’s death of a conspiracy to destroy the federal government through assassination of its leaders. Officers in M.O.L.L.U.S. served as an honor guard at Lincoln’s funeral. Miller, Samuel J. (1822–1888): Photographer who created daguerreotypes (an early form of photography) in Akron, Ohio. Miller’s sitters included anti-slavery activist Frederick Douglass. First major legislative compromise about slavery in the nineteenth century. In 1819, Missouri sought to join the Union as a slave state. Northerners opposed to slavery’s expansion westward tried to force Missouri to adopt an emancipation plan as a condition for admission; Southerners angrily opposed this. A compromise bill was forged in 1820, when Maine was admitted as a free state alongside slaveholding Missouri. In addition, slavery was prohibited from territory located north of the 36° 30’ latitude (except Missouri). The precedent of admitting slave and free states in tandem held until the Compromise of 1850. In sculpture, the method of adding or shaping material (clay, wax, plaster) to form an artwork. In painting and drawing, modeling is the method of making things look three dimensional by shading their edges, for example. Moran, Thomas (1837-1926): Born in England but raised in Philadelphia, Moran was the last of the nineteenth-century American landscape painters known as the Hudson River school. After a brief apprenticeship as an engraver, he studied painting, traveling to England in 1862 and Europe in 1866. In 1872 the United States Congress purchased his painting Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, a work that resulted from his participation in the first government-sponsored expedition to Yellowstone. Moran’s illustrations helped convince the government to preserve the region as a national park. Over Moran’s long and commercially successful career he painted the American West, Italy, Cuba, Mexico, and New York. Mount, William Sidney (1807-1868): American portraitist and America’s first major genre (everyday scene) painter. Mount studied briefly at the National Academy of Design but was mainly self-taught. By drawing his subject matter from daily life, Mount rejected the high-culture demand for grand historical scenes modeled after European examples. Mount’s images were reproduced as engravings and color lithographs based on his paintings—a common practice before the age of photography. These prints popularized his art and encouraged other artists to pursue genre subjects. Hailed by critics of the era as an original American artist, Mount created works that reflect daily life and the politics of his time. Mulligan, Charles J. (active, 19th and early 20th centuries): Talented American sculptor who trained under renowned sculptor Lorado Taft. Mulligan studied at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago and later at the prestigious École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Mulligan also taught at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago before leaving to focus on commissioned work, such as his acclaimed 1903 portrayal of the martyred Lincoln, Lincoln the Orator. Painting (typically large scale) created directly on a wall or on canvas mounted to a wall. Myers, Private Albert E. (active, 19th century): Amateur painter and Union soldier from Pennsylvania. Myers painted an image of Camp Douglas in Chicago (a prison-of-war camp for captured Confederate soldiers, and a training and detention camp for Union soldiers) while he was stationed there during the Civil War. Toy version of nineteenth-century stage spectacles. They were meant to imitate shows that featured large-scale pictures of famous events or dramatic landscapes. Children looked into the box of the myriopticon and moved knobs to change from one picture to another. The toy often came with posters, tickets, and a booklet from which to read a story to accompany the pictures. Nall, Gus (active, 20th century): African American representational and abstract painter. Nall studied at the Art Institute of Chicago, and later taught art. He was active in Chicago in the 1950s and 1960s. Nast, Thomas (1840–1902): Popular political cartoonist. Born in Germany, Nast immigrated to America in 1846. He began his career as reportorial artist and freelance illustrator in the years leading up to the Civil War. As an ardent supporter of the Union cause, Nast created many recruitment posters and newspaper promotions for the war effort. He joined Harper’s Weekly in 1862 and quickly gained fame as a political cartoonist and satirist, working to expose corruption in government in the post-Civil War years. Nast died in Ecuador after contracting malaria while serving there as Consul General, as appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt. Artistic approach in which artists attempt to make their subjects look as they do in the real world. Such artworks are said to be "naturalistic." New York State Emancipation Act of 1827: Legislation formally banning slavery in New York State. After the Revolutionary War, New York gradually enacted laws that restricted the growth of slavery. Importing new slaves became illegal in 1810, for example. The 1827 act grew out of legislation passed in 1817 that set July 4, 1827, as the date when the following additional measures for enslaved African Americans would go into effect: those born in New York before July 4, 1799 would be freed immediately; all males born after that date would be freed at the age of 28; and all females would be freed at the age of 25. Painting made from pigment (color), such as ground minerals, suspended in oil. Oil paintings can have a glowing quality and are admired for their jewel-like colors. They typically require a long time to dry. Military weapons including anything that is shot out of a gun, such as bullets or cannonballs. O’Sullivan, Timothy (c.1840–1882): Photographer who worked with Mathew Brady and Alexander Gardner. O’Sullivan began his career in photography as an apprentice to Mathew Brady. He left Brady’s studio to work independently as a Civil War photographer for two years before joining the studio of Alexander Gardner, whom he helped to provide images for Gardner’s Photographic Sketch Book of the War. After the war, O’Sullivan accompanied and made photographs for many government geographical surveys of the United States before being appointed as chief photographer for the United States Treasury in 1880. P. S. Duval & Son (1837–1879): Philadelphia lithography firm founded by French-American lithographer Peter S. Duval. Duval was brought to America from France by Cephas G. Childs to work in his Philadelphia firm. Duval was one of America’s most prestigious makers of chromolithographs (lithographs printed in multiple colors). After a fire in 1856, Duval’s son Stephen joined the firm. The firm was famous for being an innovative lithographic leader that printed well-made, colorful city views, historic scenes, and portraits on a variety of subjects. Created by the repetition of elements (shapes or lines, for example) in a predictable combination. Philippoteaux, Paul D. (1846–1923): French painter and artist known for creating cycloramas (massive oil on canvas paintings that were displayed with real props for a three-dimensional effect). Philippoteaux was commissioned to paint a “Battle of Gettysburg” cyclorama in 1882. He created several paintings in the post-Civil War era depicting its battles and military leaders. An image created by a photographer using a camera. Photography is a scientific and artistic process that uses light to create a permanent image. During the Civil War era, a photographer used a lens to focus light on a light-sensitive surface (like a specially prepared metal or glass plate or film) for a specific length of time. In pre-digital photography, surface was then processed (or "developed") with chemicals to reveal an image. Types of photographs included albumen prints, ambrotypes, daguerreotypes, and tintypes. Pleasing to look at or resembling art; literally means “like a picture.” In the nineteenth century, the term was also understood to mean an established set of aesthetic ideals that were developed in England and often used in American landscape painting, like those produced by the Hudson River School. Substance that gives color to paint, ink, or other art media. Oil paints, for example, are made from powdered pigment suspended in oil. Pigments may be made from natural substances, such as minerals and plants, or may be synthetic. The United States Constitution provides that each state’s citizens be represented in Congress by people they elect. Each state receives two Senators, but in the House the number of representatives varies according to a state’s population, as determined by census every ten years. During the Constitutional Convention of 1787, Southern slaveholding states refused to join the Union unless they could include their slave populations in this calculation. Without this measure, they would have been overwhelmingly outnumbered by free state representatives. After debate, the convention compromised by allowing states to count three-fifths of their slave populations toward representation in the House. Artwork or building that has many colors. Temporary floating bridge made by placing small boats called pontoons next to each other. The pontoons are tied together but not to the land, so the bridge can move with the current of the river or stream. During the Civil War, moving the bridge parts over land was done by wagon, and required many men and horses. The Union army became exceptionally skilled at building pontoon bridges, even across the swamps of the Deep South. Political principle coined by Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan during his 1848 Presidential campaign, and later championed by Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois. The principle stated that settlers of each territory, not the federal government, should determine whether or not slavery would be permitted there. Popular sovereignty was a compromise to resolve Congressional conflict over whether or not United States territories should be admitted to the Union as free or slave states. Though the Democratic Party endorsed the idea, it was rejected by many northerners in favor of Free Soil ideas, and the pro-slavery South grew increasingly hostile toward it. Total number of votes directly cast by eligible voters for a candidate in an election. In the United States presidential election system, the popular vote in each state determines which candidate receives that state’s votes in the Electoral College. The Electoral College is a voting body created by the U.S. Constitution that elects the President and Vice President using appointed electors. The number of electors for each state is equal to the state’s number of federal representatives and senators. These electors are obligated to cast their votes for the ticket who won the popular vote in their respective states. Representation or depiction of a person in two or three dimensions (e.g. a painting or a sculpture). Sometimes an artist will make a portrait of himself or herself (called a self-portrait). Powers, Hiram (1805–1873): One of the most influential American sculptors of the nineteenth century. Powers developed a passion for sculpture as a young man while studying in Cincinnati under Prussian artist Frederick Eckstein. Powers began his career doing portrait busts of friends and later politicians. He is best known for The Greek Slave (1843), which was championed as a symbol of morality, especially during its tour of the United States amid rising abolitionist tensions. He spent much of his life within the artistic expatriate community in Florence, Italy, and received many commissions throughout his later career, notably some for the Capitol in Washington, D.C. Price, Ramon B. (1930–2000): African American artist and curator. Price was born in Chicago and educated at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago and Indiana University at Bloomington. Mentored by Margaret Burroughs, co-founder of the DuSable Museum of African American History, Price became a painter and a sculptor who focused his career on teaching. Price educated high school and college students before becoming chief curator at the DuSable Museum. A mechanically reproduced image, usually on paper, but sometimes on another type of surface, like fabric. Printmaking encompasses a range of processes, put prints are generally produced by inking a piece of wood, metal, or polished stone that has a design or drawing on it. Pressure is applied when the inked surface comes into contact with the material being printed on; this transfers the design to the final printed surface. Proctor, Alexander Phimister (1860–1950): Painter, etcher, and sculptor known for his unsentimental representations of the American West and his sculptures of historical and symbolic subjects. Proctor began his career as a wood engraver, and later gained international recognition for his 35 sculptures of western animals, commissioned for the World’s Columbian Exhibition in 1893. Throughout his career, his subjects ranged from animals inspired by his frequent hunting trips to political icons, such as General Robert E. Lee and William T. Sherman; he also sculpted figures that represent American ideals, such as the Pioneer Mother. One who opposes or takes arms against his or her government. During the Civil War, Northerners applied this term to supporters of the Confederacy, particularly to soldiers and armies. Southerners also adopted the name as a badge of honor, associating it with the colonial rebels of the American Revolution. Act of public resistance—often violent—to a government or ruler. In the Civil War, the North saw the secession of the South as an act of rebellion, while Southerners saw the formation of the Confederacy as within their States’ rights. Rebisso, Louis T. (1837–1899): Italian-born sculptor who created monumental works in the United States. Rebisso was forced to leave Italy for political reasons while in his twenties. He immigrated to Boston and later settled in Cincinnati, the city with which he is linked. He worked as professor of sculpture at the Art Academy of Cincinnati. The artist is well known for his bronze Ulysses S. Grant Memorial (1891) in Chicago’s Lincoln Park. Period after the Civil War during which the Confederacy was reintegrated into the Union between 1865 and 1877. The era was turbulent, as former slaves fought for citizenship rights while white Southerners violently resisted change. By 1877, whites again controlled their states, after which they systematically oppressed black citizens politically and economically. Renesch, E. G. (active, 20th century): Creator of patriotic images and recruiting posters around the time of WWI, some of which included Abraham Lincoln and others that showed African-Americans in uniform. An image or artistic likeness of a person, place, thing, or concept. Political party formed in 1854 by antislavery former members of the Whig, Free Soil, and Democratic Parties. Republicans ran their first candidate for president in 1856. At that time, they pledged to stop the spread of slavery, maintain the Missouri Compromise, admit Kansas to the Union as a free state, and oppose the Supreme Court’s decision in the Dred Scott case. The party was mainly composed of Northerners and it sought the support of Westerners, farmers, and Eastern manufacturers. Abraham Lincoln ran for president as a Republican and won the election in 1860. Rogers, John (1829–1904): Renowned artist who sculpted scenes of everyday life, families, and Civil War soldiers. Rogers primarily made statuettes, referred to as Rogers Groups, which were mass produced as plaster casts and sold to and displayed in households across the country. He also received commissions for several larger-scale pieces, such as a sculpture of General John A. Reynolds in Philadelphia. Approach or movement in art that stresses strong emotion and imagination. Romanticism was dominant in the arts between about 1780 and 1840, but is also present in art made since then. Saint-Gaudens, Augustus (1848–1907): Foremost American sculptor of his era. Saint-Gaudens began his career as apprentice to a stone-cutter at age thirteen. He studied at the college Cooper Union and the National Academy of Design, both in New York. He collaborated with other American painters and architects on several projects, while also creating important independent sculptures and reliefs. Some of his most famous works include his public monuments to President Lincoln and Colonel Robert Gould Shaw. Saint-Gaudens also designed decorative arts, coins and medals, busts, and relief portraits. Events held in Northern cities during the Civil War to raise money to support Union soldiers. The fairs were organized through the United States Sanitary Commission, formed in response to the Army Medical Bureau’s inability to maintain clean, medically safe environments for soldiers, particularly the wounded. Women played an important role in founding the commission and organizing the fairs. The first event, the Northwestern Soldiers’ Fair, was held in Chicago in October and November 1863. Donated items were exhibited and purchased to benefit the Union military. The atmosphere of these fairs was festive, with lots of displays, vendors, music, and speeches. Saunders, Harlan K. (1850–c. 1950): Artist who served in the Civil War, fighting with the 36th Illinois Volunteer Infantry. Saunders painted General John A. Logan after the war. Art consisting of images carved onto ivory or ivory-like materials. Initially the term referred to art made by American whalers who carved or scratched designs onto the bones or teeth of whales or the tusks of walruses. Much of this art was made during the whaling period (between the 1820s and the 1870s). Seamen often produced their designs using sharp implements and ink or lampblack (produced from soot from oil lamps, for example) wiped into the scratched lines to make the intricate drawings visible. Three-dimensional work of art. Sculptures can be free-standing or made in relief (raised forms on a background surface). Sometimes, a sculpture is described according to the material from which it is made (e.g., a bronze, a marble, etc.). To break away from a larger group or union. Secession has been a common feature of the modern political and cultural world (after 1800) when groups of all kinds sought identity and independence. In the context of the Civil War, the Confederacy argued that a state could secede if it believed the federal government failed to meet its Constitutional duties. Because the states had voluntarily entered the federal government, they could likewise exit the Union should they see fit to do so. In 1860–1861, slaveholding states believed that Congress’ failure to protect slavery in the territories justified secession. Sense of identity specific to a region of the country or group of states. Leading up to the Civil War, sectionalism was caused by the growing awareness that different regions of the country (North and South) had developed distinct economic interests and cultures as a consequence of their forms of labor. Those differences prompted political conflicts over the place of slavery in the country. The most radical brand of sectionalism in the United States led to secession. Shaw, Robert Gould (1837–1863): Colonel in the Union Army who led the African American 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry during the Civil War. Shaw was a member of a prominent Boston abolitionist family, and he attended Harvard in the years before the Civil War. Shaw was killed on July 18, 1863 while leading his troops in the Second Battle of Fort Wagner near Charleston, South Carolina, and was buried at the battle site in a mass grave with his soldiers. Sheridan, Philip (1831–1888): Union military leader during the Civil War. Sheridan rose quickly through the ranks of the Union Army during the war, becoming a Major General in 1863. In 1864, he became famous for the destruction of the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, an area rich in resources and foodstuffs needed by the Confederacy. After the war, Sheridan was military governor of Texas and Louisiana before leading military forces against Indian tribes in the Great Plains. Sheridan became Commanding General of the United States Army in 1883 until his death in 1888. Sherman, William Tecumseh (1820–1891): Union military leader during the Civil War famous for his “March to the Sea,” a total war campaign through Georgia and South Carolina that severely damaged the Confederacy. Sherman graduated from West Point in 1840 and served in the military until 1853. After careers in banking and military education, he re-joined the U.S. Army as a colonel in 1861. He was promoted to Major General after several successful battles. He accepted the Confederate surrender of all troops in Georgia, Florida, and the Carolinas on April 26, 1865. From 1869 to 1883, Sherman served as Commanding General of the U.S. Army. Person in a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other work of art who is likely to have posed for the artist. “Sitting for a portrait” means to pose for one. Drawing or painting that is quickly made and captures the major details of a subject. A sketch is not intended to be a finished work. Slave Power Conspiracy: Idea that slaveholders held too much power in the federal government and used that power to limit the freedoms of fellow citizens. In particular, proponents of the idea pointed to the ways that abolitionists were prevented from petitioning against slavery by slavery’s sympathizers in Congress, or that slaveholders had dominated the presidency by virtue of the three-fifths compromise, (of the first fifteen presidents, ten had owned slaves) or unfairly influenced the Supreme Court, as in the Dred Scott Decision of 1856. The idea became central to the Republican Party’s platform, and to Abraham Lincoln’s campaign in 1860. System in which people are considered property, held against their will, and forced to work. By the Civil War, slavery was fundamental to the economy, culture, and society of the South, and the slave population numbered four million. Under this system, children born to enslaved mothers were also enslaved. Slavery was thought suitable only for people of African descent, both because, historically, the slave trade had been based on kidnapping African peoples, and because most white Americans believed themselves superior to darker skinned peoples. Slaves built the South’s wealth through their uncompensated forced labor, growing cotton and other crops. Southern Rights Democrats: Faction of the Democratic Party made up of Southerners who left the national party just before the Election of 1860. This group openly discussed seceding from the Union and ran on a platform that rejected popular sovereignty, demanded legal protection for slavery in the Western territories, and advocated that the United States reopen the slave trade with Africa (which had ended in 1808). In 1860 John Breckinridge ran for president as a Southern Rights Democrat, receiving seventy-two electoral votes all from the Deep South states, and coming in second to Republican winner Abraham Lincoln, who received 180 electoral votes. Spencer, Lilly Martin (1822-1902): Born in England but raised in Ohio, Spencer focused on genre paintings of American middle-class home life. Spencer showed talent at a young age and trained with American artists around Cincinnati before moving to New York. She was an honorary member of National Academy of Design, the highest recognition the institution then permitted women. Spencer was active in the art world while also marrying and raising children. Spencer gained fame in Europe and America through her humorous images of domestic life, many of which were reproduced as prints. Spencer continued to paint until her death at the age of eighty. Type of agricultural product that is in constant demand and is the main raw material produced in a region. Examples of staple crops in the South include cotton, sugar, tobacco, and rice. In the pre-Civil War United States, cotton was the largest export staple crop. Two nearly identical photographs mounted on a card. When examined through a special viewer (a stereoscope), they give the impression of three-dimensional depth. The principles of stereographic photography were known since the beginning of photography. Stereographic images were made with cameras that had two separate lenses positioned an “eye’s distance” apart. The effect works because, like human eyes, the stereoscope merges two images recorded from slightly different positions into one. Oversimplified conception, opinion, or belief about a person or group. Stereotypes live on because they are repeated, but they are often cruel and inaccurate. The term also is used for the act of stereotyping a person or group. Artwork showing objects that are inanimate (don’t move) and arranged in a composition. Still-life paintings often feature common everyday items like food, flowers, or tableware. Sometimes the selection of items is symbolic, representing a person or an idea. Stowe, Harriet Beecher (1811–1896): Abolitionist and author of the anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, published between 1851 and 1852. Stowe was the daughter of Lyman Beecher, preacher and founder of the American Temperance Society. Uncle Tom’s Cabin became a bestseller and enabled Stowe to pursue a full-time career as a writer of novels, short stories, articles, and poems. Stowe used the fame she gained from Uncle Tom’s Cabin to travel through the United States and Europe speaking against slavery. Stringfellow, Allen (1923–2004): African American painter and Chicago gallery owner. Stringfellow studied at the University of Illinois and the Art Institute in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Along with traditional painting, he worked as a printmaker, and in collage and watercolor. Stringfellow was mentored by the African American painter William Sylvester Carter. Many of Stringfellow’s artworks involve images of religion and jazz. Individual or characteristic manner of presentation or representation. In art, an artist, a culture, or a time period may be associated with a recognizable style. Something that stands for or represents an idea, quality, or group. The figure of “Uncle Sam” represents the United States, for example. Artists often use symbolism to represent ideas and events in ways that are easy to visualize. Taft, Lorado (1860–1936): Sculptor, educator, and writer regarded as one of Chicago’s most renowned native artists. Taft studied at the prestigious École des Beaux-Arts in Paris and returned to Chicago, where he opened a sculpture studio and taught and lectured about sculpture at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. He also lectured on art history at the University of Chicago, nearby his studio. Taft earned praise for his work commissioned for the Horticultural Building at the World’s Columbian Exhibition in 1893, and soon began making monumental pieces that can be seen across the country. Tholey, Augustus (birth date unknown–1898): German-American painter, pastel artist, lithographer, and engraver. Tholey moved to Philadelphia in 1848 where, over the next few decades, he worked for a number of publishing firms. He specialized in military and patriotic portraits. Type of photograph popular during the Civil War era, sometimes called a “ferrotype.” To make one, a photographic negative is printed on a blackened piece of very thin iron (not tin, incidentally). A negative seen against a black background turns the negative into a positive image, as with an ambrotype, another type of photograph. Tintypes were very popular because they were inexpensive and could be put into photo-albums and sent through the mail, unlike fragile and bulkier daguerreotypes. Many Civil War soldiers had tintypes made of themselves. Way an artist interprets his or her subject. Also refers to his or her uses of art materials in representing a subject. Truth, Sojourner (1797–1883): Former slave and advocate for equality and justice. Born into slavery in New York State as Isabella Baumfree, she walked away from slavery in 1825 after her owner broke his promise to grant her freedom. She took the name Sojourner Truth in 1843, and committed her life to preaching against injustice. Truth worked with abolitionist leader William Lloyd Garrison, who published her biography in 1850. Following its publication, Truth became a popular anti-slavery and women’s rights speaker. After the war, Truth campaigned for the Freedman’s Relief Association and advocated for giving land in the Western territories to freed slaves. Tubman, Harriet (c.1820–1913): Former slave, abolitionist, and leader in the women’s suffrage movement. Born enslaved in Maryland, Harriet Tubman escaped slavery by age thirty and traveled to freedom in Philadelphia. She risked her life along the Underground Railroad to make several trips back to the South to lead family members and others out of bondage. Tubman became a supporter of John Brown, and spoke out publically against slavery. During the Civil War, she aided the Union army as a scout and spy in Confederate territory. After the war, Tubman became a leader in the women’s suffrage movement. Uncle Tom’s Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly: Popular anti-slavery novel published in 1852 by the New England abolitionist and writer Harriett Beecher Stowe (1811–1896). It first appeared as installments in an abolitionist magazine before it was published in two parts. Among the most widely read books of the nineteenth century, it was translated into several languages and often performed as a play. Several of its characters and famous scenes were portrayed in art and illustrations during the Civil War period. The illustrator Hammatt Billings (1818–1874) made the well-known engravings that illustrated the book. Symbolic name for the secret network of people, routes, and hiding places that enabled African American slaves to escape to freedom before and during the Civil War. Although some white Northern abolitionists supported the network, escaping slaves were frequently assisted by fellow African Americans, both Southern slaves and Northern freedmen. Code words were often used to talk about the Underground Railroad: “conductors” such as Harriet Tubman led escaping slaves, or “cargo,” to safe places called “stations.” Shorthand for the United States federal government. During the Civil War, it became the name most frequently used to describe the states left behind after the Confederacy seceded (though they are also called “the North”). It was made up of eighteen free states, five Border States (those slave states that did not secede), and the western territories. United States Colored Infantry/Troops (U.S.C.T.): Branch of the Union Army reserved for black servicemen, as the army did not allow integrated regiments. The majority of the U.S.C.T.’s approximately one hundred seventy-nine thousand soldiers came from slave states, but African American men from all over the United States eagerly joined the Federal Army because they believed Union victory would end slavery. In the free states, for instance, nearly seventy percent of eligible African American men enlisted! As the war progressed, the War Department looked to the South to bolster the ranks, since one of the military necessities driving emancipation was to increase the fighting strength of the federal army. United States Sanitary Commission (U.S.S.C.): Civilian organization founded to help improve medical care and sanitary conditions for Union soldiers. The U.S.S.C. raised money and collected goods to provide supplies and medical care to soldiers. It worked with the military to modernize and provide hospital care for the wounded. Members also raised money through public events like Sanitary Fairs, where donated items were exhibited and purchased to benefit the Union military. Geographic and cultural area of the American South. During the Civil War, it included states that seceded from the Union and joined the Confederacy (Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas) and Border States which remained loyal to the Union (Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri). Sometimes referred to as the “Upland South,” the region is distinct from the Lower or Deep South in its geography, agriculture, and culture. Growth of cities and a movement of populations to cities. Urbanization causes economic and cultural changes that affect people in both urban and rural areas. In the time leading up to and during the Civil War, the North underwent urbanization at a fast rate. This gave the North advantages in the war in terms of both manufacturing and the ability to move people and goods from place to place. Volk, Leonard Wells (1828–1895): American sculptor who had a studio in Chicago. Many regard him as the first professional sculptor in this city. Related to Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas by marriage, Douglas sponsored Volk’s art education in Europe in the mid 1850s. In 1860 Volk became the first sculptor to make life casts in plaster of President Lincoln’s hands, face, shoulders, and chest. Volk became known for his war monuments, but his casts of Lincoln were frequently used by other artists to create sculptures of the president. War with Mexico: War fought between the United States and Mexico (1846–1848). After the U.S. annexed Texas in 1845, President James K. Polk attempted to purchase large swaths of western territory from Mexico. When Mexico refused, the U.S. created a border dispute that it later used as an excuse to declare war. With U.S. victory came five-hundred thousand square miles of new territory, including what would become California, New Mexico, Arizona, and parts of Utah, Colorado, Nevada, and Wyoming. Disagreements over slavery’s place in these territories provoked political tensions that led to the Civil War. Ward, John Quincy Adams (1830–1910): American sculptor in bronze, marble, and plaster. Ward studied in New York under local sculptor Henry Kirke Brown before opening his own New York studio in 1861. He enjoyed a very successful career, and was noted for his natural, realistic work. Also an abolitionist, Ward attempted to portray the complexities of emancipation in his popular sculpture The Freedman (1865). Washington, Jennie Scott (active, 20th century–today): African American painter who focuses on historical and contemporary subjects. Washington was a protégée of Margaret Burroughs, the artist, writer, and co-founder of the DuSable Museum of African American History. Educated at the American Academy of Art in Chicago and the Art Institute of Chicago, Washington also teaches art. Her public access art program, Jennie's Reflections, has been on the air in Chicago since 1989. Paint in which the pigment (color) is suspended in water. Most often painted on paper, watercolors were also used to give color to drawings and to black-and-white prints (such as those by Currier and Ives) and sometimes to photographs. They are more portable and faster drying than oil paints. Although watercolor was often associated with amateur or women artists, many well-known Civil War era artists like Winslow Homer, Samuel Colman, and others worked in the medium. Waud, Alfred R. (1828–1891): English born illustrator, painter, and photographer who immigrated to America in 1858 and worked as a staff artist for the magazine Harper’s Weekly during and after the Civil War. Waud’s sketches were first-person accounts of the war that reached thousands of readers. After the Civil War, he traveled through the South documenting the Reconstruction. Waud also toured the American West, depicting the frontier, Native Americans, and pioneers. Wessel, Sophie (1916–1994): American artist and community activist. A graduate of the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, Wessel was an artist under the Works Progress Administration in the late 1930s, a jobs program that helped artists and other workers weather the Great Depression. Primarily an oil painter, Wessel also worked in drawing, in sculpture, in watercolors, and as a printmaker. Wessel’s art focuses on political and social-justice subjects, like the Civil Rights Movement, rights for women, and the Anti-War Movement. She also taught art at several Chicago-area community centers. Political party founded in 1833 in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson. Whigs supported a platform of compromise and balance in government as well as federal investments in manufacturing and national transportation improvements. They tended to oppose aggressive territorial expansion programs. The Whig party dissolved in 1856 over division on the issue of whether slavery should expand into the United States’ territories. Many Northern Whigs went on to found the Republican Party. White, Stanford (1853–1906): Influential architect of the firm McKim, Mead, and White. White worked with his firm and independently to design several enduring structures such as the Washington Square Arch (1889) and the New York Herald Building (1894). White was murdered by the husband of his former lover in the original Madison Square Garden (a building he had also designed). Wiest, D. T. (active, 19th century): Artist who created the image In Memory of Abraham Lincoln: The Reward of the Just after Lincoln’s assassination. Elite infantry troops and voluntary drill teams that wore showy uniforms—brightly colored jackets and baggy pants—inspired by uniform designs that French soldiers popularized in the 1830s. The French Zouaves had borrowed ideas for their uniforms from Algerian (northern African) soldiers. Zouaves existed in many armies across the world. Civil War Zouaves were often seen in parades, but they served bravely in battle, too. Colonel Elmer E. Elsworth (1837–1861), a personal friend of Abraham Lincoln and the first casualty of the Civil War, led a Zouave unit that was well known in Chicago, Illinois, and across the country.

http://www.civilwarinart.org/glossary

Photograph courtesy NASA/GSFC Hurricanes are giant, spiraling tropical storms that can pack wind speeds of over 160 miles (257 kilometers) an hour and unleash more than 2.4 trillion gallons (9 trillion liters) of rain a day. These same tropical storms are known as cyclones in the northern Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and as typhoons in the western Pacific Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean’s hurricane season peaks from mid-August to late October and averages five to six hurricanes per year. Hurricanes begin as tropical disturbances in warm ocean waters with surface temperatures of at least 80 degrees Fahrenheit (26.5 degrees Celsius). These low pressure systems are fed by energy from the warm seas. If a storm achieves wind speeds of 38 miles (61 kilometers) an hour, it becomes known as a tropical depression. A tropical depression becomes a tropical storm, and is given a name, when its sustained wind speeds top 39 miles (63 kilometers) an hour. When a storm’s sustained wind speeds reach 74 miles (119 kilometers) an hour it becomes a hurricane and earns a category rating of 1 to 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale. Hurricanes are enormous heat engines that generate energy on a staggering scale. They draw heat from warm, moist ocean air and release it through condensation of water vapor in thunderstorms. Hurricanes spin around a low-pressure center known as the “eye.” Sinking air makes this 20- to 30-mile-wide (32- to 48-kilometer-wide) area notoriously calm. But the eye is surrounded by a circular “eye wall” that hosts the storm’s strongest winds and rain. These storms bring destruction ashore in many different ways. When a hurricane makes landfall it often produces a devastating storm surge that can reach 20 feet (6 meters) high and extend nearly 100 miles (161 kilometers). Ninety percent of all hurricane deaths result from storm surges. A hurricane’s high winds are also destructive and may spawn tornadoes. Torrential rains cause further damage by spawning floods and landslides, which may occur many miles inland. The best defense against a hurricane is an accurate forecast that gives people time to get out of its way. The National Hurricane Center issues hurricane watches for storms that may endanger communities, and hurricane warnings for storms that will make landfall within 24 hours. More About Hurricanes Despite unexpectedly low damage assessments, the hurricane was bigger and longer lasting than it had any right to be, experts say. In the wake of Irene, New York, Virginia Beach, and other U.S. East Coast cities recover amid flooding and the debris of damaged homes. While hurricanes, droughts, floods, and storm surges are natural events, the degree of disaster is often now heavily influenced by humans. Houses wiped off the map, submerged islands, and flooded cemeteries—see how sites hit by Hurricane Katrina five years ago are faring in 2010. New Orleans plans to pipe semi-treated sewage into a bayou to help regrow a cypress-tupelo wetland and protect the Lower Ninth Ward. Flaming, oily hurricanes and "black rain" are no danger to Gulf residents on Katrina's fifth anniversary—or to anyone, anywhere, experts say. When seas change color, storms change direction, a new study suggests. @NatGeoGreen on Twitter The Great Energy Challenge An initiative to help you understand our current energy situation. See how you measure up against others, and how changes at home could do tons to protect the planet. How much does it take to keep you cool in summer? Special Ad Section The World's Water NG's new Change the Course campaign launches. When individuals pledge to use less water in their own lives, our partners carry out restoration work in the Colorado River Basin. A special series on how grabbing water from poor people and future generations threatens global food security, environmental sustainability, and local cultures.

http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters/hurricane-profile/

Photo: idua_japan (flickr) Carbon moves in a cycle starting with carbon dioxide in the air. Plankton in the ocean use the sun’s energy to turn the carbon dioxide into complex organic molecules through the process of photosynthesis. When the energy stored in those molecules is used, the carbon is released again as carbon dioxide. Most of the world’s carbon is carbon-12. The twelve refers to the weight of the atom. But a small percentage is carbon-13, which has one more neutron making it a little heavier. Either form of carbon can go into carbon dioxide, but photosynthesis occurs more readily with carbon dioxide made from the lighter carbon-12. So, when there’s plenty of carbon dioxide, plankton use relatively little carbon-13. But when the overall level of carbon dioxide is low, they use what’s available, which means using more of the heavier carbon-13. Carbon Dioxide And Plankton By measuring the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-13 in fossilized plankton at the bottom of the ocean, scientists have been able to estimate how much carbon dioxide was available when the plankton were alive. Imagine being given a choice between apples and oranges. If you prefer oranges and there’s an unlimited supply of both, you’ll eat mostly oranges. But if food becomes scarce, you may start eating more apples than before. Of course, plankton don’t make a conscious choice, but the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-13 in their fossils helps indicate how much carbon dioxide was available at the time, just as the ratio of apples to oranges in your diet would indicate how much fruit was available. Gathering A History Using this information, these scientists have reconstructed a one hundred thousand-year history of carbon dioxide. Knowing this history could help us understand the role of this gas in our changing climate.

http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/estimating-carbon-dioxide-plankton/

This photo shows fog over the ocean and small islands in the San Juan Islands in Washington. The fog formed during cool temperatures in the early morning and is beginning to disappear. Click on image for full size Image Courtesy of Amy Hatheway Fog is a cloud that touches the ground. Fog usually forms when moist air travels over cold land or water. The moist air cools down and the water vapor condenses and forms a cloud near the Earth's surface. Over land, this happens on clear nights with calm winds. Once the Sun comes up in the morning it warms the top part of the cloud and the fog evaporates. This is called ground fog. Here are some other ways that fog can form: - Valley fog: Fog forms in valleys during the winter when cool air flows down the sides of hills or mountains. During the day, the Sun isn't strong enough to evaporate the fog completely. - Advection fog: This type of fog forms when moist air flows over cold ground or water. Once the water vapor in the air condenses, it forms fog. - Precipitation fog: This type of fog forms when rain or snow falls into drier air below the cloud and evaporates into water vapor. The water vapor cools the air and adds more moisture to the air, which allows fog to form. - Upslope fog: Upslope fog forms when winds blow up the side of a hill or mountain, which cools the air and creates fog. This type of fog happens along large hills and mountains, including the plains east of the Rocky Mountains where the land slopes up towards the mountains. - Steam fog: Steam fog forms when cold air blows over warmer water. The water evaporates into the cold air and condenses to form fog. Steam fog often forms in the fall. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store!Cool It! is the new card game from the Union of Concerned Scientists that teaches kids about the choices we have when it comes to climate change—and how policy and technology decisions made today will matter. Cool It! is available in our online store You might also be interested in: Condensation is when water changes its state from a vapor or gas to a liquid. Condensation is responsible for the formation of clouds. Common examples of condensation are: dew forming on grass in the early...more Wind is moving air. Warm air rises, and cool air comes in to take its place. This movement creates the winds around the globe. Winds move at different speeds and have different names based on their speed....more Have you ever left a glass of water out for a long time? Did you notice that the water disappears after a few days? That's because it evaporated! Evaporation is when water passes from a liquid to a gas....more Raindrops form when tiny water droplets collide together in clouds to form bigger ones. When they get too heavy, rain falls out of the clouds. Rain is more than 5mm in diameter. The types of clouds that...more People who live in the Atacama Desert have a hard time finding the water they need. There is very little water there. One place where people get the water they need to survive is from the sky. Fog fills...more The weather in the Southeast Pacific region is thought of as extreme, because it receives very little rain and is extremely dry. For example, some places in the Atacama Desert in Chile receive less than...more The Southeast Pacific region contains the world's largest set of stratocumulus clouds. These clouds extend for almost 2,000 kilometers (1,243 miles) off the west coast of South America from central Chile...more

http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/clouds/fog.html&edu=elem

Learn something new every day More Info... by email The structure and shape of the outer ear is not derived from internal bone structure but from ear cartilage. This makes the ear a cartilaginous structure as it is given its shape by the cartilage. Elastic or yellow cartilage found in the outer ear is also found in the larynx and epiglottis. Ear cartilage contains elastic fiber networks and collagen fibers. It is surrounded by the perichondrium, which supplies nutrients to the ear cartilage. An injury that separates the perichondrium from the ear cartilage is known as cauliflower ear. Wrestlers, fighters and rugby players are most susceptible to this type of injury. A blow to the ear can allow a blood clot or other fluid to collect between the cartilage and the perichondrium, depriving the cartilage of necessary nutrients. If the cartilage dies, fibrous tissue forms in the overlying skin. This leaves the outer ear looking lumpy and deformed, resembling a cauliflower. Ear cartilage does not heal easily or quickly as there is no blood flow within the cartilage. In the case of trauma to the external ear, any fluid needs to be drained to promote healing and allow the perichondrium to nourish the underlying cartilage. In addition to draining the fluid, silicone splints are sometimes applied to both sides of the ear to apply pressure. This pressure keeps fluid from recurring and speeds the healing process. Headgear worn in wrestling, boxing, and rugby is designed to minimize potential ear trauma. If the ear cartilage is pierced, the healing time can be up to a year. The cartilage piercing instrument traumatizes a localized area of cartilage. Cartilage tissue can become infected and swelling can occur in the area of the piercing. The best defense against infection is proper handling of the area after a cartilage piercing. Keeping the area clean and not touching it are critical for proper healing as cartilage piercings have a much higher infection rate than ear lobe piercings. In the event that a cartilage piercing displays signs of infection, such as redness, swelling, or oozing, it is important to visit a doctor. The piercing may need to be removed and antibiotics may be necessary to deal with the infection. Even with successful antibiotic treatment, a portion of the cartilage may die. This may result it cauliflower patches on the outer ear. Not only does ear cartilage provide structure to the outer ear, it helps keep the shape that captures maximum sound waves. Damage to the cartilage can result in decreased normal hearing. If the shape of the outer ear is compromised, hearing aids will not work as effectively if or when needed. Ear cartilage is a flexible and vital part of a healthy functioning ear.

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-ear-cartilage.htm

Tick Tock Said the Teeny Tiny Clock Rational: One of the most important indicators of a successful reader is a student's ability to identify letters. The purpose of this lesson is for the student to be able to identify a letter of the alphabet. The student will be able to recognize this letter in print and in spoken language. The letter and phoneme that I have chosen is the letter t and /t/. The student will be able to write the letter in both lower and upper case. Pencils for every student Primary paper for every student Chart paper with tongue twister: Tommy Tuberville takes the tiger transit to tiger town on Tuesdays. Chart paper with chant: Tick Tock said the Teeny Tiny Clock Chart paper with rhyming words: tip or sip? map or tap? dime or time? Tim or swim? brown or town? bat or bag? One Tiny Turtle by Nicola Davies Tick tock clock coloring sheet with t embedded for every child. Crayons for every student 1. To begin the lesson we will review what letters we know by singing the ABC's. Next, I will introduce the new letter t. I will explain why this letter is important and the sound it makes. Good morning class! Let's get started this morning by singing our ABC's. Can I have a friend help me point to the letters on the board as we sing. Great job everyone! Let's sit down in our reading corner and talk about a new letter. (write letter t on chalk board in uppercase and lowercase) Can anyone tell me what this letter is? T, very good! Even though the shapes are different each of these letters is a letter t. It is very important that we use the letter t in our writings when you hear the sound /t/. Let's all practice writing it. (pass out pencils and primary paper) When we write the letter t we make two lines that say " tick tock" Start at the rooftop and go straight down all the way to the sidewalk, tick! Go back to the top and cross the top right under the rooftop, tock! That is a capital T. Can anyone remember when we use big or capital letters? When it's a name, a place, or the beginning of the sentence; very good! Now, let's write a lower case t. Start between the rooftop and the fence, bring your pencil straight down to the sidewalk, tick! Go back and cross your t at the fence, tock! This is a younger t he is smaller that big capital T. When you have written a capital and a lowercase I'm going to check and place a sticker on your paper. When you have your sticker, make a line of 10 capital Ts and a line of 10 lower case ts. 2. Next I will explain why t is important and what mouth moves /t/ makes. This letter says /t/. Let's all say /t/ together! Great! What words do we know that have the sound /t/ in them? (write words with /t/ on chalk board) Very good. What do you think these words would sound like if we didn't have the /t/ sound? The /t/ sound is very important because there are so many words that have the letter t in them. Do any of our friends names start with a t? Good! Tommy, Tim, and Taylor! (write on board) How does our mouth move when we say /t/? When I say /t/ the tip of my tongue touches above my top teeth. Let's all say /t/ and see if your mouth does the same thing! 3. Now I will model how to use /t/ by a tongue twister, song, and hand gesture and also by solving example problems with the class. (Show picture of tick tock clock) This is my tick tock clock. What sound do you hear in the words tick and tock? /t/ very good! Now whenever I hear the /t/ sound I'm going move my finger like this (tick tock motion) to show that I know there is a t in the word I'm saying. Can everyone get their tick tock fingers up and ready to show me your tick tock fingers! Now let's say a funny tongue twister and see if we hear the /t/ sound! (Show chart with tongue twister: Tommy Tupperville takes the tiger transit to tiger town on Tuesday) I'm going to read it first and see if you hear the /t/ sound when I read it, if you do silently show me by moving your tick tock finger! Did anyone hear a /t/? Good! Let's all say it together and make our tick tock fingers! Now let's read it again and draw out our /t/'s and also make our tick tock t finger. (Ttttt-ommy ttttt-upperville ttttt-akes ttttt-he ttttt-iger ttttt-ransit ttttt-o ttttt-iger ttttt-own on ttttt-uesdays) Let's all sing a song together and think really hard about the /t/ sound we are learning. Does everyone remember the song " Gggglump went the little green frog one day, gggglump went the little green frog?" Great! Well this song is very close to that song except this one is about a teeny tiny clock that says tick tock. (Put Teeny Tiny Clock chant up) I'm going to sing it first and then I want everyone to sing it with me! Every time you hear a /t/ show me your tick tock t fingers! (Tick tock said the teeny tiny clock one day; tick tock said the teeny tiny clock. Tick tock said the teeny tiny clock one day and his arms said tick tock.) 4. Next practice finding /t/ in spoken words and in written words. Let's see if we can find out new letter t in words that we say. Do you hear our tick tock t in the word teeth? T-t-t-teeth? (show with tick tock t finger) Great! I know there is a /t/ because my tongue is touching above my top teeth. Now let's practice finding /t/ with more words. Do you hear our tick tock t in: truck, shoe, tiger, tiger, face. Now let's see if we can find our /t/ sound in words that we write. (Chart with a list of rhyming words with t included. tip or sip? map or tap? dime or time? Tim or swim? brown or town? bat or bag? ). How do we know if we have a tick tock t in a word? Good, it has two lines that say tick tock! In the first two words, tip and sip, I see a tick tock t in the first word, tip! Can I have a friend come and read the words out loud and then circle the one that had the tick tock clock in it please! 5. Read One Tiny Turtle (big book, out loud)and talk about the story. We are going to talk about turtles and an experience they might have had where they saw one or even touched one. If someone has not had an experience with a turtle then get them to imagine what it would be like. This story is about a turtle that starts out an egg and grows into a tiny turtle. To learn about the adventure this tiny turtle goes through we will have to read One Tiny Turtle by Nicola Davies. When we are reading and hear a /t/ sound or see a t I want everyone to show me by moving your tick tock t finger. In order to assess what we have learned I will give the students a coloring sheet that has a picture of a clock. There will be a hidden t in the center of the clock that the students must decode the worksheet to find it. Now I want everyone to listen closely so we can find what is hiding in our clock! Inside each of the boxes there is a word. I want you to color the words yellow if they have the letter t in them. If they don't have the letter t then color those boxes red! (pass out tick tock clock coloring sheets) Tick Tock by Sammie Patton http://www.auburn.edu/academic/education/reading_genie/encounters/pattonel.html Ta Ta Timer by Jenna Landers http://www.auburn.edu/academic/education/reading_genie/navig/landersel.html Nicola. One Tiny Turtle. Scholastic, Inc. Return to the Sightings index

http://www.auburn.edu/academic/education/reading_genie/sightings/swansonel.html

Once the buffalo had been harvested, the carcass had to be fully butchered and processed into usable food fairly quickly or it would spoil. In a communal hunt, such as a buffalo jump, processing the carcass was done with an assembly line. Removing the hide and emptying the stomach were crucial in cooling down the carcass and ensuring that the greatest amount of food could be saved for future use. In butchering a buffalo, the tongue and internal organs were removed first. These were taken to the camp's medicine people and then eaten as delicacies. As the people butchered the carcass-a process which would go on around the clock until it was done-they would smash the big marrow bones with heavy stone hammers to extract the tasty and nutritious marrow. This would help replenish the energy of the workers. The body would be cut into 11 pieces to facilitate transportation: the four limbs, the two sides of ribs, the two sinews on each side of the back bone, the brisket, the croup, and the back bone. Bison meat is about 65% water, so the Indians would dry the meat to make it lighter and easier to carry. In order to get rid of the moisture, the meat would be cut into thin strips, thus exposing a great deal of the surface area to the drying effects of the sun and air. The thin strips of meat would be hung on simple wooden racks for drying. Drying the meat in very thin strips is also a method of preserving it. The dried meat would be stored in hide containers known as parfleches. Parfleches were made from stiff, untanned hides that were folded into a large envelope. The food would be packed in the parfleche as tightly as possible to keep out as much air as possible, thus reducing spoilage. Properly cured and packaged dried meat could last for months, and even years. The hides would be processed into robes or tanned hides for lodge covers or clothing. One of the common methods of cooking is known as stone boiling. A bowl-shaped pit would be dug into the hard earth. It would then be made watertight by pushing a fresh buffalo hide, fleshy side up, into the bottom of the pit. The pit would then be filled with water. Large heavy cobbles would be heated in a nearby fire until they glowed red. They would then be carried on a forked stick to the pit. By continually replacing the rocks as they cooled with hot rocks, the water would get very hot. Food would then be added and cooked. At the Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump in southern Alberta, the local stone was not suitable for heating for this process and so the cobbles were brought in from some distance away. This diorama at the Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump shows the use of stone boiling to render fat from the bones. Notice that the material stacked up on the right is buffalo dung (commonly called buffalo chips). Since trees tend to be scarce on the Great Plains, dried buffalo dung was the standard fuel used by the Plains Indians. This display at the First Peoples Buffalo Jump in Ulm, Montana shows stone boiling. Grilling meat on a spit over an open flame was a quick, easy way to cook buffalo. It was often done, but it was not the preferred way of cooking. Native Americans viewed grilling as an inferior way of preparing meat as it resulted in the loss of much of what makes meat so great to eat: fat. A common way of cooking buffalo involved earth ovens. A pit-deeper and with steeper sides than the pit used for stone boiling-would be dug. In many cases this pit would be shaped like an inverted bell. Rocks would be placed at the bottom of this pit. At Head-Smashed-In, local sandstone was used for this. In some cases the rocks would be heated before being placed in the pit and at other times a fire would be built over the rocks in the bottom of the pit to get them red hot. Once the hot rocks were ready, the meat would be added. Usually, the meat would be wrapped in a covering of either hide or local vegetation to keep the meat from getting covered in dirt. At Head-Smashed-In, the local vegetation was small branches of local willows, Saskatoon bushes, or conifers. Dirt was then piled on top of the protected meat and a fire was built over the pit. After several hours, sometimes the next day, the pit would be uncovered and the people would feast. Personal note: I had buffalo prepared this way at the Kalispel Powwow many years ago. It was the best buffalo I have ever tasted, and I have eaten a lot of buffalo. Making pemmican out of buffalo is a way of preserving it so that it can be stored for a very long time. Once the flat sheets of meat have been thoroughly dried, they can be used in making pemmican. Using stone hammers, the meat would be reduced to almost a powder, then mixed with fat. Berries would then be added to the mixture. On the Northern Plains, Saskatoon and chokecherries were most frequently used. Dried Saskatoon and Choke Cherry berries were mixed with finely pounded buffalo meat to make pemmican. At times, wild Bergamont would be added to the pemmican for additional flavor. When all of the ingredients-powdered meat, fat, berries, and other flavorings-had been thoroughly mixed, the mash was then placed in heavy bags made of buffalo hide. These bags were made from several pieces of hide sewn together to make a large sack which would hold 40 to 50 kilograms (88 to 110 pounds) of pemmican. In the dog days prior to the horse, the bags would have been somewhat smaller. Pemmican is a dense, nutritious, storable food that often served as a staple. Later, during the fur trade era, pemmican became the staple of the fur trappers and both Indians and Métis produced it as a trade good.

http://www.nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/1377/ancient-america-eating-a-buffalo

The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) was designed--in part--to test the variety of hypotheses about the history of Mars that have been proposed since the Mariner and Viking missions of the 1960s and 1970s. In April 1998, one of the efforts undertaken by the MOC science team was to test two competing ideas about the history of the Elysium Basin--a huge depression that stretches about 3,000 kilometers(1,865 miles) east-to-west in the region south of the Elysium volcanic rise. There were two competing ideas about the Elysium Basin. One hypothesis held that the depression was once the site of a vast lake approximately 1,500 meters (4,900 feet) deep. Because the floor of Elysium Basin has very few small, fresh impact craters, it was proposed that this lake dried up relatively recently in martian history--that is, the lake would have been younger than most of the volcanoes, craters, and even the Ares Vallis flood channel in which is located the Mars Pathfinder landing site. At some point, the lake in Elysium Basin was thought to have reached such a depth that it began to spill over arise on its east end. The water spilling out the east end of Elysium Basin was thought to have created Marte Vallis--a channel containing streamlined islands that stretches for hundreds of kilometers (miles)to the northeast. The lake bed and channel, it was proposed, might make good places to land future rovers that could travel around and collect samples that might contain evidence of past martian life. The other hypothesis held that the Elysium Basin floor was covered with flows that were emplaced as extremely fluid lava (molten rock). It was suggested that a lake of water could have been in the basin long, long ago, but that the most recent geologic events had erupted huge volumes of very fluid lava across the basin floor. Some of this lava was proposed to have even poured out of the basin and travelled down Marte Vallis. In this hypothesis, it was assumed that Marte Vallis--named for the Spanish word for "Mars"--was first carved by water, and then was a conduit for lava from volcanic eruptions. The lavas were proposed to have been very fluid--behaving almost limewater. Such fluid lavas are known on Earth to result from molten rock that has a low concentration of silica, a high temperature, and/or a high eruption rate. This MOC image, and MOC images 21904 and23804, of the floor of Elysium Basin taken in April 1998 revealed that the basin floor is covered with lava, not lake sediment. In other words, MOC has found that the Elysium Basin might not be a good place to look for evidence of martian life that might have existed in a lake. However, the lava textures that MOC found are striking and indicate something very important about the geologic history of Mars. The surface texture of this lava includes giant plates that appear to have been broken up and floated on the surface of a fluid. In this case, the fluid was molten lava. The implication is that the Elysium Basin was once the site of giant, ponded lava flows that were many hundreds of kilometers (miles) across. With the MOC images in hand, it is now quite easy to understand the older, lower-resolution Viking images ( Elysium Basin and Marte Vallis region,Viking 1 base map from 631st orbit,Viking 1 mosaic of local context)These Viking images showed a surface of dark plates with intervening bright surfaces. But they did not make sense--some thought they could somehow be volcanic, others thought they might be related to differences in the way that wind had eroded a dried lakebed. Now it can be seen that there are many dark plates that once floated on molten lava. When the lava was erupted, the upper surface crusted and cooled. The textures in these lavas indicate that they flowed and became cracked. Some cracks widened, and portions of the surface crust became rafts of solid rock--a few many kilometers (miles) across--that moved in the direction that the lava underneath was flowing. Other Viking and MGS images have shown similar platey lava textures in Marte Vallis, suggesting the possibility that some of the lava spilled into this valley and flowed thousands of kilometers (hundreds of miles) to the northeast. The sparse occurrence of younger impact craters on the platey lava surfaces suggests that the eruptions happened relatively recently in Mars history. These eruptions would be much younger than the youngest of the large martian volcanoes like Ascraeus Mons and Olympus Mons in the Tharsis region; but they would still have occurred many, many millions of years ago (i.e., the pictures are not evidence that Mars is volcanically active today). The MOC science team is continuing to study the images of Marte Vallis and Elysium Basin. Similar lava textures have been seen elsewhere on the planet, and are leading to some interesting revisions of our understanding of the volcanic and geologic history of the red planet. It should be noted that the observation of a volcanic surface in Elysium basin does not rule out the possibility that the depression was also once the site of a water lake, nor is it clear whether Marte Vallis is the result of volcanism alone, or volcanism that occurred some time after water had been present to carve the channel system. The results of the initial study of the Elysium Basin are given in a paper entitled "Mars Global Surveyor Camera Tests the Elysium Basin Controversy: It's Lava, Not Lake Sediments," by Alfred S. McEwen, K. S. Edgett, M. C. Malin, L. Keszthelyi, and P. Lanagan, presented at the Geological Society of America Annual Meeting on October 29, 1998. Malin Space Science Systems and the California Institute of Technology built the MOC using spare hardware from the Mars Observer mission. MSSS operates the camera from its facilities in San Diego, CA. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Mars Surveyor Operations Project operates the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft with its industrial partner, Lockheed Martin Astronautics, from facilities in Pasadena, CA and Denver, CO.

http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA01494

The National Equity Standards 4. Fair and impartial teaching practices are incorporated into classrooms to facilitate the academic achievement of all students - Teachers positively reinforce the abilities and interests of all students when interacting with students, parents, or school personnel. - Teachers hold high expectations and standards for all students. - Teaching strategies and methods address the learning styles of each student. - Teacher interactions are structured to provide maximum interaction with every student. - All classroom procedures and patterns, including seating, lines, activity areas, academic, and athletic groups are gender, ability and race inclusive. - Students are taught to understand and value diversity through both the formal and informal curriculum. - Heterogeneous grouping is predominately used to promote social understanding and enhance opportunities for success in a wide variety of social settings. - Alternatives to tracking are explored especially where data indicates that tracking leads to lower achievement and aspirations for students. - Inclusive language is modeled in teaching.

http://www.nd.gov/cte/services/special-pops/equity/standard04.html

Life can be scary for endangered loggerhead sea turtles immediately after they hatch. After climbing out of their underground nest, the baby turtles must quickly traverse a variety of terrains for several hundred feet to reach the ocean. While these turtles' limbs are adapted for a life at sea, their flippers enable excellent mobility over dune grass, rigid obstacles and sand of varying compaction and moisture content. A new field study conducted by researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology is the first to show how these hatchlings use their limbs to move quickly on loose sand and hard ground to reach the ocean. This research may help engineers build robots that can travel across complex environments. "Locomotion on sand is challenging because sand surfaces can flow during limb interaction and slipping can result, causing both instability and decreased locomotor performance, but these turtles are able to adapt," said Daniel Goldman, an assistant professor in the Georgia Tech School of Physics. "On hard-packed sand at the water's edge, these turtles push forward by digging a claw on their flipper into the ground so that they don't slip, and on loose sand they advance by pushing off against a solid region of sand that forms behind their flippers." Details of the study were published online on February 10, 2010 in the journal Biology Letters. This research was supported by the Burroughs Wellcome Fund, National Science Foundation, and the Army Research Laboratory. In collaboration with the Georgia Sea Turtle Center, biology graduate student Nicole Mazouchova studied the movement of sea turtle hatchlings of the species Caretta caretta at Jekyll Island on the coast of Georgia. She and research technician Andrei Savu worked from a mobile laboratory that contained a nearly three-foot-long trackway filled with dry Jekyll Island sand. The trackway contained tiny holes in the bottom through which air could be blown. The air pulses elevated the granules and caused them to settle into a loosely packed solid state, allowing the researchers to closely control the density of the sand. In addition to challenging hatchlings to traverse loosely packed sand in the trackway, the researchers also studied the turtles' movement on hard surfaces -- a sandpaper-covered board placed on top of the sand. Two high-speed cameras recorded the movements of the hatchlings along the trackway, and showed how the turtles altered their locomotion to move on different surfaces. "We assumed that the turtles would perform best on rigid ground because it would not give way under their flippers, but our experiments showed that while the turtles' average speed on sand was reduced by 28 percent relative to hard ground, their maximal speeds were the same for both surfaces," noted Goldman. The researchers' investigations showed that on the rigid sandpaper surface, the turtles anchored a claw located on their wrists into the sandpaper and propelled themselves forward. During the thrusting process, one of the turtle's shoulders rotated toward its body and its wrist did not bend, keeping the limb fully extended. In contrast, on loosely packed sand, pressure from the thin edge of one of the turtle's flippers caused the limb to penetrate into the sand. The turtle's shoulder then rotated as the flipper penetrated until the flipper was perpendicular to the surface and the turtle's body lifted from the surface. "The turtles dug into the loosely packed sand, lifted their bellies off the ground, lurched forward, stopped, and did it again," explained Goldman. To extend their biological observations, Goldman and physics graduate student Nick Gravish designed an artificial flipper system in the laboratory. The flipper consisted of a thin aluminum plate that was inserted into and dragged along the trackway filled with Jekyll Island sand. Calibrated strain gauges mounted on the flipper provided force measurements during the dragging procedure. "Our model revealed that a major challenge for rapid locomotion of hatchling sea turtles on sand is the balance between high speed, which requires large inertial forces, and the potential for failure through fluidization of the sand," explained Goldman. "We believe that the turtles modulate the amount of force they use to push into the sand so that it remains below the force required for the ground to break apart and become fluidlike." Goldman and his team plan to conduct further field studies and laboratory experiments to determine if and how the turtles control their limb movements on granular media to avoid sand fluidization. They are also developing robots that move along granular media like the sea turtle hatchings. "These research results are valuable for roboticists who want to know the minimum number of appendage features necessary to move effectively on land and whether they can just design a robot with a flat mitt and a claw like these turtles have," noted Goldman. Explore further: Front-row seats to climate change

http://phys.org/news186310940.html

The rise of the first complex life depended on vital metals brought up to the Earth's surface from far below in vast granite deposits, a new study argues. Metals like copper, zinc and molybdenum are essential ingredients for certain enzymes and proteins. These are needed for life forms with a complex internal structure, known as eukaryotes, to evolve. Without these metals the history of life could have been very different; plants and animals made of many cells could have taken hundreds of millions more years to develop, if they appeared at all. The new study's authors realised that eukaryotes started appearing soon after a period of unusual geological activity, and wonder if it could have provided the raw materials they needed. 'Biologists have been saying for a long time that these three metals are essential for complex life to develop,' says Professor John Parnell, a geologist at the University of Aberdeen and lead author of the paper, which appears in Geology. 'And geologists have been aware that there was a period of unusual geological activity around the same time that would have brought an extraordinary amount of these metals to the surface. But I think we're the first to put the two together and suggest that the geological changes actually enabled the biological advances.' Read it all here.

http://jandyongenesis.blogspot.com/2012/08/vital-metals-essential-for-life-on-earth.html

2.1 If-Then Statements3 - Parallel lines 2.2 How To Prove        Theorems 2.3 Pairs Of Angles 2.4 Perpendicular Lines 5.1 Parallelograms6 - Inequalities 5.2 Parallel lines       Theorem 5.3 Special        Parallelograms 6.1 Inequalities7 - Similar Polygon 6.2 Inequalities In A       Triangle 6.3 Inequalities In 2       Triangles 10.1 Construction11 - Areas of 2D objects 10.2 Perpendicular Lines 10.3 Parallel Lines 10.4 Concurrent Lines 11. 1 Areas Of          Polygons12 - Areas and Volumes 11. 2 Circles and          Similar Figures 12.1 Prisms13 - Coordinates 12.3 Cylinders and          cones 12.5 Similar solids Cylinders and Cones • Learning and using the parts of cylinders and cones, finding areas and volumes of cylinders and cones Lesson 12-2 Cylinders and Cones Cylinder: A prism except that its bases are circles instead of polygons Right Cylinder: A cylinder that forms a 90º between the base and the side. Altitude: The segment joining the centers of the circular bases in a right cylinder. The altitude is also the height. Radius (r): The radius of the base. Right Cylinder Oblique Cylinder Cone: A pyramid except that its base is a circle instead of a polygon. Quickie Math Copyright (c) 2000 Team C006354

http://library.thinkquest.org/C006354/12_3.html

In this set of reading and writing worksheets, your children will first read two short stories for mechanics, then draw and label a diagram about those stories, answer prompts to create their own story, and finish by writing a complete story! Can you write a news article? In this language arts worksheet, your child will evaluate a poster and then write a newspaper story about the issue in the poster. How you can help at home: Support your child with these writing strategies. If your child has writer's block, these tips from writing coaches may help. Break through writer's block and other common problems with these expert suggestions. Nonfiction writing is an important indicator of how well your child is learning essential literary skills. These examples show you what good fourth grade writing looks like. Learning to write nonfiction is increasingly important for school success. These writing samples show what good fifth grade writing looks like. My daughter has a hard time getting her ideas down on paper. She can tell me the story, but what ends up on paper is missing a lot of information. When I have her read it back and ask about the details she says "... My child refuses to write his name or make any attempt at drawing pictures. When given a pencil, crayons and paper he just makes small marks in the same place until there is a hole in the paper. He just says, "I can't."... Turn your child into an unstoppable scribe with this grade-by-grade advice.

http://www.greatschools.org/articles/?p=5&outcomes=216

Often a one-paragraph response in your journal will be assigned from a prompt listed below. Use proper grammar, spelling, punctuation, and 1. Describe the protagonist (main character) or antagonist (character against the main character) using personality and physical attributes. 2. Describe the setting (where and when the story takes place). Use details from the book. 3. Compare yourself to a character. Explain how you are similar/different. 4. Predict what will happen next. Explain why. 5. Explain the genre. Give specific examples. 6. Describe the conflict in the book. Be sure to include the characters involved in the conflict. 7. Describe one event that creates suspense. 8. Describe the climax (turning point). 9. Choose a conflict facing one of the characters and put yourself in the characters place. What would you have done if you were in the same situation? 10. Find an example of figurative language the author uses (i.e. metaphors, similes, personification, idioms) 11. Summary: A summary is a short writing about what you just read. It states who, what, where, when, and why. Below is a paragraph organizer that you may use to write your summary. * In the story __(title)__, __(author)__ writes about ______________ (character + brief plot = what did the character do? What happened to the 12. Opinion: This is where you share what you think of the book so far. Is it funny, sad, exciting surprising (choose one). It is extremely important that you provide examples of why you think the book is (funny, sad, exciting....) Support your opinion with examples from the text you are reading. 13. How is your book similar to another book you have read? 14. Write a recommendation for this book and include your reasoning. 15. If you could change one part of the book, what would it be and why. Realistic Fiction – set in the present but not true Historical Fiction – set in the past With some accurate historical facts Science Fiction – set in the future Fantasy – imaginary story that could not happen in real life Mystery – a story with an unanswered question Traditional Literature – fairy tales/folk tales usually passes down orally from person to person Poetry – writing with imaginative language and rhythm Nonfiction – information, true Biography – true story of a person’s life Autobiography - true story of a person’s life written by that person

http://teacherweb.com/CA/Clifford/MrsPearson/apt1.aspx

Teacher's Guide for COBBLESTONE ® The Gilded Age Teacher Guide prepared by: Peter Barnes, 5th grade teacher, Cedarwood Elementary School, Columbus, Ohio Have students read "The Birth of Big Business," pages 3 - 7. Ask them to choose a major American corporation (Nike, McDonald's, Ford, etc.). Have students research their corporation looking for information including the following: When was the corporation created? Have students create posters displaying information they have learned about their corporations. How did it get started? Who came up with the ideas behind the corporation? Was it one person or a group of people? How much money did the corporation make last year? In what countries besides the U.S. does the corporation sell its products? Have students read "Captains of Industry," pages 8 - 11. Ask them to imagine themselves wealthy entrepreneurs. Ask them to write imaginary descriptions of their careers. What products do they sell? What innovations make their company more successful than their competitors? How do they advertise and market their products? How will they spend their many millions of dollars in profits? The students can create prospectus books detailing their corporations. Have students read "The Working Man," pages 14 - 18. Ask them to pay special attention to the sidebar "Child Labor" on pages 16 - 17. Ask them to write a story from the perspective of a ten-year-old child working in a factory in a large city. Ask them to describe the working conditions, hours they work, pay they receive, and other details about their difficult lives. Have students read "Immigrants in the Land of Opportunity" on pages 30 - 33. Use the following questions for classroom discussion or independent writing: - For what reasons did immigrants leave their homes and travel to the United States? - What were some of the hardships immigrants faced in the U.S.? - How did native-born Americans feel about immigrants? - Why do you think many immigrants stuck close to people from their home country and created areas like "Chinatown" and "Little Italy" in American cities? Ask students to invent something that will change our world forever. Students can draw pictures of their inventions and describe how their creations will change society. Students should think about the materials they will use, how the inventions will be manufactured, and who will likely use the products. In 1913 the Rockefeller Foundation was created with 100 million dollars to be used for medical and educational advances (page 36). If the Rockefeller Foundation gave away $1,000 a day to hospitals and schools, how many years would it take to spend all the money? Answer: 100,000 days, or 273.9 years Buck Duke's tobacco-rolling machines produced 500,000 cigarettes a day in his giant tobacco factories (page 4). His rivals used human workers who could each roll about 3,000 cigarettes a day. If a rival company used 150 workers, how many cigarettes would they produce after 12 days? How many cigarettes would Duke's factory produce after 12 days? Answer: The rival company would generate 450,000 cigarettes a day, and 5,400,000 cigarettes after 12 days. Duke's company produces 500,000 cigarettes a day, and 6,000,000 cigarettes after 12 days.

http://www.cobblestonepub.com/resources/cob0004t.html

Science Fair Project Encyclopedia Tweed Volcano was a prehistoric shield volcano in northeastern New South Wales, Australia, that erupted over a hot spot that existed over this part of the continent between 23 million and 20 million years ago. Mount Warning, Tweed Valley and Byron Bay are among the remnants of this volcano that was originally approximately 100 km in diameter and twice the height of Mount Warning today. Tweed Valley in particular is a large erosion caldera. Despite its great size, Tweed Volcano was not a supervolcano. The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Tweed_Volcano

Science Fair Project Encyclopedia A ligament is a short band of tough fibrous connective tissue composed mainly of long, stringy collagen fibres. Ligaments connect bones to other bones to form a joint. (They do not connect muscles to bones; that is the function of tendons.) Some ligaments limit the mobility of articulations, or prevent certain movements altogether. Ligaments are slightly elastic; under tension, they gradually lengthen. This is one reason why dislocated joints must be set as quickly as possible: if the ligaments lengthen too much, then the joint will be weakened, becoming prone to future dislocations. Athletes, gymnasts and martial artists perform stretching exercises to lengthen their ligaments, making their joints more supple. The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Ligaments

- ESL Lesson Plans Resources for English teachers, English prefixes and suffixes A good knowledge of English prefixes and suffixes will help students develop vocabulary without the need to always check their dictionary. — “ESL Worksheets, English Word Formation, Prefixes, Suffixes”, esl- - Metric Prefixes. To help the SI units apply to a wide range of phenomena, the 19th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1991 extended the list of metric prefixes so that it reaches from yotta- at 1024 (one septillion) to yocto- at 10-24 (one septillionth). — “Units: Metric Prefixes”, unc.edu - List of English prefixes like non-, inter- or post-, with meanings and examples. A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to modify or change its meaning. — “Prefixes”, - Prefixes and Suffixes Jeopardy - Base Words. See Also: Base words/Root words, Language Affixes are words that fixed to the front of another word (prefixes) or to the end of. — “Prefixes and Suffixes (Affixes) - Language Arts FREE”, - Definition of prefixes in the Online Dictionary. Meaning of prefixes. Pronunciation of prefixes. Translations of prefixes. prefixes synonyms, prefixes antonyms. Information about prefixes in the free online English dictionary and encyclopedia. — “prefixes - definition of prefixes by the Free Online”, - prefixes flashcards at Flashcard Exchange. The largest on-line source of printable flash cards. Study online, print, download and share. — “prefixes Flashcards”, - Prefix. A prefix is an affix which is placed before the stem of a word. Particularly in the study of Semitic languages, a prefix is called a preformative , because it alters the form of the words to which it is affixed. Examples of prefixes : unhappy : un is a negative or antonymic prefix. — “Prefixes”, - The SI prefixes are standardized by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (IBWM)in resolutions dating from 1960 to 1991. Their usage is not limited to SI units and many of these date back to the introduction of the metric system in the 1790s. — “SI prefix - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia”, - By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. Learning Prefixes and Suffixes. Knowing the Greek and Latin roots of several prefixes and suffixes (beginning and endings attached to words) can also help us determine the meaning of words. — “Building a Better Vocabulary”, mnet.edu - Main appendix: English prefixes. This category contains English prefixes: Affixes located at the beginning of English words. Top – A a B b C c D d E e F f G g H h I i J j K k L l M m N n O o P p Q q R r S s T t U u V v W w X x Y y Z z. Contents:. — “Category:English prefixes - Wiktionary”, - Simple teaching Roots, Prefixes and Suffixes. Root Words | Suffix | Prefix. COMMON ROOT WORDS AND WORD ORIGINS PREFIXES. Prefix. Meaning. Examples. a-, an- not, without. amoral, anesthetic, apolitical,. — “Root Words, Prefixes, Suffixes”, - It is important to note that the kilogram is the only SI unit with a prefix as part of its name and symbol. We may write hW = 169 000 mm = 16 900 cm = 169 m = 0.169 km using the millimeter (SI prefix milli, symbol m), centimeter (SI prefix centi, symbol c), or kilometer (SI prefix kilo, symbol k). — “Definitions of the SI units: The twenty SI prefixes”, physics.nist.gov - Prefixes definition, an affix placed before a base or another prefix, as un- in unkind, un- and re- in unrewarding. See more. — “Prefixes | Define Prefixes at ”, - Spanish and English share many prefixes. Understanding them can help you learn more Spanish words. — “Building Your Spanish Vocabulary: Prefixes”, - Learning Prefixes A prefix is a group of letters attached to the beginning of a root or word (or even group of words). — “Prefixes”, vocabulary.co.il - Prefixes, Suffixes, Roots Root, Prefix or Suffix Meaning Examples a, ac, ad, af, ag, al, an, ap, as, at to, toward, near, in addition to ,by aside ,accompany ,adjust ,aggression ,allocate, annihilate ,affix ,associate, attend, adverb a, an. — “list of suffixes and prefixes? i wanna list of suffixes and”, - By learning some key prefixes you will learn the meanings of many words without using a dictionary. Sometimes you may recognize a letter or group of letters as a prefix, but find that it does not carry the meaning of the prefix. For instance, look at the word internal. — “Prefixes”, euphrates.wpunj.edu - Home : Vocabulary :. — “TV411 - Prefixes Make New Words”, tv411.org - This page provides word roots and prefixes for students and educators. Attach the prefix ex, meaning out or out of, and you have the word export, to carry out. — “Word Roots and Prefixes”, - Understanding the meanings of the common prefixes can help us to deduce the meanings of new words that we encounter. The table on this page defines and illustrates 35 common prefixes. — “Common Prefixes in English - Vocabulary Building - List of”, - prefix ( ) tr.v. , -fixed , -fixing , -fixes . To put or attach before or in front of. A prefix is an affix which is placed before the stem of a word. Particularly in the study of Semitic languages, a prefix is called a preformative, because it alters the form of the words to which it is affixed. — “prefix: Definition from ”, - Prefixes. Prefixes and suffixes were originally words themselves but they are now groups of letters added to words or to roots to create new words. Following is a list of commonly used prefixes and sample vocabulary. INDEX: A B C D E I M N O P R S T U. — “TOEFL Vocabulary Workshop”, southampton.liunet.edu - Learn English Grammar - prefix A prefix (affix) is a word, or letter(s) placed at the beginning of another word (a base word) to adjust or qualify its usage or meaning. — “English Grammar - Prefixes - Learn English”, related images for prefixes - Telephone prefixes can be associated to a proper telephone operator geographic location and connection type These details are then used during calls visualization and for filtering Billing Process - View larger image Explore prefixes and suffixes - linkstate jpg 04 Oct 2004 11 23 72K destination pop jpg 06 Oct 2004 12 05 60K prefixes jpg 06 Oct 2004 12 09 71K events jpg 06 Oct 2004 12 13 75K - in being able to throw any standadr unit of measurement with these prefixes meters grams liters watts newtons joules etc etc etc Theres no confusion kilo is 1000 centi is 1 100th as a science major lifes much easier working with the metric than imperial units especially in physics and chemistry - Figure 1 Table of common SI prefixes - image001 png - Resources materials board plan - GA123XLrge jpg - visible at 00 00 UTC 30 January 2008 This gives an indication of the impact of the cable failures on network reachability in BGP Relative prefix count for most affected countries Egypt Sudan and Kuwait were amongst the hardest hit with drops of up to 40 in prefix visibility - enter title prefixes jpg - EDIT I use Win xp pro sp2 english i think my system is not the problem because halite 0 3 0 5 display the country prefixes perfect Last edited by Cagalj 2009 01 08 12 11 14 - Chemistry picture 17 Click on picture to see a larger version Chemistry picture 18 Click on picture to see a larger version - ADDRESSES FROM THE SACRAMENTO PHONE BOOK 1957 1958 NOTE Some addresses are active links with photos Sacramento s Phone Prefixes The following addresses were taken from the 1957 and 1958 Sacramento Phone Book and the 1957 Sacramento Directory Some addresses were found to be - Prefixes pg1 jpg - Prefixes are important when your measurements and numbers are very large 5 or more digits or very small many decimal places The table below shows some prefixes of SI units Posted in Physics Notes | - envelope prefixes jpg - In the Example below the user has changed the selection area to include a sorted list of prefixes The user is currently viewing QSOs with prefixes of 6YA 9A5 and 9A3 In the example below the user is viewing all dupes Note that the user has full control of the colors used in WT4I Log Checker change colors with the Tools menu - Prefixes pg4 jpg - the associated namespace URI In our notebook example no prefixes are used and the default namespace URI empty string is in charge Figure 2 5 Prefix and LocalName Partition The figure above shows in highlighted form the URI and LocalName items used throughout the entire example document For - Slide1 Metric Prefixes JPG - 5 Finally a couple of useful namespace prefix autocompletions exclude result prefixes now becomes easier and <xsl namespace alias> mostly used for generating XSLT using XSLT 6 If you use <xsl attribute set> elements you will be happy to see this one - fbasic elect kirchof > 11 Nov 2008 00 54 49k fbasic elect ohms la > 11 Nov 2008 00 54 128k fbasic elect prefixe > 11 Nov 2008 00 54 155k fbasic elect single > 11 Nov 2008 00 54 28k - click none title prefixes jpg - merci à Géraldine - Prefixes pg2 jpg - tree4prefixes JPG - par suivi d un espace puis d un nom qui sera le préfixe des documents du glossaire pour lesquels l on veut lier cet en tête et pied de page exemple Info comme ci dessous Figure 8 - File links - eng forum manage prefixes gif - définissez votre propre numérotation conforme aux normes comptables Vous avez le choix du préfixe et vous sélectionnez une numérotation parmis 3 modes de numérotation incrémentiel - Prefixes pg3 jpg - Handouts Syllabus Metric Prefixes - http files vbulletin com 3 7 thread pref orumdisplay png http files vbulletin com 3 7 thread prefixes png http files vbulletin com 3 7 thread prefixes admin png - be obtained through the Division of Correctional Industries Be sure to proof the tags for the correct prefix the correct number of zeroes and tag numbers that are 15 characters in length - Prefix Pencils and Suffix Seahorses $2 related videos for prefixes - Med Term 2 Roots, prefixes, suffixes - Grade 1. Language, Spelling educational game: Match color pencils as you learn prefixes. Game for learning and practicing with prefixes. Focusing on some common prefixes. Learning new vocabulary words. Theme: school, pencils, colors. Ideas for early learning and teaching first grade children. - The Prefix Kix - Prefix and Suffix Song Visit to purchase this video, song and more! - How to add Colored Prefixes and Ranks in Minecraft! (Owner, Admin, etc.) BUKKIT SERVER TUTORIAL The two plugins we used in this minecraft tutorial are PermissionsBukkit and SimplePrefix! Here are the download links: 8/16/12 Updated PermissionsBukkit: adf.ly SimplePrefix: adf.ly OLD SIMPLE PREFIX LINK FOR THOSE WHO NEED IT: adf.ly ==============EXTRA INFO============== ++++THIS LINK HAS BEEN FIXED TOO++++ Here is the MINECRAFT COLOR CODES picture! adf.ly Here's a link to the page of the creator of this amazing plugin, go subscribe!: - English Prefixes : un- and in- English Language exercise using prefixes - SMART Table Activity -- Prefixes and Suffixes The SMART Table is the world's first multitouch, multiuser table for primary education. In this table activity, Prefixes and Suffixes, students will become familiar with prefixes and suffixes using the tables Multiple Choice and Hot Spots applications. This activity is built for English Language Arts for primary students in grade 3. - Metric Unit Prefix Conversions This video shows how to convert units with metric prefixes from one prefix to another by moving simply moving the decimal point left or right. - Unit 1.3 Metric Prefixes How to convert one metric prefix to another - Spelling: Prefixes Introduction of English Prefixes to the Elementary Student teacher discussion video - 9 - What are English prefixes & suffixes? - How To Get Fluent In English Faster Discover Proven English Learning Tips And Strategies NOT Taught In School with our FOREVER FREE 7 Day Email Video Course! To get fluent faster, study prefixes and suffixes! Many students spend lots of time memorizing words. The problem is that it's slow and not the most fun way to learn. If you really want to learn lots of new words and want to get fluent quickly, you need to study and understand prefixes and suffixes. Don't just memorize! Understand! Prefixes and suffixes are pieces of words with their own meanings. Prefixes come at the beginning of words. The word prefix even has a prefix! Pre means before, or in front of! So, the meaning of the word prefix is something that comes before something else. Suffixes are pieces at the end of words. The suffix in prefix and suffix is fix! Fix means to attach or connect! Hope that wasn't too confusing! Now that you know what prefixes and suffixes are, lets look at an example word and its parts to learn new words more easily and get fluent faster. Have a look at the word bicycle. You can just memorize it, but we want you to understand what the word really means by understanding its parts. Bicycle consists of "bi" and "cycle." "Bi" means two. "Cycle" means circle. So, the word for bicycle is actually two circles! Now the real fun begins! Because you know what "bi" and "cycle" mean, you will understand those words when you see them in new words you'll meet as you study. "Bipedal" means to walk on two feet ... - MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY PREFIXES 1 - How to use Essentials Chat to add Prefixes in a Minecraft Bukkit Server 1.0.0 [HD] In this tutorial I will show you guys how to add prefixes and colors to ranks that you have made in GroupManager. Please make sure to comment, rate, and Subscribe if this helped you out. It is greatly appreciated! Minecraft Color Codes - Essentials Chat - Buy Minecraft at - Prefixes and Suffixes video.wmv A song about the prefixes and suffixes for third-grade students to the tune of Miley Cyrus' song "Party in the USA." - Metric Prefixes Pre-Algebra Supplemental Instruction Video - GRE/GMAT/TOEFL - VOCABULARY PREFIXES BY Building vocabulary is more easier than one think it is. The prefixes method of recognizing words is easier. Know a prefix say by and get familiarized with a lot of words like byplay, bystander etc. Use ful for aptitude tests like GRE, GMAT, SAT, TOEFL, CAT for entering IIM IIT mit harvard stanford universities - "Prefixes, Suffixes, & Roots" Rap A rap song to learn about prefixes, suffixes, and roots. The song is done by and used by permission. You can download from their site. This movie is copyrighted © by Diane Frymire, 2009. - Hebrew Prefixes and Suffixes Part 1 - How to add colours to chat messages - Prefixes and Suffixes - nChat and Group Manager Quite a quick tutorial on how to set up colours and prefixes/suffixes using nChat and Essentials' Group Manager. Colour codes: nChat: Essentials Group Manager: tiny.cc Fake Permissions: tiny.cc Any questions, please ask :D - Vocabulary Builder-Prefixes for free flashcards of this video! A complete list of the words is also posted. You can expand your vocabulary with this video! Very helpful in preparing for the PCAT, SAT, ACT, MCAT, ect. Aids you in the verbal ability section of the PCAT, which is sentence completion and ***ogies. The meaning of common prefixes found on these type of tests is in this video. Each prefix is also shown used in a word. Over sixty prefixes! Check out our youtube channel if you haven't already, we are all about PCAT test prep! - Prefixes and Suffixes With the help of Windows Movie Maker, Audacity, and Pivot Stickfigure Animator I have created a video to help students learn about prefixes and suffixes. This video was originaly a project i had been working on for in my English class but then I thought I might as well put it on youtube. I am an eleven year old. - Using Prefixes to Name Compounds webpage- This short video covers the rules of naming compounds using the prefix method. I cover the definition of the prefixes, when they are to be used, and how to adjust the name when 2 vowels are adjacent to each other. - Spanish Advanced Lesson 32 Spanish prefixes and suffixes - Prefijos y sufijos (Part 2) Visit to watch all my Spanish lessons - Tricks to Memorizing SI Prefixes : Math Conversions Subscribe Now: Watch More: Memorizing SI prefixes is easier than you might think, so long as you employ a few key tricks. Learn about tricks to memorizing SI prefixes with help from a high school math tutor and teacher in this free video clip. Expert: Charlie Kasov Filmmaker: Charlie Kasov Series Description: Mathematics play a very important role in our everyday life, even if it may not seem that way as soon as you step foot outside the classroom. Get tips on solving different types of math problems with help from a high school math tutor and teacher in this free video series. - Spanish Advanced Lesson 31 Spanish prefixes and suffixes - Prefijos y sufijos (Part 1) Visit to watch all my Spanish lessons - Prefixes Rap - Flocabulary Grammar Rap Learn about common prefixes through this Flocabulary Grammar Rap. See the lyrics and full lesson at And don't miss Flocabulary's 16 Grammar Rap songs and videos at: - Separable Prefixes in German () German language instruction separable prefixes - Unit Conversion Part 7 (SI Prefixes) Part 7 of the presentation on chapter 3 for unit conversion to help those of OU course S151 Maths for science. - Learn about Prefixes explains the ins and outs of the prefix, an affix that comes before a root word. - Between the Lions: The UN People: "zipped-unzipped" The evil UN People have unzipped Monica Maxwell's zipper bag and released all the annoying rhinos she had zipped into it. Can the heroic RE People save the day? What do YOU think? - SMART Table Activity - Prefixes Students learn to identify and determine meanings of base words with a variety of prefixes. - Hebrew Prefixes and Suffixes Part 2 - AP BIO Morphemes- Prefixes and Suffixes Helps pass AP Bio! Kind of... this covers the first quiz (1/7) of AP Biology "Prefixes". - Teaching Prefixes, Suffixes & Latin Roots Teaching Literacy Skills Series: Vocabulary -- Affixes & Latin Roots Video shows how to develop vocabulary by ***yzing prefix meaning, suffix usage, and common Latin root meaning. It features Reading Manipulatives products and shows free teacher resources and student aids that are available at - CSS3 :: Vendor Prefixes In this episode we'll take a look at attributes that must contain vendor prefixes and why. - Prefix Root Suffix This is a video Grant and I made for English class. Enjoy, and learn a little too. - prefixesandsuffixes brief explanation about the use of prefixes and suffixes in English. some examples are given - ArchiCAD 14 New Features - Dimension Text Prefix & Suffix ArchiCAD 14 delivers a wide array of productivity improvements focusing on the most requested global and local customer wishes. Enriched details to modeling construction elements, better 3D visualization, enhanced 2D drafting, improved handling of libraries and library parts, and refined user interactions are all included in the impressive list of productivity improvements. The results are faster and more polished design and documentation workflows with improved communication capabilities both with clients and consultants, making ArchiCAD 14 the premier BIM solution for architects worldwide. Dimension Text Prefix & Suffix Model-based annotation is key to an effective BIM workflow. Custom prefixes & suffixes added to associative dimensions - while keeping their real measured values - can boost documentation productivity by an order of magnitude. Title project: Darmstadtium, Wissenschafts- und Kongresszentrum Darmstadt, Germany Architects: fs-architekten Paul Schröder Architekt BDA and Chalabi architects & partners Photo: Claus Graubner © - Inseparable prefixes in German (general meanings) - A discussion of some of the inseparable prefixes in German and their effect on adjectives and verbs. - Between the Lions: The UN People: "dressed-undressed" Monica Maxwell's excellently outfitted marching band gets dressed down in public, thanks (or no thanks!) to those evil UN PEOPLE. But luckily, the heroic RE PEOPLE rush to the scene to save the day and (lterally) redress all the harm. All this is there for you to enjoy, even as you learn a thing or two about prefixes. What more could you ask?!!! - Chemistry - Metric Prefixes and Conversions - Mr. Causey explains and demonstrates how to convert from one metric unit to another metric unit. You need to learn the prefixes and base values for the metric measurements. Learn how many times and in which direction to move the decimal according to the prefixes. twitter about prefixes Blogs & Forum blogs and forums about prefixes “Per-Blog Table Prefixes (2 posts) not2bug. Member. Posted 5 months ago of making it so that each blog gets its own table prefix instead of” — WordPress " Support " Per-Blog Table Prefixes, “I just love etymology, which is the study of the history of words. Sometimes you can learn the meaning of the word by looking at its prefixes and that helps a” — Useful Prefixes | Blogs, “So. I've been thinking About the Prefix pages. And aren't they kinda How should I say, not useful?? I mean, not useful at all in separate pages. What can we write about them that requires separate pages?? Name origins?? Ok, that's a yes. An” — Forum:Prefixes - Diablo 3 Wiki, “Packet Life is a blog and community site for network engineers. Cheat sheets, free lab access, wiki, forums, packet captures, security tools” — IPv6 general prefixes - Packet Life, “ok this is a little post to find out how many prefixs there are and at what level they are in comparason to each other. now i yern for the days when it was the 9X00 vs the 5X00. where there was SE, st” — how many prefixes?!? - Graphics-Cards - Graphic-Displays, “Home: Forum: English: Prefixes in American English. Prefixes in American English. Johnny I'm having trouble pronouncing prefixes, because I don't know when to” — Prefixes in American English | Antimoon Forum, “Website design, Nottingham, Midlands, UK. Gooii specialise in providing design and programming solutions for the web and print media” — CSS Vendor Prefixes :: Blog, “Forum:Ship prefixes? Edit Read more: Knowledge Bank archive. Edited by Gonk: I would say that they're all canon prefixes, but typically only used in certain situations (e.g. for quick identification” — Forum:Ship prefixes? - Wookieepedia, the Star Wars Wiki, “what are phone prefixes, what are phone prefixes used for, phone prefixes of US states, find toll free phone prefixes as well as cell phone and mobile phone prefixes” — Phone Prefixes, similar for prefixes - binary prefixes - the international - metric prefixes - decimal symbol - the metric system - free encyclopedia - units of measure - international system of units - word prefix - free dictionary - personal tools - english prefixes - semitic languages - prefixes and suffixes - english language - simple english - root words - special meaning - new words - using a dictionary - nothing to do - together and apart - the opposite - list of english prefixes - origins of words - combining forms - biology prefixes and suffixes - vocabulary building - expand your vocabulary - english grammar - figures of speech - medical terminology - medical medicine - online dictionary

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Pre-lab Questions Experiment Post-lab Questions EXPERIMENT 17: OXIDATION - REDUCTION The following preparatory questions should be answered before coming to class. They are intended to introduce you to several ideas important to aspects of the experiment. You must turn-in your work to your teaching assistant before you will be allowed to begin the experiment. Be sure to bring a calculator and paper to laboratory. l. Define the following terms. (a) oxidizing agent (b) reducing agent 2. Given that the following three reactions occur in the direction written; Complete the table. Rank the strength of the oxidizing and reducing agents identified in the table. EXPERIMENT 17: OXIDATION - REDUCTION Top PART I: Constructing a Qualitative Potential Series (WORK IN PAIRS) Using a 24-well plate, half fill two wells each with Cu2+, Pb2+ and Zn2+ solutions. Be sure to note the location (well number) of each solution. To each of the wells add a shiny piece of Cu, Pb or Zn metal to form all of the combinations listed in Table I. (If necessary, shine the metal pieces with steel wool or sand paper.) Complete the table by describing your observations and writing balanced chemical equations for each reaction you observe. If no reaction occurs, write NR. Based on your observations answer the following questions. Remember to always show the charge on the ions. I. (a) Prepare a potential series for Cu, Pb and Zn and their ions. (b) Which metal ion is the strongest oxidizing agent? (c) Which metal ion is the weakest oxidizing agent? (d) Which metal is the strongest reducing agent? (e) Which metal is the weakest reducing agent? Using clean wells on the 24-well plate, half fill three wells with 6 M HCl. Scrub pieces of Cu, Pb and Zn metal carefully with steel wool. Do not touch the clean metal surfaces with your hands. Use forceps or a paper towel. To each of the three wells add a different metal piece. Complete the Table II by describing your observations and writing balanced chemical equations for each reaction you observe. If no reaction occurs, write NR. (Note: Some of the reactions may occur very slowly. Allow at least five minutes before deciding that no reaction has occurred.) (g) Position H2 - H+ in the potential series prepared in I (a). EXPERIMENT 17: OXIDATION - REDUCTION PART II: Semi-Micro Voltaic Cells Cut four Styrofoam coffee cups about 2 cm from the bottom to form shallow cups. Tape the bottom of one of the cups to the center of a piece of cardboard or stiff paper. Tape the remaining three cups around the center cup as shown in Figure II. Fill the center cup about half full of 1.0 M NH4NO3 solution (5 to 10 mL). Be careful not to splash any solution into the surrounding cups. Fill one of the surrounding cups about half full of 0.1 M CuSO4. Half fill another with 0.1 M FeSO4 and the third with 0.1 M ZnSO4. Label the cups by writing the name of each solution on the cardboard sheet. Using sandpaper or steel wool, polish copper, zinc and iron electrodes until they shine. Do not handle the electrodes with your fingers, use forceps or paper towels. Carefully dip one end of the copper electrode in the copper (II) sulfate solution in the cup. Bend the electrode or use small pieces of tape as necessary to secure the electrode to the cup so that one end is below the surface of the solution and the other extends out of the cup (see Figure III). Repeat the process placing the zinc electrode in the zinc sulfate solution and the iron electrode in the ferrous sulfate solution. Label each cup by writing on the cardboard. Fold three sheets of filter paper into strips about 1 cm wide and several layers thick. Bend one of the strips into a 'U' shape. Invert the 'U' and submerge one end of the strip in the ammonium nitrate solution in the center cup and the other end in the solution in one of the surrounding cups. Repeat the procedure with the remaining two surrounding cups so that each of the three surrounding solutions is connected to the center solution by a strip of filter paper. These connections form a salt bridge between any two of the surrounding cups. Connect one of the leads of the voltmeter (be sure your voltmeter is set on the 5 or less volt scale) to the copper electrode with an alligator clip. Connect the other lead to the zinc electrode. Read the voltage on the voltmeter scale. If the deflection is negative, remove the clips and attach them to the opposite electrodes. Wait a few seconds for the reading to stabilize and then record the potential. The cathode will be attached to the red pole of the voltmeter and anode to the black. Which electrode is the anode? Which electrode is the cathode? Write the half reaction occurring at the anode. Is this oxidation or reduction? Write the half reaction occurring at the cathode. Is this oxidation or reduction? Write the overall reaction for the cell. Record the information (Obs. #1 - #6) for the zinc and copper cell in Table I. Complete the table by measuring the potential of each voltaic cell by attaching the voltmeter lead clips to each combination of electrodes producing a positive voltage. Based on the measured cell potentials, prepare a potential series similar to that obtained in Part I of this experiment. List the metals from strongest to weakest reducing agent.and the metal ions from weakest oxidizing agent to strongest. Compare this result with that obtained in Part I. The only new metal tested this time is iron. Can you insert Fe into the series generated in Part I? Explain your answer. Replace the voltmeter leads on the copper and zinc electrodes to give a positive cell potential. Using forceps, remove the strips of filter paper connecting the copper(II) solution to the NH4NO3 solution. Describe what happens. What is the purpose of the salt bridge? For the zinc/copper cell, in which direction do ions move from the center NH4NO3 solution? Replace the filter paper strip. Measure and record the cell potential in Table II. Add some (2-3 mL) 6 M NH3(aq) to the cup containing CuSO4. Observe and record the cell potential. (The deep blue color is due to the formation of Cu(NH3)42+ complex.) Now add some (2-3 mL) 2 M Na2S to the copper solution. Measure and record the cell potential. Explain the changes in the cell potential caused by the addition of NH3(aq) and Na2S. To clean up, remove the electrodes and filter paper strips from the cups. Carefully lift each cup, and slide one finger underneath to detach the cup from the tape. Dispose of the solutions as directed by your instructor. Clean and dry the electrodes and return them to their labeled containers. Place the filter paper strips in the trash. EXPERIMENT 17: OXIDATION - REDUCTION PART III: Electrolysis of a Sulfuric Acid Solution Clean a copper electrode by scrubbing it with steel wool until all surfaces shine. Rinse the electrode thoroughly with water and wipe with a paper towel to remove any material clinging to the metal. Rinse the electrode with a small amount of acetone and allow it to air dry. When the electrode is dry weigh it on the laboratory balance (handle the dry electrode only by the edges or use forceps) and record the initial mass in observation 1. Pour about 100 mL of 1 M sulfuric acid into a 250 mL beaker. Fill a 50 mL graduated cylinder level full with the same acid solution. Very carefully cap the graduated cylinder with a small square of parafilm. Invert the cylinder and place it in the beaker so that its mouth is below the level of the acid but not touching the bottom of the beaker. Clamp the graduated cylinder to a ring stand to hold it in place. Remove the parafilm below the surface of the acid solution using forceps. There should be no air bubbles inside the graduated cylinder. Obtain a long piece of insulated wire with exposed wire ends. Coil the longer exposed end around a pen or pencil. About 2 cm below the coil, bend the wire as shown in Figure II. Place the coiled end of the wire in the beaker. Maneuver the wire so that the coil and all uninsulated wire is inside the graduated cylinder. (See Figure III) Bend the wire down the side of the beaker to hold it in place. Attach the free end of the wire to the negative terminal of a 9 volt battery. Obtain an insulated wire with alligator clips on either end. Attach one clip to the positive terminal of the battery and the other to a copper electrode. In a moment the end of this copper electrode will be placed in the beaker containing the solution of sulfuric acid. Before placing the electrode in the beaker, put a sheet of white paper under the beaker. Record the exact time when you dip the copper electrode into the solution in the beaker. Your experimental set-up should resemble Figure IV. Position the wire so that the electrode remains partially submerged in the solution. Do not allow the alligator clip to contact the solution. Observe and record what happens when the electrode enters the solution and as the reaction progresses. While the reaction progresses, measure the temperature of the solution and the atmospheric pressure. Record the values below. Allow the reaction to continue until about 45 mL of gas are collected in the graduated cylinder. Then remove the copper electrode, being careful to record the exact time in Obs. #2. What happens when the electrode is removed from the solution? Rinse the electrode thoroughly with water and wipe it with a paper towel to remove any solid that may adhere to the surface. Rinse the electrode with acetone and allow it to air dry. When dry, weigh the electrode on the laboratory balance and record the final mass in Obs. #1. Determine the change in mass of the electrode. Remove the coiled wire from the graduated cylinder and beaker. Raise or lower the cylinder so that the water levels inside and outside the cylinder are equal. If this is not possible because the solution level inside the cylinder is much higher than the level outside, lower the cylinder until its mouth almost touches the bottom of the beaker. Add water to the beaker until the water levels inside and outside the graduated cylinder are equal. Read the volume of gas in the cylinder. Remember that the scale on the cylinder is upside down! Record the volume below. We know that this gas has been generated at the negative electrode, but we do not know its chemical identity. To determine its identity we must examine its physical properties. Describe the appearance of the gas below. Consider that the gas is generated from an aqueous solution of H2SO4. The gases generated from such a solution are H2 or O2. Does the description in Obs. #7 help to determine which of these gases has been generated? _______________ One property that hydrogen and oxygen do not share is flammability. When exposed to an open flame hydrogen explodes while oxygen simply makes the flame glow more brightly. Raise the graduated cylinder out of the beaker, allowing the water to fall back into the beaker. Clamp the graduated cylinder, still inverted in the air well away from all equipment. HAVE YOUR INSTRUCTOR pass a lit match near the opening of the cylinder. If hydrogen is present an explosion (really just a small pop) will occur. Describe the result. Identify the gas formed and write a half reaction representing the process. Is the reaction which produces the gas an oxidation or reduction reaction? Name the electrode (anode or cathode) at which it occurs. Name (anode or cathode) the positive electrode and write the reaction that occurs there. What evidence do you have to support the reaction you have written. 1. In addition to the gas generated in the chemical reaction the graduated cylinder also contains water vapor. In order to find the partial pressure of the gas we use Dalton's Law of partial pressure. Ptotal = Pgas + Pwater vapor Look up the vapor pressure of water at the temperature of your solution in your text, in the CRC handbook, in another reference book. Calculate the partial pressure of the gas generated. 2. Using Obs. #4 and #6 complete the table. Show any necessary unit conversions. Pressure __________ atm Volume __________ L Gas Constant __________L-atm/mol K Temperature __________ K 3. Use the ideal gas law to calculate the number of moles of gas generated. 4. Calculate the number of moles of Cu metal lost by the copper electrode. 5. (a) Write the oxidation half reaction occurring at the anode. (b) Write the reduction half reaction occurring at the cathode. (c) Write the overall balanced chemical reaction. 6. Compare the results of problems 3 and 4 with the equation obtained in 5(c). Is the mole ratio what is predicted by the equation? Calculate the percent error. 7. Calculate the number of moles of electrons used in the experiment. 8. Use Faraday's constant to calculate the number of coulombs of current used in the experiment. 9. Determine the number of seconds elapsed during the experiment. 10. Calculate the current in amperes produced by the battery (1 Amp = 1 coulomb/sec). Compare your result with those of other students or groups. Is the current output constant for all 9 volt batteries? 1. Will the reaction performed in this experiment proceed without the battery? Explain your answer. 2. A color change is observed in the solution as the reaction progresses. What is the significance of the color? 3. Why is it necessary to adjust the level of the solution inside the graduated cylinder to equal the level of the solution in the beaker before reading the volume of gas in the cylinder? 4. Consider the error determined in calculation #6. Discuss the sources of error in the experiment, excluding human errors. Post-lab Questions: Top Answer the following questions after you have completed all parts of the oxidation-reduction experiment. 1. Describe the differences and similarities between voltaic and electrolytic cells. 2. Suppose that you needed to construct a temporary battery to power a small lamp. Using any materials available in this experiment (excluding the 9 volt battery in Part III, of course!) how would you proceed? 3. An electrolytic cell, like the one used in Part III of this experiment was found to produce gas very very slowly. In order to speed up the process, a Chemistry student proposed using concentrated (18 M) sulfuric acid rather than the 1M acid called for in the experiment. (a) Would the student's suggestion be effective? Why? (b) Suggest a method of increasing the reaction rate and tell how your method would work 4. Locate the "NR" observations recorded in Table I of Part I of this experiment. Is it ever possible for these combinations of chemicals to react? If so, explain the circumstances under which reactions could occur. If not, explain why not. Return to Index of Experiments Pre-lab Questions Experiment Post-lab Questions Top

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This 15 slide PowerPoint presentation takes students through the steps for solving word problems. The steps in the PowerPoint presentation are based on Singapore Math strategies including using unit bars to solve problems. There is also a huge emphasis on addition and subtraction key words. It was created by Elizabeth Hill to use in her third grade classroom but could be used in any grade level 2-5. I used this PowerPoint presentation over a 3 day period, focusing on addition and subtraction on separate days. See more about how I use this presentation in my classroom and the other activities I incorporate with it at my website

http://www.teachersnotebook.com/product/liz4makers/word-problems